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THE 

CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION: 

A 
/  DICTIONARY   OF    INFORMATION 

FOR    THE    USE    OF 

TEACHERS,  SCHOOL  OFFICERS,  PARENTS,  AM)  OTHERS. 


EDITED    BY 

HENRY  KIDDLE, 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  New  York  City, 
AND 

ALEXANDER  J.  SCHEM, 

Superintendent  of  Public  Schools,  New  York  Ci 


Sv 


NEW  YORK:    E.  STEIGER. 

LONDON:    TRUBNER  &  CO. 

1877. 


Copyright.  18T6.  by  E.  Steiger. 


E.  Stejoer,  N.  Y. 


I 

PREFACE.  P(0U^J 


The  work  here  offered  to  the  public  is  the  first  cyclopaedia  of  education  in  the  English 
language,  although  the  need  of  such  a  work  has  long  been  felt.  Cyclopaedias,  both  general  and 
special,  are  rapidly  increasing  in  number,  not  only  in  countries  in  which  the  English  language  is 
spoken,  but  wherever,  under  the  influence  of  advancing  civilization,  literature  flourishes,  and  the 
cultivation  of  science  and  art  lias  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  human  knowledge.  Information 
scattered  through  a  multitude  of  volumes  is  usually  inaccessible  to  those  by  whom  it  is  most 
needed  ;  and,  consequently,  the  most  important  results  of  study  and  research  arc  often  of  no  avail 
to  those  whose  special  office  it  is  to  apply  them  to  a  practical  purpose.  Hence,  the  need  of  works 
that  present  in  a  condensed  form,  and  so  as  readily  to  be  referred  to,  all  the  important  facts  in  the 
various  departments  of  human  knowledge  :  and.  consequently,  we  find  that  it  is  fast  becoming  the 
habit  of  the  educated  classes  every-where  to  consult  such  works.  In  view  of  the  large  number  of 
special  cyclopaedias  in  other  departments  of  knowledge,  and  more  especially  of  the  excellenl  cyclo- 
paedias of  education  which  ( Jermany  lias  pi  issessei  I  fi  >r  many  years,  it  is  quite  surprising  that  a  branch 
of  knowledge  so  extensively  valued  and  studied  as  education,  should  have  continued,  in  this  country 
and  in  England, for  so  long  a  time  without  its  special  cyclopaedia.  Accordingly,  the  first  announce- 
ment of  this  work  was.  on  all  sides,  greeted  with  the  most  earnest  expressions  of  approbation  and 
welcome. 

The  value  of  a  work  of  this  kind  must,  of  course,  depend  on  the  plan  which  forms  its  ground- 
work, and  the  accuracy  and  fullness  with  which  the  plan  is  carried  out.  To  both  of  these  points 
the  editors  have  given  their  undeviating  attention,  striving  to  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  in 
either  respect. 

The  plan  of  the  work  has  been  constructed  after  a  careful  examination,  not  only  of  all  the 
cyclopaedias  and  general  histories  of  education  which  have  thus  far  appeared,  lint  of  the  principal 
cyclopaedias,  both  general  and  special,  which  have  been  published  in  English  or  in  other 
languages.  Of  course,  the  editors  did  not  contemplate,  for  a  moment,  the  task  of  undertaking  a 
work  of  the  magnitude  of  Schmid's  great  German  encyclopaedia  of  education,  which  was  com- 
menced in  1859,  and  of  which  the  last  (Hth)  volume  is  not  yet  completed,  although  a  revised  and 
enlarged  edition  has  already  been  issued  of  the  first  volume.  Their  design  was  to  prepare 
a  work  which,  while  comprehensive  and  complete  within  its  scope,  would  lie  of  moderate 
size,  and  woidd  be  completed  within  a  reasonable  time — a  work  which,  while  useful  to  all.  would, 
like  the  dictionary,  be  upon  every  teacher's  desk,  to  be  consulted  whenever  oeeasion  might  require, 
thus  affording  information  and  practical  aid  at  every  exigency  of  his  daily*  labors.  Such  a  work, 
it  was  thought,  would  not  only  supply  valuable  information,  but  would  stimulate  the  study  of 
pedagogy,  still  very  widely  neglected  because  of  the  want  of  a.  brief  but  comprehensive  embodiment 
of  the  whole  subject. 

In  accordance  with  these  views,  the  editors  now  present,  a  little  more  than  two  years  after  the 
first  announcement  of  the  work,  a  single  volume  of  nearly  '.mil  pages,  in  which  they  have  endeavored 
to  treat,  in  alphabetical  order,  of  all  the  subjects,  which  they  have  deemed  to  come  within  the 
limits  of  their  plan,  embracing  the  following  general  topics  :  (1)  Tkeo ry  0/ Education  and  In- 
struction (pedagogy  and  didactics),  including  a  consideration  of  the  principles  of  education,  in  each  of 
its  departments,  with  practical  suggestions  as  to  the  best  methods  of  applying  them,  both  in  training 
and  instruction.  In  this  connection,  it  will  be  found  that  every  subject  ordinarily  embraced  in  the 
school  or  college  curriculum  has  been  carefully  treated  in  its  relation  to  practical  education, 
special  attention  having  been  given  to  the  department  of  language,  both  the  classical  and  the  im- 
portant modern  languages  being  separately  considered.     (2)  School  Economy,  including  the  organ- 


541951 


ization  and  management  of  schools,  also  discipline  and  class  teaching.  (3)  The  Administration  of 
Schools  and  Sellout  Systems  —  embracing  supervision,  examinations,  school  hygiene,  school  architect- 
ure, co-education  of  the  sexes,  etc.  (4)  Governmental  Policy  in  regard  to  Education  —  including 
such  subjects  as  state  education,  compulsory  attendance  laws,  the  secular  and  denominational 
systems,  etc.  (5)  The  History  of  Education,  giving  an  account  of  the  most  noted  plans  and 
methods  of  instruction  and  school  organization  that  have  been  proposed,  or  that  are  now  in  vocue, 
as  well  as  the  history  of  the  school  system  of  every  state  and  territory  in  the  Union,  and  of  every 
important  country  in  the  world.  Much  of  the  matter  under  this  section  is  entirely  new,  and  will 
be  found  to  be  of  great  interest,  (fi)  Biographical  Sketches  of  distinguished  educationists, 
educators,  and  others  who  have  been  celebrated  for  their  efforts  as  promoters  or  benefactors  of 
educational  progress  or  enterprise.  (7)  Statistical  and  other  information  in  regard  to  (a)  schools 
and  other  institutions  of  learning  of  different  countries,  states,  cities  (in  the  United  States,  of  those 
having  a  population  of  1(10.11(10  and  upward),  and  religious  denominations  (the  latter  treated  with 
considerable  fullness)  ;  (b)  different  kinds  of  schools,  as  public  schools,  private  schools,  parochial 
schools,  academies  and  high  schools,  kindergartens,  colleges  and  universities.  Every  important 
college  or  university  in  the  United  States  has  been  described  in  a  separate  article  ;  and  special 
articles  also  inserted  on  the  gnat  universities  in  England,  the  latter  articles  having  been  written 
in  that  country.  I  lonsiderable  care  has  also  been  taken  to  show  what  has  been  done,  during  the 
last  few  years,  for  female  education,  and  more  particularly  for  the  higher  education  of  women 
(especially  in  this  country  and  in  Great  Britain).  (8)  Educational  Literature,  which  is  constantly 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  reader  in  connection  with  the  various  articles.  As  the  immense  mass 
of  material  to  be  condensed  within  the  compass  of  a  single  volume  has  necessitated  the  greatest 
possible  brevity,  references  are  made  throughout  to  standard  works  on  educational  science,  as  well 
as  to  statistical  works  affording  more  detailed  information.  It  is  believed  that  this  will  prove  one 
of  the  most  valuable  features  of  the  work.  (9)  The  main  work  is  followed  by  an  Analytical 
Index,  in  which  reference  is  made  to  the  principal  topics  of  all  the  longer  articles,  as  well  as  to 
the  pages  on  which  the  more  important  subjects  are  treated  incidentally. 

Of  course,  the  editors  of  a  cyclopaedia  cannot  lie  expected  to  carry  out  their  plan  without 
the  support  of  an  adequate  corps  of  able  contributors.  However  extensive  their  own  information 
may  be  in  relation  to  the  general  subject,  there  must  always  be  many  topics  to  the  details  of  which 
specialists  have  devoted  a  much  more  minute  study,  and  of  which,  therefore,  their  knowlcge  must 
be  more  comprehensive  and  exact.  The  list  of  special  contributors  which  follows  this  preface  will 
show  to  what  extent  the  editors  have  succeeded  in  securing  the  co-operation  of  distinguished 
educators  and  writers  in  the  preparation  of  this  work.  Most  of  the  names  presented  will  be  at 
once  recognized  as  those  of  persons  of  well-established  reputation  for  successful  experience  in 
their  respective  spheres  of  effort.  The  editors  deem  themselves  singularly  fortunate  in  securing  to 
so  large  an  extent  the  aid  and  co-operation  of  the  state  and  city  superintendents  throughout  this 
country,  the  articles  on  the  school  systems  having  been  prepared  by  them  or  under  their  direction, 
or  compiled  from  the  latest  and  most  accurate  information  officially  supplied  by  them.  The 
articles  on  the  different  classes  of  professional,  scientific,  and  denominational  schools  and  colleges 
have,  in  the  main,  been  written  by  persons  professionally  conversant  with  those  institutions, 
and  thus  afford  an  amount  and  kind  of  information  very  difficult  to  obtain,  but  often  of  great 
value  to  students  and  educators. 

It  is  proper  to  say  that  the  announcement  of  this  work  has  met  with  a  most  earnest  and 
encouraging  response  from  educators  in  Great  Britain,  and  that  the  editors  have  received  most 
prompt  and  valuable  assistance,  as  well  as  cordial  co-operation,  from  that  source,  so  as  to  enable 
them  to  carry  out  their  intention  to  make  the  usefulness  of  the  ( 'yclopa>dia  co-extensive  with  the 
English-speaking  race.  It  is,  however,  a  cause  of  deep  regret  to  the  editors  that  a  long  illness. 
terminating  in  death,  deprived  them  of  the  cooperation  of  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  highly 
esteemed  English  educators,  the  late  Joseph  Payne,  who  not  only  was  among  the  first  to  afford 
encouragement  to  this  work  when  proposed,  but  promptly  engaged  to  contribute  a  number  of 
important  articles. 

As  a  work  of  reference  for  information  in  regard  to  American  institutions  for  higher 
education,  the  Cyclopaedia  will,  it  is  hoped,  prove  eminently  satisfactory.  Great  pains  has 
been  taken  to  secure  the   fullest  and  most    accurate    information  respecting   the  colleges   and 


universities  of  this  couutry;  for  which  purpose,  every  article  of  this  description  has  been  submitted. 
in  proof,  to  the  president  of  the  institution  described,  and,  with  but  very  few  exceptions,  has 
received  the  benefit  of  his  revision. 

The  editors  also  acknowledge  their  indebtedness  for  the  very  full  information,  in  regard  to 
the  educational  work  of  the  various  religious  denominations  of  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  which  they  have  received  from  distinguished  members  of  those  denominations.  Very 
much  of  this  information  could  have  been  obtained  by  no  other  means  than  by  along  official 
connection  with  the  educational  boards  of  the  churches,  and.  to  a  considerable  extent,  is  now- 
supplied  exclusively  by  this  work. 

To  all  the  contributors  the  thanks  of  the  editors  are  due  for  a  support  without  which  the 
work  could  not  have  been  completed — at  any  rate,  could  not  have  possessed  the  value  which  may. 
with  considerable  confidence,  be  attributed  to  it :  and  certainly  could  not  have  earned  the  approval 
which  it  may  justly  be  expected  to  receive.  The  editors,  also,  take  occasion  to  express  their 
obligations  to  the  man}'  friends  who,  though  not  special  contributors,  have  afforded  valuable  aid 
in  the  revision  of  special  articles,  in  giving  important  advice,  or  in  affording  needed  information. 

[n  these  few  remarks,  the  editors  have  briefly  stated  the  object  they  have  striven  to  attain, 
and  some  of  the  instrumentalities  of  which  they  have  availed  themselves  ;  but  they  are  by  no 
means  so  presumptuous  as  to  suppose  they  have  produced  a  work  without  fault  or  blemish.  The 
Cyclopaedia,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  is  but  a  pioneer,  opening  out.  it  is  to  be  hoped,  a  wide 
path  for  further  literary  and  professional  effort  in  the  same  direction.  It  will,  doubtless,  share 
the  fate  of  all  books  of  its  class,  in  which  the  habitual  reader,  as  well  as  the  scrutinizing  critic,  by 
the  side  of  that  which  elicits  his  approval,  meets  with  statements  that  are  capable  of  improvement 
or  that  require  collection.  In  every  future  edition  of  the  work,  pains  will  be  taken  to  correct  what 
is  faulty  and  to  improve  what  is  imperfect  ;  and  any  assistance  which  those  who  appreciate  the 
aim  of  the  work  may  be  able  to  render  to  that  end.  will  be  gratefully  acknowledged. 

The  progress  of  education  in  all  the  countries  of  the  world  is  now  so  rapid  and  so  manifold. 
that  every  reader  of  this  Cydopcedia  will,  after  the  lapse  of  a  short  time,  feel  the  need  of  a 
systematic  continuation  of  large  classes  of  articles.  States  and  cities  add.  from  year  to  year,  to 
their  educational  history:  new  names  of  educators  and  educational  writers  constantly  loom  up;  new- 
educational  laws  are  enacted  ;  and  new  courses  of  studies  are  proposed  and  tried.  'I  he  discussion 
of  the  great  educational  questions  of  the  day  continues  with  increasing  earnestness,  and  no  year 
passes  without  producing  educational  works  which,  in  one  respect  or  another,  excel  those 
previously  issued.  The  editors  and  the  publisher  of  the  Cydopcedia  are  now  maturing,  and.  in  due 
course  of  time,  will  announce,  an  annual  publication,  or  Supplement  to  the  Cydopcedia  of  Educa- 
tion, in  which  will  be  collected  such  new  information  as  may  appear  to  them  to  be  of  most  value. 
and  in  which,  they  hope,  to  establish  a  kind  of  central  organ  for  all  who  are  anxious  to  co- 
operate in  that  grandest  aim  of  the  human  race — the  proper  education  of  the  rising  generation. 
New  York,  March  17th,  1877. 


A  LIST  OP  THE  PRINCIPAL 

CONTRIBUTORS  TO  THE  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  EDUCATION. 


Prof.  E.  B.  Andrews,  Ijuicaster,  O. 

Hun.  Ems  A.   Apgah,  Supt.   Public  lnstruc- 
tiuii,  New  Jersey. 
New  Jersey. 
Prof.  Tn.  Apeel,   Franklin   and   Marshall  Col- 
lege, Lancaster,  Pa. 

Keforined  Churches  (m  part). 
Eev.  John  G.  Baird,  Asst,  .Sec.  Board  of  Edu- 
cation. Connecticut. 

Wm.  I  (LAND    Boi  RNE,   New    York. 

Si'tnu.  Samuel  W. 
Prof.  B.  I'.  I!ii\\.\e.  Boston  University. 


Eev.  Dr.  R.  L.  Breck.  Chancellor  Central  Uni- 
versity, Richmond,  Ky. 
Presbyterians  (in  part). 

Hon.  Dan.  1>.  BRiGGS,Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Michigan. 

Michigan. 

Henry    B.   Buckham,  A.  M.,   Principal    State 
Normal  School.  Buffalo.  N.  Y. 
Buffalo. 

Norman  A.  Calkins,  Asst.  Supt.  Schools,  New- 
York. 

Color. 
Number, 

Numeral  Frame. 

M.  P.  t  Avert.  A.  M.,  Rhinebeck,  N.  Y. 

New  York  (State). 

Henry   Chettle,  M.  A.,  late  Fellow  of  Exeter 
College,  Oxford  University,  England. 
Oxford  University. 

Hon.  Edward  CoNANT.Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Vermont. 


Hon.  J.  C.  Corbin,   late  Supt.  Public  Instruc- 
tion. Arkansas. 

Rev.  Dr.  E.  T.  Corwin,  Millstone,  N.  J. 

Reformed  Churches    in  part  . 
George  H.  Curtis,  Prof,  of  M  iisic,  New  York. 

Music, 

Sillgillg-Sri 1m. 

Voice,  Culture  of  the. 

Rev.  Dr.  S.  S.  CVtting,  Cor.  Sec.  Baptist    Edu- 
cational Society.  Brooklyn,  \.  V. 

Baptists. 
Prof.  E.  II.  Day,  Normal  College,  New  York. 

Geology, 

Mineralogy, 


Hon.  W. 
City. 


Supt.    Schools,  Jersey 


James  Donaldson,  LL.  D.,  Rector  of  the  High 
School  of  Edinburgh,  and  Editor  of  the  Edu- 
cational Seas. 

Education  (Theory  of), 

England  (in  part). 

Instruction, 

Memory, 

Science,  The  Teai -hlnji  of  (part  I.), 

senses,  Kducal  ion  el  the. 

Dr.  A.  Douai,  Irvington,  N.  J. 
Developing  Method  (in  part), 
liar.  Cultivation  of.— an  L  other  articles. 

Prof.  W.  E.  Griffis,  late  of  the  Imperial  Col- 
lege, Tokio,  Japan. 

Miss  .Mary  Gurney,  of  the  Women's  Education 
Union,  London,  England. 

W  oineli.  Higher  education  of. 
Hon.    11.   M.   Hale.  Supt.    Public    Inst  ruction. 
Colorado. 

Colorado  (in  part). 

Prof.  Wm.  G.  Hammond.  Law  Department  Iowa 
State  University,  Iowa  City. 

Law  Schools. 
Thomas   F.  Harrison.   Asst.   Supt.  of   Schools. 
New  York. 

Geography. 
Dr.  E.  0.  Haven.  Chancellor  Syracuse   Univer- 
sity, Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
Methodists  (in  part). 
J.  W.  Hawes,  New  York. 

College  (in  part). 
Harvard  University, 

Yale  College,  —and  other  articles  on  American 
colleges  and  universities. 
Rev.  TV.  TV.  Hicks,  Supt.   Public  Instruction, 
Florida. 

Florida  (in  part), 
lion.  T.  TV.  Higginson,  Newport.  1!.  1. 

Rhode  Island. 

Prof.    Chari.es   T.    Himes.   Dickinson    College, 
( 'ailisle.  Pa. 
Chemistry. 
Dr.  Fred.  Hoffmann,  New  York. 

Pharmaceutical  Schools. 

Hon.    Henry   Hon  k.    Dep.  Supt.    Public    In- 
struction, Pennsylvania. 
Pennsylvania, 

Thomas  Hunter,  A.  M..  President  Normal  Col- 
lege, New  York. 

Teachers'  Seminaries. 

Rev.  Dr.  I.  F.  Hirst,  Pres.  Drew  Theological 
Seminary,  Madison,  N.  J. 

Rev.  Dr.  E.  T.  Jeffers,  Pres.  Westminster  Col- 
lege, New  Wilmington,  Pa. 


'reshyterkuis 


part  i. 


Prof.  D.  P.  Kidder,  Drew  Theological  Semina- 
ry, Madison.  N.J. 
Sunday-Schools, 

Theological  Schools.  ^ 

Albert  Klamroth,  late  Commissioner  of  Com- 
mon Schools,  New  York. 


Rev.   Prof.  K.  '■■  Klose,  Moravian  Theological 
Seminary,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

W.  H.Larrabee,  New  York. 

Franc  kc,  A.  II.,—  :m,l  ullirr  biographical  articles. 

Dr.  Edwin  Leigh,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Illiteracy, 
Phonetics. 

E.  M.  Leverson,  Ph.  D.,  Denver,  Col. 

Social  Economy, 
Dr.  J.  Berrien   Limisi.ey.  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Nashville  University, 

Presbyterians  (m  put). 
■I.  M.  Logan,   Princ.  Springfield  School,  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa. 

Pittsburgh. 
\V.    MacDonald,    High    School    of    Edinburgh, 
Scotland. 

England  (in  part  , 
Ireland   in  part). 

Wilson  MacDonald,  Artist,  New  York. 

Art-Education. 
Hon.  .1.  M.  McKenzie,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Nebraska. 

Nebraska  (in  part  . 
Hon.  J.  M.  McKleroy,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
Alabama. 

Alabama  in  part 
Prof.  Francis  A.  March,   Lafayette    College, 
Easton,  Pa. 

Anglo-Saxon, 
Belles-Lettres, 
Classics,  Christian, 
English,  the  Study  or, 
Lafayette  College, 
Orthography. 
Prof.  J.  M.  0.  Mkiki.ejohn,  University  of  St. 
Andrews,  Scotland. 


Thomas  Mi 
College,  I 


Fellow  of  Queens' 
,nd  . 


Prof.  0.  W.  Morris,  late  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 
[nst.,  New  York. 

Deaf-Mutes   in  part. 
Prof.  Edward  Olney,  University  of   Michigan. 

Algebra, 
Arithmetic, 

Mathematics. 

S.  S.  Packard,  of  Packard  Business  College, 
New  York. 

Hook-keeping, 
Business  Colleges. 

Hon.  John  D.  Philbrick,   Supt.  Schools,  Bos- 
ton, Mass. 
Boston. 
Hon.  T.  L.  Pickard,  Supt.  Schools.  <  !hicago,  111. 

Chicago. 
Prof.    A.    Rausohexbusch,    Theol.    Seminary, 
Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Mennonltes. 
Hon.  Andrew  J.  Rickoff,  Supt.  Schools.  I  'levc- 
land.  0. 

Cleveland. 


Prof.  I.  P.  Roberts,  Cornell  University.  Ithaca. 

N.  Y. 

Agricultural  Colleges. 
C.  C.  Rounds,  Princ.  State  Normal  School.  Ear- 

niington,  Me. 

Win.    H.  Ruffner,   LL.  D.,   Supt,  Public   In- 
struction, Virginia. 
Virginia. 

Prof.  Ciiari.es   A.  Sciilegel,  Normal   <  'ollegc, 

New  York. 

Mager,  Karl. 
Prof.  David   B.  Scott,  College  of  the    City  of 

New  York. 

New  York,  College  of  the  City  of, 

Oral  Instruction, 

Rhetoric. 
Edward  Seguin,  M.  D.,  New  York. 

Thermometry,  Educational. 
Hon.  R.  D.  Shannon,  Supt,  Public  Instruction, 
Missouri. 

Missouri. 
Hon.  .1.  W.  Simonds,  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
New  Hampshire. 

New  Hampshire. 

Hon.  .1.   II.  Smart,   Supt.  Public   Instruction, 
Indiana. 

Indiana    in  part  . 

Prof.  W  u.tkr  Smith,  State  Director,  Art  Edu- 
cation, Mass. 
Drawing. 
William  L.  Stone,  Jr.,  New  York. 

Stone,  William  L. 

Don.  John  SwETT.late  Supt.  Public  Instruction, 
( Jalifornia. 

California, 

San  Francisco  (in  part:. 

Rev.  Dr.  I.  N.  Tarbox,  Cor.  Sec.  Amer.  Educ. 
Society.  Boston,  Mass. 

Congregat  ionalists. 

Rev.  Dr.  II.  A.  Thompson,  Pres.  Otterbein  Uni- 
versity, 'Westerville,  0. 

r  nlted  Brethren  in  Christ. 
I).  L.  Thompson.  I'lainfield.  N.  J. 
Genius, 

l.ncke,  John.-   ami  ..Hi.  r  articles. 

J.    S.   Thornton,    B.  A.,    University    College 
School,  London,  England. 

King's  College  London  . 
London,  University  of, 
Murray.  Lindley, 

Owens  College    Manchester,  England), 
Preceptors,  College  of, 
Rousseau, 

University  College    London). 
William  Ii.  Wait,  Supt.  New  York  Institution 
for  the  Blind. 

Blind,  Education  of  the   in  part;. 

S   Walker,  University  College  School.  London, 
England. 

\\  ,,i  king  Men's  College    Louden). 

II.  L.  Wavland,  Editor  of  The  National  Bap- 
tist, Philadelphia. 

Wavland,  Francis. 

Rev.  Dr.  J.  P.  Weston,  Pres.  Dean  Academy, 
Franklin,  Mass. 

fjniversalists. 
Prof.  J.  H.  Worman,  Norwich,  N.  Y. 
Hebrews, 
Plato, 

Koine,— and  other  articles. 
It.  M.  Wyckoff,  M.  D..  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Medical  Schools    in  part  . 

V.  Zinsser,  M.  D.,  New  York. 

Medical  Schools  (in  parti. 


ABACUS  Kir.  n  St,;,  a  slab  or  board),  a  piece 
of  school  apparatus,  used  to  facilitate  the  teach- 
ing of  children  to  count,  and  perform  other  sim- 
ple arithmetical  operations.  Various  forms  of 
the  abacus  arc  employed  as  counting  or  adding 
machines.  Such  a  contrivance  was  much  used 
among  the  ancients:  and  in  China,  quite  long 
and  difficult  computations  are  performed  by 
means  of  such  an  instrument,  called  swan-pan. 
(See  Numeral  Frame.) 

ABBOT,  Benjamin,  LL.  D.,  distinguished 
for  his  long  connection  with  Phillips  Academy, 
Exeter,  V  II..  of  which  institution  he  was  the 


per 


d  of  fifty 


from   17*8 


Everett.  Of:  it  in 
ABBOTT,  Rev. 
,'inan,  teacher,  and 
ell,  Me.,  in  L803. 
ollege  m  1820.  II. 
S  and  natural  phi 


of  the  M. 


principal 

to  1838.  He  was  a  graduateof  Harvard  t  'ollege. 
He  died  at  Exeter  in  1849,  at  the  advanced  age 
of  86  years.  Edward  Everett  delivered  one  of 
his  graceful  and  elegant  speeches  on  the  occasion 
of  the  retirement  of  l>r.  Abbot  from  the  prin- 
cipalship  of  Phillips  Exeter  Academy.  —  See 
and  Speeches. 

.  Jacob,  a  distinguished  cler- 
luthor,  was  bom  af  I  fallo- 
n:l  graduated  at  Bowdoin 
ivas  professor  of  niathemat- 
isophy  in  Amherst  College 
md  afterwards  took  charge 
:  school  tor  girls,  in  Boston. 
In  connection  with  education,  he  is  chiefly  noted 
for  his  numerous  books  for  the  young,  among 
which  may  be  particularly  mentioned  the   Unlit* 

Books, the  Franc a  Stories,th    Em -Story 

Books,  Science  for  the  Pi in  17'.    71    cher. 

A  full  catalogue  of  his  publications  embraces 
about  200  titles.  Be  has  also  edited  many  other 
e  lucational  works,  and  compiled  a  series  of  read- 
ing books.  His  brothers,  Rev.  Gorham  1>.  and 
Rev.  John  S.  I '..  are  also  noted  for  their  labors 
in  the  field  of  educational  and  literary  effort. 

ABC,  the  first  three  letters  of  the  English 
alphabet,  often  used  to  denote  the  alphabet  itself: 
as,  "To  learn  A  I!  ('  is  fell  fco  be  extremely  irk- 
some by  the  infant."  Taylor  [See  Alphabet.) 
A-B-C  BOOX,  a  primer,  or  little  book  used 
to  learn  the  alphabet  and  its  simplest  combina- 
tions, with  the  most  rudimental  lessons  in  read- 

A-B-C  METHOD.    See  Alphabet  Method. 

ABECEDARIAN.  This  word,  formed  from 
the  names  of  the  first  four  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, is  generally  used  to  denote  a  pupil  who  has 
not  advanced  beyond  the  most  elementary  stage 
of  school  or  book  education,  that  is,  who  is 
learning  A  B  C,  or  the  alphabet.  The  name 
has  been  sometimes  applied  to  one  engaged  in 
teaching  the  alphabet.  (See  Reading,  and  Word 
Method.) 

1 


A-B-C  S~H.OOTER.S(Germ.  ATiC-Schutsen), 
pupils  of  those  scholastic  vagrants  who,  during 
a  certain  period  of  the  middle  ages,  and  even 
later,  used  to  wander  through  many  parts  of  ( Ger- 
many, giving  instruction  to  such  pupils  as  they 
could  pick  up,  who  accompanied  them  in  their 
journeyings.  These  itinerant  teachers  were  called 
Bacchants,  from  their  disorderly  lives  and  their 
disposition  to  indulge  in  wild  revels.  Their 
pupils  were  of  ten  obliged  to  purloin  food,  fowls, 
etc.,  to  supply  their  masters'  wants,  and  hence 
were  called,  partly  in  derision  of  their  elementary 
knowledge,  A-B-C  Shooters  —  shunt,  in  their 
aarlance,  being  the  slang  word  for  steal. — See 
-k'HMiD,  Encyclopadie; and  Barn aed,  American 
Journal  of  Education,  vol.  v. 

ABELARD,  or  Abailard,  Pierre,  one  of 
the  most  famous  teachers  of  philosophy  and 
theology  in  the  middle  ae.es.  was  born  in 
Nantes,  in  1079,  died  April  21st,  1142,  at  St. 
Marcel,  near  ( lhalons  sur  Saone.  A  pupil  of 
William  of  Chainpeaux  in  philosophy,  and  of 
Anselm  of  Laon  in  theology,  he  became  the 
dreaded  and  hated  rival  of  both,  as  they  found 
themselves  entirely  ei  lip.-cd  by  the  cosmopolitan 
reputation  of  their  pupil,  w" 
warded  in  the  I  hi  i-tian  wm 
all  living  teacher.-.  '1  he  tr. 
for  his  pupil  Heloise,  wh< 
closed  to  him  the  higher  ei 
and  drove  him  into  the  austi 
of  monastic  life;  but  his  tl 
sophical  writings  continued  to  keep  the  <  Christian 
world  in  a  high  state  of  excitement.  His  opin- 
ions were  repeatedly  condemned  by  councils 
and  synods  as  heretical,  but  he  always  preferred 
submission  to  the  sentence  of  the  Church  rather 
than  open  defiance.  His  influence  on  the  schools 
of  the  middle  ages  was,  without  doubt,  greater 
than  that  of  any  of  his  contemporaries,  tie  in- 
troduced dialectics  into  theology,  and  thus,  as 
Cousin  says,  "contributed  more  than  any  other 
to  the  f.  undation  of  s.  holasticism." 

A  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Abelard 
was  published  by  Cousin  (2  vols..  Paris,  1849— 
1859),  containing  also  valuable  notes  by  the 
editor.  Among  the  best  biographical  works  on 
Abelard  are  those  by  Remusat  (Abelard,  2  vols., 
Paris,  1845),  and  Wilkens  (Peter  Abalard, 
(idttingen.  1855). — See  also  Schmidt,  Geschichte 
der  Padagogik. 

ABERCROMBIE,  John,  M.  D.,  was 
born  at  Aberdeen,  in  1781,  and  died  in  1844. 
In  his  profession  as  a  physician  he  rose  to  great 
eminence,  and  was  widely  distinguished  for  bis 
writings  on  medical  subjects.  In  connection 
with  education,  he  is  noted  for  his  Inquiries  con- 


tune  was  re- 

1  of  his  love 
had  seduced, 
.al  dignities, 
id  retirement 
d  and  philo- 


ABIXUDOX  COU.WiK 


earning  the  Intellectual  Pou 
ophy  of  the  Moral  Feelin 
possess  great  merit,  and  hi 
sively  used  as  school  text 
edited  and  adapted  to  the- , 


The  Philos- 

c  two  works 

quite  exten- 

'I  hey  were 

•hiii ils  in  this 


ABINGDON  COLLEGE,  at  Abingdon,  111. 

founded  in  April.  l>OH.  The  mm, her  of  student 
in  the  institution  in  is;:,  was  about  L80.  It 
has  an  endowment  of  $20,000.  The  collegi 
building  is  a  handsome  edifice  well  supplied  with 
modern  furniture  and   appliances.      'I  here  an 

al i  1000  volumes  in  the  library,  besides  which 

the  institution  has  a  museum  and  laboratory. 
'I  li  ■  names  of  its  successive  presidents  are  Patrick 

Murphy..].   W.  Butler,! hral    Pirkey.     The 

annual  tuition  fee  i.-.  fr >-o  to  .-';::'. 

ABSENTEEISM  is  opposed  to  regularity'in 

the  attendance  of  pupils  belonging  to  a  scl I; 

that  is.  the  number  of  school  sessions  from  which 
a  pupil  was  absent,  a-  compare  1  with  the  numb  i 


period,  gives  the  absenteeism  oi  tne  i>u]>ii  tor 

that    period      'Hi-  avi  rage  daily  attendant E 

pupils  divided  by  the  average  daily  enrollment- 
the  "average  number  belonging"  shows  the  per- 
centage of  attendance  ;  and  this  subtracted  from 
LOO  gives,  of  course,  the  percentage  "i'  absentee- 
ism. Within  certain  limits,  this  is  a  criterion 
of   efficiency   of   management   ami   instruction. 

Class   teachers   who   interest    their  pupils  ni s- 

sarily  secure  a  more  regular  attendance  than 
those  who  fail   in  this  respect  :  ami  principals  of 

scl Is  who  keep  a   careful    watch   over  all  the 

pupils  belonging  to  their  schools,  strictly  and 
uniformly  enforcing  wholesome  rules  of  disci- 
pline, and  carefully  notifying  parents  of  the  ab- 
sence of  their  children,  inquiring  into  the  cause 
of  the  Mine,  and  admonishing  both  parents  and 
pupils  of  the  need  of  strict  regularity,  will,  of 
course,  succeed  best  in  this  regard.  Where  the 
basis  for  computing  the  degree  of  absenteeism  is 
the  average  enrollment,  and  where  regularity  of 
attendance  is  made  a  test  of  efficient  manage- 
ment, teachers  will  be  more  careful  to  keep  the 
number  of  pupils  on  the  rolls  as  little  as  possible 
above  the  average  attendance.  Hence,  to  render 
this  test  reliable,  a  uniform  rule  should  lie  follow- 
ed in  the  discharging  of  pupils  for  non  attend- 
ance. Such  a  rule  has  ben  adopted  in  many 
cities  of  the  Union,  any  pupil's  name  being  in- 
variably dropped  from  the  roll  after  a  certain 
number  of  days  of  absence,  however  caused. 
This  is  based  on  the  principle  that  irregularity  of 
attendance     being  at  school  one  day,  one  week, 

or  one  month,  and  absent  the  next      is  not  only  of 

no  profit  to  the  pupil  concerned,  but  a  positive 

injury  to  the  other  pupils,  and  is  a  serious  hin- 
drance and  embarrassment  to  the  teacher  in  the 
management  of  the  school.  To  some  extent  ab- 
senteeism thus  computed   may    indicate  al-o   the 

prevailing  tone  of  the  community  in  regard  to 
education       the  degree  of   appreciation  of  the 

as  inducing  parents  to  sacrifice  their  own  personal 


advantage,  in   the  employment  of  their  childre 


ployrr 

lattel 


to  the  interests  of  thelatter.in  enjoying- the  bet 
fits  of  school  instruction. 

■■Absenteeism''  is  also  technically  applied  to  a 
total  neglect  of  school  attendance  by  a  part  of  the 
school  population  of  any  place.  This  is  exhibited 
by  a  comparison  of  the  average  attendance  of 
pupils  with  the  census  of  children  of  school  age. 

ABSTRACT  AND  CONCRETE.  These 
terms  have  a  very  important  application  in  many 


only  conceived  as  belonging  to  particular  objects 
or  substances.  'I  hits,  if  we  speak  of  a  man.  a  horse, 
a  tree,  etc..  we  use  abstract  or  general  ideas; 
for  we  are  not  thinking  of  any  particular  object 
of  the  class,  but  only  of  the  assemblage  of  qual- 
ities or  characteristics  that  especially  belong  to 
all  the  members  of  the  class.  But  when  we 
mention  such  names  as  (  icero.  Washington  John 
Smith,  etc.,  we  have  in  our  mind  a  conception  of 
the  characteristics  that  served  to  distinguish  those 
persons  from  all  other  men.  'I  hus.thc  expression 
five  pounds  represents  a  concrete  idea  ;  the  word 
five,  an  abstract  one. 

The  immature  minds  of  young  children  em- 
ploy to  a  great  extent  concrete  ideas,  and  hence 
the  instruction  addressed  especially  to  them 
should  deal  principally  with  these.  As  the  mind 
advances,  it  becomes  more  and  more  occupied 

with  abstract  conceptions,  which  constitute  the 
material  for  till  the  higher  forms  of  thought  and 

ACADEMY  Kir.  \UmV'''or'-u"','/1"''")  was 
originally  the  name  of  a  pleasure  ground  near 
Athens,  and  was  said  to  be  so  called  after  Aca- 
ilemus.  a  local  hero  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan 
war.  Its  shady  walks  became  a  favorite  resort 
for  Plato  :  and.  as  he  was  accustomed  to  lecture 
here  to  his  pupils  and  friends,  the  school  of  phi- 
losophers which  was  founded  by  him  was  called 
the  Academic  School,  or  merely  the  Academy. 
In  the  history  of  ancient  philosophy,  three  dif- 
ferent academies  are  distinguished,  the  Old  Acad- 
emy, formed  by  the  immediate  followers  of 
Plato,  the  Middle  Academy,  founded,  about  244, 
by  Arcesilaus,  and  the  New  Academy,  whose 
founder  was  Carneades,  about  Kid  B.  C.    Some- 


Antiochus  are  calle 
the  Fifth  Academ 


rth 


Hones.     During  the 

lie  ages,  the  term  was  but  little  used  for 
•arned  institutions;  but,  after  the  revival  of 
lassical  studies  in  the  L5th  century,  it  again  be- 
anie frequent.  In  a  widerscnse.it  was  some- 
imes  applied  to  higher  institutions  of 
a  general.  Gradually,  however  its  use 
nost  countries,  restricted  to  special  schools,  as 


ACADEMY 


ACCOMPLISHMENTS 


academies  of  mining,  of  commerce,  of  forestry,  i  ami  tlicir  influence  on  other  educi 
of  fine  arts.  and.  especially,  of  music.  In  Fug-  tutions  has  been  considerable.  'II 
land   and   the    United    States,  the   national    high     franraisc   is  the    highest  authority 


'I  In 


the    Naval     Aea  lemv  at     [ '..rtsni. .utli.   ami    the  French 

Royal  Military  Academy  at  Woolwich;  and  the  et  bellta 

United  States,  the  Military  Academy  at  Wesl  its  atte 

Point,  and  the   Naval   Academy  at  Annapolis.  French 

In  the  United  States,  the  name  has  also  been  Spain, 

assume  1  by  a  large  number  of  secondary  schools  countrit 


common  ami  higher  bra 

they  arc.  in   nearly  all  c 

ses,  private  institutions, 

independent  of  any  cont 

rol  bystate  boards, their 

courses  or'  instruction  vvi 

lely  differ  ran- from 

to  the  highest  classes  of 

grammar  and  high  schi 

ols.      They  arc   usually 

^hools. 

The  nam-'  -    m    ny 

3  also  employed  to  des- 

^emetttTof  science  i 

,'l  arl       Someof  these 

others  have  been   Foun 

"1    bv   the   stale.         '1  h  • 

first  academy  of  this  ki 

ill  was  th  ■  Museum  of 

Alexandria,  in  Egypt, 
Ptolemy  Soter.     After 

vhich   was  founded  by 

us  mo  1  1   the  .lews,  to- 

ward  the  cl >f  the  first 

eentury  ot  the  I  Ihristian 

caliphs  established  acad 

».     laic.  th-.  Arabian 

resilience,  to  show  their  l 

iteresl  in  the  promotion 

of  science.     Efforts  to  i 

stablish  1  hristian  acad- 

emies  of  this  kind  wer 

ma  le  by  Gregory  the 

Great  and  Charlemagne, 

but  both  failed,  It  was 

not  until  the  mi  Idle  of  tl 

■fifteenth  century,  that 

associations  of  this  kind 

were  formed  in  Italy  for 

the  purpose  of  fostering 

the  fr levelopment  of 

science  and  art,  in  oppos 

tion  to  the  rigid  conser- 

vatism  of  the  monastic  ! 

i.l  ecclesiastica]  scl Is. 

They  gave  special  attent 

on  to  the  cultivation  of 

the  Italian  language  am 

literature.     It  wases- 

peciallythe  Accademia  t 

eUa  Orusca,  founded  at 

Florence  by  the  poet 

Jrazaani,  to  which  the 

Italian  language  is  inde 

iteil  for  its  purification 

ami  (levelopment.  Front  Italy. these  institutions 
spread  to  the  other  countries  of  Europe  :  and.  as 
they  became  the  centers  of  literary  activity,  they 
exercised  everv-where  a  prominent  influence 
upon  the  intellectual  progress  of  the  several 
countries,  and,  especially,  upon  the  improvement 
and  regulation  of  the  native  tongue.  Prominent 
among  these  academies,  was  the  Academic fran- 
paise,  instituted,  in  L635,  by  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu. In  17!)a,  it  was  united  with  three  other 
French  academies  into  the  Institut  national, 
the  name  of  which  was  changed  by  Louis  XVI 
into  Institut  de  France.  The  Institute  con- 
sisted then  of  four  academies:  (1)  l'Academie\ 
frangaise,  ('-')  VAcademie  des  inscriptions  et 
belles  left  res,  (3)  VAcademie  des  sciences,  (A) 
VAcademie  des  beaux  arts.  A  fifth  academy. 
VAcademie  des  sciences  morales  et  poliHques, 
was  added  in  1832.  These  academies  are  among 
the  most  important  of  the  kind  in  the  world, 


tonal    msti- 

■  Aeademie 
ipon  every- 
!•  rench  lan- 
tion  of  the 
nseriptions 

■  eh]  MS     i 

Like  the 

■  capitals  of 
and   other 

•at  national 
•e  and  art; 

effected  in 
iteil  States. 
i  orrespond- 
iem  es  have 
inn,.  Eng- 
lemyofarts 

F68)  and  a 

academy  of 


at  Dublin  (founded  i.'i  1782).-  In  the  United 
States  of  America  there  are  also  a  number  of 
learned  societies  to  which  the  name  academy, 
in  the  sense  used  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 


the.  -I.Wc; 


Academy  of 

led  in  1780), 

of  Natural 
a  1818).  the 
5  (established 
'  Design,  at 

lit  tl  .  le,,,/- 
Academy  of 
jo  ss,  March 
[ihia.  Brook- 
,  the  princi- 
yofkusic. 
lis    term,  as 


ACCOMPLISHMENTS.       T 

contrasted  with  culture,  refers  to  those  educa- 
tional acquirements  which  fit  a  person  for  certain 
special  activities,  while  culture  has  r<  icience  to 
the   general    improvement   of    the   character  or 

mental  faculties.   Bence  the  expressi external 

accomplish- 
mges,  music, 
olved  in  this 
if  display,  or 
.awaken  ad- 
he  Spectator 
le  graces  of 


drawing,  painting,  dancing, 
application  of  the  term,  is  t 
the  ability  to  please,  or  the 


dress  and 
Accom 
tttal,   as 


her  purely  intellec- 
.r  partly  or  wholly 


formerly, sidered  as  indispensable  accomplish- 
ments; but  of  these,  at  the  present  time,  rowing 
seems  to  take  precedence,  as  contributing  to  a 
healthy  development  of  the  physical  system. 


4  ACCOMPLISHMENTS 

In  many  classes  of  schools,  particularly  in 
private  seminaries,  the  acquisition  of  certain  orna- 
mental accomplishments  constitutes  the  chief  end 
of  education.  Were  these  accomplishments  based 
on  a  solid  culture  of  the  intellectual  and  moral 
nature,  they  would  be  very  proper  and  desirable; 
but  being  merely  showy  and  superficial,  they 
constitute  a   perversion  of  the   true  end  of  edtt- 


vate  i 
esty  ? 

would 


ADAMS 

circumstances  and  in  the  time  proposed,  be  ac- 
complished so  as  to  give  the  pupils  who  are  to 
pursue  it,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject, 
as  well  as  the  ability  to  apply  it  to  some  prac- 
tical purpose.  The  peculiar  talent,  or  bent  of 
mind,  of  children  should  be  regarded,  in  the  at- 
tempt to  bestow  upon  them  ornamental  ac- 
complishments, such  as  music  and.  drawing,  ex- 
cept such  elementary  portions  of  these  arts  as  arc 
within  the  capacity  of  all.  and   which  constitute, 


woidd 


would  spring  from  purity  of  heart.  I  he  folly 
and  wrong  of  giving  this  exclusive  attention  to 
mere  accomplishments  have  very  frequently  been 
a  subject  of  satirical  invective.  Says  Sydney 
Smith  :  "A  woman  of  accomplishments  may 
entertain  those  who  have  the  pleasure  of  knowing 
her  for  half  an  hour  with  ".Teat  brilliancy  ;  but  a 
mind  full  of  ideas,  and  with  that  elastic  spring 
which  the  love  of  knowledge  only  can  convey,  is 
a  perpetual  source  of  exhilaration  and  amuse- 
ment to  all  that  come  within  its  reach.  Therefore, 
instead  of  hanging  tli  •  understanding  of  a  woman 
upon  walls,  or  hearing  it  vibrate  upon  strings, 
instea  1  of  se  ing  it  in  clouds.or  hearing  it  in  the 
wind,  we  would  make  it  the  first  spring  and  or- 
nament of  society,  by  enriching  it  with  attain- 
ments, upon  which  alone  such  power  depends." 
Goldsmith  also  inveighed  severely  against  this 
practice  in  his  time.  -'Another  passion,"  he 
says,  "  which  the  present  age  is  apt  to  run  into 
is,  to  make  children  learn  all  things,  the  lan- 
guages, the  sciences,  music  the  exercises,  and 
painting.  Thus  the  child  soon  becomes  a  talker 
in  all,  but  a  master  in  none.  He  thus  acquires 
a  superficial  fondness  for  everything,  and  only 
shows  his  ignorance,  when  he  attempts  to  exhibit 
his  skill."  The  tendency  of  the  present  time,  in 
what  is  called  fashionable  education,  is  equally 
subject  to  the  same  unfavorable  criticism.  Ac- 
complishments, in  the  first  stages  of  education. 
are  to  be  regarded  as  secondary  to  the  solid  im- 
provement of  the  mind.  Those  rudimentary  at- 
tainments which  constitute  the  1  lasis  of  all  school 
education,  and  are  indispensable  to  any  further 
progress,  namely,  reading,  spelling,  writing,  and 
arithmetic,  must  of  course  be  made;  to  which 
should  be  added  the  ability  to  use  one's  own  lan- 
guage, in  speaking  and  writing,  with  tolerable 
ease  and  propriety.  A  common-school  educa- 
tion should  give  great  prominence  to  these,  as 
not  only  constituting  the  acquirements  most 
generally  needed  for  success  in  life,  but  as  placing 
in  the  hands  of  the  pupils  the  keys  to  future 
progress  in  learning. 

Accomplishment,  being  derived  from  the 
French  accomplir,to  finish  or  complete,  may  be 
contrasted  with  smattering,  a  mere  superficial 
acquirement  of  some  of  the  prominent  or  nidi  - 
mental  parts  of  any  subject.  No  educational 
scheme  should  admit  of  the  study  of  any  branch 
of   knowledge    which  cannot,   under   the  given 


ACQUISITION.  The  acquisition  oi  knowl- 
edge must  be,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  scope  of 
every  process  of  teaching.  Sometimes  it  is  the 
primary  object ;  but,  in  the  earlier  stages  of  edu- 
cation, it  is  generally  secondary,  the  educative 
value  of  the  process  taking  precedence  of  the  prac- 
tical importance  of  the  knowledge  communicated. 
The  acquisition  of  new  ideas  must  always,  more 
or  less,  improve  the  mind  by  affording  additional 
material  for  the  exercise  of  its  various  faculties; 
but.  in  education,  what  particular  faculties  are 
concerned  in  the  study  of  any  subject  or  branch 
of  knowledge,  is  a  matter  of  paramount  im- 
portance, and  therefore  should  never  be  lost 
sight  of  by  the  teacher.  Where  this  is  disre- 
garded, instruction  is  apt  to  degenerate  into  mere 
rote-teaching;  and  the  teacher  will  often  rest 
satisfied  when  his  pupil  can  repeat  the  formula: 
of  knowledge,  without  evincing  the  acquisition 
of  new  ideas.on  which  alone  the  improvement  of 
the  mind  depends. 

ACROAMATIC  METHOD  (Gr.  Upoaua- 
tikoc  to  be  heard,  designed  for  hearing  only),  a 

name  originally  applied  to  tin  t ri    b  "  ung 

of  Aristotle  and  other  Greek  philosophers,  to 
designate  such  as  were  confined  to  their  imme- 
diate hearers,  and  not  committed  to  writing. 
Later,  the  term  has  been  applied  to  a  system  of 
instruction  in  which  the  teacher  speaks  and  the 
pupil  only  listens.  A  method  of  this  kind,  of 
course,  presupposes  scholars  of  a  certain  maturity 
(jf  age  and  of  considerable  progress  in  intellectual 
culture.  It  forms  the  basis  of  the  lecture  system. 
(See  Lecture.) 

ADAM,  Alexander,  LL.  D.,  was  born  in 
Scotland,  in  17-11,  and  died  in  L809.  He  at- 
tained a  high  distinction  as  a  teacher  while  I  lector 
of  the  High  School  at  Edinburgh  (1768—1808). 
He    was  also   the  author  of  several    educational 

text-1 ks,  among  which  his  Roman  Antiquities 

(1791)  has  been  very  extensively  used  in  this 
country  and  in  < ireat  Rritain. 

ADAMS,  John,  Hi.  D.,  was  born  in  Can- 
terbury, Ct.,  in  1772,  and  died  in  Jacksonville, 
111.,  in  1863.  lie  was  noted  both  as  a  teacher 
and  a  philanthropist.  After  graduating  at  Vale 
College,  in  1795,  he  taught  the  academy  in 
his  native  town,  and  subsequently  other  schools, 
till,  in  1810,  he  became  principal  of  I'hillips 
Academy,  \ndo\er.  Mass..  in  which  position  he 
continued  for  twenty-three  years.  In  1833,  he 
removed  to  Illinois,  and  was  very  active  in  effed 
ing  improvements  in  the  school  system  of  that 


ADRIAN   COLLEGE 


State.    His  labors  in   connection  with    various 
benevolent  institutions  in  both  States,  were  mi- 


id  ability  with  which  he  devoted  himseJl  to  the 

ADRIAN  COLLEGE,  at  Adrian,  Mich., 
as  founded  in  L859,  by  the  Methodists.  The 
amber  of  students  is'  about  200,  males  and 
imales,  about  one  fourth  of  whom  belong  to  the 
tlleoiate  department  It  has  a  classical  and 
rientific  course  of  instruction,  a  school  of  theol- 
ry,  a  school  oi  music,  and  a  normal  class.  Its 
,i|,s  of  instructors  numbers  twelve,  and  it  has 
ie  endowed  professorship.  The  number  of 
ilumes  in  its  library  is  about  L000;  its  endow- 

,ent  isS ,000.     Rev.  G.  B  McElroy,  D.D.,  is 

ie  president   of  the    Institution    (1876).    The 

lition  fee  is  very  small. 

ADU1jT3,  Schools  for.  The  proper  time 
i  obtain  instruction    is  during  the  periods  of 


.ESTHETIC  CULTURE  5 

and  girls  to  the  16th  or  L8th  year  of  age.  Sev- 
eral states  made  attendance  at  these  schools  ob- 
ligatory for  all  boys  and  girls  who  had  left  the 

elementary  scl I  and  not    entered  any  higher 

school.     Special  attention    has  been   given   to 

school- of  this   da.-.-   ill   Austria    « h.  re  the    u'ov- 


chanics,  special  classes  or  schools  were  organized 
in  which  particularly  instruction  in  drawing 
wa.s  given.  The  attendance  at  these  schools  is 
always  voluntary ;  inmost  of  them  the  scholars 
have  to  pay  moderate  fees:  instruction  is  gen- 
erally given  on  Sunday  mornings,  and,  in  most 
schools,  is  confined  to  writing,  arithmetic,  and 
drawing.     In  some  of  the  German  states,  espe- 


:,,r  the 
.Is  for 
Schools 


tioii  of  tli  •  sehi 
sible.  (See  Si 
hood   and    you 


bonis'  instruction  in  the  studies  of  a  higher 

ADVENTISTS.    'I  his  is  the  name  of  ,-c\.  ral 
ganizations  of    American   Christians,  the  dis- 

,,-,  i;,  secondadvent  ol  Chrisi   and  thi  endo)  the 


aim..-  v  ...  ■..,  ■■■  o;..!i-,iii,.^  illiteracy  (see  Ii.ut- 
erai  the  number  of  adults  whose  education, 
duringthe  proper  age,  has  either  been  entire- 
ly insufficient,  or  who  find  themselves  on  en- 
tering   lite,    without    the   requisite   amount    of 

information    specially    i ded    in    their    several 

avocations  i.  uainsasgi  a1  as  ever,  and  is  even 
likely  to  increase    as   the   standard  of   popular 

education   l imes  more  elevated.      Systematic 

reading,  instruction  by  private  teachers,  and, 
mo,.,  recently,  popular  lectures,  are  among  the 
nrincinal   aaencies    for    sunplementina  the  de- 


was  provided  for.  As  the  school  age,  in  the 
German  states,  only  extended  to  the  14th  year,  a 
Sunday  school  was  specially  provided  for  boys  j 


ot  thisilenominal 

mwereformi  i 

vain  lost  wholly 

independent,  and 

had  fewer  chi 

rch  boards  for 

|nZ|atop 

the  United  Sta 

e-.  '1  he  great- 
nion   has  been 

ma  It  by  the  Sevi 

nli  Day  Adven 

ists.    Thesnb- 

i  .    of  i  lui  ation  . 

o  of  a  denomi- 

ii  itional  -<  boo]  w 

is  broui  la  to  i 

•e  attention  of 

the     members     ot 

this   denomini 

lion   by    Elder 

.lames  White, and 

wife,  in  the  early  part  of  1872. 

The    matte-    was 

referred   to  a 

General   t  om- 

inittce.   who,  dui 
Of  March,  1,-7  1  a 

5*?«u 

r  and  autumn 
this  enterprise. 
1.   On  the  Kith 

3  formed,  under 

corporation   of 

school  edifice, 
n  four  and  five 

Annual  t 

i.i.   1875,  art. 

Idventists;  also 

"their  Origin,  Pr 

Iventists;     a   b 
gress,and  Pr 

•ie/  sketch  ■  r~ 
nciples  (Battle 

Creek.  1874). 

AESTHETIC 

CULTURE. 

See   Esthetic 

( JuLTURE. 

6  AFFECTATION 

AFFECTATION,  as  opposed  to  what  is  real. 
genuine,  and  natural,  is  carefully  to  be  guarded 
against  in  the  education  of  the  young.'  In  certain 
peculiarities  of  character,  there  is  a  pronenesB  to 
the  formation  oi  habits  of  affectation  in  manners 
and  speech.  This  tendency,  however,  rarely 
shows  itself  at  an  earlj  age.  Children  generally 
yield  to  their  natural  impulses,  and  do  not  as- 
sume or  feign  what  they  do  not  feel,  or,  to  use  a 
common  expression.  "  put  on  aire."  Their  mode 
of  training,  however,  may  tend  to  this,  partic- 
ularly if  they  are  forced  to  assume  an  unnatural 
mode  of  expression  in  phraseology  or  pronuncia- 
tion, in  the  attempt  to  make  them  excessively  pre- 
cise in  such  matters.  Sonic  styles  of  reading  and 
elocution  may  lead  to  this  characteristic;  and 
hence  the  importance  of  adopting  methods  that, 
in  all  respects,  correspond  to  the  prevailing  usage. 
Certainly,  nothing  can  be  more  disgusting  than 
the  forced  imitation  of  peculiar  and  unnatural 
models  of  conceived  propriety  of  speech  and 
manners,  which  we  sometimes  find  to  prevail 
among  the  pupils  of  certain  schools,  or  the  "min- 
cing airs"  which  are  often  assumed  by  those,  both 
male  and  female,  but  particularly  the  latter,  who 
affect  to  belong  to  the  best  society,  and  hence  ar- 
rogate to  themselves  a  superior  degree  of  refine- 
ment. The  standard  of  the  educator  should  lie. 
in  every  respect,  that  ei 
beauty  that  belong  to  w 
tendency  to  the  contrar 
promptly  and  sternly 
•'  Plain  and  rough  nat 
better  than  an  artificial 
studie  I  ways  of  being 
of  an  accomplishment, 
havior,  coming  short  of  the  utmost  graceiulne-:- 
often  scapes  observation ;  but  affectation  in  any 
part  of  our  carriage,  is  lighting  up  a  candle  to 
our  defects,  and  never  fails  to  make  us  to  be 
taken  notice  of.  either  as  wanting  sense  or  want- 
ing sincerity."—  .See  Locke,  Thoughts  concern- 
ing Educ  ition. 

AGASSIZ,  Louis  John  Rudolph.  This 
eminent  naturalist  and  teacher  was  born  at 
Motiers.  near  Neufchatel,  in  Switzerland,  May 
28.,  L807,and  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Dec.14., 
1873.  His  ancestors  were  Huguenots,  driver 
from  France  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  ol 
Vint  -.  I  lis  father  was  th  ■  pastor  of  a  protest 
ant  parish;  his  mother,  the  daughter  of  a  phy 
sician.     ruder  the  latter  he  received   his  first 

e  lucati ill  the  age  of  eleven,  when  he  wai 

sent  to  the  gymnasium  at   Bienne,  where  he  i  ■ 


ilieity.  and 
tural  ;  and  every 
pupils,  should  be 
I.      Locke  says: 

to  itself,  is  much 
fulness  and  such 
med.     'I  he  want 


professor  of  zoology  and  geology  in  the  Lawrence 
Scientific  School. Yhcn  just  established,  lie  com- 
menced    his   duties   in     L848,   and   settled    per- 


Natural  History  on  IVnikc.-e  I.-Iund  in  lsT.'l. 
was  almost  the  last  act  of  hi.-  life.  'I  he  means  tor 
founding  this  school  were  furnished  by  Mr.  John 
Anderson,  a  generous  and  public  spirited  citizen 
of  New  York, who  not  only  devoted  for  this  ob- 
ject the  island  of  lVnike.-c.  but  the  sum  of 
$50,000,  as  a  permanent  endowment  Agassiz 
had  long  advocated  the  >  .-tablishment  of  such 
a  school  for  the  special  instruction  of  teachers 
in  marine  zoology ;  and  during  the  Bummer  of 
1873,  he  devoted  his  time  ami  energies  to  this 
institution,  being  present  at  every  exercise  and 
lecture,  and  the  constant  companion  of  the 
students.  His  chief  publications  were  llrrh-r- 
ches  aurles  Poissons  Fossiles,  1833—1844; 
ttudes  stir  As  glaciers,  L840;  System*  gla- 
ciaire,  1847,  and  Contributions  to  die  Natural 
History  of  the  United  States.  Though  chiefly 
eminent  as  a  naturalist,  and  particularly  in  the 
department  of  ichthyology,  he  was  an  accom- 
plished linguist,  being  versed  in  six  languages. 
II,  read  Klato  and  Aristotle  in  the  original, 
wrote  several  works  in  eleganf  I  at  in.  and  was 
a  good  Hebraist.  French  and  German  were 
to  him  vernacular  tongues,  and  he  could  speak 
and  wine  ih>  English  language  with  ease  and 
correctness,  lie  was  a  natural  teacher,  fond 
of  giving  instruction,  patient  and  sympathetic, 
overflowing  with  an  earnest  love  for  his  sub- 
I  rt.nnd  having  a  n  ind  replete  with  stores  of 
information.     His  voice,  look,  and   manner  at 

once  gained  theattenti f  his  pupils  :  and  the 

clearness  oi  bis  explanations  as  well  as  the  fluen- 
cy of  hi-  delivery  gave  interest  to  every  subject 
upon  which  he  .-poke.  Hi- skill  in  ready  graphic 
delineations  with  chalk  and  blackboard  was 
astonishing,  and  greatly  contributed  to  the 
effectiveness  of  his  teaching.  Few  have  ever 
made  BUCh  rich  additions  to  the  stores  of  science, 
or  have  been  more  zealous  in  diffusing  the  bene- 
fits of  knowledge  among  mankind.  His  ex- 
ample as  a  teacher  has  been  of  very  great  value, 
since  his  system  was  to  teach  from  natural  ob- 
jects rather  than  from  books. — to  enable  the 
pupil  to  ai  quire  an  experience  of  his  own  before 
presenting  to  his  mind  the  results  of  the  ex- 
perience and  observation  of  others.  His  own 
assumed   title    "Louis    Agassiz — Teacher,"  was 

the  one  of  whii  h  he  Beei 1  to  be  mosi  |  roud  . 

and   all    teacher-   should   ch  rish   tl sample 


1 1  irg  a 

ularly 


Cubed  States,  being  invited  to  deliver  a  course 
of  lectures  at  the  Lowell  Institute,  in  Boston. 
The  next  year.be  accepted  the  appointment  ol 


turning-point  stands  forth  so  conspicuously,  that, 
teachers  at  all  times  have  chosen  it  as  a  broad 


line  of  demarcation,  into  whatever  number  of 
periods  they  have  thought  it  proper  to  divide 
human  life.     This  turning-point  in  life  is  the 


Age.)  Of  course,  instruction  at  such  an  age 
must  be  limited  to  the  must  elementary  rudi- 
ments, such  as  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic 


has,  I  >. 


cati f    the  young  man    or    woman    for   the 

elude  1.  Up  tn  this  time,  the  e  lucation  of  man 
is  conducted  by  others,  chiefly  parents  and 
teachers;  henceforward,  he  is  expected  to  edu- 
cate himself,  and  to  assume  the  education  of 
oth  :rs. 


During  the  period  of  life  when  man  is  depend- 
ent upon" others  for  his  education,  three  different 


broadly  distinguish  ■  1.  chillhool.  Inn- 
hood  or  girihood,and  youth.  Th  se  are  marked,  in 
the  physical  development  of  the  body,  by  the 
shedding  of  teeth,  the  entrance  of  puberty,  and 
the  setting  in  .if  virility.  The  process  of  mental 
development  in  th  ■-  ■  three  ages  i-  as  different  a  ; 
the  physical  basis  ;  and  accordingly  .each  of  them 
demands  a  peculiar  pedagogical  ami  didactical 
treatment. 

Childhood,  which  embraces  the  first  seven 
years  of  life,  is  characterized  by  the  rapid  growth 
and  development  nf  the  organs  (if  the  holy.  At. 
the  age  of  seven  a  child  weighs  aboul  six  tinus 
as  much  as  at  its  birth,  and  it  has  attain;  1  on  • 
half  of  the  stature,  and  about  one  third  op.  one 
fourth  of  the  weight  of  the  grown  man.  '1  he  miu  1 


ement  in  elementary  education. 


il  embraces  the  ti 


froi) 


completed  growth  of  the  brain,  and  by  the  first 
onsciousness  of  sexual  difference.  Toys  and 
girls  long  for  the  free  and  frequent  exercise  of 
their  muscular  systems.  At  the  beginning  of  this 
age,  girls  like  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  plays 
of  the  boys  ;  but  they  soon  show  a  prefi  P  Qce  lor 
more  quiet  occupations  and  less  publicity  :  wliile. 
on  the  other  hand,  boys  manifesl   an  increased 

(he  prime  duties  of  the  educators  of  this  age.  to 

hep  the  development  of  the  natural  desires  and 

■]  nations  of  the  two  sexes  within  the  right 
hatiiH'ls.  'I  lie  minds  of  boys  and  girls  afford 
many  proofs  of  independent  thought  and 
activity.     The  company  of  adults  is  not  sought 


opportunities  for  a  vigorous  and  manifol  1  dt 
ment.  Themindmust  be  pres  -rve  1  from  de 
weakening,  or  over  exciting  infill  mc  S,  an 
be  kepi  open  for  anything  that  is  eondu 
the  development  of  its  faculties;  and,  ii 
not  to  become  sated  and  confused,  it  must 
to  distinguish  what  is  important  from  t 
important.  As  the  child  is  thoroughly  dep 
upon  its  educator  and  unable  to  direct  it 
exertions,  it  should  be  male  to  understt 

will  to  thai  of  its'educatora  can  be  follov 

only  evil  t sequences.     It  should,  theref 

taught  obedience.but  not  obedience  throug 
for  fear  has  a  repressive  inn  t  nee  upo 
development  of  the  m  i  it  J  faculties,  1 
obedience    sprinsrina    from    t  mfidence    i 


-  give  more  evidence,  th 

ft,  befor 

!,    Of 

m    thought,  and    perse 

eranee, 

and 

h  which 

they 

most  strongly  endowec1 

;  each  ( 

did 

ay,   foreboding    to    som 
eer.     It  is  of  great   im] 

that 

or  should  not    only    ui 

dcr.stan. 

the 

this  age,  systematic  teaching  by  a  professional 
teacher  begins.  Legislation  in  regard  to  the 
school  age  differs  considerably  in  different 
countries.  In  some,  children  are  sent  to  the  pub- 
lic schools  when  they  are  four  years  of  age;  in 
others,  not  until  they  arc  seven.     (See  School 


peculiar  to  this  age  slums  itself  at  the  same  time 
in  the  growth  of  imagination,  which  awakens  in 
the  boy  a  lively  interest  in  all  that  is  great  and 
extraordinary  in  history.  On  many  questions 
relating  to  the  education  proper  for  this  age, 
educators  still  differ.     Prominent  among  these 


8  AGItH'OLA 

questions, are,  whether  the  two  sexes  should  be 
educated  separately  or  conjointly,  to  what  extent 
the  -■ ■  c ae  of  instruction  should  be  pre- 
scribe 1  for  both,  whether  special  studies  should  be 
begun  al  this  age,  or  whether  the  entire  course 
should  I.-  . . l •  1  i - . j t . . i >  M  :ill  the  children  of  a 
school.    (See  Co-edooation  oi  the  Sexbs.) 

The  .._  of  youth  extends  from  the  beginning 
of  puberty  to  the  complete  development  of  sexu 
ality  or  from  the  fourteenth  to  about  the  twenty- 
first  year  of  age.  At  this  time  the  growth  of 
the  body  is  completed  ;  young  men  and  women 
become  aware  uf  their .— i  •■-t-i:t1  duties  of  life  and  oi 

the  difference  in  t areers  upon  which  they  are 

respectively  to  enter.  The  tin t  study  is  draw- 
ing to  its  dose  :  the  entrance  into  active-  lift-  is  at 
haml.  Anion"  the  lower  classes  of  society,  this 
transition  occurs  .-it  the  beginning  of  this  age; 
ami  the  only  increase  of  knowledge  that  is  access- 
ible to  most  persons  of  theseclasses  must  be  de- 
rive 1  from  eve g   -  bools  public  le  ton  -.  and 

rea  lin._<:  while  th'.-  ■  ol'  the  wealthier  .1..--  -  an  I 
all  who  wish  to  tit   themselves  for  any  of  the 

learned   professions,  nmv   enter  upon   the  S] ial 

studiesot  those  professions,  or  finish  the  general 
studies  of  the  precedi  igage    Toward  thecloseof 

thisperio  1  it  ai li  i  the] ti  ins  foi     itei 

ing  public  life  are  completed  or  an  actual  entrance 
into  life  begins  -■     -         E 

Schleiermacher,    Er  ■      '.ngs    ire,    edited    by 

Platz  B  .  Er  ■  »  is-  und  Unterrichts- 
Jehre :  Herbart,  Umriss  padagogischer  Vor- 
lesungen. 

AGRICOLA,  Rodolphus,  an  eminent  edu- 
catorof  the  middle  aercs.  wasli.ini  in  August  I  I  !3 

or  I  i  12    at   Baflo.  mar  Groningen,  in   Holland. 

His  original  name  was  Huysmann,  which,  after 
the  cast. en  ..I  his  time,  h  •  cx.-haii-...-  I  •■••>  a  l-Hui 

name.     Aft.-r  his  native  pr  rv  in  e   Ft  ■■   Ian  I   he 

t]  ,f  Louvain    Paris  and  Pi  n  u-a  ; 

and  aftei  returning  to  his  oative  country,  distin- 

mii-h.-  I  him-  It  ...i-.-atlv  l-v  i in m  he  in-  ill  •  .-;n  ly 

of  Greek  into  the  i ntries  nortl e  Alps. 

In    1  I--:,  he   accepted   an    invitation    IV his 

friend,  Bishop  Dalberg  of  Worms,  and  deliv- 
ered lectures  alternately  at  Heidelberg  and  at 
Worms.     He  died  in  Heidelberg.  Oct.  28.,  I  185, 

His  works,  which  are  not   very  in reus,  an 

written  in  Latin.  His  |.rin.-i|.:.l  uml-  /'  /»<•  » 
/i,u if  ill.-'  '■  i  attacks  ih  •  --h'.laslic  philosophy 
oftheage  Ln  an  educational  point  of  view,  his 
epi-i],-  to  |:.,ii.iri..nn-  i..  \ntwerp,  the  so  .■all,-! 
EpUtoln  de  formando  studio,  is  of  special  im- 
portance. At  the  time  oi  its  publication,  it  was 
regarded  as  a  compendium  oi  the  pedagogics 
views  of. the  German  humanists.  Its  prime  ob 
jc.-t  was  to;,  Ivise  bis  friend  as  to  the  continua 
tionof  In—in  li  8.   Agricola  recommended  philos 

ophy,  by  which  h  rm  he  underst I  also  ethia 

and  physics,  and,  in  gi  neral,  the  entire  range  oi 
natural  s  tience,  as  the  stu  ly  most  des  n  in  :  hi 

friends  attention;   he  represents  it  as  tl Ij 

road  to  true  knowledge  and    perfeel     felicitj 

while  tl ther  sciences  could  procure  y 

doubtful  happiness.     The   Latin   language   « 


A<;i:ii'ri/n'RAL  <'oij.i-:<;ks 


>r  this  study, 
ays  to  i, -pro- 
man.  Three 
study:  (l)To 


in.  I  I 


,m  what  had  been  learned.     The  first 

,-d  I iy  application,  the  s.-, I  was  the 

emory,  the  third  could  only  be  ac- 
practice.  While  the  works  left  by 
milil  alone  not  suffice  to  assign  to  him 


second  to  none  but    bis  friend    Reuchlin.     His 

letters  to  Ih-uchliu.  to  Alexander  lli-mus    an  ex- 
cellent educator,  who  founded  the  famous  school 


-I,  a  echo 


Reformers;    Geiger,   in     AUgemeine    Deutsche 
Biographi'e,  t,   11  —  L56 ;    Trebling,    Vita  et 
...  vita   Rudotpki   Agricolcs  (Groningen,  1830); 
Hallam's  Literature  of  Europe. 
AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGES.       It  is 


'..  enance  the  interest  of  all  moneys  derived  from 

-,.  the  sa'e  of    the    aforesaid    scrip    or   lands."     It 

/-  was  further  required  that  "the  leading  object" 

v  of   tin-.-,-  collies  -.-h..nl  I    he.  without    excluding 

is  other  -  i-  niili.-  and  c].i--i.-al  -nidi,  s  and  includ- 

,1    i, „hi.i, x    ten.-,  to  teach  such   branches  of 

,.  learning   as   are  related  to  agriculture  and  the 

is  mechanic   arts,  in  order  to  promote  the  liberal 

d  and  practical  education  of  the  itidu-in.il  classes, 

I-  ill   the    Several     pursuits    and     plofe.-sions    ot     lite." 

s-  .lustiu''s"  u!,'r'iii.'sen'at"r''fr.iin   Wrmont        Of 

•s  all    laws   enacted,   either  state  or  national,  for 

,f     the  advancement  of  higher  education,  i e  has 

lv  The  ori-'iiiat'oi'-  nnd\in'i'uersof  this  law.  -huilded 

7,  better  ihan  they  knew."    The  tabulated  state- 

a  liient   below,  while  it  shows  a  vast  amount  ac- 

us  complished  in  a  short  space  of  time,  cannot,  of 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES  !> 

necessity,  give  more  than  a  faint  idea  of  what    increased  population  shall  furnish  a  demand  for 

has  been    ill  me    in    aihanciii",    agricultural   ••<  I  n-     the  |ir...luets  of   the   soil   at  prices  suttieieutlv  re- 
catii.M    in   the  single  direction  of  a  systematic  '  Mnmcrative  to  induce  many  trained  and  educated 


Congress.  For  as  soon  as  the  act  had  become  a 
law.  numerous  energetic  and  far-seeing  nun 
brought    the    matter    prominently    before    the 


has  been,  to  arouse  thon 

classes    tO    a     sense    of    tin 

These  earoesl    and   conti 
developed  latent  talents,  a 


if  students,  so  fart 

neiits  of  the  insti 
,-li,,n,  715  are  la  I 
istruction  in  milita 
f  board  -usuaJlv  i 


fertilizers.     Up  ti 
of  Lansing,  Midi.. 


colic 

■es  1 

ive  been  oiwa 

then 

n    parts  nt 

lean 

ts   are   relate  1 

meel 

arts."    Thed 

gress 

did 

not    furnish  et 

tin, 

up  ! 

ml  man   thesi 

but  i 

at*', 

rdedthe  meai 

the  all  of  which 

Com-  ing  in   iron 

fully  planers,  tun 

..us';  and  other  n 


•ll  with 

•s.  and 


<1   work.      W'c 


hardly 


iient 

leges 

anil 


ceive  of  the  grand  and  important  position  these    ies  :  and  several  of  them  furnish  facilities  for  i 
institutions  are  to  occupy  when  the  wants  of  an  '  struction  in  chemistry  not  excelled   in  any  otl 


10 


A(iRiru/ruRAL  <'oi.u-:<;ks 


iii-iniiii 

ical,  12 
are  aire 
of  these 
most    of 


drawing  is,  moreover,  required  in  several  of  the 
bra  iches  related  to  agriculture.  Free-band 
drawing  as  yet,  has  not  been  largely  introduced. 
Some  t.-u  collet-shave  larjy  collections  of  mod- 
els of  farm  implements  and  machinery ;  engrav- 
ings, photographs,  charts,  and  drawings;  to- 
gether with  numerous  specimens  of  grains, 
grasses,  anil  other  plants  :  [fruluiriral  ami  niiin-i  - 
alugical  specimens:  collections  "f  insects  and 
skeletons  of  domestic  and  pther  annual.-.:  all 
constituting  what  might  be  called  an  agricult- 
ural museum,  though  usually1  kept  in  separate 
rooms  for  the  sake  of  convenience.  Ten  of  these 
institutions  offer  one  or  more  prizes  for  good 
scholarship;  six  report,  through  their  leading 
officer,  that  the  effect  of  offering  such  priz  s 
appears  to  be  "good;"  six  consider  it  "bad;:l 
two,  "  doubtful ;"  one,  "  that  it  depends  on  cir- 
cumstances;" on,',  that  it  i-.--.-i  healthy  stimu- 
lant to  be  carefully  use  I ;"  and  i '-non  con 

stat."  At  least  twelve  appear  to  have  kepi  care- 
ful accounts  of  far.n  r.-.-.-ipts  and  expenditures  : 
but  since  we  have  no  reports  of  the  amount  of 
increase  in  the  valuations  of  farm-stork,  imple- 
ments, etc.,  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the 
farms  are  worked  at  a  profit  or  a  loss.  The 
total  gross  receipts  of  twelve  farms  reporte  I.  for 
1.-7 1.' arc  S'-.l.liJ'.i.iKl.  or  an  average  of  So  3  10  -  I 
per  farm.  The  total  expenditures  for  experi- 
ments, during  the  same  year,  on  eight  of  these 
farms,  are  $8,143.26.  This  indicates  that  farm 
experiments  are  not.  as  yet,  carri  I  on  to  any 
great  extent  ;  and  the  reason  for  this  is,  doubt- 
less,  a  lack  of  means  rather  than  of  disposition. 
Every  professor  of  agriculture  fully  appreciates 


ich  are  thorough-breds, 
:t  breeds.  'I  he  horses 
.  only  •'■  of  which  are 
al  inimli.  i  of  sheep  is 
,nte  bloods  of  various 
id  500,  including  about 
presenting  nearly  all  of 


M[ 


trating 

and  ski 


affording,  not  only  the  means  for  ill 
the  subjects  taught.but  actual  experiei 
11  in  those  processes  which  require  tl 
anient,  eve.  and   hand,  a-- well  as  the 


idiency  of  the  C'ongrcs- 

f     which     these     ilistilll- 


called  in  ipiestion  :   indeed.it  lias  been  held  that 
the  function  of  government  should  be  strictly 


the  benefit,  not  only  to 
as  well  of  extended  and  systemati 
experiments.  They  are.  indee  1 
costly  auxiliaries  to  the  class- 
There  is  a  constantly  increasing 
ward  using  the  farm  and  its  apj 
less  of  profit  or  loss,  in  order  to 
trate  the  principles  of  aerii-nll  lire 


emment  to    Edui 

>f  students,  by  n 
than  th  •  long-establishe  I  a 
occupying  » ith  them  the  fi 
tiou.  in  an  important  sen 
not  the  rivals  of  the  older  c 
uates,  to  only  a  limited  exfe 
professions.  They  becomi 
in  ehanics.  architects.  Till 
an  1  brain.  They  become  I 
of  labor,  and  thus  precise!) 


•s.  and  are 
if  higher  i 


tenth, 
fairly 

•duea- 


leges  I-  . 
a  res  "i 
den,  29  a 
of  native 

an  I  58  '  ! 

we  find 

aer.-s  to  i 
certainly 
is  taught 
distinctiv 
of  study. 


.in    he    loimded."      lht 


rail      the  best    and 

isses.'    TJ s  the 

iblican  institutions 
ids  of  Washington 


.UiRH'ri/ITR.W,  C(tl. I.KCKS 


fully  justify  this  principle:  "In  proportion  as 
the  structure  of  a  government  gives  force  to 
public  opinion,  it  is  essential  that  public  opinion 
shod  I  be  enlightened." 

i  .  •  qf  &  dy.—Ths  full  course  oi  four 
years  in  agriculture  comprises  the  following  sub- 
jects:   I)   te  cases,  a  few  are  omitted  or  a  feu* 

added  ;  but  those  mentioned  will  serve  to  show 
what  studies  are  now  generally  considered  appli- 
cable and  necessary  in  this  course  -  I  algebra; 
(2)  solid,  plane,  and  analytical  geometry,  trigo- 
nometry, and  the  calculus ;  (3)  rhetoric  and 
composition, declamation  and  English  literature  ; 
(4)  drawing,  free-hand  and  linear:  (5)  surveying 
andmapping  :  (6)  book-keeping, especially  applied 
to  farm  accounts;  (7)  botany,  general  andagricult- 
ural ;  (8)  horticulture,  floriculture,  and  general, 
market,  and  landscape  gardening;  (9)  history, 
which  may  comprise  one  or  more  of  the  follow- 
ing: American,  English,  Roman,  French,  agricult- 
ural, and  history  of  civilization  ;  (10)  physiology. 
hygiene,  and  comparative  anatomy.  (11)  zo- 
ology and  entomology  ;  (12)  veterinary  anatomy, 
physiology,  medicine,  and  surgery;  (13)  chem- 
istry, general  and  agricultural ;  (14)  French  and 
German,  usually  'extending  through  not  less 
than   two  or  three  terms   (when   both  languages 


to  agriculture  :  (18)  strength  and  preservation  of 
materials:  (19)  rural  architecture.  The  subjects 
treated  of  under  the  head  of  applied  or  practical 
agriculture  w  ith  slight  changes—are  as  follows  : 
(f)  stock  bre  ling,  inclu  ling 'the  laws  of  likeness 
or  similarity,  variation  and  atavism;  the  influence 
on  the  subsequent  progeny  of  the  dam,  by  the 
first  fruitful  connection,  in-and-in  and  miscel- 
laneous breeding,  the  government  of  sex.  the 
relative  influence  of  sire  and  dam  on  the  prog- 
eny, pedigrees  and  their  value,  the  history. for, na- 
tion, and  characteristics  of  breeds  and  families; 
('-'i  the  selection,  breeding,  feeding,  anil  general 
management  of  domestic  animals,  each  species 
and  race  being  treated  of  separately  ;  (3)  annual 
nutrition;  (4;  the  education,  shoeing,  driving, 
and  care  of  the  horse:  (5)  drains, — their  material 
and  construction,  and  the  effect  of  drainage  on 
health,  soil,  climate  and  plant-:  6)  soils,  -their 
classification,  character,  mechanical  division,  and 


and  light  on  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the 
growth  of  plants;  (15)  the  care,  cultivation,  and 
use  of  natural  and  artificial  forests;  (16)  fields, 

—  then    number,   shape,  and  size;    (17)  fences. 

—  their  material,  construction,  and  durability ; 
(18)  farm  yards  aud  buddings;  (l'J)  water  priv- 


ileges: (20)  farm  accounts ;  (21)  the  manufact- 
ure, preservation,  and  application  of  farm  ma- 
nures; (22)  the  rotation  of  crops ;  (23)  farm  ma- 
chinery and  tools;  24)  rural  law.  The  subjects 
of  instruction,  as  far  as  possible,  are  illustrated 
by  diagrams,  cuts,  and  models.       The  lectures 


farms  and  herds.  The  lectures  anil  practice 
usually  extend  through  at  least  one  year.  The 
foregoing  statement  shows  conclusively  that  then- 
has  been  an  earnest,  systematic  and  successful 
effort  to  promote  the  education  of  the  rural  clas- 
ses;  and  it  may  be  truthfully  said,  that,  within 
the  last  ten  years,  no  other  department  of  educa- 
tion has  made  an  equal  degree  of  advancement. 
The  first  agricultural  school  in  Kurope  was 
founded,  in  1804,  by  Fellenberg,  at  llofwyl  in 
Switzerland.  It  flourished  for  more  than  30 
years  under  the  excellent  dirci  tioi,  of  Wehrli. 
and  educated  nearly  3,000  pupil,.  'I  he  success  of 
llofwyl  led  to  the  establishment  of  other  schools 
Of  the  same  character:  and.  at  present,  such 
schools  are  found  in  every  country  of  Europe. 
They  are  very  numerous  in  Germany  and  Aus- 
Lria,  and  are  divided  into  two  classes. — a  lower, 
,  ailed  .1. /,.,•'. ,-,./-  '. .  intended  chiefly  to  give 
practical  instruction  in  agriculture,  and  a  higher, 
called      Lll„l,rirtllsr/,„flss.-ll„le.     in     which     the 


laij     M  u  nil.-,     us     I, oil;.. i.      ^  .  .. 

among  the  schools  of  a  high) 
Ho In  in,     cstal,h.-hed   in 


roppd.-l, 
Altenbur 

have  beet 
lin.  Halle 

and  Jena 


Mi 


a'.'iova'l  !'\J,"i','ultui'al  (' .'il'lege  '  at  '('hcncestei '■ 
founded  in  1849;  and  in  Scotland,  the  Uni- 
vcr.-ity  of  Edinburgh  has  a  chair  of  agriculture, 
and  special  lectures  are  given  in  a  college  at 
Aberdeen.  Ireland  has  two  agricultural  schools 
of  a  higher  grade. — one  at  Templemoyle,  founded 
in  1827;  and  the  other  at  Glasnevin,  founded 
in  ls.'is.  France  has  three  higher  agricultural 
schools  and  one  school  of  forestry.  In  Italy, 
there  arc  two  agricultural  school;  „f  a  higher 
-  ra  le.   at    Milan' and    Portici.       Russia,  beside 


riculture  and  Fore-try  at  Xev 
id  an  \  e  lemv  of  Agriculturi 
it    Petrovskoi.  "   Sec  Loebe.  Di 


a  full  statement  of  the  location,  condition,  re- 
sources, etc.,  of  all  the  agricultural  colleges  and 
departments  in  the  United  States. 


AGRICULTURAL  UOLLKHE? 


Arkansas Fayetteville . 

Alabama  .    Auburn 

California Oakland 

Connecticut New  Haven.. 

Newark 


Indiana 
Kansas  . 


Maryland 

Massachusi  tt - 


Michigan  . . 
Mississippi. 


Nebraska 
Nevada . . . 


i  hainpaigu 

Manhattan  . 
Lexington  . 


Near  Hyattsville 

[Boston 

( Amherst 

Lansing 

Minneapolis  .... 

Oxford 


Columbia. 
Lincoln  . . . 
Elko 


Ohio 

Oregon  

Pennsylvania  . 
Rhode  Island. . 


New  Brunswick. 

Ithaca  

Chapel  Hill 


Corvallis 

State  College. 


Providence. 

South  Carolina    Orangeburg 
Tennessee Kuoxville  ... 


Vermont 


Bryan 

Burlington  — 

{ Hampton 

( Blacksburgh  . 

West.  Virginia. .  Morgantown  . . . 


Virginia  . 


Wisconsin  . 


Made 


Univ.  of  Minn.,  1868.... 
Univ.  of  Mississippi    ... 

Univ.  of  Mo..  1K4U 

Igr    College,  organized 

1-711 

Agr     Toll,   ol    Ni  l,r.is]..i 
June  IsTJ  

Prep.  Department 

Dartmouth  Coll.— N.  H. 
Coll.  of  Agr.  \  Wech. 

Rutgers  College,  177n... 
Cornell  University,  1868 
Univ.  ol  North  Carolina 
Ohio   Agr.  \-  .Meih    (',.]- 


C  aflin  I  mi    rsily  .Stale  i 
I      Agr.  Coll.. A  Mich.  Ins.  | 

Ten,,.  Agr.  Coll.,  is,;'.,.. 
[Agr.   ,A    Mech.    Coll.    of] 


SAgr.j 

Mei'-.jl'.   | 


College.    1872 

Wist  Virginia  I 
Univ.  of  Wiscon 


N.P.Gates,  A.  M..  i2. . . 
Rev.     I.    F.     Tichenor 


Wm.H    I-.irn.  II.  A.M 

K.  <      \    I  ■!-.  mull,    h    |i 

Ji    in    i   Gregory,  LL.D. 
\  ^   »i      Shortridge,"  A 

No,  yet  organized.)'' 
Rev.  C.F.  Allen.  D.D..51I 

W.  II    Parker,  4'.i 

John  n    Runkle,  Ph.  D., 

II.    ii     

W.  S.  (lark.  LL.  D.,  50.. 
T.  C.  Abbot.   LL.  I) 

W.W.Folwell.  M.  A..  4:1. 
1  Rl  -  I  S  Waddl  I.  lc  II.. 
I      chancellor 

Ii    head.  1. 1..  D  .lis    ... 

S.R. Thompson  Dean,  12 
j  Ii.    I;     Sessions,    Prim 

Rev.  Asa  D.  Smith,  D.D. 

LL.  D 

(Rev.  W.  H.  Campbell 
]      D.D 

A.  H.  White.  1,1..  D.,43., 
[Not  yi  t  ■ 

Edward  Orton,  A.  II.    . 

B.  L.  Arnold.  A.  M..38.. 
Jas.  Calder.  D.  D.,  50... 

I  1;,  \ .   I     '  •    loibinsiiu.  11 

|      D.,  LL.D 

Rei    I    Ii  .  \  M  .  M.I' 

I  Rev.  T  w   Hum,  s  s    i 

I      D.,  'in  

Not  yet  organized. 

M.D.Buckham,  \.M ..  I: 

trong,  86  — 

C     I..    C.    Minor.   M.    \. 

1.1.  1'..  39 

I  Key.   .!.  II  Twombly.  D. 

I        I '  .    is  

Ph.  B. 


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$  h;.-..iiiii 

$1('..">. 

o 

$18,000 

$9,900 

$250,000 

400 

I'- 

1 

151 

0 

60 

LIS 

8 

10  cts 

$134,001 

$134,000 

o 

$13,000 

$8,001 

$180,000 

370 

- 

ll) 

1 

l".r 

75 

22 

$12,801 

0 

$12,800 

$11.0111 

$100,0110 

28." 

1 

2 

0 

35 

:,■ 

0 

116 

15  cts 

$450, 

$170,000 

0 

$23,000 

$8,501 

$250,000 

383 

5 

2 

ly, 

40 

l 

20 

L 

0 

10  cts 

$531,377 

$231,377 

f  165,154  a.  I 
,      $495,463) 

variable 

$10,196 

$231,407 

151 

8 

6 

301 

1 

60 

114 

69 

15  cts 

$256,037 

$256,037 

1   11", .17  1  &.1 
i     $945,770) 

$34,698 

$10,699 

$147,713 

114 

2 

3 

l 

0 

° 

L16 

87 

12  cts 

$54,749 

1    200. a  i 

|      $325,000) 

$63,467 

$5,471 

$2,250.  Stock 

641 

5 

21 

5 

251 

30 

L15 

0 

10—13  cts 

0 

(     90,000  a.  1 

\      $300.000 ) 

0 

293 

, 

0 

0 

21 

1 

Lll 

$397,325 

&116.000 

$6,960 

$40,000 

95 

-£- 

L17 

40 

15  cts 

$1,261,099 

-r.nl. :w 

(  400,000  a.) 

(  $2,000,000) 

$107,500 

$40,000 

Farm  .v  Stool 
$56,000 

121 

10 

6 

1 

20 

0 

60 

L 

50 

90,000  a. 

$6,600 

114 

10—18  cts 

- 

$305,267 
$50,000 

0 

$32,923 

$30,000 

$532,000 

25 17 

12 

ii 

0 

30 

° 

25 

5—10  cts 

$396,000 

?2<;v.im9 

° 

$26,500 

$22,572 

$125,000 

260 

65 

20 

L16 

14 

$122,626 

0 

$19,000 

$8,130 

$180,000 

1U 

89 

5— Sets 

$125,000 

$05,000 

o 

$40,000 

$10,329 

$209,500 

185 

is 

3 

1 

0 

1 

10 

7—18  cts 

$210,000 

$190,000 

0 

120.629 

$38,950 

11H0 

5 

0 

0 

50 

0 

30 

* 

Jo  cts 

$220,833 

(     62,403  a.) 
{        $65,503  J 

$65,781 

$16,148 

150 

6 

' 

2 

20 

,10 

80 

11 


AIIN 


AHN,  Johann  Franz,  a  German  teacher,  I 
noted  for  his  method  of  teaching  foreign  lan- 
guages, was  born  in  1796,  and  died  in  1 865.  I  [e 
gave  instruction  for  many  years  in  the  Real- 
xrhitl.'  at  Neuss.  and  published  several  manuals 
for  teaching  the  German  and  other  languages ; 
but  his  chief  work  was  his  Practiced  MeOod/or 
the  rapid  and  easy  Learning  of  the  French 
Language  ( PraktiscJier  Lehrgang  zur  schnel 
leu  und  kichten  Erlernung  der  framSsischen 
Sprache).  This  work,  between  1834  and  1875, 
passed  through  L90  editions,  He  wa  al  o  the 
author  of  several  works  in  general  literature.  His 
elementary  books  on  the  study  of  foreign  lan- 
guages have  been  translated  into  all  id  i  languagt 
of  the  civilized  world,  and  have  every  where  found 
an  immense  circulation.  The  fame  thus  ai  quired 
by  Aim's  method  of  studying  foreign  languagi  - 
has  led  to  numerous  imitations,  not  a  fem  ol 
which  are  utterly  unworthy  of  the  jusi  reputa- 
tion of  the  original  author.  The  raetho  I  of  Aim 
was.  to  a  large  extent,  founded  on  1 1 1-  -  work-  of  Pr 
Seidenst  I'eker.  and  ei  mil  lines  both  the  cnahtii  al 
and  the  synthetical  method.  The  principle  on 
which  it  is  based  is,  that  the  mole  of  learning 
a  foreign  language  should,  as  closely  as  possible, 
corresoond   to   the    manner   in  which   a   child 

AINSWORTH,  Robert,  an  English  tea.  Inl- 
and scholar  of  considerable  eminence,  was  born 
in  1660,  and  died  in  171.'!.  He  taught  private 
schools  for  some  years,  but  having  Boon  obtained 
a  competency,  he  was  enabled  to  relinquish  the 
business  of  teaching.    From  171  !  to  1  736, he  was 

engage  1  in  compiling  the  Lit  in  dietio y  which 

has  in  a  le  him  famous.  This  work  was  extensively 
use  1  iii  schools  both  in  England  and  in  the  I  baited 
States,  but  has  for  some  years  been  superseded 
by  works  of  greater  accuracy. 

ALABAMA,  one  of  the  southern  states  of 
the  American  Union,  was  originally  a  part  of 
Georgia,  except  the  south-western  portion,  which 
belonged  to  Florida.  It  was  set  off  from  ( leorgia, 
in  1798,  as  a  portion  of  the  Territory  of  Missis- 
sippi. From  1817  to  1819,  it  was  known  as  the 
Territory  of  Alabama,  in  the  latter  year,  being 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  state.  Its  area  is 
50,722  sq.  m.  ;  and  its  population,  in  1870,  was 
996,992,  of  whom  ;V21,.'!St  were  whites;  -1  7.".,:".  1 II. 
colored  persons;  and  98,  Indians. 

Educational  ffisfory.— The  first  constitution 
of  the  state  declared  that  "schools  and  the  means 
of  education  should  be  forever  encouraged,"  and 

grants  received  for  this  purpose  from  the  general 
government,  and  fie  seminary  lands  for  a  "state 
university  for  the  promotion  of  the  arts,  litera- 
ture, and  science."  Attempts  were  made,  in 
1823,and  al  va  ious  times  thereafter,  to  organize 
an  effi  n  nl  putlioschool  system:  but  little  was 
accomplished  til!  1854,  when  a  general  system 
was  established  under  which,  according  to  the 


all  the  southern  I 


ALABAMA 

of  the  New  England  states  ;  was  the  superior, 
in  the  school  room,  of  even  Massachusetts;  and 
was  almost  the  peer  of  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania."    In   185(i,  county  superintendents  were 


I  ages  of  5  and  21  years  should  be  educated  free 
of  charge  ;  and  in  accordance  with  its  provisions, 
a  new  system  was  adopted  the  Eame  year,  which 
placed  the  schools  under  the  supervision  and 
control  of  a  board  of  education,  and  gave  to 
county  superintendents  much  of  the  power  be- 


es.    In  1871 


trustees,  all  elected  by  the  people.  1  he  state 
board  of  education  was  abolished,  its  duties  be- 
ing discharged  by  the  legislature,  which,  in  the 
words  of  the  law,  "shall  designate,  in  advance, 
such  days  as  they  may  deem  best  (during  the 
session  of  the  general  assembly)  for  the  consider- 
ation of  measures  relating  to  the  educational  in- 
terests of  the  state;  on  which  days  the  state 
superintendent  shall  be  entitled  to  a  seat  in  the 
house  then  considering  educational  measures, 
and  shall  have,  and  may  exercise. all  of  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  a  member  of  such  house,  but 
have  no  vote."  In  1872,  -3,  and  -4,  various 
changes  were  made  in  the  school  law;  but  the 
new  constitution  of  the  state,  which  took  effect 
December  6.,  1875,  supersedes  all  laws  previous- 
ly passed,  and  confirms  that  portion  of  the  act 
proposed  in  1871,  which  relates  to  the  admin- 
istration of  the  schools. 

State  Superintendent*.  —  The  office  of  state 
superintendent  was  first  filled  by  General  W.  F. 
Perry,  his  title  being  Superintendent  of  Educa- 
cation.  He  was  elected  by  the  legislature  in 
Kil.  His  successor,  in  1S.">4.  was  (i.  H.  l>u  Yah 
who  died  in  office,  his  successor  beh  gJ.  H.Taylor, 
who  was  appointed  to  fill  the  vacancy  in  L865. 
John  Ryan  was  elected  to  the  office  in  1866,and 
served  till  1867,  when  the  effice  was  merged  in 

thai  of  state  comptroller,  its  duties  being  per- 
formed l.v  M.  A.  Cliisliolin.  from  November, 
1867,  to  July,  1868.  In  that  year,  the  title  of 
the  office  was  changed  to  that  of  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction,  N.  I!.  Cloud  being  the 
first  incumbent.      His   successors  were. I.  llodg 


15 


son  (1870—72);  J.  H".  .Speed  (1872—4);  and 
.1.  \i.  McKleroy  (1874  to  the  present  time).  On 
the  expiration  of  the  term  of  the  present  incum- 
bent, the  "title  of  the  office  will  again  be,  accord- 
ing to  the  new   constitution,  Superintendent  of 


■v/N/. 


snde 


all. 

a  ■!  itail  •  1  repoi 
he  con  lition  of 

du 

sare  elect  ■  1  bien 
iesare.  to  see  tl 

ele 

uentary  English 

will    make  it  torn-  yt 
■i>pk'.      Discharging  a: 

superintendent  and  s 


es  shall  be  taught,  is 
maintained  in  each  school-district — townships 
and  school-districts  being  co-extensive ;  to  visit 
the  schools  once  a  year  ;  to  pay  teachers  ;  to  hold 
teachers'  institutes  ;  and  to  take  charge  of  all 
school  moneys,  and  disburse  them  according  to 
law.  ('.mull/  directors,  two  in  number,  are 
chosen  at  the  same  time,  and  for  the  same  term, 
as  the  county  superintendent.  With  him,  they 
constitute  a  county  board  for  the  examining  and 
licensing  of  teachers  and  maintaining  a  general 
oversight  of  the  schools  and  school  property. 
Three  township  trustees  are  elected  biennially 

who  have  the   immediate  control  of   these] Is. 

subject  to  supervision  by  the  i  ounty  superintend- 
ent. In  several  of  the  cities,  special  school  laws 
are  in  force,  by  which  the  immediate  manage- 
ment of  the  schools  is  entrusted  to  city  boards  of 
commissioners,  subject  either  to  the  supervision 
of  the  county  superintendent,  or  of  city  super- 
intendents. Four  grades  of  schools  are  compre- 
hended in   tl Deration  of   the  law — primary. 

interme  li.it.'.  grammar,  and  liijh  schools.  In  the 
first,  spelling,  rea  ling,  and  theelements  of  arith- 
metic and  of  geography  are  taught;  in  the 
second,  these  studies  are  continued,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  grammar  and  writing;  in  the  third, 
etymology,  composition,  history,  and  elocution 
arcadde  I ;  and  in  the  fourth,  the  higher  branches 

conn i  to  schools  of  this  grade  are  pursued. 

The  school  fund  is  composed  of  "  the  income 
from  the  16th  section  trust  fund,  the  surplus 
revenue  fund,  until  it  is  called  for  by  the  I'nitcd 
States  government:"  the  proceeds  of  "  all  lands 
or  oth  t  property  given  by  individuals  or  ap- 
propriated by  the  state  for  educational  purposes, 
and  all  estates  of  deceased  persons  who  die  with- 
out leaving  a  will  or  heir;"  "an  annual  poll  tax, 
not  to  exceed  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents  on  each 
poll  ;"  with  such  other  moneys.  "  to  be  not  less 
than    $100,000  per  annum,  as   the   general  as- 


sembly shall  provide  by  taxation  or  otherwise." 
It  is,  also,  made  the  duty  of  the  assembly  to 
increase,  from  time  to  time,  the  public-school 
fund,  as  the  condition  of  the  treasury  and  the 
resources  of  the  state  will  admit."  In  addition 
to  this,  each  county  inav  raise,  by  annual  taxa- 
tion, an  amount   not  exceeding  in  cuts  on  each 

SI f  taxable  property.     Ninetj  six  percent 

of  the  money  raised  or  appropriated  must  be 
used  for  the  payment  of  teachers  unless  other- 
wise directed  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each 
branch  of  the  legislature.  Schools  for  whites  and 

blacks  must  be  separate.  Sectarian  or  denomina- 
tional scl Isarenol  entitled  to  any  share  of  the 

l  abli     ■! 1  money.     'I  he  school  age  is  from  7 

Educational  Condition. —  The  number  of 
school-districts  in  the  state,  in  ls7~>.  was  1,696, 
tlir  aiva  of  each  bring  six  miles  square  except  in 
the  case  of  fractional  townships  In  each  of  these 
districts,  there  must  be,  at  least,  one  school  for 
each  race,     white  and  colored.    'I  he  school  reve- 

liitncst  on  Pith  section  fund 1146,983.32 

"  the  surplus    revenue 

fund 53,526.94 

One-fifth  of  the  state  revenue  of 

the  previous  year 209,887.44 

Poll-tax  collected  hi  I    ;  ■'      :  ll, -I 

"  1875 73,555.30 

Total J564.439.66 

This  state  has  received  from  the  Peabody  fund, 
since  ISllS,  8,">'.l, rial).  The  amount  received  in 
1875  was  $4,300.     (See  Peabody  Fund.) 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 
Poll-tax  disbursed  by  superintend- 
ents   $73,555.30 

Apportioned     to     counties     and 

cities  476,332.29 

Apportioned  to  normal  schools. ..  lo.ooo.oo 
Incidental  expenses 2,550.(10 

Total $562,437.59 

The  other  principal  items  of  scJiool  statistics 
are  the  following  : 

No.  of  children  of  school  age :   white,     233,733 
colored,  172,537 

Total 406,270 

No.  of  children  enrolled:  white,        91, 202 

colored,    54,595 

Total 145,797 

Average  attendance:  white,      67,024 

colored,  43,229 

Total 110,253 

No.  of  teachers:  white,   male,         1,669 

"       female,      1,006 

colored,  male,         1.002 

female,  284 

Total 3,961 

Average  monthly  salary,  white  teachers :?'jc...ii> 

"  "  "     colored        "         827.87 

Normal  Instruction.  —  Three  state  normal 
schools  are  in  existence,  the  expenditure  for 
which,  during  the  year  1S7.">.  was  Slniiiin.  The 
first,  at  Florence,  organized  in  1*7:1,  is  designed 
for  the  education  of  white  teachers  of  both  sexes. 


16  ALAE 

It  has  a  library  and  apparatus  valued  at  88,000, 
besides   the  building-,    which   are  estimated   at 

$30, I;  and.  in  L875,  reported   1  teachers  and 

126  pupils.  The  State  Normal  School  and  Uni- 
versity, at  Marion,  and  the  Normal  School,  at 
Huntsville,  are  neither  of  them  so  extensive  as 
that  at  Florence.  They  are  intended  for  the 
education  of  colored  teachers.  The  former,  in 
1875,  had  3  teachers  and  70  pupils ;  the  latter. 
and  84  pupils.  This  institution  is 
designe  I  to  b  com.'  a  university  for  the  colored 
population  of  the  state.  Besides  these  state  nor- 
mal institutions,  there  are  four  schools  of  the 
same  gra  le  under  the  control  of  the  American 
Missionary  Association,  and  one  conducted  by 
the  Methodists  having  an  aggregate,  in  tin' state, 
of  659  pupils  en  It  n  irm  J  instruction. 

T  ..  '.  rs     instil  i    i    v.  ire    held,   during  the 
year  We.  in  six  counties,  an  1  their  organization 


iting  to  more  than  $100,000.  Students 
mired  to  pursue  a  three  years'  elementary 
.  after  which  they  are  permitted  to  choose 
s — that  of  scientific  agriculture. 


istry  of  farm  processes,  the  methods  of  improving 

toil.-,  etc.  These  arc  accompanied  by  lesions  in 
practical  agriculture  throughout  the  course.  Mili- 
tary training  is  given,  but  only  to  the  extent  of 
improving  the  health  and  bearing  of  the  stu- 
i    ,,;     i  cholarships,  two  in  number,  are  pro- 

vided for  each  county  in  the  state.  The  course 
of  study  covers  four  years.  '1  he  number  of  in- 
structors in  all  the  departments,  in  1875,  was  7; 
the  number  of  students,  50,  in  the  regular  course, 
and  5  in  the  snceial.  Law  is  taueht  in  departments 


the  people  at  the  places  of  meeting,  leads  to  the 

belief  that  their  permanent  establishment  is  only 
a  question  of  time. 

Se  :ondary  Instruction. — There  are  218  pub- 
lic high  schools  in  operation  in  the  stale.  3  of 
which  are  for  c  A  a  i  1,  the  remainder,  for  white 
pupils.   The  course  of  study  prescribed  for  these 

institutions  has a  already  stated.  A  number, if 

high  schools  and  academies  are  scattered  through 
the  state,  which  occupy  a  position  intermedial  ■ 
between  the  primary  schools  and  colli  ge  La  s 
rate  stat  i  itics  in  regard  to  hi  tn  at  however,  dif- 
ficult to  procure.  In  Talladega  ( 'olleee.  the  wor.c 
has  thu     far  b      i       tirdv  p,     ...i       ay.  the  colle- 

classes  i,.,i    having  b    n  for I.    In  L875, 

otal  of  247  students  in 
all  the  departments.  It  is  conducted  by  the 
American  Missionary  Association  for  the  beticiit 
of  the  colored  people. 

Superior  Instruction.— There  are  several  in- 
stitutions of  this  grade  in  the  state,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  enumerated  in  the  fol- 
low in  r  li  1  : 


'  -11    ;: 


Marion 

.  treeusboro 

S  n   .i   bile 


1813 

1836  M.  Epi9.S. 

1838  B.C. 

1820  Non-sect. 


Univ.  of  Alabama. 

To  the  above  list,  nuisi  be  added  9  institutions 
which  afford  opportunities  for  the  higher  edu- 
cation of  women.  In  addition  to  the  studies 
usually  pursued  in  such  institutions  special  at- 
tention is  given  to  the  ornamental  branch  - 
The  number  of  instructors  in  these  institutions, 

Professional'  and  Scientific  Instruction.  - 
The  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of  Ala- 
bama was  established  al  Auburn  by  an  act  of  the 
legislature,  its  endowment  being  the  proceeds  of 
the  land  grant  made  by  Congress  for  the  benefit 
of  agriculture  and    the    mechanic    arts.    The 

amount  thus  derived  was  $2]  8,000,  to  which  was 
added  all  the  property  of   East  Alabama  I  lollege, 


to  some  extent,  in  Howard  College;  medicine, 
in  the  Southern  University,  and  in  the  Medical 
College  of  Alabama,  at  Mobile.  This  last  in- 
stitution provides  a  two  years' course  of  study, 
and,  in  1875,  had  9  n  structors  and  50  students. 
S/„;-i  ,'  l,,striirtinn.-  '1  he  Alabama  Institution 
lor  the  Deaf,   Dumb,  and  I  lind  was  founded  in 


]  ui-Mied  are  mathematics  and  the  ordinary  hn- 
i  li.-h  branches.  Instruction  is  also  given  in  agri- 
i  ultnre  and  gardening.  In  1S75.  there  were 
4  instructors  and  52  pupils.  In  the  department 
for  the  blind  there  were,  in  the  same  year,  2  in- 
structors and  10  pupils. 

ALABAMA,  University  of,  at  Tuscaloosa, 
was  chartered  in  1820,  but  not  organized  till 
liS31.  At  the  commencement  of  the  civil  war 
it  was  in  a  prosperous  condition,  but  was  burned 
by  a  federal  force  during  the  war.  It  was  rebuilt 
ii'i  L868,  and  is  now  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
The  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  apparatus, 
etc..  is  estimated  at  Sl.O.IIIIO:  and  it  has  an  en- 
dowment of  t?:!(,0.0i;0.  Its  library  contains  5.0110 
volumes.  In  1874,  the  number  of  instructors 
was  9,  and  of  collegiate  students  7(1.  'the  aca- 
demic department  en  i  braces  eight  courses  of  St  Uily, 
open  to  the  selection  of  the  students:  (1)  Latin 
language  and  literature;  (2)  Creek  language  and 
literature;  (31   English  language  and  literature; 


sional  education  embraces  a  school  of  law,  and 
a  school  of  civil  engineering.  All  the  students, 
except  those  specially  inlirm.  arc  subjected  to 
military  diill.  A  special  military  school  affords  in- 
struction in  military  science  and  art.  in  military 
law,  and  in  elementary  tactics.  The  president  of 
the  institution  is  Carlos  O.  Schmidt,  LI.,  lb, 
elected  in  1874. 


ALBION"  COLLEGE 

ALBION  COLLEGE,  at  Albion, Mich.,  was 
chartered  as  a  college  in  1861,  by  members  of 
the   Methodist    Episcopal  Church.     The  number 

of  students  is  about  200,  males  and  females.  It 
lias  a  preparatory,  elassieal.  and  scientific  coins.- 
of  instruction.  Its  endowment  fund  is  $200,000. 
Its  library  contains  about  12UIKI  volumes.  Rev. 
6.   B.  Jocelyn,  D.  D.,  is  the  president  of  the 

ALCOTT,  Amos  Bronson,  an  American 
elucator,  was  born  in  1799.  Be  first  gained 
distinction   by   teaching   an   infant    school,    for 

which  ctnplovin  nt  he  evinee  1  a  singular  aptitude 
and  tact.  He  remove  1  to  Boston  in  1828,  v.h  i  i 
he  manifested  the  same  skill  in  teaching  young 
children,  at  the  Masonic  Temple.  His  metho  Is 
however,  were  in  advance  of  public  •>]iini<>.i.  and 
were  disapproved.  On  the  invitation  of  .lames 
P.  Greaves,  of  London,  the  co-laborer  of  Pesta- 
loz/.i  in  Switzerland,  in  educational  reform.  Mr. 
Al.-..rr.  in  L842,wen1  to  England;  but  the  death 
,,i  \l,.i,i  aves,  which  occurred  before  his  arrival, 


ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL 


17 


English  friends  to  establish  a  new  community 
at  Harvard.  Mass.;  but  the  enterprise  was  soon 
abandoned.  Mr.  Alcott  has  since  written  several 
w..rks,  one  of  which,  Concord  Days,  was  pub- 
lished in  1872.  See  E.  P.  PBABony,  Record  of 
School  (Boston,  L834),  and  Conversation  onthe 
.V,«oe/x(li„ston.  m:sih. 

ALCOTT,  William  Alexander,  M.  D., 
cousin  of  the  preceding,  noted  for  his  zeal  and 
>u.v  ■"  as  a  coinini  Hi-school  teacher,  and  his  lite- 
long  efforts  in  behalf  of  popular  education,  was 
born  in  Wolcott,  Ct.,  in  1798,  and  died  at 
Auburndale,  Mass.  in  1859.  He  had  only  an 
elementary  edu  ation  ;  and,  f  >r  ever  J  years,  he 
taught  in 'the  district  schools  of  his  native  State, 
distinguished  for  his  reinaikaM  •  earnest',  -  an  1 
the  many  reforms  which  he  labored  lo  in.io  in  o 
into  the  imperfect  school  management  a. id  in- 
struction of  his  time.  He  afterwards  studied 
medicine;  but  his  chief  labors  wet  d  vo  ed  to 
Mi  i  i-i  i  i  of  education, co-operating  with  Gallau- 
det,  Woodbridge  and  oth  ts  in  the  end  avor  to 
bring  about  m  ich-n  led  t  ■:  irms  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  State  Subseqn  tly.hei  i  I 
himself  with  Wilhan,  ( '.  Woodbri  Ige,  and  as- 
sisted him  in  the  compilation  of  hi-  school  j  i-- 
rapines,  and  also  in  editing  tli  •  .1  .    e  k, 

rials  of  Education,  lie  also  edited  several  juve- 
nile periodicals.  His  newspaper  contributions 
were  very  numerous,  and  quite  effective  on  ac- 
count of  their  race  and  pirited  style.  An 
article  which  he  publi  '<  I  o  ,  th,  '  '■■.istnictiint  of 
School-Houses  gained  him  a  premium  from  the 
American  Institute  of  Instruction.  His  labors 
as  a  lecturer  on  hygiene,  practical  teaching,  and 
kindred  subjects  were  severe  and  unintermitting. 
He  is  said  to  have  visited  more  than  20,000 
schools,  in  many  of  which  he  delivered  lectures 

His  writings  are  very  numerous;  end  son I 

them  were  widely  popular.  The  most  noted  are : 
Confessions  of  a  Schoolmaster,  The  House  I 
Live  in,  The  Young  Man's  Guide,  The  Young 


Woman's  Guide,  The  Young  Housekeeper,  etc., 
etc.  ]>r.  Alcott  was  a  genuine  philanthropist, 
though  extreme  and  somewhat  eccentric  in  many 
of  his  views.  As  one  of  the  pioneers  in  the 
cause  of  common-school  education  and  reform  in 
practical  teaching,  his  labors  were  of  incalculable 
value. 

ALCUIN  (Lat.  Fhicas  Albums  ,1A-«,W,-), 
a  distinguished  English  scholar,  ecclesiastic,  and 
reviver  of  learning,  was  bom  in  Yorkshire 
about  To.'!,  and  died  in  Mil.  He  was  educated 
at  York  under  the  direction  of  Archbishop 
Egbert,  and  was  subsequently  dire,  tor  of  the 
seminary  in  that  city.  Keturnin^  from  Koine. 
whither  he  had  gone  by  direction  of  the  English 
king,  he  met  the  emperor  Charlemagne  at 
Parma,  and  was  induced  by  that  monarch  to 
take  up  his  residence  at  the  French  court,  and 
bee, nne  the  1-.  v. 1 1  preceptor.  Accordingly,  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  he  gave   instruction,  for  some 


could  boast  in  that  and  the  following  ages.      I  he 

universities  of   Paris,  Tours,  Sois s,  and  many 

others  were  either  founded  by  him  ot  greatly 
benefited  by  his  zeal  in  their  behalf,  and  the 
favor  which  he  procured  for  them  from  <  harle- 
niagne.  In  796,  he  was  appointed  abbot  of  St, 
Martin's  at  Tours,  where  he  opened  a  school  which 
acquired  greai  celebrity.  Here  he  continued 
teaching  tie  hi  death.  Alcuin  was  probably 
th  ■  in.  e  ;  i  a  d  man  a  d  Ihe  mosl  dli  strious 
te:u  h  r  of  Ins  agi  ;  an  i  his  lal  ors  wi  re  very  im- 
portant in  giving  an  impetus  to  the  revival  of 
learning,  after  the  into  le  ual  n  hi  of  the  DariJ 
Ages.  He  left  many  epistles,  poems,  and  treat- 
ises upon  theological  and  historical  .-id  j  s,  all 
written  in  Latin,  and  no.ed  for  'le  .  '.  .  ,  .  end 
purity  of  their  style.  The  Lif  ofAlcu  Leben 
Akuiris)  by  Prof.  Lorenz,  of  Halle  1829  has 
been  translated  into  English  (ls.':T  bv  Suit.  -  Sec 
Mb,r„,c,;,e  Deutsche  Jii.Himphic  ait.  Mai,,. 

ALEXANDRIAN  uCHOOL,  a  name  vari- 
ously applied,  but  chiefly  designating  (I  I  a  school 
of  philosophers  at  Alexandria  in  Egypt,  which 
is  chiefly  noted  foi  the  development  of  Neoplato- 
nism,  and  its  efforts  to  harmonize  oriental  theol- 
ogy with  Greek  dialectics;  (2)  a  e  hool  of 
Christian  theologians  in  the  same  Oty.  which 
aimed  at  harmonizing  Pagan  philosophy  with 
Christian  theology.  The  city  of  Alexandria  be- 
came, soon  after' the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  by  whom  it  had  been  founded,  a  chief 
seat  of  science  and  li.  irature.  The  time  during 
which  the  tea  hers  and  sidiools  of  Alexandria 
enjoyed  a  world-wide  reputation,  is  called  the 
Alexandrian  Age,&nA  is  divid  ■!  into  two  pe- 
riods, the  former  embracing  the  time  of  the 
Ptolemies,  and  extending  from  323  to  30  B.  ('., 

1  the  second  embracing  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
-    g    from    30    B.  C  to    640    A.  D. 
poetry,  mathematics,  and  th 
sciences    were   all    taught    in   the    Alexandrian 
School ;  and  among  the  most  illustrious  teachers 


18  ALFRED  THE  GREAT 

were  Amnionius,  Plotinus.  Hierocles,  Proclus, 
Apollonius  (poet),  Galen  (physician),  Euclid 
(mathematician), Eratosthenes  (astronomer),  Ptol- 
emy (geographer).    When  Christianity  began  to 

gain  a  firm  footing,  it  was  found  necessary  to  de- 
vote to  the  instruction  of  the  catechumens  special 
care,  in  order  to  fortify  them  against  the  attacks 
upon  Christianity  by  the  pagan  philosophers.  The 
catechists  not  only  gave  to  the  candidates  for 
admission  into  the  Christian  Church  element 
ary  instruction,  but  also  delivered  learned  lectures 
on  Christianity,  and  combined  with  it  instruction 
in  philosophy.  Tin  audi,  from  its  original  character, 
the  school  continued  to  be  called  the  catechetical 
school  of  Alexandria,  it  was  in  its  subsequent 
development  something  very  different  from  a 
catechetical  school,  and  may  rather  be  regarded 
as  the  first  theological  faculty,  or  school  of  scien- 
tific theology,  in  the  Christian  Church.  In  op- 
position to  the  pagan  philosophers,  the  teachers 
of  the  Christian  schools  chiefly  undertook  to 
show  that  Christianity  is  the  only  true  philos- 
ophy, and  alone  can  lead  to  the  true  gnosis,  or 
knowledge.  As  the  first  teacher  of  the  Christian 
theological  school,  Pantaenus  (about  180)  is  men- 
tioned, who  was  followed  by  Clement.  Origen, 
Heraclas,  I  >ionysius,  Pierius,  Theognostes,  Sera- 
pion,  Peter  Martyr.  The  last  famous  teacher  of 
the  school  was  Didymus  the  Blind  (335  to  395), 
who, being  Mind  from  boyhood, had  learned  read- 
ing, writing,  geometry,  etc.,  by  means  of  brass 
letters  and  figures,  and  was  equally  distinguished 
for  his  piety  and  extent  of  knowledge.  The  method 
of  teaching  used  in  this,  as  well  as  in  the  other 
schools  of  that  age,  was  the  Pythagorean.  The 
teacher  explained,  and  the  pupil  listened  in 
silence, though  he  was  permitted  to  ask  questions. 
Every  teacher  taught  in  his  own  house,  there  be- 
ing no  public  school  buildings.  The  teachers  did 
not  receive  a  fixed  salary,  but  the  pupils  made 
them  presents.  Origen  is  reported  to  have  de- 
clined all  presents.  He  supported  himself  on  a 
daily  stipend  of  four  oboli,  which  he  received  for 
copying  the  manuscripts  of  ancient  classics. — See 
M.utki:.  Histoire  de  liimlf  d'Alexandrie  (2  vols., 
2d  ed..  Paris.  184(1— 1S44);  Bakthei.emy  St.- 
Hilaire,  J)e  ler,,/,-  d1  A/r.r, ,,„ trie  (Paris,  L845); 
Simon,  Histoire  de  VecoleaAlexa  He  (2  vols.. 
Paris,  1844—18 
tique  de  I' 


U'esl 


\    \( 

.  Par 

CE,   / 

'  Srln 
lalle, 

a  qum 
1824); 

e  rloni 

*•  i 

Mr  j 

!Z 

.■a, 

.-/,„  /,/, 


floruit  cote 
!)•■  sehola  ■ 
(Stettin.  L8 
lichen  Philosophie,  vol.  i,p.  419 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT,  k 
Saxons  and  virtually  ruler  of  all  England,  holds 
the  same  prominent  position  in  the  history  of 
education  in  England,  which  Charlemagne  occu- 
pies in  France  and  Germany.  He  was  born  in 
849, succeeded  his  brother  Ethelred  as  king  of  the 
West  Saxons  in  871,  and  died  in  901.  After 
having  thoroughly  humbled  the  Danish  invaders 
and  secured  the  independence  of  England,  he 
gave  his  whole  attention  to  internal  reforms,  and 
specially  to  the   promotion   of    education.     Al- 


ALGEBRA 

though  he  is  said  to  have  been  twelve  years  of 
age,  before  he  was  taught  the  alphabet,  and 
although  his  health  was  always  feeble,  he  showed 
a  thirst  for  knowledge  which  is  almost  without 
parallel  in  the  history  of  European  princes. 
He  gave  eight  hours  every  day  to  religious- 
exercises  and  to  study.  He  translated  nu- 
|  merous  works  from  Latin  into  Saxon,  as  Bede's 
,  History  of  England,  Boethius'  De  Consola- 
tione  Pkilosophiae,  and  the  Liber  Pastoralis 
Curat'  of  Gregory  the  Great.  He  invited  dis- 
tinguished scholars  to  his  court  from  all  coun- 
tries, among  whom  Wernfried,  Plegmund,  and 
Athelstan  of  Mercia,  Grimbald  of  France,  the 
Irishman  John  Scotus  Erigena,  and  the  monk 
Asser  of  Wales  are  the  most  famous.  A  large 
number  of  schools  were  founded  and  suitably 
organized.  The  convents  became,  more  generally 
than  had  been  the  case  before,  nurseries  of 
science.  All  the  public  officers  were  required  to 
learn  to  read  and  write;  and  Alfred  declared 
that  the  children  of  every  freeman  without  ex- 
ception should  be  able  to  read  and  write,  and 
should  be  instructed  in  the  Latin  language.  A 
j  complete  list  of  his  works  is  given  in  the  h'm'i/- 
\chpcedia  Britannica,  art.  Alfred.  —  See  Stoi^ 
bebo,  Leben  Alfred  desGrossen,  (Minister,  1815); 
Weiss,  Geschichte  Alfred  des  Grossen  (Schafi- 
hausen,  1852);  Fbbeman,  Old  English  Ms/on, 
and  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest. 

ALFRED  UNIVERSITY,   at   Alfred,  X. 
Y.,  was  founded  in   1857,  by  the  Seventh  Day 
Baptists.     The  number  of  students  in  the  pre- 
paratory department   (in   1874)   was  293,  males 
!  and  females,  and  in  the   collegiate   department 
114.  of  whom  42  were  females.     It  has  a  clas- 
|  sical  and  a  collegiate  course  of  instruction.     Its 
endowment  is  $70,000;  the  number  of  volumes 
!  in  its  library  is  about  3500.     Rev.  J.  Allen  is 
the  president.     Its  tuition  fee  is  small. 

ALGEBRA  (Arab,  aijabr,  reduction  of 
'  parts  to  a  whole).  For  a  general  consideration  of 
|  the  purposes  for  which  this  study  should  be  pur- 
j  sued,  and  its  proper  place  and  relative  proportion 
of  time  in  the  curriculum,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  article  Mathematics.  It  is  the  purpose  of 
this  article  to  indicate  some  of  the  principles  to 
be  kept  in  view,  and  the  methods  to  be  pursued 
in  teaching  algebra. 

Tin-  l.itiTut  Xiilittiiui. — While  this  notation 
is  not  peculiar  to  algebra,  but  is  the  char- 
acteristic language  of  mathematics,  the  student 
usually  encounters  it  for  the  first  time  when 
i  he  enters  upon  this  study.  Xo  satisfactory 
progress  can  be  made  in  any  of  the  higher 
branches  of  mathematics,  as  Ceneral  Geometry, 
Calculus,    Mechanics,  Astronomy,  etc..  without 

a  g 1  knowledge  of  the  literal  notation.     By 

far  the  larger  part  of  the  difficulty  which  the 
ordinary  student  finds  in  his  study  of  algebra 
proper  —  the  science  of  the  equation  —  and 
in  his  more  advanced  study  of  mathematics, 
grows  out  of  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  the 
notation.  These  are  facts  well  known  to  all  ex- 
perienced teachers.  Nevertheless,  it  is  no  unfre- 
quent  thing  to  hear  a  teacher  say  of  a  pupil : 


"  He  is  quite  good  in  algebra,  but  cannot  get 
along  very  well  with  literal  examples!"  Nothing 
could  be  more  absurd.  It  comes  from  mistaking 
the  importance  and  fundamental  character  of 
this  notation.  It  isof  the  first  importance  that, 
at  the  outset,  a  clear  conception  be  gained  of 
the  nature  of  this  notation,  and  that,  in  all  the 
course,  no  method  nor  language  be  used  which 
will  do  violence  to  these  principles.  Thus,  that  the 
letters  a.  b, x, y.  etc., as  used  in  mathematics,  rep- 
resent pure  number,  or  quantity,  is  to  be  amply 
illustrated  in  the  tirst  lessons,  and  care  is  to  be 
taken  that  no  vicious  conception  insinuate  itself. 
To  say  that,  as  5  apples  and  6  apples  make  1 1 
apples,  so  5a  and  f„,  make  lla,  is  to  teach 
error.  If  this  comparison  teaches  anything,  it 
is  that  the  letter  a  in  5a,  6a,  and  Lla,  simply 
gives  to  the  numbers  5,  (>.  and  1L  a  concrete 
significance,  as  does  the  word  apples  in  the 
tirst  instance ;  but  this  is  erroneous.  The  true 
conception  of  the  use  of  u.  to  represent  a  num- 
ber, may  be  given  in  this  way  :  As  5  times  7 
and  6  times  7  make  1  1  times  7.  so  .">  times  any 
number  and  6  times  the  same  number  make  11 
times  that  number.  Now.  let  a  represent  any 
number  whatever  ;  then  5  times  a  and  (i  times  a 
make  11  times  <t.     The  two  thoughts  to  be  im- 


as  to  tne  vaiue  oi  tne  divisor  mat  is 
i  it  is  a  question  as  to  the  degree.  He 
we  wish  to  affirm  is  that    'la.r' — 2b- 


19 


as  to  the  value  of  the  divisor  that  is  involved; 
what 
-2bxy  is  the 
highest  common  </iris<»-  of  these  polynomials. 
with  respect  to  x. 

In  oriier  that  the  pupil  may  get  an  adequate 
conception  of  the  nature  of  the  literal  notation, 
it  is  well  to  keep  prominently  before  his  mind 
the  fact  that  the  fundamental  operations  of  ad- 
dition, subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division, 
whether  of  integers  or  fractions,  the  various  trans- 
formations and  reductions  of  fractions,  as  well  as 
involution  and  evolution,  are  exactly  the  same  as 
the  corresponding  ones  with  whi.-h'he  is  already 


represents  some  liuiu- 
ial  what  number  it  is, 
same  number  in  all 


preset  are.  that  tl 
ber.and  that  it  is 
so  long  as  it  repres 
cases  in  the  same  problem.  Again,  the  genius 
of  the  literal  notation  requires  that  no  concep- 
tion be  taken  of  a  letter  as  a  representative  of 
number,  which  is  not  equally  applicable  to  frac- 
tional and  integral  numbers.  Thus  we  may  not 
say  that  a  fraction  which  has  a  numerator  n  and  a 
denominator  b.  represents  a  of  the  6  equal  parts  of 
a  quantity,  or  number,  as  we  affirm  that  |  repre- 
sents 3  of  the  4  equal  parts :  for  this  conception 
of  a  fraction  requires  that  the  denominator  be 
integral ;  otherwise,  if  b  represent  a  mixed  num- 
ber, as  4<j,  we  have  the  absurdity  of  attempting 
to  conceive  a  quantity  as  divided  into  4|  equal 
parts.  The  only  conception  of  a  fraction,  suf- 
ficiently broad  to  comport  with  the  nature  of  the 
literal  notation,  is  that  it  is  an  indicated  oper- 
ation in  division  :  and  all  operations  in  fractions 
should  be  demonstrated  from  this  definition. 

So  also  to  read  a:"1,  "a;  to  the  mth  power.'' when 
m  is  not  necessarily  an  integer,  is  to  violate  this 
fundamental  characteristic  i  if  the  notation.  In  like 
maimer,  to  use  the  expressions  greatest  common 
divisiir.  and  l?n.<t  rmiimoii  inu/ti/iU:  when  literal 
quantities  are  under  consideration,  is  an  absurd- 
ity, and  moreover  fails  to  give   any  indication  of 


the  idea  which  shouli 
we  cannot  affirm  tha 
common  divisor  of 
—  2b<.ry-  and  4a  b 
since  ax — by  is  a  divi 
whether  2ax*— 2bxy 


cxalll].: 


rof  these  polynomials. and 
i  greater  or  less  than  ax — 
by  cannot  be  affirmed  unless  the  relative  values 
of  the  letters  are  known.  To  illustrate.  2ax2 
— 2bxy=2x  [ax— by).  Now  suppose  <7=500, 
4=10,  y=2,  and  x=-!1^;  then  ax — by=30,  and 
2ax! — 2bxy=6.     Moreover,  it  is  not  a  question 


familiar  in  arithmetic,  except  as  thev  are  modi- 
fied by  the  difference  between  the  literal  and  the 
Arabic  notations.  Thus,  the  pupil  will  be  led 
to  observe  that  the  ordersoi  the  Arabic  notation 
are  analogous  to  the  terms  of  a  polynomial  in  the 
Literal  notation,  and  that  the  process  of  "carrying" 
in  the  Arabic  addition,  etc.,  has  no  analogue  in 
the  literal.. simply  because  there  is  no  established 
relation  between  the  terms  in  the  latter.  Again. 
he  will  see  that,  in  both  cases,  addition  is  the 
process  of  combining  several  quantities,  so  that 
the  result  shall  express  the  aggregate  value  in 
the  fewest  terms  consistent  with  the  nutation. 
This  being  the  conception  of  addition,  he  will  see 
thai  for  the  same  reason  that  we  say, in  the  Ara- 
bic Dotation,  that  the  sum  of  8  and  7  is  5  and  10 
(tif-teciii.  instead  of  8  and  7,  we  say,  in  the 
literal  notation,  that  the  sum  of  oax  and  6ax  is 
lleue.  In  fact.it  is  quite  conceivable  that  the 
pupil,  who  understands  the  common  or  Arabic 
arithmetic,  can  master  the  literal  arithmetic  for 
himself,  after  he  has  fairly  learned  the  laws  of 
the  new  notation. 

Positivt  and  Negative. —  Although  the  signs  -j- 
and  — .  even  as  indicating  the  affections  positive 
and  negative,  are  not  confined  to  the  literal  nota- 
tion, the  pupil  tirst  comes  to  their  regular  use 
in  this  connection,  and  finds  this  new  element 
of  the  notation  one  of  his  most  vexatious 
stumbling-blocks.  Thus,  that  the  sum  of  5ay 
and — 2ay  should  be  Zay,  and  their  difference 
lay,  and  that  "minus  multiplied  by  minus 
should  give  plus,"  as  we  are  wont  to  say.  often 
seems  absurd  to  the  learner.  Yet  even  here  he 
may  be  taught  to  find  analogies  in  the  teach- 
ings of  the  common  arithmetic,  which  will  at 
least  partially  remove  the  difficulty.  When  he 
comes  to  understand,  that  attributing  to  numbers 
the  affection  positive  or  negative  gives  to  them 
a  sort  of  concrete  significance,  and  allies  them 
in  some  son  t,,  denominate  numbers,  he  may 
at  least  see.  that  bay  and  2ay  do  not  neces- 
sarily make  lay  :  for.  if  one  were  feet  and  the 
other  yards,  the  sum  would  not  be  lay  of  either. 
If,  then,  he  conies  to  understand  that  the  funda- 
mental idea  of  this  notation  is,  that  the  terms 
positive  and  negative  indicate  simply  such  opposi- 
tion in  kind,  in  the  numbers  to  which  they  are 

applied,  as  makes  one  tend  to  destroy  oi unter- 

balance  the  other,  he  is  prepared  to  see  that  the 
sum  of  5a.(/and — 2a y  is  'Any  ;  since,  when  put 
together,  the  — 2ay,  by  its  opposition  of  nature. 


■-•II 


destroys  2ay  of  the  5ay,  The  ordinary  illustra- 
tions in  which  forces  acting  in  opposite  directions, 
motion  in  opposite  directions,  amounts  of  proper- 
ty and  of  debts,  etc.,  are  characterized  as  positive 
and  negative, are  helpful,  n  ma  le  to  set  in  clearer 
light  the  fact,  thai  this  distinction  is  simply  in 
regard  to  the  way  in  which  the  numbers  are  ap- 
plied, and  not  really  in  regard  to  the  numbers 
themselves. 

So,  also,  in  multiplication,  the  tliree  principles, 

(1)  that  the    product   is  like  the  multiplicand: 

(2)  that  a  multiplier  must  be  conceive  1  as  essen- 
tially abstract  when  the  operation  is  performed  ; 
and  (3)  that  the  sign  of  the  multiplier  shows 
what  is  to  be  done  with  the  product  when 
obtained,  remove  all  the  difficulty,  and  nuke  it 
seem  no  more  absurd  that  "min  is  multiplied  by 
minus  gives  plus,"  than  that  "plus  multiplied  by 
plus  gives  plus":  in  fact,  exactly  the  same  course 
of  argument  is  required  to  establish  the  one  con- 
clusion as  to  establish  the  other.  When  we  ana- 
lyze the  operation  which  we  call  multiplying 
4-  a  by  +  b,  we  say  "  +  a  taken  6  times  gives 
-f-  ab.  Now  the  sign  -f  before  the  multiplier 
indicates  that  the  product  is  to  be  taken  ad- 
ditively.  that  is,  united  to  other  quantities  by  its 
own  sign."  So  when  we  multiply — a  by — b, 
we  say  "  —  a  multiplied  by  6  (a  mere  number) 
gives  — ab  (a  product  like  the  multiplicand). 
But  the  —  sign  before  the  multiplier  indicates 
that  this  product  is  to  be  taken  subtractively. 
i.  e.  united  with  other  quantities  by  asign  op- 
posite to  its  own."  This,  however,  is  not  the  pl.r-e 
to  develop  the  theory  of  positive  and  negative 
quantities;  our  only  purpose  here  is  to  show 
that  the  whole  grows  out  of  a  kind  of  concrete 
or  denominate  significance  which  is  thus  put 
upon  the  numbers,  an  1  which  hears  some  analogy 
to  familiar  principles  of  n> n  arithmetic. 

Exponents.  —One  other  feature  of  the  mathe- 
matical notation  comes  into  prominence  now  for 
the  first  time,  ami  needs  to  be  clearly  compre- 
hended:  it  is  the  theory  of  exponents.  Here, 
as  well  as  elsewhere,  it  is  important  to  guard 
against  false  impressions  at  the  start.  The  idea 
thai  an  exponent   indicates  a   power  is  often  so 

afterwards  rids  himself  of  the  impression.  To 
avoid  this,  it  is  well  to  have  the  pupil  learn  at 
the  outset   that  not  all  exponents  indicate  the 

same  thing;  thus,  while  - e  indicate  powers, 

"'ln'i-  indicate  roots,  ml,   i-  r -  of  powers,  and 

'ill  i  irs  still  the  reciprocals  of  the  latter.  Too  much 
pains  can  scarcely  lie  taken  to  strip  this  matter 
of  all  obscurity,  and  allow  no  fog  to  gather 
around  it.  Nothing  in  algebra  gives  the  young 
learner  so  much  difficulty  as  radicals,  and  all  be- 
cause he  is  not  thoroughly  taught  the  notation. 
Perhaps, but  few,  even  of  those  who  have  at- 
tained considerable  proficiency  in  mathematics, 
have  really  set  clearly  before  their  own  minds  the 

fact  that     usedasanexp. u1  is  not  a  fraction  in 

the  same  sense  as  in  its  or.linarv  use,  and  hence 
that  the  demonstration  that  \  '  \  as  eiVeu  con- 
cerning common  fractions,  by  no  means  proves 
that   the   exponent    \    equals   the   exponent    ;. 


Other  principles  hearing  on  this  important  sub- 
ject will  he  i levelo] ied  under  the  following  head. 
Methods  of  !>■  monstration. — It  requires  no 
argument  to  convince  any  one  that,  in  establish- 
ing the  working  features,  if  we  may  so  speak,  of 
ascieuce.it  is  important  that  they' he  exhibited 
as  direct  outgrowths  of  fundamental  notions. 
Thus,  in  giving  a  child  his  first  conception  of  a 
common  fraction,  no  intelligent  teacher  would 
use  the  conception  of  a  fraction  a-  an  indicated 


roots  of  two  numbers  is  ■  qual  to  the  square  runt 
of  their  product,  may  be  demonstrated  thus:  Let 
^/<<X  </b=p,  whence  ab    /■  ;  and,  extracting  the 

square  root  of  each  member  we  have  x  ,,/,  p. 
Hence  \/«  x  \  6  =  \  ah.  Now,  this  is  concise 
and  mathematical!}  elegant;  but  it  gives  the 
pupil  no  insight  whatever  into  "the  reason  why." 
What  is  needed  here  is,  that  the  pupil  be  en- 
abled to  see  that  this  proposition  grows  out  of 
the  nature  of  a  square  root  as  one  of  the  two 
equal  factors  of  a  number  ;  i.  e.,  he  needs  to  see 
its  connection  with  fundamental  conceptions. 
Thus  s  'nil  means  that  the  product  i/li  is  to  be  re- 
solved into  two  equal  factors,  and  that  one  of  them 
is  to  be  taken.  Now.  if  we  res.  live  <i  into  two  equal 
factors,  as  \/a  and  ,/a,  and  b  into  two  equal 
factors,  as  x  b  and  v  6,  ab  will  be  resolved  into 
four  factors  which  can  be  arranged  in  two  equal 
groups,  thus  N  av  6  v  av  6.  Hence  x  av  b  is 
the  square  root  of  ub  because  it  is  one  of  the  two 
equal  factors  into  which  ab  can  be  conceived  to 
be  resolved.  In  this  manner,  all  operations  in 
radicals  may  be  seen  to  be  based  upon  the  most 
elementary  principles  of  factoring.  Again,  as 
another  illustration  of  this  vicious  use  of  the 
equation  in  demonstrating  elementary  theorems, 
let  us  consider  the  common  theorems  concerning 
the  transformations  of  a  proportion.  As  usually 
demonstrated,  by  transforming  the  proportion 
into  an  equation,  and  rice  rerun,  the  real 
reason  why  the  proposed  transformation  does 
not  vitiate  the  proportion,  is  not  brought  to 
light  at  all.  For  example,  suppose  we  are  to 
prove  that,  If  four  quantities  are  in  propor- 
tion, they  are  in  proportion  by  composition, 
i  e  .  ii  a  :  b  :  :  c  :  d,  a  :  a  -f  6  :  :  c  :  c  |  '/. 
The  common  method  is  to  pass  from  the  given 
proportion  to  the  equation  be  =  ud,  then  add 
nc  to  each  member,  obtaining  ac-\-bc  =ac-f  ad, 
or  c  (a  +  b)  =  a  (c  +  d),  and  then  to 
transform  this  equation  into  the  proportion 
a  :  a  +  b  :  :  c  :  c  -4-  d.  No  doubt,  this  is  concise 
and  elegant,  but  the  real  reason  why  the  transfor- 
mation does  not  destroy  the  proportion,  viz..  that 
both  rutin*  have  been  divided  by  the  same  num- 
ber, is  not  even  suggested  by  this  demonstration. 
On  the  other  hand,  let  the  following  demonstra- 
tion be  used,  and  the  pupil  not  only  sees  exactly 
why  the   transformation   does    not  destroy  the 


proportion,  but  at  every  step  has  his  attention 
held  closely  to  the  fundamental  characteristics  of 
a  proportion.  Let  the  ratio  a:6ber;  hence  as 
a  proportion  is  an  equality  of  ratios,  the  ratio 
c  :  d  is  /•:  and  we  have  «  -r-  6  ;=  r,  and  c  --■  d 
r,ora  br,  and  c  dr.  Substituting  these 
values  of  a  and  <■  in  the  terms  of  the  proportion 
which  are  changed  l>y  the  transformation,  we 
have  a-\-  b  br  \  b.  or  b  (r  ■  1),  and  e  •  d 
=  dr  +  d,   or  d{r  +  1);   whence  we  see  that 

by  multiplying  both  consequents  by  r       I  (the 

ratio  f  1).  which  does  not  destroy  th luality 


ilii- 


tl,n;| 


positions  con- 
portion  by  one 
ill  cases  clearly 


reveals   the   reason   why  the   proportion   is  not 
destroyed. 

This  choice  of  a  line  of  argument  which  shall 
be  applicable  to  an  entire  class  of  propositions 
is  of  no  slight  importance  in  constructing  a 
mathematical  course.  It  enables  a  student  to 
learn  with  greater  facility  and  satisfaction  the 
demonstrations,  and  fixes  them  more  firmly  in 
his  memory:  while  it  also  gives  broader  and 
more  scientific  views  of  truth,  by  thus  classi- 
fying, and  bringing  into  one   line   of  thought. 


21 


mar  school,  or.  if  in  the  country,  never  have  other 

3cl I  advantages  than   those   furnished  by  the 

common  or  rural  district  school.  Nevertheless, 
many  of  these  will  receive  much  greater  profit 
from  spending  half  a  year,  or  a  year,  in  obtaining 
a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  algebra  'and 
even  of  geometry)  than  they  usually  do  in  study- 
ing arithmetic.  (See  Arithmetic.)  For  this, 
class  the  proper  ranee  of  tonics  is.  a  clear  exno- 


ressiorj 

and 

IS     the 

more 

e   theory  of 

est  eoi 

g     one. 

two, 

Ho  and 

/"'"- 

of  radicals  will 
nature  as  growi 
of   factoring;    / 


affe, 
volving  one.  and  two  unknow 
second  class  i  omprisi  s  what 
school   pupils.      For    this  gi 


led 


'IIh.  will  be  the  case  especially  as  rej 

theory    of    exponents,    positive    i 

t/itiiiiti/tt's.  r.i</ir,i/s,  fijiKilions  innlr 
icals,  and  simultaneous  equations,  i 
those  of  the  second  decree.  To  tin 
be  added  the  artihmet       and  oeometi 


•esses  so  nearly  related  to  c,el 
the  mind  of  the  learner,  they 
e  perplexing  than  if  absolutely 


to  the  business  rules  of  arithmetic.  A  wide 
acquaintance  with  the  results  attained  in  our 
1 1 i "_i  1 1  schools  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  an 

years  satisfy  the  writer  that  time  spent  in  these 
schools  in  attempts  to  master  the  theory  of 
indeterminate  coefficients,  the  demonstration 
of  the  binomial  and  logarithmic  formulas,  or 
upon   the   hujh^r   ,;,„,,/„,„.<.   ,«•/«.  etc..   is.   if 


Hell 


Firs 

who, 


era,,, 


*)  It  may  be  new  to  some  that  there  is  a  simple 
elementary  Tueth.nl  ..f  proving  the  rule  for  differentiat- 
ing  a   logarithm     with-, it     ivt'crci t.i    series.     This 

method  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Watson  of  the  University 
of  Michigan  and  was  first  presented  to  the  public  in 
Olsei's   University  Algebra  in  1873.  j  hjipirilll 


as  above  ma 
course,  are 
dents;  a  sull 
of  algebraic 

the  student 

variable,  to 


o  enable 

reciate  the  idea  ol  fun 

Hi  <■  and 

ce  the  binomial  fori 

/,/,/.  the 

and  Taylor's  formula 

which  is 

•_"2 


necessary  in  treating  Sturm's  throrpm.axul  to  ap- 
preciate also  the  demonstration  of  that  theorem; 
indeterminate  equations;  a  tolerably  full  prac- 
tical treatment  of  the  higher  numerical  equa- 
tions; and  the  interpretation  of  equations; 
adding,  if  may  be,  something  upon  interpolation 
and  series  in  general. 

<V<isx-]-!f>iim  Wiirh. —  It  is  probably  unneces- 
sary to  say,  that  a  careful  and  thorough  study  of 
text-books  should  lie  the  foundation  of  our  class- 
room work  on  thissubject;  nevertheless,  so  much 

is  said,  at  the  present  ti in  disparagement  of 

"hearing  recitations"  instead  of  "teaching,"  that  it 
may  be  well  to  remark  that,  if  our  schools  succeed 
in  inspiring  their  pupils  with  a  love  of  books,  and 
in  teaching  how  to  use  them,  they  accomplish  in 
this  a  greater  good  than  even  in  the  mere  knowl- 
edge which  they  may  impart.  Books  are  the 
great  store  house  of  knowledge,  and  he  who  has 
the  habit  of  using  them  intelligently  has  the  key 
to  all  human  knowledge.  But  it  is  not  to  be 
denied,  that  there  is  an  important  service  to  be 
rendered  bythe  living  teacher, albeit  that  service, 
especially  in  this  department,  is  not  formal  lec- 
turing on  the  principles  of  the  science.  With 
younger  pupils,  the  true  teacher  will  often  pref- 
ace a  subject  with  a  familiar  talk  designed  to 
prepare  them  for  an  intelligent  study  of  the 
lesson  to  be  assigned,  to  awaken  an  interest  in  it. 
or  to  enable  them  to  surmount  some  particular 
difficulty.  For  example,  suppose  a  class  of  young 
pupils  are  to  have  their  first  lesson  in  subtrac- 
tion in  algebra:  a  preliminary  talk  like  the  fol- 
lowing will    1 xceedingly    helpful,  perhaps 

necessary,  tn  an  intelligent  preparation  of  the  les- 


this  idea  clearly  before  the  mind,  the  teacher  will 
proceed  to  the  1st  principle.  If  — Zab  be  added 
to  lab  how  much  of  the  "tab  will  it  destroy? 
1 1  [ere  again  we  proceed  from  a  fundamental  con- 
ception— the  nature  of  quantities  as  positive  and 

negative,  thus  deducing  the  new  from  th ,1. 

Repeat  sueh  illustrations  of  thi   principle  as  may 

have  been  given  in  addition  It  several  buys  aie 
urging  a  sled  forward  bj  7. tb  pounds,  and  the 
strength  of  another  boy  amounting  to  3ab 
pounds  is  added,  but  exerted  in  an  opposite 
direction,  what  now  is  the  sum  of  their  efforts? 
What  kiud  of  a  quantity  do  we  call  the  '.in/,'! 
[Negative.]  Why?  How  much  of  the -\- lab 
does  —  3ab  destroy  when  we  add  it?  If  then 
we  wish  to  destroy  +  ■inh  from  4-  ~iuh,  how  may 
we  do  it  ?  Proceeding  then  to  the  2d  principle, 
it  may  be  asked,  how  much  is  6  ay  —  2  uy  ?  If 
now  we  add  -f-  2  ay  to  t>  ay  —  2  ay,  which  is  4uy, 
what  does  it  become?  What  does  the  +  lay 
destroy?  What  then  is  the  effect  of  adding  a 
positive   quantity?     Such   introductory  elucida- 


probal 
Sueh 


if  this  kind,  either 
•book  is  useless,  or 
?onfuse  each  other, 
ite  in  the  very  lan- 
irablethat  this  Ian- 
yh;   pupil   ufte 


th  •  teacher   must  confine  his  illu 
to  the  essential  points  on  whii 
based.    In  this  case  these  are  \  1 ) 
alive    quantity     destroys    an 
quantity;  (2)  Adding  a  positi 


stroys  <t»  equal  neg 

the  qua 

iity;  (3)  As  the 

minuend  is  the  sum 

Of    th,'    . 

ubtrahend    and 

remainder,  if  the  sul 

trahend  i 

s  destroyed  from 

<i>il  the  minuend,  thei 

•maindei 

is  left.    Now,  in 

what  order  shall   the 

•   three    ] 

rinciples  be  pre- 

sented?  Doubtless  the 
given  ;  but  in  Buch  an 

bSud 

..utothesnhWt 

as  we  are  considering,  it  may  be  best  to  present 
th  ■  3d  first;  since  this  is  a  truth  already  familiar, 
and  hence  affords  a  connecting  link  with  previous 
know  ledge.  Moreover,  this  b  'in:.'  already  before 
th  ■  mind  as  a  statement  of  what  is  to  be  done, 
the  1st  and  2d  will  follow  in  a  natural  order  as 
an  answer  to  the  question  how  the  purpose  is  ac- 
complished. To  present  the  3d  principle,  the 
teacher  mav  place  on  the  blackboard  some  sim- 

Plee* pie  in  subtraction  as: 

las  ii,.  »iii  the,,  question  the  class  thus: 
;,,.  What  is  the  125  called?  What  the  71? 
What  the  51  ?  How  much  more  than  74  is  125? 
If  we  add  71  and  25,  what  is  the  sum?  Of  what 
then  is  the  minuend  composed?  What  is  51  f74? 
If  we  destroy  the   71.  what    remains?    If  in  any 

minuend,  what   will    remain?     Having    brought 


d  all    tl 


to  a  constant  review  of  them.  So  also  it  is  his  duty 
to  keep  in  prominence  the  outlines  of  the  subject, 
that  the  pupil  may  always  know  just  where  he  is 
at  work  and  in  what  relation  to  other  parts  of  the 


leli 


be 


ted  again  and  again, 
ject.assoon  as  these  c 
they  should  be  recite 


preliminary  aid  from  the  teacher,  save  in  special 
eases.  The  first  lesson  will  probably  contain  a 
dozen  or  more  definitions,  with  a  proposition  or 
two;  and  the  first  work  should  be  the  recitation 
of  these  by  the  pupils  individually,  without  any 
questions  or  suggestions  from  the  teacher.  11 
lustrations  should  also  be  required  of  the  pupils  ; 


'_';'. 


but  neither  illustrations  nor  demonstrations 
.should  lie  memorized,  although  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  secure  a  good  style  of  expression, 
modeled  on  that  of  the  text.  To  this  first  re- 
citation on  a  new  subject  all  the  class  should  give 
the  strictest  attention ;  and  every  point  in  it 
should  be  brought  out.  at  least  once  in  the  hear- 
ing of  every  pupil.  In  the  course  of  subs  quent 
recitations  in  the  same  general  subject,  iulivi.l- 


the  full  consciousness  of  duty  nobly  done.  The 
fact  is.  all  that  he  has  said  is  useless,  nay,  worse 
than    useless.      lie    has    simply    intimated    what 


uals  will  be  questioned 

developed.      For    exam, 
have  been   blOl 


,U  ll 


what  algebra  is  will 
illy  to  view"  in  this  first 
a  pupil  has  stated  and 
ami  has  given  his  expla- 
from  the  blackboard,  the 
y  do  you  say  you  have 
ly  algebra?     The  answer 


solved  this  problen 
will  be.  Because  I  b 
instrument  with  which  to  effect  the  solution. 
Can  you  solve  this  problem  without  the  use  of 
an  equation?  What  do  you  call  such  a  solution? 
What  is  algebra?  Again,  suppose  the  solution 
has  involved  the  reduction  of  such  an  equation  as 
2.c—  J  =  i  (3./-—  1 )  -f  i  (x  +1).  Of  course,  in  the 
first  place  the  pupil  will  solve  the  example  and 


Sol, 


»llt 


the  teacher  w 

11  in 

ike 

mg 
part 
tion 

certain  d 
cular  st\ 
Thus  lu 

s 

ask 

z 

.'    What 
i  these  as 

u-  la 
an. 

I.  lit  i  qua 

'     ' 

ral  term 

lo  v 

chai 

giug  the 

fori 

i    of 

trai 

<ttinihiln 

ii? 

Sim 

definition  will  be 

1VVI 

aim 

I;  lEiiver 

il  ii 

•iples  with  this 
actical  connec- 
vour  first  equa- 
.|   Do  you  look 

equation,  or  as 
•different  forms 
ration?  What 
3se  processes  of 
ion?  What  is 
y  principle  and 
lin  and  again 
t  the  great,  and 
oils  of  conduct- 


lark- 


principles,  as  given  by  tne  pupil  in 
board  in  explanation  ot   his  work.     'I  he  writer's 
observation  satisfies  him  that  this  most  pernicious 
practice  is.  as  he  has  said,  almost  universal.    Let 
us  illustrate  the  common  practice,  and  then  point 
out  the  better  way.     The  pupil  has  placed  the 
following  work  upon  the  board: 
7.c  _2M., +14=238 
7.c  _ 2s.r=224 
..■■—  4r=32 
afi— 4..+4=36 
x—  2= +  6 
.r=2±6=8,  and— 4. 
He   is  then  called  upon    to   explain    his  work. 
Something  like  the  following  is  what  we  hear  in 
the  majority  of  our  best  schools: 

"Given  7.C— 2H.r+14=238,  to  find  the  value 

of  X. 
••Transposing.  1  have  7r' — 28.r=224. 
•■  Dividing  by  7.  ./■- — ir=32. 

"  Completing  the  square,  a" — l.r-|-4=36. 
"  Extracting  the  square  root,  .r — 2=4-6. 
"  Transposing,  ,r=2  +  6=8,  and  —  4." 

And    the   pupil   turns   to    his    instructor   in 


nilv 


.1  ll) 


the  work  befo 

a  clear  and  or. 
he  takes  even 
since  he  is  tos 


.Is 


tot 


ihal 


desl 


,I|..U1 


knowi 
quanti 
one  n 

step  di 
like  th 

nation  :  "  Given  lafi — 28z  |  14-  238,  to  find  the 
value  of  X.  In  order  to  do  this,  I  wish  so  to  trans- 
form the  equation  that,  in  the  end,  X  shall  stand 
alone,  constituting  one  member  of  the  i  quation. 
while  a  known  quantity  constitutes  (he  other 
member.  Hence  1  transpose  the  known  quantity 
11  to  the  second  member.  This  I  do  by  subtract- 
ing   11    from  each   member,  which  may  be   done 

of  the  member,...  since,  it  I  he  same  .piantity  be 
subtracted  from  equals,  the  remainders  are  equal. 
1  thus  obtain  ".<■  — 28a-=  22-1.  1  now  observe 
that  the  first  term  of  the  first  member  contains 
the  square  of  X,  while  the  second  contains  the  lirst 
power.  I  wish  to  obtain  an  equation  which  shall 
contain  only  the  first  power  of  .r.  In  order  to  do 
this.  I  make  the  first  term  a  perfect  power  by 
dividing  each  member  of  the  equation  by  i, 
which  d....,  not  destroy  the  equality,  since  equals 

divided  bv  equals  -he  equal  quotients  and  I  have 


co-cfti- 


po 


statutes  the  hrst  two  terms  ot  i 

binomial  of  which  the  square  of 

tit-lit  of  X,  or  4.  is  the  third  term.  1  add  4  to  this 

member  to  make  it  a  complete  square,  and  also  add 

t  to  th  •  second  member  to  preserve  the  equality 

of  the  members,  and  have  x — fcc-f4=36.    Ex- 

of  .,•;   but  to  preserve  the  equalit 

the  square  root  of  the  second  member,  obtaining 

ond  member  by  adding  2  to  cadi  member,  which 
does  not  destroy  the  equation,   I  have  x    8,  and 

—4."  If  it  is 'desired  to  abbreviate  the  expla- 
nation, it  is  far  better  to  make  it  simply  an 
outline  of  the  reasons,  than  a  mere  statement 
of  the  process.  In  this  case,  an  outline  of  the 
reasons  may  be  given  thus:  The  object  is  to 
disengage    x    from     its   connections    with    other 


known  quantity.  The  first  process  is  based  upon 
the  principle  that  equals  subtracted  from  equals 
leave  equal   remainders;  the  second,    upon  the 

*)  '•  Destroy  the  value  of  the  equation."  is  an  absurd 
expression  which  we  frequently  hear.  An  equation  is 
not  a  quantity,  and  hen.-e  has  no  value.  The  equality 
of  tin    members  is  meant. 


24 


ALGERIA 


principle  that  equals  divided  by  equals  give  equal 
quotients,"  etc.  Again,  while  it  is  admissible 
when  the  purpose  is  to  fix  attention  upon  any 
particular  transformation,  to  omit  the  reasons  for 
some  of  those  previously  studied,  it  is  far  better 
that  these  be  omitted  pro  forma,  than  that 
something  which  is  not  an  exposition  of  reasons 
be  given.  Thus,  if  the  present  purpose  is  to 
secure  drill  in  the  theory  of  completing  the 
square,  after  having  enunciated  the  problem,  the 
pupil  may  say:  "  I  laving  reduced  the  equation  to 
the  form  x  -  4a;=32,"  etc.,  proceeding  then  to 
give  in  full  the  explanation  of  the  [process  under 
consi  Ii  ration,  But  it  is  well  to  allow  no  recita- 
tion on  such  a  subit    t  to  pass  without  having  at 


least  on    mil  explan; 
to  stu  1\   and  recita 
agent  facility  in  r,  hi 

tion  of  practii  al  pro 

different,  and  sos i 

In  these  thes  •'  m  i 
shoul  1  be  ma  le  the  n 

1 i    suchca 

after  having  given 
the  statement,  thus  f 
on  which  he  has  ffi 

,1  „,-•,!,.  ,„„,,„.,  impute 
d  be  the  pupils  explanation. 

I  is  th  ■  important  thine,  ami 
ain  tiling  in  the  cxplaniitiipn. 
will  be  quite  sufficient,  if, 

Ii  ■   reasons   for  each  step  in 

conclude  bj 

in]  K.    "Solving  this equa- 

and  synop  i  •  of  top 
;ts  class  exercia  i.     t 
better knowl  ■  1  reof  t 
theorem  to  be  able  t 
than  to  give  thewho 

■-   are  e\,ve.  Ime.lv  \ alu.-.l .!. • 
irexample   i.  requires  a  far 

.  give  the  following  outline 

■  in  detail :  (1)    No  i  ha  i    i 

in  the  variable  whic 

p  does  not  cause  some  one 

ALPHABET 


ider  to  military,  government.  The  popu- 
lation according  to  the  census  of  1872  was 
2,416,225,  of  whom  245,117  were  Europeans 
and  their  descendants;  34,574  native  dews;  the 
remainder  were  Mohammedans.  In  n  jard  to  re 
lui.pu.  .  .':  ;:;:;  were  <  'atholics.  6.006  Protestants, 
39,812  (including  those  of  European  descent 
Jews,  and  14(1  had  made  no  declaration.  The 
Catholics  have  an  Archbishop  and  two  Bish- 
ops; the  Protestants  three  Consistories,  under 
which  both  the  Lutheran  an.l  Reformed  I  lunches 
are  placed,  tn  regard  to  public  instruction, 
Algeria  constitutes  a  division,  called  the  .  [cademy 
of  Ali/rrin  and  headeil  l>v  a  lector.  'I  he  number 
of  free  public  schools  in  L866  was  426,  with 
45,375  pupils;  for  secondary  instruction  there 
are  four  colleges  and  one  Lyceum  (at  Algiers, 
Bona,  Constantine,  Philippeville,  and  Oran),  the 
secondary  institution  at  'llemcen,  and  the  free 
school  at  (Iran.  A  special  system  of  instruction 
has  been  arranged  for  the  Mohammedan  popu- 
lation.   It  comprises  the  douar  village  or  camp) 

schools,  the  law  SI  I I-  "■  'I         choolsoi 

law  and  literature  (medresas  ,  the  French  Arabic 

schools,  and  the  French  Arabic  colleges.    \Ln  re, 

the  capital,  has  sp  cial  si  hi 
medicine.  'I  he  edui  ational 
try  derives  a  sp  cial    inn  i. 

it 'illustrates  the  influence 


teoWandof 
.  of  tins  coun- 
the  fact  that 


in  the  number  of  variations  and  permanences  of 
the  signs  of  the  functions:  (2)  So  two  consec- 
utive functions  can  vanish  for  the  same  value 
of  the  variable;  (3)  The  vanishing  of  an  inter- 
mediate function  cannot  cause  a  change  in  the 
number  of  variations  and  permanences;  and 
(4)  The  last  function  cannot  vanish  for  any 
value  of  the  variable;  and, as  the  first  vanishes 
every  time  the  value  of  the  variable  pa  ies 
through  a  root  of  the  equation,    it    by  so  doing 


theref 
Final! 

tered 
blackl 


laws  regulatiiiL'  public  iu,truetion  in  Algeria  may 
be  found  in  (.khaki,.  La  Legislation  ■!■  rlnstruc- 
tion  Primaire  en  France,  torn,  in.,  art.  Algerie. 

ALLEGHENY  COLLEGE,  at  .Veadville, 
I'a..  was  founded  in  1817,  and  is  under  the 
dilution  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
The  number  of  students  in  1874-  5  seas  132, 
more  than  one  half  of  whom  were  pursuing  the 
collegiate  course.  It  has  classical,  scientific,  and 
biblical  departments,  and  is  open  to  both  sexes. 
Its  library  contains  about  12,000  volumes.  Rev. 
L.1I.  I'.ugbee.  It.lL.is  the  pr.  sident  of  the  faculty. 

ALMA  MATER  I  Lat..  lostering  mother)  is 
a  name  affectionately  given  by  students  of  colleges 
and  universities  to  the  institution  to  which  they 
owe  their  education. 

ALPHABET.  The  alphabet  of  any  language 
is  the  series  of  letters,  arranged  in  thei  ustomary 


any  I 

Oliel 

of  d 

lllllel 


ok   al 


ALGERIA,  a  div 
was  formerly  a  Turki 
1830  been  in  possess 
boundariesare  no!  defi 
the  claims  of  the  Fret 
border.  The  territory 
stimated  at  about 


med  alpha,  beta.  The  letters  in  the  English 
ihabel  have  the  same  forms  as  those  of  the 
itin  language,  which  were  borrowed  from  the 
eek.  The  Latin  alphabet,  however,  did  not 
ntain  all  the  Creek  letters.  The  letters  of  the 
eek  alphabet  were  borrowed  from  the  1'hceni- 
m.  which  was  that  used  by  many  of  the  old 
ii.,  nations,  and  is  of  unknown  origin.  It 
insisted  of  22  signs,  representing  consonantal 
unds.  Into  this  alphabet  the  Greeks  introduced 
my  modifications,  and  the  changes  made  by 
a   Romans   were   also    considerable.      Its   use 


about   I50,50.s  are  subject  to  the  civil,  and  the    in    English   presents   many   variations   from 


ALPHABET  METHOD 


final  condition  in  the  Latin  language.     Thus.  I  |  the  i 


and  J,  and  1'  and  \ 
graphic  variations,  w 
different  sounds,  dm 
urirs.  W  \\;i<  add. 
ages.  The  twenty  sh 
been  thus  classiiied 


instead  of  being  merely    the  fori 


:  of  each,  so  as  to  associate  arbitrarily 
with  the  name;  or,  in  simultaneous 
ruction,  to  exhibit   the  letters  on  sepa- 


fromthe  Phoenicians;  (2)  \.  K.  I.  0,  Z,  origin- 
ally Phoenician,  but  changed  by  the  Creeks; 
(3)  U  (same  as  V),  X.  invented  by  the  Greeks; 
(-1)  •'.  K.  Phoenician  letters  with  changed  value ; 
(5)  G,  of  Latin   invention;    ((i|    V,  introduced 


alpha! iet  are 
its  arc  us-  1 
(soft)  and  s, 
/,'.  x  and  /,'::. 

by  the  same 
and  gin,  s  in 
The  vowels 
[lustrated  in 
nentsof  tb  i 
itations,  the 
>f  Webster's 


into  balm  fn 
(-)  d.  V.  grs 

phic   I 

by  doubling 

The  iniper 
manifold  : 

r'(or  \ 
ictions 
1)    Di 

to  represent 

./  (soft)  and    , 

(2)  Different 

letter  ;  as  c  ii 

sound. 

.sv'/and  as,  f 

in  if 

are  constant  1 
the  following 

tab!  ■  i 

language   an. 
diacritical  mi 
Dictionary. 

their 

Lo„i 

ii           ••    ••  art 
a  o       ».  "  all. 

they 

•■  do.  rule,  too 


From  this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  letter 
a  is  used  to  represent  seven  different  sounds;  e,five 

names  given  to  ih  •  letters  are  not  in  conformity 
with  a  uniform  principle  of  designation.  Thus. 
the  names  of  b,  c,  d,  </,  p,  t,  r.  and  z  are  be,  ce, 
de,  ge,  etc. ;  while  the  names  of  /'.  /.  m,  n,  s,  and 
x  are  ef,  el,  em,  en,  etc, ;  and  the  names  of  ,/.  k, 
arc  J'/,  kn.  The  heterogeneity  of  these  names 
and  of  their  construction  will  be  obvious.  It  is 
important  thai  the  teacher  should  take  cogni- 
zance of  these  gruiti  3  in  giving  elementary 

instruction,  as  they  dictate  special  methods  of 
presentation.    (See  Alphabet  .Method.) 


METHOD, 


A-B-C 


■   be  not .only 

0  incentive  to 

Hi.  ma       ly 

tentionoi  the 

„2L£fi 

be  taught  by 

child,  its  intelligence  may  be 
ing  the  alphabet  by  this  mi 
forms,  such  as  1,    O,   X.   S.  \ 


Bhowing  theanalogy  or  similarity  of  their  forms 

portion  of  it  is  erased  ;  one  half  of  it  with  1, 
used  as  a  bar.  forms  D;  two  smaller  D'sform  B; 
and  so  on.  This  method  is  very  simple,  and  may 
be  made  quite  interesting  by  means  of  the  black- 
board. 

The  letters  which  closely  resemble  each  other 
in  form,  such  as  A  and  V,  M  and  N,  E  and  F. 
and  ( '  and  <i.  among  capitals,  and  b  and  d,  cand 
e,  p  and  q,  and  n  and  u,  among  small  letters, 
should  be  presented  tooei  her.  so  that  their  minute 


will  at 
Of  the  i 


,  child's  mind,   will 
eiidcr  the  instructio 


|o    ,v,  i 


uired  to  make 


tiers  so  as   to   form   short 
A    horizontal  wooden  bar 


from  curds,  or  froi 
must  be  taught  to  1 

the  letters,  and  to 
spective  names.  Tl 
very  general,  was  to 
and  then,  calling  ui 
the  letters,  one  afte 


and   familiar  i 

with  a  handle,  and  a  groove  on  the  upper  edge 
in  which  to  insert  the  cards,  tonus  a  very  useful 
piece  of  apparatus  for  this  purpose.  Letter- 
Blocks  may  also  be  used  in  a  similar  manner  by 
•ding  to  t Ins  I  both  teacher  and  pupils.  Thes  i  bloi  ks  are  some- 
icsofallthc  times  cut  into  sections  so  as  to  divide  the  letter 
i-B-Cbooh  into  several  parts,  and  the  pupil  is  required  to 
.•  that  is.  he  adjust  the  parts  so  as  to  form  the  letter.  Tins 
ius  forms  of  method  affords  both  instruction  and  amusement. 
em  their  re-  to  young  children,  and  at  the  same  time,  gives 
Ig  this,  once    ] day  to   their  natural  impulse  to  activity.      These 

iwithl ks,    various  methods  will   be  combined  and  others 

to  point  to   devised   by   every   ingenious  teacher.      In  some 
)  pronounce  !  schools  a  piece  of  apparatus,  called  the  reading 


ALUMNEUM 


frame,  is  used.  This  is  constructed  like  a  black- 
board with  horizontal  grooves,  in  which  the  let- 
ters can  be  placed  so  as  to  slide  along  to  any 
required  position.  By  the  use  of  assorted  letters, 
the  teacher  can  construct  any  word  or  sentence, 
building  it  up  letter  by  letter,  as  types  are  set. 
Many  interesting  exercises  in  reading  and  spelling 
may  be  given  by  means  of  such  an  apparatus, the 
children  being  required  to  construct  words  and 
sentences  themselves,  iis  well  as  to  read  those 
formed  by  the  teacher.  The  A  IS  V,  Method  of 
teaching  the  elements  of  reading  has  now.  quite 
generally,  been  superseded  by  the  Word  Method. 
—  See  Ookme,  Early  and  Infatii  School  Edu- 
cation, and  Principles  and  Practice  of  Common 
School  Education,-  Wickersham,  MeOwds-  of 
Instruction.   (See  Word  Method.) 

ALUMNEUM,  or  Alunmat  (Lat..  from 
alere,  to  feed,  to  nourish),  the  name  given  in 
Germany  to  an  institution  of  learning  which  af- 
fords to  its  pupils  board.  lodging,  and  instruc- 
tion. The  first  institutions  of  this  kind  arose  m 
the  middle  ages  in  connection  with  the  convents. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  are  those  founded  by 
Maurice  of  Saxony,  in  tin'  L 6th century, at  Pforta 
Meissen,  and  Grimma.  When  the  pupils  were 
received  and  instructed  gratuitously,  they  were 
expected   to   perform    various   services   for   the 

SCl land    church,  sueli  as  singing    in    the  choir. 

The  pupils  of  these  schools  were  called  alumni. 
(See  Alumnus.) 

'     Uumni  (Lat.,  from  alere, 


ANALYSIS 

from  funds  contributed   for  the  purpose  by 


entitle  instruction,  and  tht 
are  also  a  gallery  of  art. 
history,  containing  about ! 
an  a-ironoiuical  ol.scrvat 
for  physical  training  is  \ 
prises  an  extensive  ami 


<.  besides 
e  for  sci- 
h.  There 

natural 
tens,  and 
lartment 

It   com- 


oroughly 

-  twenty- 
endowed 

-  in  Is74 

contains 

e  of    the 
entific  as 

ALUMNUS 
to  feed,  to  mm 
student  who  was 
expense  of  a  leai 
generally 


to  a  graduate  of  a  college 
or  similar  institution.  The  graduates  of  higher 
seminaries  or  colleges  for  females  are  sometimes 
called  alumnae. 

AMHERST  COLLEGE,  at  Amherst,  Mass., 
is  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  learning  in  the 
United  States.  It  was  founded  in  L821  by  the 
Orthodox    Congregationalists,  especially  for  the 


education  of 
its  charter  was 
president  was  1 
in  1823  was 
Humphrey,  to 
efforts  the' coll, 
continued  in  i 
ceeded  by  the 
on   the  resigns 


the  ministry  ;  hut 
ill  L825.  Its  lii-st 
liah  S.  Moore,  who 
the  Rev.  lleman 
ous  and  prudent 
of  its  success.  He 
when  he  was  suc- 
llitcheock:  and. 
Iter,  in  1854,  the 
.'illium  A.  Stearns. 


was  about  340.  'I  he  college 
more  than  30,000  volumes;  8 
societies,  about  10,000.  'I  here 
well  as  a  classical  course;  also  a  postgraduate 
course,  established  in  I  ST-I ,  in  history  and  polit- 
ical science,  with  especial  reference  to  a  "science 
of  statesmanship;'  while  any  graduate  may 
arrange  to  pursue  a  course  of  study  in  any  de- 
partment additional  to  the  college  course.  The 
tuition  fee  is  .Slid  per  annum. 

ANALYSIS,  Grammatical,  or  Senten- 
tial.— By  the  analysis  of  a  sentence  is  meant  a 
decomposition  of  it  into  its  logical  elements. 
Every  sentence  must  either  lie  a  single  proposi- 
tion, or  be  composed  of  propositions  more  or 
less  intimately  related:  and  every  proposition 
must  contain  a  subjectsnA  a  predicate,  the  for- 

latter.  what  wT-   say  of  it.      'I  he  entire  or  logical 


pendentlyof  them.  Grammar  has  been  defined 
as  the  -art  of  speaking  and  writing  correctly," 
or  as  the  "practical  science  which  teaches  the 
right  use  of  language";  and  for  general  pur- 
poses this  account  is,  perhaps,  sufficiently  ex- 
plicit. It  does  not.  however,  truly  distinguish 
grammar  from  the  other  arts  concerned  in  leach- 


recipient  of    very   large  donations  from   private 
and    appropriations    from    the    State 


amounting  to  upward 

funds  a lint    in    the   a 

$650,000.  Its  charity  I 
education  of  clergy  i iien  ai 
and  its  fund    for    free 

$100, ).     The  names. 

to  the  institution  are  I 
to  the  extent  of  $240,01 
cock,  $175,1111(1;  Samui 
and  a  college  church  w; 


follow  a  correspo 
in  its  treatment 
properly  as  to  tin 


g  any 
il.ject 


stoaboutSTii.i :  The  .-pccial  province  of  uram mar  docs  not  cx- 

uships    is   at     least  tend  bey,, nd   the  construction  of   sentences;  but 

•  principal  donors  it  is  quite  obvious  that  to  use  language  correctly, 

illiain    d.  Walker,  those    principles   and   rules  must    be   understood 

Samuel   A.   Hitch-  which  underlie  the  proper  method  of  combining 

lliston.   $150,000  :  sentences  so  that  they  may  constitute  elegant  and 

cted  a  short   time  logical  discourse.     A  person  may  be  sufficiently 


ANALYSIS 


27 


familiar  with  grammatical  rules  to  construct  sen-  laid  for  the  intelligent  study  of  all  other  gram- 

tences  with  perfect  correctness,  but  may  so  ar-  matical  terms  and  distinctions;  and  this  being 

range  them  as  to  express  only  nonsense  :   and  the  foundation,  should,  of  course,  be  the  first 

such  a  person  could  scarcely  be  considered  as  un-  thin;,'  done.     Those   who    oppose   the   analytical 

derstandiiig  the  "right  use  of  language."    The  method  assert  that  words  are  the  real  elements  of 

iof  grammar,  a  sentence,  and   that  anv  consideration  of  these 


being  the  ] 

it  follows  that  the  only  subjei 

inflectional  tonus,  and  pronu 
arrangement  in  sentences.  A] 
finitions  and  rules  are  founde  1 
of  the  parts  of  a 
therefore,  these  rel 
It  is  with  referenc 


pi-oMIM 


IS      sh, 


refore,  an  i 
■If.  With 
hat  pieces 


.han.-t 


giving  any  definition  of  a  sentence,  is.  therefore 

clearly  illogical  ;  yet  this  lias  been  the  method  of 

many  grammarians,  words  being  explained  and 

parsed  as  if  they  had  c   " 

It  is  in  this  that  the  dia 

and  graiiiiiiatie.il  analys 

fact,  only  different    kit 

based  on  precisely  the 

which  the  words  stand 

a  sentence. 

Parsing,  as  uniformly  employed  by  gram- 
marians, is  a  minute  examination  of  the  in- 
dividual words  of  a  sentence,  with  the  view  to 
determine  whether  the  rules  of  grammar,  proper 


;<1  properties, 
tion  between  parsing 
in>i>t-  Both  are.  in 
of  analysis,  and  are 
e  relations. — those  in 
each  other  as  parts  of 


ysis.  on  tlie  other  liaml.  ileal: 
upon  which  those  rules  are 
are  common  to  all   languages. 


used,  and  which 
Thus,  in  parsing. 
the  pupil  is  obliged  to  scrutinize  all  the  inflec- 
tional funis  in  which  the  words  composing  the 
sentence  are  used ;  and,  in  order  to  determine 
whether  they  are  proper  or  not,  must  not  only 
know  the  rules  of  syntax, but  the  relations  of  the 
words  to  each  other,  so  as  to  be  able  to  apply 
those  rules.  The  relations  are  invariable  in  all 
languages,  but  the  rules  which  refer  to  the  in- 
flections are  founded  on  particular  usage,  and 
hence  are  in  no  two  languages  exactly  alike.  On 
this  account,  since  the  </.■„, rul  logically  precedes 
the  special,  the  treatment  of  sentential  analysis 
should  precede  any  exercises  in  parsing.  Other- 
wise, how,  for  example,  could  a  pupil  be  required 
to  distinguish  the  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns, 
and  the  person  and  number  of  verbs,  before  be- 
ing taught  the  rclat  i.  ms  i  if  the  words  to  each  other'.' 
I!\  means  of  the  analytical  method,  when  rightly 
applied,  the  study  of  grammar  is  made  clear. 
Logical  and  easy,  from  the  very  beginning.  The 
pupil  is  first  taught  the  nature  ot  the  sentence, 
its   essential    parts,    and    (heir    relations   to   each 


operation  upon  a  few  elementary  or  primary  parts, 
as  the  cylinder,  piston,  condenser,  etc.  ?  Words 
are  not  necessarily  the  real  elements  of  a  sen- 
tence. These  are  the  subject  and  predicate  and 
their  adjuncts:  and.  unless  these  component  parts 
of  the  general  structure  be  first  observed,  the 
relations  of  the  separate  words  cannot  be  under- 
stood. Hence,  we  find  that  those  writers  who 
have  ignored  a  definite  consideration  of  these 
logical  elements,  have  fallen  into  many  errors 
and  inconsistencies. 

The  various  systems  of  analysis  in  use  differ 
in  no  essential  respect,  the  chief  variation  being 
in  the  nomenclature  employed  to  designate  the 
elements  of  the  sentence.  The  name  generally 
applied  to  a  proposition  forming  a  part  of  a  sen- 
tence is  ;■  clause,  and  any  group  of  related  words 
not  making  a  proposition  is  called  a  jihrusr.  The 

mollifying  elements  are  by  some  called  adjective 
in  advi  rl  ■  r/,ai rding  as  they  perform  the  func- 
tions of   adjectives  or  adverbs.     Instead  oi  the 


£ 


XS  111. 


,/V,,/   , 


-how  i 


llv/.e 


other,  and 

a  simple  character,  lie  is  troubled  with  but 
little  phraseology  :  for  all  the  terms  that  are  es- 
sential to  the  complete  distinction  and  designa- 
tion of  the  parts  of  a  sentence  are  subject,  verb 
or  predicate,  object,  attribute,  and  adjuncts.  These 
being  defined,  and  the  pupil  taught  how  to  dis- 
tinguish them,  a  complete  foundation  has  been 


Iras  animal  is  a  more  general  term  than 
tied  animal :  henee./oNr/oofeafisamodi- 

than  man  that  is  hum  of  a  woman,  or 

•linn  :  the  adjuncts,  (hut  is  hunt  of  u  Irani- 
an and  murlul  being  only  descriptive,  not  modi- 
fying. Appositional  adjuncts  only  explain; 
as:    //  .   '  ""   of  mem  all,  in   which  the 

phrase.  //,.  chieftain,  etc.,  is  only  explanatory,  or 
appositional  Adjuncts  may  be  single  words, 
phrases  or  clauses:  and  one  of  the  chief  ad 
vantages  of  sentential  analysis  is  to  show  the 
pupil  that  groups  of  words  are  often  used  so  as 
to  perform  the  same  office  as  single  words.  In 
teaching  this  subject,  a  proper  gradation  of  topics 
should  lie  observed;  and  much  caution  exercised 
to  avoid  the  perplexing  of  the  young  pupil  by 
presenting  to  his  mind  distinctions  too  nice  to  be 

discer I  by  his  undeveloped  powers  of  analysis. 

Various  methods  have  been  devised  in  order  to 


28  ANALYSIS 

present  to  tl ye  of  the  student  the  analyzed 

sentence,  so  as  to  show  clearly  the  relation  of  its 
parts;  ami.  in  the  rudimcntal  stages  of  the  in- 
struction, these  are.  without  doubt,  of  consider- 
able utility ;  but  they  should  not  be  carried  so 
far  as  to  present  to  the  student  a  confused  mass 
of  loops,  lines,  curves,  or  disjointed  phrases,  far 
more  difficult  to  disentangle  than  to  analyze,  with- 
out any  such  aid,  the  most  involved  sentence. 
All  such  devices,  it  must  be  remembered,  are 
only  auxiliaries  to  the  mind's  natural  operations, 
ami  cannot  at  all  supersede  them.  Neither 
should  the  exercise  ol  analyzing  sentences  be  al- 
lowed to  degenerate  into  the  mei  hanical  applica- 
tion of  its  most  simple  requirements.  As  the 
student  advances,  he  will  be  able  to  omit  more 
and  more  of  the  routine,  until  he  reaches  a  stage 
of  progress,  at  which  the  general  structure  of 
tin'  sent  em  'i  ■  its  component  clauses  and  their  re- 
lations, will  be  all  that  he  need  observe  or  Stat  !. 
When  judiciously  ami  rationally  employed,  sen- 
tential analysis  must  engender  a  very  important 
quality  of  una  I.  .ml  greatly  conduce  to  clear 
thinking,  intelligent,  critical  r  lading,  and  accurate, 

tei      ■  '  i a.       -  e   VI    in,  Grammat;  ■  I 

Structure  of  IheEng  Languac  V  V..  I  2); 
(o.oi, n    Brow  \.    Gr  ■  n  •   r  of    En  .  \ish   G  ram- 

with  K i  An         ■  .-   W      ch,  A  t  of 

the  Eng  hS  ■  .■'.■•..!■  ,sis  of  .■"  ■ 
English  Language;  Clark, Normal  Gramm  r 
of  the  English  Language;  Cruttenden,  Phi- 
losophy of  Sentential  Language;  March,  Pars- 
ing  and  Analysis;  Andrews  and  Stoddard, 
Latin  Grammar. 

ANALYSIS,  Mathematical.  See  Math- 
ematics. 

ANALYTIC  METHOD  OF  TEACH- 
ING. This  is  the  method  used  by  the  teach  r 
when  he  presents  to  bis  pupils  composite 
truths  or  tacts,  and  by  means  of  analysis 
diow.,  the  principles  involved,  or  leads  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  to  an  analysis  of  them  for 
himself.  In  this  way  he  teaches  principle; 
which  the  pupil  is  to  apply  to  the  elucida- 
tion of  many  diverse  problems.  In  the  synthetic 
method,  the  b  ichei  begins  with  principles,  ex- 
plains their  m  :aning,  and  -hows  how  they  are  to 
be  applied.  'I  ha-  suppose  the  pupil  is  to  bo 
taught  how  to  a  Id  and  subtract  fractions.      Ac- 


ANDRE^E 

or  subtract  fractions  by  finding  a  common  de- 
nominator. If  the  object  of  the  instruction  given 
were,  exclusively,  to  make  the  pupil  expert  in 
adding  and  subtracting  fractions,  the  synthetic 
method  would  perhaps  have  some  advantage  over 
the  analytic:  but.  since  an  important  pail  of 
tin.-  object  is  to  train  the  mind,  the  analytic  meth- 
od is  greatly  to  be  preferred;  for  (1)  it  stimu- 
lates the  mind  to  greater  activity,  (2)  it  teaches 
it  how  to  investigate  for  itself,  and  to  discover 
truth,  and  (3)  it  gives  it  a  much  clearer  knowl- 
edge of  the  fundamental  principles  involved  in 
the  subject  taught  Whetter  the  analytic  meth- 
od should  be  employed  ami  to  what  extent,  is 
to  be  determined  by  a  consideration  of  the  nature 
of  the  subject  taught,  and  the  degree  of  advance- 
ment of  the  student.  In  the  higher  stages  of 
education,  much  time  would  be  lost  by  rigorously 
following  this  method:  ami  if.  in  the  more 
elementary  stages,  the  pupils  mind  has  been 
thoroughly  trained  in  this  way,  it  will  not  be 
uecessary  to  adhere  to  it  when  he  comes  to  study 
th  hie'  I  rai  'Ik-  \i  every  stage,  and  in  every 
branch  oi  in  truction,  however,  there  willbe  oc- 
casion for  ill.'  u.-c  of  both  analysis  ami  synthesis: 
and  the  skill  and  judgment  of  the  teacher  must 
be  exen  isod.  at  every  step,  to  determine  which  is 
the  appropriate  method  to  be  employed.  —  See 
Palmer.  The  Teacher's  Manual  (Boston,  1840). 
ANDEEJE,  Johann  Valentin,  a  German 
cl  rgyman  and  educator,  was  born  at  Ilcrreii- 
berg,  in  Wurtemberg,  in  1586,  and  died  in 
in  tgart,  in  1654.  After  tilling  several  eccle- 
ii  ii  1  positions  in  the  Lutheran  church  of 
his  country,  he  became,  in  KiaO,  Superintendent 
General  at  Babenhausen,  and  in  1654  at  Adal- 
bert, lie  was  a  stern  and  influential  opponent 
of  the  principles  which  the  Lutheran  orthodoxy, 
at  that  time,  endeavored  to  carry  out  in  edu- 
cation. He  denounced,  in  particular,  the  me- 
chanical method  of  teaching  Latin,  which  then 
prevailed,  as  well  as  the  equally  mechanical 
me  bod  oi  catechetical  instruction  in  the  pub- 
he  schools;  and  he  is  know,,,  in  the  history  of 
German  education,  by  the  reforms  which  he  in- 
trodu  1  in  these  studies.  He  insisted  that  no 
orders  should  be  given  to  Ihe  pupils  in  a  foreign 
language  that  they  should  not  be  required  to 
line  whirl,    they    did    not    understand. 

and  thai  no  explanations  should  begiven  to  them 

exceeding  their  comprehension,  or  not  enlisting 
their  interest.  I  lis  views  on  pedagogical  ami 
didactical  reform  are  fully  developed  in  the 
work  UrinnUinr  Christhiwr  Descriptio  (1619), 


tract  i 
have 
the  n: 


in  th. 
denominator,  the 


of  redu 


/',„/,,,„ 


Zeitalter   (Berlin,   1830);     Bens 


tions  to  a  common  denominator,  and  then  to  add  I  Deutsche  Allgemeine  Biographie,  art.  Andrea. 


ANGLO-SAXON 


ANGLO-SAXON  is  the  current  name  for 
the  mother-tongue  of  the  modern  English  lan- 
miaee.     During  the  5th  and  Bth  centuries,  tubes 


in  Latin  and  Greek.     The  uses  of  the  modes 
also  a  matter  of  ureal  nicety.    The  body  "I' 


they  commonly  called   Anqlise,  or  Engl 
English,\>xA  since  the  17th  centurj  it  hi 

ivi-n  of   Alfred   the  Great,  A.   I  >.  B71 


,.  as  one  or  another 
h  the  other  vowels.  It 
ilofwracomestobe 


ihi, 


directed  to  classic 
Saxon  of  the  midi 
guage  was  eultivati 
for  "the  use  of  tin 
of  the  time  on  reli 
King  Alfred  and  1 
pared  <  IreLi'ory's  /' 
of  Orosius,  the  Ecc, 

these  were  followe 


■  id  the  Kentish:  and 
middle,  and  the  late; 
ntion  will  lie  mainly 
ix.in.  which  is  West 


ll,<l,,n 


the  other  early  Teutonic  nations,  is  accentual, 
and  marks  off  the  lines  hv  alliteration.  The  art 
of  poetry  was  highly  cultivated;   the   sedp,  or 


at 


aching  far  back  into  heathen  antiquity, 
d  and  Odyssey  of  the  North.  There  is 
iodv  of  Christian  poetry  in  similar  verse 


attained  accuracy  and  ea.-e  in  following  Latin 
compositions,  and  a  higher  general  cultivation 
than  any  other  Teutonic  tongue  of  the  time. 
It  is  a  very  pure  how  Ocrniaii  speech,  closely 
.,_.-_  .-  .i.    ■„.,.  .:.   ,o,  q 1  Dutch,   'these 


akin  to  the  l'i 

L( 

til 


Old  Sax,,, 


introducing  us  to  a  new  world  of  thought  and 
manners,  are  to  be  gained  as  well  from  the 
study  of  Anglo  Saxon  as  of  Latin  or  I  Heck.      It 


elated, 
the  otl 


to  Scandinavian;  and  more  remotely  to  Lath 
Greek,  Slavic,  Sanskrit,  and  the  other  link 
European  or  Aryan  languages.  The  Angli 
Saxon  is  to  be  classed  with  the  older  inflected  i 


i.sh  forth 


study  of 
essential 
ledge  of 
ilace  for 

in  which 
ing  it  in 


cleiisi  ms  growing  out  'it  dm,  lvne,  sin  the  stems. 
The  adjective  is  declined  as  in  German,  in  a 
definite  and  an  indefinite  declension,  with  two 
numbers,  three  genders,  and  live  eases.  The 
personal  pronouns  are  also  fully  declined  in 
three  numbers,  having  special  forms  for  the  dual 

are  two  great  classes  of  verbs,  one  of  which 
forms  the  past  tense  by  reduplication,  and  the 
other  by  composition  with  dide,  did.  In  the 
first  class  arc  five  conjugations,  arranged  accord- 
ing to  then-  root  vowels,  and  from  these  come 
most  of  what  are  called  the  irregular  verbs  of 
modern  English;  our  regular  verbs  come  from  the 
sixth  conjugation.  Our  suffixes  of  derivation, 
our  prepositions,  and  conjunctions  are  also  in 
great  part  Anglo-Saxon.  The  syntax  is  of 
course  that  of  a  highly  inflected  I . i i i - ■  ■ . ■  l: .  ■ .  Some 
verbs  govern  an  accusative,  some  a  dative  or  in- 
strumental, some  a  genitive,  some  two  accusa- 
tives, some  an  accusative  and  dative,  and  soon 


The  study  of  language 
chief  place  in  any  com 
scheme.     It  has  two  ere 


(     educational 

.:,-:  1  as  the 
study  of  the  art  of  communication,  (2)  as  the 
study  of  the  record  of  human  thought.  With- 
oui  the  art  of  communication,  man  cannot  live: 
without  access  to  the  accumulated  thought  of  the 
race,  any  generation  would  be  savages;  without 
an  introduction  to  the  emotions  and  ideals  of 
the  greaf  and  noble  which  are  embodied  in  lit- 
erature, any  generation  would  lap.se  toward 
moral  idiocy. 

Common  Schools.  —  The  Anglo-Saxon  is  no 
longer  spoken,  and  it  would  be  hardly  worth 
while  to  learn  to  speak  it;  but  in  learning  to 
speak  and  write  English  we  need  to  know  much 
of  it.  The  power  to  speak  well  is  founded  on 
familiarity  with  choice  idioms  and  synonyms. 
These  are  learned  in  connection  with  the  history 
of  the  formation  and  meanings  of  words,  and 
especially  in  English,  of  our  Anglo-Saxon  words. 


ANOLO-SAXOX 


'ITiere  are  several  school  etymologies  which  afford 
manuals  of  practice  in  the  study  and  use  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  elements  of  our  speech,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  :  Hand-Booh  of  A  ngto- 
Saxon  Root-Words  (New  York);  Hand-Book  of 
Anglo-Saxon  Derivatives  (New  York):  Gibbs's 
Teutonic  Etymology  (New  Haven);  Sargent's 
School  Manual  of  English  Etymology  (Phila.). 
In  these  books  the  pupil  is  told  the  meanings  of 
ivrtain  A  nglo-Snxon  words,  prefixes,  and  sutiixes, 
and  of  Knglish  words  which  are  derived  from 
them;  and  exercises  are  arranged  in  which  to 
acquire  skill  in  the  ready  use  of  tliis  knowledge. 
They  are  intended  for  the  Common  School. 
Haldeman's  Affixes  (Phila.)  is  a  treasury  of  this 
branch  of  learning. 

In  the  High  School  or  Academy,  Anglo-Saxon 
is  to  be  read  and  studied  not  only  as  explanatory 
of  English,  but  for  its  own  structure  and  liter- 
ature, just  as  Latin,  Greek,  and  German  are 
studied.  Manuals  for  this  study  in  its  simplest 
form  contain  brief  grammars.  -elections  for  read- 
ing, notes,  and  vocabulary.  —  Such  books  are  S. 
M.Shi  re's  Anglo-Saxon  Manual  (N.  Y.);  Bar- 
nes's Anglo-Sa  on  !>■  ectus  London  :  Vernon's 
Guide  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  Tongue  (London); 
Carpenter's  Introduction  to  tin-  study  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Language  (Boston).  Similar  to 
these,  but  containing  more  apparatus  for  a 
comparative  study  of  the  language  and  philo- 
logical notes,  are  March's  Introduction  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Language  (N.  Y);  Morris's  Ele- 
mentary Lessons  in  Historical  English  Oram- 
imir,  coiitainiinj  Acciilriiiv  ami  Word    Fiirina- 

S'<  irmal  Schools, — There  are  no  persons  to  whom 
this  study  is  more  important,  than  to  teachers  of 
Knglish  grammar.  The  explanations  of  the  forms 
of  words  are  all  to  be  sought  in  it.  The  origin  and 
meaning  of  the  possessive  ending  's,  of  the  plural 
endings,  of  the  endings  for  gender,  of  the  tense 
forms  and  other  forms  of  the  verb,  the  adverbial 
endings,  the  prepositions,  may  at  any  time  be  de- 
manded of  the  teacher.  Pupils  will  a.sk  him 
whether  John's  hook  is  a  contraction  of  John  his 
book;  how  comes  geese  to  be  the  plural  of  goose, 
and  men  the  plural  of  man;  how  comes  hull/ 
to  be  the  feminine  of  lord;  how  conies  I  have 
lorn/  to  express  the  perfect  tense;  what  does  the 
to  mean  when  you  say  to  be,  or  not  to  be,  that  is 
tin'  i/iirs/ion,  and  so  on  without  end.  But  such 
questions  cannot  be  answered  without  knowing  j 
Anglo-Saxon.  It  is  the  same  with  questions  of 
syntax.  Almost  all  difficulties  grow  out  of 
Anglo-Saxon  idioms,  or  find  their  solution  in 
the  forms  of  that  speech.  Teachers  who  know 
nothing  of  the  history  of  the  language  puzzle 
themselves  infinitely  with  subtle  reasonings  to 
prove  that  expressions  must  be  parsed  in  one 
way  or  another,  when  a  glance  at  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  grammar  would  settle  the  matter  in  a 
moment.  No  teacher  can  safely  pronounce  on 
any  such  mooted  questions  of  our  language  with- 
out knowing  the  Anglo-Saxon  forms.  So  nor- 
mal school  ought  to  send  out  graduates  from  its 
grammar  department   wholly  ignorant    of    tliis 


study.  A  lesson  a  day  during  the  last  school 
term  skillfully  directed  to  the  most  frequent  ex- 
amples in  which  this  knowledge  comes  into  use. 
would  perhaps  answer  the  most  pressing  necessi- 
ties of  the  common  school  teacher.  Twice  that 
time  would  be  a  meager  allowance  to  lay  the 
foun-latii.il  of  the  education  of  an  accomplished 
high-school  teacher  in  this  department  for  this 
study  may  be  used  March's  Comparative  Gram- 
mar of  the  Angle-Saxon  Language  (New  York); 
—  this  contains  a  full  syntax':  K.  Morris's  His- 
torical <><,tli„,-s  if  English  Accidence  (London): 
Hadley's  Brief  History  of  the  English  Lan- 
i/iia,/,',  in  Webster's  Dictionary  (ISC.)). 

Colleges  and  Universities.  —  The  earliest  im- 
portant use  of  Anglo-Saxon  in  our  schools  was 
that  introduced  by  President  Jefferson  into  the 
University  of  Virginia,  in  1825.  He  thought 
that  it  was  a  rude  form  of  colloquial  Knglish  dis- 
guised by  bad  spelling,  and  that  the  whole  gram- 
matical system  as  given  in  the  text-books  was  a 
s- ries  of  •■  aberrations  into  which  our  great  Anglo- 
Saxon  leader.  Dr.  Hickes,  has  been  seduced  by 
too  much  regard  to  the  structure  of  the  I  ■reek 
and  Latin  languages.''  "  Remove,"  he  says,"  the 
obstacles  of  uncouth  spelling  and  unfamiliar 
character,  and  there  would  be  little  more  diffi- 
culty in  understanding  an  Anglo-Saxon  writer 
than  Burns'  poems."  lie  proposed  to  have  text- 
books  prepared,  in  which  the  original  Anglo- 
Saxon  should  be  accompanied  by  a  parallel 
column  containing  the  same  matter  rcspclt  into 
modern  Knglish  or  forms  like  the  modern  Kn- 
glish. and  by  explanations  of  the  meaning  of 
unusual  words.  'Ihe.se  he  thought  would  be  few. 
so  that  the  whole  tongue  might  be  mastered 
with  great  ease  and  rapidity.  These  views  of  the 
language  are  all  wrong ;  the  best  Anglo-Saxon 
manuscripts  are  really  spelt  on  a  more  careful 
and  more  scientific  system  than  our  modern 
Knglish.  The  language,  really,  is  an  inflected 
language,  like  Latin  and  Greek,  having  its  case- 
endings  and  other  inflective  forms  from  the 
same  original  as  those  .sister-speeches.  Of  course, 
no  one  has  carried  out  Mr.  Jefferson's  plan  liter- 
ally. One  of  its  suggestions  has,  however,  been 
embodied  in  March's  Introduction  to  Anglo- 
Saxon  (XewYork).  An  early  division  of 'the 
prose  is  prepared  in  parallel  pages  of  Anglo- 
Saxon,  and  a  sort  of  Knglish  made  by  giving  for 
each  Anglo-Saxon  word  the  corresponding  En- 
glish word  to  which  it  has  given  rise,  if  there  be 
any,  or  a  kindred  Knglish  word.  The  following 
is  a  specimen: 

Se  leornere  segeth  :  We  cildru  biddath  the, 
eala  lareow.  thaet  thutaece  ussprecan  on  I  .dene 
gereorde  rihte.  fortham  ungelaerede  we  sindon. 
and  geweniniedlice  we  sprceath. 

(The  learner  saith:  Wechilder1  bid=  thee,  O-lo 
lore-master,  that  thou  teach  us  /o-speak  in  Latin 
i-renl  •  right,  forthat  i  un-i-lered6  we  are,  and 
i-wemmedly "  we  speak.) 


hiMren  (Chaucer).     2pray.     nlaunua^.'     Ilnllhv,  11. 
aua.-.     .  uulearueil     Stratmauu).    6 corruptly,  froii' 


ANGLO-SAXON 

An  extract  from  the  poetry  of  Caedmon  is 
prepared  in  the  same  maimer.  [twiUbeseen 
that  this  affords  an  easy  introduction  to  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  vocabulary, 
ami  is  a  grateful  means  of  enabling  beginners 
who  wish  only  to  nail  in  an  off-hand  fashion,  to 
get  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  contents  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  books,  especially  of  simple  prose,  and 
makes  a  "mul  beginning  for  grammatical  and 
philological  study. 

There  has  been  a  great  increase  of  Anglo-Saxon 
study  in  our  colleges  within  the  last  ten  years. 
From  being  almost  unknown,  and  wholly  unpro- 
vided with  any  suitable  apparatus,  it  has  become 
a  common  study,  and  a  number  of  manuals  have 
been  published  for  beginners  in  it,  both  in  America 
ami  Europe.  There  is  a  difference  of  opinion 
among  our  educators  as  to  whether  it  should  lie 
studied  early  in  the  collegi urse  ami  in  connec- 
tion with  Knglish  simply,  or  later  ami  in  connec- 
tion with  Latin.  Greek.and  German  :  whether  it 
should  be  mainly  a  literary  study,  for  reading  and 
the  vocabulary,  or  chiefly  a  grammatical  and 
philological  study.  The  earliest' of  the  later  text- 
books announced  for  publication  was  a  Cnipm;,- 
tive  Grammar  by  P.  A.  March,  Prof,  of  the 
English  Language  and  Comparative  Philology  in 
Lafayette  Collegi'.  This  was  primarily  intended  | 
for  the  use  of  a  Junior  Class  in  college,  who 
have  already  studied  Latin,  Greek,  French,  I 
and  German,  according  to  a  progressive  plan  by 


are  good  comparative  grammarians  within  the 
range  of  the  above  languages.  It  is  the  plan  of 
this  grammar  to  compare  the  Anglo-Saxon  with 
Sanskrit.  Creek.  Latin,  Gothic,  Old  Saxon.  Old 
Prisic,  Icelandic,  and  Old  High  German.  Gen- 
eral principles  of  phonology,  enough  to  cover 
all  the  changes  of  sound,  are  first  laid  down, 
and  then  parallel  paradigms  of  the  inflection 
forms  in  these  languages  are  given,  and  the 
Anglo-Saxon  explained  under  their  guidance.  A 
comparative  syntax  is  also  given.  The  author 
in  this  way  introduces  the  student  to  the 
methods  of  the  modern  science  of  language  in 
connection  with  the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon,  so 
that  our  mother-tongue  may  share  the  honors 
of  this  new  science.  This  grammar  was  followed 
by  a  Reader,  which  is  prepared  with  notes 
adapted  to  lead  to  and  aid  in  the  study  of  the 
grammar.  These  books  have  teen  since  studied 
at  Lafayette  College  in  the  manner  here  sug- 
gested. A  class  goes  slowly  on  with  the  reader 
and  grammar  together,  studying,  word  byword, 
letter  by  letter,  the  relations  of  the  forms  to 
those  of  other  languages,  and  the  laws  of  change 
which  govern  their  history,  and  trying  to  ground 
all  in  the  laws  of  the  mind  and  of  the  organs  of 
speech.  Besides  this  grammatical  study,  how- 
ever, the  substance  of  the  selections  is  carefully 
studied,  including  choice  extracts  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  and  Beda  giving  the 
noticeable  events  of  history.  Anglo-Saxon  laws. 
and  extracts  from  the  great  poets.     In  method 


AN.SELM 


3J 


and  substance,  as  thorough  and  scientific  study  is 
given  in  this  way  to  a  portion  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  as  can  be  given  to  Greek  or  Latin  with 
the  ordinary  college  text-books.  The  study  is 
pursued  in  this  way  at  several  of  the  American 
colleges.  In  others,  rapid  reading  for  literary 
purposes  prevails.  The  text -books  used  are 
March's  Grammar  and  Reader,  as  above,  in 
which  are  also  bibliographical  mates. and  a  sketch 

of  the  literature:  Shdtb's  Anglo-Sa  on  Ma d; 

Kt.icsTKiN's  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar\  New  York); 

Corsons     Anglo-Sa  nd    Early     English 

(New  York i ;  Thorpe's Analecta  Anglo-Saxonica 
(London);  Carpenter's  Introduction  to  Anglo- 
Saxon  (Boston). 

Nowhere  else  is  this  study  pursued  as  in 
America.  It  is  almost  wholly  neglected  in  the 
English  universities.  Nine  German  universities 
announced  lectures  on  it  for  the  winter  semester 

Dictionaries  of  Anglo-Saxon  are  Boswortii's 
(London);  Ettmueli.kk's  I.,:,;,,,,/  An./ln-x,,. .■,„,i- 
cum  (Quedlinburg  &  Leipsic,  1851), — an  etymo- 
logical dictionary.  Other  valuable  works  of 
reference  or  for  further  reading  are  Thorpe's 
Jlfinrii/J'.  with  translation,  notes,  and  glos- 
sary (London):  Grein's  Beowulf,  with  Ger- 
man  glossary  (Cassel,  18(17);  Heyne's  Beovulf, 
with  German  notes  and  glossary  (Paderborn, 
1873);  Thorpe's  Gospels  (London);  Bosworth's 
Four  Versions  of  the  Gospels  (London);  E. 
M  btzner's  Englische  Grammalik  (Berlin,  I860 
—65);    C.  P.  Koch's  Historische   Grammalik 


M.ussn 

jlUchen   Sj 
s     English 

rach 
La 

Lit.-,;,/ 

ire  (New  Y 

.rk. 

Writ.; 
Literal 
and  B, 
Grein's 
(Cassel 

S   (London. 
.  i  (London 

l& 

[Wi 


■:.„■/,/ 

,,/ist, 
Brit. 


W.  M, 
Poesit 

INS    Hi 

bu, 

1S7L'  :    Gri  m'a   Sprachschab.   der  an  ; As, 

schen  Didder  (Cassel  &  Gottingen,  1864  ;  and 
articles  in  Appleton's  New  American  Cy- 
clopaedia, and  Johnson's  New  Universal  Cy- 
clopedia. 

ANSELM,  of  Canterbury,  a  saint  and 
doctor  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  founders  of  scholasticism. 
(Sec  Scholasticism.)  He  was  born  at  Aosta,  in 
Piedmont,  about  1033,  entered,  after  a  dissolute 
youth,  the  Benedictine  order  in  1060,  succeeded, 
in  1  <><;:{.  Linfranc  as  prior  of  the  monastery  of 
Bee  in  Normandy,  and.  in  1079,  became  abbot. 
lie  was.  iii  L093,  consecrated  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, and  died  in  1109.  The  school  of  Bee 
became,  through  him,  the  most  famous  of  the 
age.  He  endeavored  to  show  the  entire  harmony 
between  faith  and  science,  and  was  the  Br  I  to 
develop  what  is  called  the  ontological  argument 
to  prove  the  existence  of  God.  '  He  was  a  de- 
termined and  effective  opponent  of  the  discipline 
which  at  that  time  prevailed  in  the  monasteries, 
and  which  even  allowed  abbots  to  cudgel  dis- 
obedient monks.     "  A  fine  education,"  he  once 


32 


ANTlorn   coi.l.KGK 


replied  to  an  abbot,  who  complained  of  the  in- 
efficiency of  his  educational  efforts.  "  which  edu- 
cates ma i]  to  animals'  Because  they  receive  from 
you  no  mark  of  love  and  kindness,  they  mistrust 
you,  suspect  you  of  malignity  and  hatred,  and 
can  only  face  you  with  lowered  looks  and  averted 
eyes."  An  edition  of  Ana  Im  -  i  omplete  works, 
also  containing  his  life,  by  his  friend  and  com- 
panion Eadmer,  was  published,  in  1711.  m  Ve- 
nice (Ojient  (hum. i.  'J  vols.). — Sec  Mu.iii.i  b.  An- 
,  .a,, I  s.-hnii, ,,  i  Tub.  Qaartalsi  hrift, 
L826,  1827);  Hasse,  Anselm  von  Canterbury 
('1  vols.,  1843—1852;  an  abridged  English  trans- 
lation by  Tdrneb,  London,  I860);  Ch.  de  Remu- 
sat.  St.  Anselme  de  Cantorbery  (Paris,  1852). 

ANTIOCH  COLLEGE,  at  Yellow  Springs, 
Green  Co.,  Ohio,  was  incorporated  in  1852.  Its 
buildings,  which  were  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$150,000,  have  a  pleasant  and  healthful  situa- 
tion. This  institution  is  designed  to  afford  the 
means  of  a  useful  education,  at  small  expense,  to 
both  sexes.  Its  charter  forbids  the  teaching  of 
sectarian  dogmas;  but  the  instruction  is  given 
in  consonance  with  the  spirit  of  liberal  ( 'hris- 
tianity.  Its  first  president  was  Horace  Mann 
(1853 — 59).  He  was  succeeded  by  Thomas 
Hill,  D.  I).  (1859—62),  George  W.  Hosmer, 
I).  i>.  (1866—72);  and  since  then,  the  college  has 
been  under  the  direction  of  Prof.  Edward  Orton 
and  Samuel  ('.  Derby,  A.  M.,  acting  presidents. 
Its  endowment  is  upward  of  SI 20,0110.  It  has  a 
preparatory  and  collegiate  department;  and  stu- 
dents are  p  emitted  to  select  any  studies  from  its 
curriculum  which  they  are  able  to  pursue  with 
advantage,  a  i  1  !■.■■■  ive  a  eertitieate  for  the  same, 
after  passing  a  satisfactory  examination.  In  this 
respect,  the  institution  affords  the  advantages  of 
a  a  lemies.  Jt  lias  a  musical  institute 
under  the  supervision  of  the  faculty,  and  a  li- 
brary  of  fiiMIO  volumes.  The  number  of  students 
in  1874  was  about  loo.  The  co-education  of  the 
nl  in  this  institution. 
The  annual  tuition  fee  is  S37. 

ANTIPATHY.  This  term,  the  opposite  of 
sympathy,  denotes  the  instinctive  dislike  which 
is  felt  towards  sonic  persons  on  account  of  cer- 
tain pei  uliarities  of  temperament,  disposition, 
manners,  etc.  The  natural  characteristics  of  dif- 
ferent persons  slum-  remarkable  diversities  in 
this  n  spect.  Some  seem  to  exert  a  kind  of 
magnetic  influence,  which  attracts  ,r.id  engages 
cullers  an  I  In  m-iii-  of  which  they  immediately 
gain  the  goodwill  and  affection  of  those  with 
uii.nii  ill  a  are  brought  into  communication. 
Others,  on  the  contrary,  appear  to  repel,  as  it 
were,  all  who  approach  them,  and  are  obliged, 
therefore,  to  make  special  effort  to  secure  the  con 
tidcnce  and  good-will  of  their  associates.  Frank- 
ness and  candor  tend  to  inspire  c  infidi  ace;  while 
an  exhibition  of  reserve  and  shyness  produces 
aversion  and  distrust.  Shy.  secretive  persons 
-i  i  nc  I-  ecu  I  ..lb  t-c.  and  are  instinctively  avoided. 
They  aaturally  produce  antipathy.  Hatred  is 
engend  ired  in  the  mind  towards  those  who  com- 
mit positive  acts  of  injury,  wrong,  or  crime;  but 
iln.   i -.  io  be  distinguished  from  antipathy,  which 


APHORISMS 

is  an  instinctive  dislike.  Such  a  feeling  is  apt 
to  exist  on  a  first  acquaintance  only,  and  is  often 
dismissed  subsequently 'as  a  prejudice.  No  per- 
son can  succeed  in  teaching  children,  who  pos- 
sesses an  unfortunate  temperament  or  mental  con- 
stitution of  this  kind,  and  such  a  one  should  seek 
other  employment  :  since  all  real  success  in  prac- 
tical education,  depending  as  it  does  upon  in- 
spiring the  minds  of  pupils  with  love,  esteem,  and 
confidence,  must  be  founded  upon  the  opposite 
quality,  sympathy.    (See  Sympathy.) 

APHORISMS,  Educational.  The  expres- 
sion of  general  truths  in  the  form  of  aphorisms 
has  some  advantages  over  more  extended  state- 
ments, particularly  in  their  brevity,  pithiness, 
and  point.  The  understanding  grasps  them 
as  the  keys  to  practical  rules,  and  as  guides  in 
conduct ;  and  the  memory  more  readily  retains 
them.  It  is  not,  however,  to  the  uninformed, 
untrained  mind,  that  such  expressions  are  of  the 
greatest  use.  but  to  those  who.  having  already  ac- 
quired by  experience  and  reflection  a  good  store 
of  facts  and  ideas  upon  the  subject  treated,  are 
glad  to  find  them  concentrated,  as  it  were,  in 
these  small  and  convenient  verbal  repositories. 
No  subject  is  richer  in  such  aphorisms  than 
education ;  and  to  no  one  will  their  study  and 
acquisition  prove  more  serviceable  than  to  the 
practical  teacher,  eager  to  avail  himself  of  the 
treasured  experience  of  others.  In  these  scintil- 
lations of  wisdom,  struck  out  from  the  minds  of 
ancient  and  modern  sages,  philosophers,  and  edu- 
cators, will  be  found  an  illumination  sufficient  per- 
haps to  guide  the  humble  explorer  in  the  field  of 
pedagogical  lore,  to  the  true  path  to  professional 
success,  as  well  as  to  the  temple  of  speculative 
and  practical  truth.  The  few  here  given  have 
been  selected  not  only  for  their  appositeness.  but 
for  their  value  as  the  exponents  to  correct  educa- 
tion and  teaching.     Their  arrangement  by  topics 

will  not  only  serve  to  divesl  the Uectively 

of  their  t.  igf  i   :    :  e   er,  bu1  tender  them 

value  of  aphorisms  in  general.  I  'ol.  ridgi  remarks: 
••  Exclusively  of  the  abstract  sciences,  the  lar- 
gest and  worthiest  portion  of  our  knowledge 
consists  of  aphorisms  :  and  the  greatest  and  best 
of  men  is  but  an  aphorism." 

I.    Value  of  Education. 

Man  cannot  propose  a  higher  or  holier  object 
for  his  study  than  education  and  all  that  per- 
tains to  education.  — Plato. 

Man  becomes  what  he  is  principally  by  edu- 
cation, which  pertains  to  the  whole  of  life.  -  -Plato. 

Man  becomes  what  he  is  I  >y  nature,  habit,  instruc- 
tion: the  last  two  together  constitute  education,  and 
must  always  accompany  each  other.  -Aiustotle. 

'I'le  re  i;  within  every  mind  a  divine  ideal,  the 
type  after  which  he  was  created,  the  germs  of  a 
perfect  person  ;  and  it  is  the  office  of  education  to 
favor  and  direct  these  germs- — Kant. 

Man   is  the    product  of  his   education.  — 

Helvetitjs. 

A  right-directed  system  of  education  is  a  moral 
power  iu  the  mind,  second  only  to  that  creating 
energy  that  formed  and  sustains  in  existence  its 
material  frame-work. — A.  R.  Ceaio. 


APHORISMS 


:;:: 


Of  all  the  men  we  meet  with,  nine  parts  out  of 
ten  are  what  they  are.  good  or  evil,  useful  oi  not, 
by  their  education.      L  n  1.1  . 

Education  is  to  inspire  the  love  of  truth,  as  H,  . 
suprem  rad  ad  to  clarifj  the  \  ision  of  the 
mi   II  ct  to  di     i  rii  it.      11.  Mann. 

Education    is  tin-    one   living   fountain   which 
must  water  every  part  of  the  social  garden,  or  its 
beauty  withers,  and  fades  away.— E.  Evekett. 
II.    Scope  of  Education. 

•The  object  of  education  is  not  external  show 
and  splendor,  but  inward  development. — Seneca. 

A  Rood  education  consists  in  giving  to  the  body 
and  the  soul  all  the  perfection  of  which  they  are 

Education  can  improve  nature,  but  not  com- 
pletelj  change  it     Aristotle. 

The  object  of  the  science  of  education  is  to 
render  the  mind  the  lit!-  si  possible  instrument  for 
discovering,  applying,  or  orj  ying  the  laws  under 
which  God  has  placed  the  univ,  r,         Y\  ui.wn 

The  first  principle  of  human  culture,  the 
foundation-stone  of  all  but  false,  imaginary  cul- 
ture, is,  that  men  must,  befor  i  evei  .  other  thing, 
be  trained  to  do  sonnwh.il.  Thus,  and  thus  only, 
the  living  force  of  a  new  man.  can  be  awakened, 
enkindled,  and  purified  into  victorious  clear- 
ness.  C.AKLYLE. 

The  object  of  education  ought  to  be  to  develop 
in  the  individual  all  the  perfection  of  which  he  is 
capable.— Kant. 

I  call  that  education  which  embraces  the  cul- 
ture of  the  whole  man, with  all  his  faculties — sub- 
jecting hisseuses.  his  understanding,  and  his  pas- 


te p: 


which  tits  a  man  to  p  rform  jus 
magnanimously,  all  the  offices,  bo 
public,  of  peace  and  war.— Milton. 

All  true  education  is  a  growth;  the  mind  is  not 
a  mere  capacity  to  be  tilled  like  a  granary  ;  it  is  a 
power  to  be  developed. — J.  P.  WlCKEESHAM. 

The  object  of  education  is  rather  to  form  a  per- 
fect character,  than  to  qualify  for  any  particular 
station  or  office. — A.  Potter. 

The  educator  should  not  so  much  form  and 
instill,  as  develop  and  call  out. — Michaelis. 

The   school  is  a   manufactory  of    humanity. — 
Comentus. 
III.     Teacher  and  Pupil. 

Nature  without  instruction  is  blind;  instruc- 
tion without  nature  is  faulty;  practice  without 
either  of  th'-m  is  imperfect. — Plutarch. 

The  fittest  time  for  children  to  learn  anything, 
is  when  their  minds  are  in  tune,  and  well-dispos- 
ed to  it. — Locke. 

Let  the  tutor  make  his  pupil  examine  and 
thoroughly  sift  every  thing  he  reads,  and  lodge 
nothing  in  his  head  upon  simple  authority  and 
upon  l lust. —Montaigne. 

Let  the  child  learn  what  is  appropriate  for  his 
years,  and  not  precociously  what  he  ought  to 
learn  afterwards. — Rousseau. 

To  ham  is  to  proceed  from  something  that  is 
known  to  the  knowledge  of  si  imething  unknown.  — 

COMENIUS. 

Perverseness  in  the  pupil  is  often  the  effect  of 
frowardness  in  the  teacher. — Locke. 

The  great  skill  of  a  teacher  is  to  get  and  keep 
the  attention  of  his  scholar  ;  whilst  he  has  that, 
he  is  sure  to  advance  as  fast  as  the  learner's  ability 
will  carry  him.— Locke. 


It  is  the  teacher's  character  that  determines  the 
character  of  the  school;  not  what  he  does  so 
much  as  what  he  is.  The  maxim  is  a  true  one: 
As  is  the  teacher,  so  is  the  school      I    Cubbte. 

Ti  >i  !,    i     -hould  ob-,  i'M    tin    I..11  .■„  in-   rules: 

-    N  re:    tn    deprivi    a    child    of  anything 
without  returning  it. 

3.  Never  to  break  a  promise. 
i.   Never  ti  i  i  ivcrli  ii  ik  a  fault. 
5.   In  all  things,   to  set  before  the  child  an 
example  worthy  of  imitation. — "Wilderspin. 

It  matters  not  how  learned  the  teacher's  own 
mind  maybe,  and  how  well  replenished  with 
ideas,  and  how  widely  soever  he  sees  them,  there 
is  a  power  beyond  this  necessary,  to  produce 
copies  of  these   ideas  on  the  minds  of  others. 

A.  R.  Craig. 

Those  studies  should  be  regarded  as  primary, 
that  teach  young  persons  to  know  what  tiny  are 
seeing,  and  to  see  what  they  otherwise  would  fail 
to  see.  -  .J.  S.  Blackte. 

Long  di-rourses  and  philosophical  reasonings, 
at  best,  amaze  and  confound,  but  do  not  instruct 
children. — Locke. 

It  is  as  important  Imw  children  learn,  as  what 
they  learn.     Da.  Mayo. 

A  skillful  masti  r  who  has  a  child  placed  under 
his  car. .  w  ill  begin  by  sounding  well  the  character 
of  his  gi  inn-  and  natural  parts.—  Quinthjan. 

Rules   should   not   be   set   before   examples. 


Actual  intuition  is  better  than  demonstration.— 
Comentus. 

At  first  it  is  no  gnat  matter  how  much  you 
learn,  but  how  well  you  learn  it. — Erasmus. 

Study  is  the  bane  oi  childhood,  the  aliment  of 
youth,  the  indulgence  of  manhood,  and  the 
restoration  of  age. — W.  S.  Lanhor. 

A  teacher  ought  to  know  of  every  thing  much 
more  than  the  learner  can  be  expected  to  acquire. 
He  must  know  things  in  a  masterly  way,  curious- 
ly, nicely,  and  m  their  reasons.  — E.  Everett. 

The  teacher  should  create  an  interest  in  study, 
incite  curiosity,  promote  inquiry,  prompt  investi- 
gation, inspire  self-confidence,  give  hints,  make 
suggestions,  and  tempt  pupils  on  to  try  their 
strength  and  test  their  skill. —J.  P.  Wickersham. 

There  is  frequently  more  to  be  learned  from  the 
unexpected  questions  of  a  child,  than  from  the 
discourse  of  men  who  talk  in  a  road,  according 
to  the  notions  they  have  borrowed,  and  the  pre- 
judices of  their  education. —Locke. 

From  every  thing  noble  the  mind  receives 
seeds,  which  are  vivified  by  admonition  and  in- 
struction, as  a  light  breath  kindles  up  the  spark 
in  the  ashes. — Seneca. 

Curiosity  in  children  is  but  an  appetite  after 
knowledge  ;  and, therefore, ought  tube  encouraged 
in  them,  not  only  as  a  sign,  but  as  the  great  m 
strument  nature  has  provided  to  remove  that 
ignorance  they  were  born  with. — Locke. 

Clearness  oi'  ideas  must  be  cultivated  by  exer- 
cising the  intuition,  and  the  pupil  must  be  edu- 
cated to  independent  activity  in  the  use  of  his 
own  understanding. — Seneca. 

Ideas  before  words  ;  principles  before  rules  ; 
the  judgment  before  the  memory  ;  incidental  in- 
formation befoi-e  systematic  ;  reading  before 
spelling  ;  the  sounds  of  the  letters  before  their 
names;  and,  on  the  whole,  nature  before  art. 

A  R.  Craig. 


34 


The  school  should  cautiously  beware  of  making 
sacrifice  to  the  arrogant  requirements  of  the 
spirit  of  the  age;  which,  when  it  takes  a  wrong 
direction,  promotes  nonsense,  and  desires  to  study 
by  steam. — Stoy. 

Arouse  in   the  child   the  all-powerful  sense  of 

the  universe,  and  the  man  will  raise  himself  above 

the  world  ;    the  eternal  over   the   changeable. - 

Richter. 

The  process  of  enlightening  the  mind  should 
not  be  like  lightning  in  the  night,  giving  a 
strong  light  for  a  moment,  but  only  blinding  by 
it,  and  then  leaving  every  thing  dark  again  ;  but 
like  daybreak,  which  renders  every  thing  gradu- 
ally light.— J.  A.  Fischer. 

Human  perfection  is  the  grand  aim  of  all  well- 
directed  education:  the  teacher  should  have  ever 
present  with  him  his  ideal  man  whose  perfections 
he  would  realize  in  the  children  committed  to 
his  care,  as  the  sculptor  would  realize  the  pure 
forms  of  his  imagination  on  the  rough  marble  that 

lies  unchiseled  before  him J.  P.  Wickersham. 

IV.     Training  and  Habit. 

Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should  go,  and 

when  he  is  old  he  will   not  depart    from    it. — 

Solomon. 

Training  is  developing  according  to  an  idea. — 
ScHWABZ 

No  teaching  or  lecturing  will  suffice  without 
training  or  doing. — Stow. 

You  cannot  by  all  the  lecturing  in  the  world 
enable  a  man  to  make  a  shoe. —Dr.  Johnson. 

Nature  develops  all  the  human  faculties  by 
practice,  and  their  growth  depends  upon  their 
exi  Tcise.  — Pestalozzi. 

The  intellect  is  perfected  not  by  knowledge, 
but  by  activity. — Aristotle. 

The  end  of' philosophy  is  not  knowledge,  but 
the  energy  conversant  about  knowledge. — Aris- 
totle. 

The  great  thing  to  be  minded  in  education  is, 
what  habits  you  settle. — Locke. 

Infinite  good  comes  from  good  habits  ;  which 
must  result  from  the  common  influence  of  exam- 
ple, intercourse,  knowledge,  and  actual  experience: 
morality  taught  by  good  morals.— Plato. 

It  is  habit  which  gives  men  the  real  possession 
of  the  wisdom  which  they  have  acquired,  and 
gives  enduring  strength  in  it.— Pythagoras. 

A  man  is  not  educated  until  he  has  the  ability 
to  summon,  on  an  emergency,  his  mental  powers 
in  vigorous  exercise,  to  effect  his  proposed  ob- 
ject.— D.  Webster. 

The  great  result  of  schooling  is  a  mind  with 
just  vision  to  discern,  with  free  force  to  do;  the 
grand  schoolmaster  is  Practice.—  Garlyle. 

Habit  is  a  power  which  it  is  not  left  to  our  op- 
tion to  call  into  existence  or  not ;  it  is  given  to 
us  to  use  or  abuse,  but  we  cannot  prevent  its 
working. — J.  Currie. 

The  miml,  nuiavssible  aixl  sul't,  with  ease 

hlllMl.es  Hint   .'epi.S    U'llUt    she    lieill'S   Hllll   8eeS. 

Ami  tlmiueli  lire's  lnl.5Ti11t.l1  le.l.ls  fast  the  clew 

That,  r.lneatii.ll  eav.     I.,  r     lals.-  ...    I  lie 


V.  Development  of  the  Faculties. 
All  our  knowledge  originates  with  the  senses, 
proceeds  thence  to  the  understanding,  and  ends 
with  the  reason,  which  is  subordinate  to  no 
higher  authority  in  us,  in  working  up  intuitions, 
and  bringing  them  within  the  highest  unity  of 
thought.  — Kant. 


The  power  of  reflection,  it  is  well  known,  is 
the  last  of  our  intellectual  faculties  that  unfolds 
itself ;  and,  in  by  far  the  greater  number  of  in- 
dividuals, it  never  unfolds  itself  in  any  consider- 
able degree. — D.  Stewart. 

Clearness  of  ideas  must  be  cultivated  by  exer- 
cising the  intuition,  and  the  pupil  must  be  edu- 
cated to  independent  activity  in  the  use  of  his 
own  understanding. —NrEMEYER. 

The  laws  which  govern  the  growth  and  opera- 
tions of  the  human  mind  are  as  definite,  and  as 
general  in  their  application,  as  those  which  ap- 
ply to  the  material  universe  ;  and  a  true  system 
of  education  must  be  based  upon  a  knowledge 
and  application  of  these  laws. — J.  Henry. 

Knowledge  begins  with  perception  by  the 
senses;  and  this  is,  by  the  power  of  conception, 
impressed  upon  the  'memory.  Then  the  under- 
standing, by  an  induction  from  these  single  con- 
ceptions, forms  general  truths,  or  ideas;  and 
lastly,  certain  knowledge  arises  from  the  result  of 
judgments  upon  what  is  thoroughly  under- 
stood.     COMENTOS. 

The  mind  may  be  as  much  drawn  into  a  habit 
of  observation  and  reflection  from  a  well-directed 
lesson  on  a  pin,  as  from  the  science  of  astron- 
omy.—A.  R.  Ckaig. 

During  early  childhood  enough  is  done  if 
mental  vivacity  lie  maintained. — I.  Taylor. 

The  conceptive  faculty  is  the  earliest  develop- 
ed, and  the  first  to    reach  its  maturity;    it  more- 
over  supplies   materials   and  a   basis   for  every 
other  mental  operation. — I.  Taylor. 
VI.  Language. 

Things  and  words  should  be  studied  together, 
but  things  especially,  as  being  the  object  both  of 
the  understanding  and  of  language.  -  Comenius. 

He  who  has  no  knowledge  ot  things  will  not 
be  helped  by  a  knowledge  ot  words.  — Luther. 

The  signs  of  thought  are  so  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  thought  itself,  that  the  study  of  lan- 
guage, in  its  highest  form,  is  the  study  of  the 
processes  of  pure  intellect.— E.  Everett. 

Speech  and  knowledge  should  proceed  with 
equal  steps.— Comenius. 

We  cannot  express  in  words  the  thousandth 
part  of  what  we  actually  think,  but  only  a  few 
points  of  the  rapid  stream  of  thought,  lrom  the 
crests  of  its  highest  waves.  — Zsohokke. 

Language  is  the  sheath  in  which  is  kept  the 
sword  of  the  mind  ;  the  casket  in  which  we  pre- 
serve our  jewel ;  the  vessel  in  which  we  secure 
our  drink  ;'  the  store-house  where  we  lay  up  our 
food.— Luther. 

Thinking  is  aided  by  language,  and,  to  a  great 
extent,  is  dependent  upon  it  as  its  most  efficient 
instrument  and  auxiliary.— N.  Porter. 
VII.    Self-Eduoation. 

The  primary  principle  of  edi 
termination  of  the  pupil  to  sell 
ing  nothing  for  him  which  he 
hims-lf.     Sir  W.  Hamilton. 

The  peculiar  importance  of  the  education  ot 
childhood  lies  in  the  consideration,  that  it  pre- 
pares the  way  for  the  subsequent  self-education 
of  manhood.— J.  Currie. 

Self-activity  is  the  indispensable  condition  of 
improvement  ;  and  education  is  only  education— 
that  is,  accomplishes  its  purposes,  only  by  afford- 
ing objects  and  supplying  materials  to  this  spon- 


s  the  de- 
-the  do- 
to  do  for 


AITAKATCS 


:;.. 


exertion.  Strictly  speaking,  every  man 
must  educate  himself.  —Sir  W.  Hamilton. 

The  child  learns  in. .it  by  his  fourth  year,  than 
the  philosopher  at  any  subsequent  period  of  his 
life;  he  learns  to  affix  an  intelligible  sign  to  every 
outward  object  and  inward  emotion, by  a  gentle  im- 
pulse imparted  by  his  lips  to  the  air.— E.  Everett. 

If  all  the  means  of  education  which  are  scatter- 
ed over  the  world,  and  if  all  the  philosophers  and 
teachers  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  were  to  be 
collected  together,  and  made  to  bring  their  com- 
bined efforts  to  bear  upon  an  individual,  all  they 
could  do  would  be  to  afford  the  opportunity  of 
improvement.  — Degerando. 

VIII.    Moral  Education. 

The  best-trained  head  along  with  a  corrupt 
heart,  is  like  a  temple  built  over  a  den  of  rob- 
bers.— Tegneb. 

Head  and  heart  constitute  together  the  being 
of  man,  and  he  who  is  sound  iu  one  only  is  a 
cripple.  —  Stoy. 

It  holds  as  a  rule  in  mental  as  well  as  in  moral 
education,  that  the  learner  should  be  habituated 
to  what  is  right  before  he  is  exercised  iu  judging 
what  is  wrong.  — J.  Curkie. 

If  you  can  get  into  children  a  love  of  credit, 
and  an  apprehension  of  shame  and  disgrace,  you 
have  put  into  them  the  true  principle,  which  will 
constantly  work,  and  incline  them  to  the  right. 

Locke. 

Man  may  be  said  originally  to  be  inclined  to 
all  vices  ;  for  he  has  desires  and  instincts  which 
influence  him,  although  his  reason  impels  him 
in  an  opposite  direction. — Kant. 

In  my  opinion,  the  first  lesson  which  should 
quicken  the  understanding  of  the  young,  should 
be  intended  to  form  their  morals  and  their 
perceptions;  to  teach  them  to  know  themselves, 
to  live  well  aud  to  die  well.— Montaigne. 

Direct  teaching  on  moral  ideas  and  principles 
is  an  important  part  of  instruction.  —Hegel. 

Faith  in  God  is  the  source  of  all  wisdom  and 
all  blessings,  aud  is  nature's  road  to  the  pure 
education  of  man.  —  Pestalozzi 

He  that  will  have  bis  son  have  a  respect  for  him 
and  his  orders,  must  have  a  great  i  yerenci  for  his 
son.  "Maxima  debetur  pueris  lvveiviitia  '       !."■  ki 

A  properly  conducted  school  is  a  sort  of  moral 
gymnasium,  preparatory  to  the  great  struggle  on 
the  arena  of  life. — A.  R.  Craig. 

Morality  is  in  infancy  founded  on  the  authority  j 
of  the  parent,  acting  with  the  supp.  irt  of  habit  and  j 
association;  what  he  commands  is  law;  the  virtue  I 
of  childhood  is  summed  up  in  obedience. — Currie. 

In  man,  the  ideal  is  older  than  the  actual.  The 
loftly  lies  nearer  the  child  than  the  debased.  We. 
measure  time  by  the  stirs,  aud  reckon  by  the 
clock  of  the  sun,  before  we  do  by  the  city  clock. — 

Rll'HTER. 

Love  awakeus  love  ;  and  a  cold  and  heartless 
education  usually  produces  a  pupil  of  the  same1 
character.  -J.  A.  Fischer 

Children  si 
Erst  pan  tits  I 

IX.     Discipline  and   Government. 

Correct  thy  sou,  and  he  shall  give  thee  rest  : 
yea,  be  shall  give  delight  unto  thy  soul. —Solomon. 

He  that  spareth  his  rod  hateth  his  son  ;  but  he 
that  loveth  him  chastcneth  him  betimes. — Solo- 


No  father  inflicts  his  severest  punishment,  un- 
til he  has  tried  all  other  means. — Seneca. 

A  principal  point  in  education  is  discipline, 
which  is  intended  to  break  the  .sell-will  of  chil- 
dren, in  order  to  the  rooting  out  of  (heir  natural 
low  tendencies. —Hegel. 

There  is  one,  and  but  one  fault,  for  which 
children  should  be  beaten  ;  and  that  is  obstinacy 
or  rebellion. — Locke. 

Beating  is  the  worst,  and,  therefore,  the  last 
means  to  be  used  in  the  correction  of  children.— 

The  shame  of  the  whipping,  and  not  the  pain, 
should  be  the  greatest  part  of  the  punishment.— 
Locke. 
No  frighted  water-fowl,  whose  plumage  the 
bullet  oi  the  sportsman  has  just  grazed,  dues 
quicker  bem  ith  thi  surface,  than  a  child's  spirit 
darts  from  your  eye  when  you  have  filled  it  with 
the  sentiment  oi  fear.     II  Mann. 

A  school  can  be  governed  only  by  patient,  en- 
lightened, Christian  love,  the  master  principle  of 
our  naturi  -    It  softi  i  s  thi  fi  rocity  ol  the  savage; 

it  melts  the  felon  in  his  o  II.    In  tin  mam int 

of  children  it  is  the  great  source  ot  influence  ; 
and  the  teacher  of  youth,  though  bis  mindbea 
store-house  oi  know  [i  dge,  is  ignorant  oJ  the  first 
principle  of  his  art,  if  be  has  not  embraced  this 
as  an  elemental  maxim. — E.  Everett. 

Angry  feelings  in  a  teacher  beget  angry  feelings 
in  a  pupil ;  and  if  they  are  repeated  day  after  day, 
they  will  at  last  rise  to  obstinacy,  to  obduracy 
and  incorrigibleuess. — H.  Mann. 

The  evil  of  corporal   punishment  is  less  than 

the  evil  of   insubordination    or   disobedience.— 

H.  Mann. 

It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  establish  authority  ; 

peaceably,   indeed,   if    he  may, — forcibly  if  he 

must.— D.  P.  Page. 

There  are  usually  easier  avenues  to  the  heart, 
than  that  which  is  found  through  the  integuments 
of  the  body.— D.  P.  Page. 

Several  collections  of  educational  aphorisms 
maybe  found  in  Barnard's  American  Journal 
of  Education  (passim).— See  also  Woiii.farth, 
Pedaaoaical    ft   i    -    -Casket     Padaooais  hes 


Aphorisms    and    Suggestions,     Ancient    and 
Modern. 

APPARATUS,  School.— The  work  of  in- 
struction in  school  is  very  greatly  facilitated  by 
sufficient  and  appropriate  apparatus,  such  as 
blackboards,  slates,  globes,  maps,  charts,  etc. 
This  is  especially  required  in  the  teaching  of 
children  in  classes,  as  in  common  schools.  By 
this  means,  the  sense  of  sight  being  addressed, 
the  impressions  made  are  clearer  and  more  du- 
rable. Be  ides,  the  concrete  is  made  to  take  the 
place  of  the  abstract,  by  the  use  of  suitable  ap- 
paratus :  an  1.  in  ih"  first  stages  oi  education,  the 
former  is  almost  exclusively  to  be  employed  since 
abstract  principles  or  truths  arc  not  compre- 
hended by  the  young  mind,  except  upon  a  suffi- 
ciently extensive  basis  of  concrete  facts.  Thus, 
by  means  of  the  numeral  frame,  the  various  rudi- 
mental  combinations  of  numbers  are  presented 
to  the  mind  of  the  young  pupil,  in  connection 


APPARATUS 


with  actual  ol 
idea  is  given  i 
ab  I '  "'i  sta1  si 


,;x; 


lellded 


careful  not  to  carry  the  use  of  such 
apparatus  beyond  its  proper  limits:  since  the 
pupil's  mind  is  gradually  n>  be  accustomed  to 
conceive  clearly  the  truth  of  abstract  propositions 

without  regard  to  their  concrete  applications. 

Every  stage  or  made  of  school  instruction 
must  have  its  appropriate  apparatus.  Infant  in- 
struction requires  a  great  number  and  variety  of 
simple  apparatus  [gifts]  in  order,  by  natural 
methods,  to  aid  the  development  of  the  child's 
mind.  (See  Kindergarten.)  The  primary 
school  should  be  supplied  with  a  numeral  frame, 
blackboards,  slates,  and  pencils  for  the  use  of  tin- 
children,  a  box  of  forms,  spelling  and  reading 
charts,  color  charts,  pictures  of  animals,  etc.;  and, 
when  element. try  geography  is  taught,  simple 
maps  and  a  small  globe.     For  this  purpose,  one 


APPORTIONMENT.      See   School  Find. 

ARABIAN  SCHOOLS.  The  peninsula  of 
Arabia,  situated  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  has  an  area  of  L,218,798  square 


pop, 


ate,  the  Arabs  have  been  of  bi 

te  annals  of  education  as  we 
sry.  In  former  centuries,  on 
occupied,  for  a  considerable 


that 

Bemisphere  Globe)  i 

therekti if  the  pi 

may  be  clearly  shows 
relief  globe  is  also  oi 

Other  ingenious  an, 
been  devised  to  aid 
school  teacher,  to  wh 
needed,     lis  the  mor, 

tion,  the  sise  of  any  I 
pas al, is,  such  as  the  1 

I,  :c 3  less  and  le; 

teaching  of  certain 
arithmetic,  mensurati 
partments  of  naturs 
poses,  the  cube-root  1 
solids,  a  tellurian,  an 
value.  Charts  of  \ 
scarcely  to  be  dispel 
of  natural  science,  ' 
«ited  apparatus  is  is, 
the  simpler  it  is  the  I 
appliances  will  incitf 
incut  with  those   sin 


(Hand 

leans  of  it 

,  the  globe 
A   simple 


religion,  the  Arabs  became  a  powerful 
extending  their  political  rule  far  beyon, 
origisial  borders.      Large  empires  were  f 

arts  kept  pace  iii  their  development  with 
crease  of  political  power.  The  Arabian 
Of  the  caliphate,  and.  later,  those  founded 
Moors,  in  Spain,  not  only  attained  a 
wide  reputation,  but,  for  a  time,  were  g« 
recognized  as  eclipsing  all  other  literary 
tions.     The   prosperity  of  these  schools 


icrally 
nstitu- 


ibjeets 
loliiv.a 

.      Po 


■  such  pur- 
her  geometrical 
will  be  of  great 


mind  into  contact  with  the  civilization  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  Syrians.  The  dynasty  of  the  Ab- 
bassides.  which  succeeded  that  of  the  (  hniniyadc? 
in  7'ilS.   wire  still   more  instrumental  in  the  pro- 


Aral, 


well 


!;:;:';;: 

1  forth 

fully  ll 

e  abili 

y  of  the 

self  of  al 

the     p„ 

•pose    ( 

f  Dlustrat 

import 
been  n 
Of  app 
the  gli 

int  dip 

„'.  telh 

i  very  rui 
o  illustra 

iallv  con- 
narks  more 
,  adroitness 
esources  for 

>f  the  most 

dence  have 


the  Arabs  became  so  proficient,  that  through  the 
middle  ages  they  were  regarded  as  the  highest 
authorities.  Soon  the  Arabian  schools  were  also 
legal, led  sis  superior  to  all  others  in  mathematics 
and  astronomy.  A  translation  of  Aristotle  had 
a  far  reaching  influence  upon  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  Arabian  mind.  The  teaching  of  Aris- 
totle not  only  became  the  basis  of  Arabic  philos- 
ophy, but  through  the  influence  of  the  Arabian 
schools,  the  study  of  this  great  I  (reek  philosopher 
became  popular  among  the  .lews  in  Spain  and, 
subsequently,  generally  among  the  -lews  and 
« 'Iiri.-tian~  of  I'.nrope.  The  highest  prosperity 
wa-  attained  by  the  Arabian  Schools  in  Spain. 
In   the   high  schools   of   Cordova.   Toledo.   Sala- 


\loll. 


notions  than  to  imparl  correct  ideas  of  the  actual 

facts.      The  latter  musl  be  clearly  -rasped  by  tlii- 
Mi  i  ii  d  as  facts  before  I  heir  illustration  is  al  tempted 


and  -  In 


grammar  ami  rneiorie.  i 
were  taught.      In  tln-.-e  ,-eliool-.  .b-ai-h.  Moham- 
medan, and    Christian  teachers  worked  liar li- 

OUSly  together.  The  students  lived  in  college-,  a  ml. 

from  i i  to  ti had  to  pass  examinations.  The 

tea,  her-  sometimes  employed  substitutes.    In  the 


ARCHAEOLOGY 

lower  schools,  which  were  mostly  connected  with 
mosques,  the  pupils  often  received  their  clothing 

of  Christian  Kurope,  who  wi  re  anxious  to  acquaint 
themselves  with  the  Greek  and  Arabic  literature 
and  the  Aristotelian  philosophy.  Anion-  the 
many  celebrated  men  wLo  studied  there,  was  the 
learned  Gerbert,  who  became  pope  under  the 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC  37 

on  thai  subject  is  the  Handbuch  tier  Arclueohgie 
by  K.  0.  Mi  em.br  (3d  edit.,  by  Welcker,  lircs- 
lau,  1846).  An  English  work  on  the  subject  is 
Westropp's   Handbook    i  f  Ai     ■>  <lo  u     I  ond., 


th  -Si- 


!  I  1  I  ,  I  I  ,. 


'hristian  Church,  and  chiefly  of  the  earlj  his- 
iiv  nt  Christian  worship.  Works  on  biblical 
rchaology    have  been    written    by    De  Wette, 


close  of  the  l»th  century,  the  Arabian  schools  in 
Spain  began  to  decline,  and  the  downfall  of  the 
caliphate  of  Bagdad,  in  1258,  extinguished  the 
fameof  their  Asiatic  schools. 

In  Arabia,  at  present,  there  is  little  education 


th. 


the  Km-.. 
luetic.  In 
which  an 
taught   w 


ments  of   distinguished  families.     There  is  no 
public  provision  for  the  education  of  women.    In 


ARCHITECTURE.      See  Tim.  Arts. 
ARCHITECTURE,  School.     See  School 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC,  an  independ- 
,t  stateof  South  America,  area  841,000  sq.m., 
•.it  we  add  the  territory  which  is  claimed  l.v 

.th  ill.-  Ai-entine  Ucpuhiic; itn.l  Chili.  1.(10(1.(100 


ARCHAEOLOGY 
an.l>u;o  .  knowledge, 
the  science  of  antiquities 


the 


there  are 
•   taught. 

s  several; 

annualli 
eign  .'lei 

belongs 

is   Ayres,   and 


try.'  Thus  the  Indians  in  the  United  States  and 
the  Celts  in  Greal  Britain,  have  I. come  the  sub- 
jects of  profound  archaeological  research. — In 
Germany  the  term  is  now  more  frequently  used 
to  denote  the  science  of  the  monuments  which  arc 

left  to  US  from  ancient  times,  and  especially  from 
Greek,  Etruscan,  and  Latin  antiquity.  As  the 
ancient  monuments  contain  a  vast  .. mount  of  in- 
formation, not  to  be  derived  from  classical  litera- 
ture, arch.,-!,!, i.v  is  regarded  as  an  important 
auxiliary  to  the   science  of   classical   philology. 


was  \\  inckc 


,-t    la 


a  number  of  Protestant  congregations  and 
schools  To  these  a  few  native  congi  gations 
have,  been  added  by  the  Methodist  missionaries 
from  the  United  States.  'I  here  is  a  marked 
diff  rence  between  the  population  of  the  towns, 
and  thai  bi  the  country,  The  formerare  gener- 
ally civilized,  and  take  a  profound  interest  in 
education;  but  the  gtutclios,  or  the  horsemen  of 
the  plain,  think  but  little  of  education  and  civili- 

The  territory  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  after 
being  occupied  by  the  Spaniards,  formed  a  part 
of  the  Viccrovalty  of  IVru  till  IT7C,  when  the 
Vi.vrovaltv  of  La  Plata  was  erected.  The  war 
of  independence  againsl  Spam  began  in  L810, 
and  was  successfullj  ended  in  1812.  In  L813,  a 
Soveivioi  Assembly  was  convoked;  and  in  1817, 
the  independence  oi    the  Dnited   Provinces  of 

l.a  Plata  was  formally  declared.  Like  the  other 
republics  of  Spanish  America,  the  country  suf- 
fered much  from  civil  wars.  From  1852  to  I860, 


38 


ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 


Buenos  Ayres  was  separated  from  tin nfedera- 

tion  of  the  other  provinces,  and  formed  an  in- 
dependent commonwealth.  More  recently,  the 
progressof  thecountryhaa  been  greater  and  more 

rapid    than    that   of    most  of   the    other    South 

As  early  as  1605,  tin-  Jesuits  established  the 
university  of  Cordova,  which  soon  became  the 
literary  center  of  all  the  territory  lying  in  the 
basin  of  the  La  Plata  river.  Of  course,  instruc- 
tion during  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  was 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  especially  the 
Jesuits  ;  and  very  little  was  done  in  the  way  of 
primary  instruction.  After  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jesuits,  in  L767,  the  university  passed  into  the 
hands  ..f  the    Franciscans  and  '-.really    declined. 


the  progress  at  first  was  very  slow.  The  active 
progress  of  education  dates  from  the  adoption  of 
the  constitution  of  Sept.  ls.;il,  which  still  rules 
:  country.     Among  the  first  provisions,  is  one 


on  in  every  province 
s  an  essential  obliga- 
nnient  was  given  the 


Midi 


for  securing  prima] 
of  the  republic,  mi 
tion.  To  the  gene 
power  to  dictate  pi 
education  ;  and  a  s 
of  public  insti'uetii 
ever,  was  the  indifference  of  the  people,  that  the 
government,  in  order  to  carry  out  its  plans  of  sec- 
ondary education,  was  compelled  no!  only  to 
offer  instruction,  books,  and  all  other  necessaries 
free,  but  also  to  pay  the  pupils  for  the  trouble 
of  attending  school  an  1  studying  their  lessons. 
The  National  College  of  Buenos  Ayres  was 
founded  shortly  after  the  adoptionof  the  presenl 
constitution.  Scholarships,  under  the  name  of 
cecas,  were  established,  giving  to  the  student  a 
monthly  allowance  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  dollars 
in  gold.  About  the  same  time,  three  other  pro- 
vincial institutions,  the  College  of  the  Uruguay 
in  the  province  of  Kntre  Bios,  and  the  College 
and  the  University  of  Cordova,  were  nationalized 
and  placed  upon  a  similar  basis.  l"p  to  1868, 
there  were  establish-  1  five  other  similar  institu- 
tions in  the  provinces  of  Tucuman,  Salta,  <  'ata- 
marca,  San  .1  nan.  and  Mendoza  ;    and.   in  1868, 


mal  colleges,  who   is   himself  a 
national    government   took   ils 


ARISTOTLE 

new  minister  of  public  instruction.  Dr.  Nicolas 
Avellaneda.  in  bis  first  report  to  the  congreae 
(1869),  earnestly  advocated  sweeping  reforms; 
and  the  work  of  carrying  out  these  reforms  was 
begun  energetically,  for  the  yea]  1  869,$]  15,000 
was  \oted  for  the   purpose  of  encouraging  pri- 


proceeds  among  the  various  provi B  in  propor- 
tion to  the  efforts  which  they  themselves  might 
make.  This  law  took  effect' in  January  ]s7:i. 
In  \*~'l,  primary  instruction  was  given  in  Hiss 
public  and  5(i(j  private  schools.  The  children  of 
school  age  (0  to  15)  numbered  468,987,  while 
the  number  of  those  attending  schools  was 
;i7,."i4!l.  The  number  of  teachers  was,  male 
1558,  female  1408.  The  expenditure  for  primary 
instruction  in  the  same  year  was  $1,564,350.  In 
August  1871.  the  first  national  normal  school 
was  established  at  Parana.  It  had,  in  1872,  285 
students  and  G  professors.  The  first  principal 
of  the  school  was  Dr.  Geo.  A.  Stearns.  —  The 
only  national  university,  at  Cordova,  was  reor- 
ganized, in  1870,  by  President  Sarmiento,  who 
established  a  number  of  new  chairs,  and  called 
from  Germany  professors  of  chemistry,  physics, 
and  botany.and  from  the  United  Slates  a  distin- 
guished  professor  oi    astr any.     In  1872,  the 

university  numbered  1  1  professors  and  103  stu- 
dents, 'l  he  university  of  Buenos  Ayres  is  a 
provincial  institution.  It  was  organized  in  lS'J'2 
by  Rivadavia,  and  was.  at  first. onlva  law  school; 
but,  owing  to  the  zeal  of  its  rector,   Dr.  Juan 


thai  nt  French  institutions;  the  museum  has 
been  formally  years  under  the  direction  of  the 
distinguished  Ccrinan  naturalist.  Dr.  Hurmeister. 
— See  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Educa- 

Peterm  iNN.Dte  sudamerikaiiischen  Republiken 
Argentina,  Chile,  Paraguay  unci  Uruguay  in 
1875  (Gotha,  1875). 

ARISTOTLE,  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
teachers  and  philosophers  of  either  ancient  or 
modern  times,  was  born  in  384  B.C.  at  Stagira, 
a  Civek  colony  of  Macedonia,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Strymon.  From  his  birthplace  he  is 
often  called'  the  Stagirite."    His  father, Nicom- 

aclnis.  »;,,  a  distinguished  phv-i.  lan  and  friend 
of  the  Macedonian  king  Amyntas  II.;  and  from 
I, ,n>   \ii-o.tlc  received  the  firsl  instruction.  Ilav- 


gress  for  tl 

the  adiuinis 

has  done  more   for  the  pro 


nci-s  none  moie  101  me  pioinoiiou  01  eoueauoii 
than  any  other  statesman  of  South  America.  The 
progress    made    since    then    is    wonderful.      The 


his  restless 


ml 


estrangement  arose   between   them',  owing  chiefly 

to  the  radical  differences  in  their  philosophical 
and  educational  systems.  While  Plato  was  a 
thorough  idealist.  Aristotle  was  just   as  fully  a 


realist  and  the  father  of  experimental  science.  I  crippled  should  not  bebrought  up  at  all.     Until 

About  343  B.C.,  Aristotle  was  appointed  by  king,  the  fifth  year  of  age,  children  should  not  be  oc- 

Philip  of  Macedon  teacher  of  his  son  Alexan-  cupied  in  hardlabor;  on  the  other  hand,  how- 

der,  at  that  time  thirteen  years  old.    The  history  ever,  they  should  not   remain  inactive,  but  have 

of  Alexander,  who  intellectually  was  no  less  prom-  suitable  exercises  in  plays  adapted  to  their  age. 

inent    a ig    the    kings  of  the   ancient    world  During  this  time,  as  well   as  during  the  two  fol- 

than  ;is  a  conqueror,  testifies  to  the  success  of  lowing  years,  education  by  means  oi  habit  takes 

Aristotle  as  a  practical  teach  it    Fora  long  time,  place  as  i  hil  Iren  obsi  rve  si  liai  thej  subs  quently 

his  preceptor :  and  after  the  conquest  of  Persia,  of  instruction  begins  in  the  7th  year  of  age  and 

he  presented  him  with  ■  i-ht  hundred  talents,  or  lasts  to  the  21st     This  time  is  divided  into  two 

nearly  a  million  of  dollars.     Later,  however,  the  periods,  the  one  extending  fromtheTthyeartothe 

friendly  relations  between   Alexander  and    iris-  ag<  ofpuberty  (aboutthel4thyear).theotherfrom 

totle  greatly  suffered  from   the  vicious  habits  «\  t  lie  14th  to  the  21st.     Kduraiioii  l,v  habit  during 


walked  up  and  down  while  delivering  his  lecture 

his   school    was   called    the   [ii-rijinh'tir.       Afte 
haying  taught  in  this  way  for  thirteen  years, 


composed  most  of 
ophy  and 
Demophih 


on  philos- 


(1)  that 
C>)  that 


vine  h. 
fled  to 
If.  ('.. 


activity  is  evdai/u  a  happiness,  both  forthein-  education  certain  instructional  means,  namely 
dividual  and  for  the  state.  This  ,i  l«  .  .,  a  is  reading  and  writing  gymnastics  music,  including 
based  on  virtue,  which  is  acquired  by  the  perform-  rhythmics  and  poetry,  and  occasionally  also  draw- 
ance  of  moral  actions.  As  man  is  a  social  being,  ing  The  first  and  the  last  of  thesi  serve  also 
destined  to  live  in  society,  the  development  of  for  the  necessities  of  life;  and  care  should,  there- 
life.  Theobjectof  thestate  is  to  e-tabli-h  the  .-duration  1„.  not  infringed  upon.  The  instruction 
complete  happin.-.-s  ot'  famili-s  and  communities,  in  draw  i  1 1  -r .  therefore,  should  be  given  in  such  a 
and  the  pres  avat  ion  ,,t  th  •  >t. legends  on  an  way  as  to  enable  the  youthful  mind  to  under- 
educational  system  conformabl  tothelawsand  Maud  and  criticise  the  works  of  plastic  art. 
constitution.'  Th-  same  , -duration  will  not  pro-  Gymnastics  educate  the  youth  in  manliness, 
duce  the  same  virtues  in  diff  rent  persons;  for  and  give  to  the  body  health  and  beauty.  That 
the  formation  of  charactei  in  each  person  is  de-  which  is  properly  athletic,  and  especially  every 
pendent  on  three  different  things,  nature,  habit,  thing  that  leads  to  rudeness  and  ferocity,  should 
and  instruction.  It  must  be  tin-  aim  of  habit  beavoided.a  point  oi  view  which  the  Spartans, 
and  instruction  to  develop  the  peculiar  faculties  in  their  otherwise  excellent  educational  system, 
which  nature   lias   implanted    in   each  indt\  idiial.  somewhat    lost   sieht   of.      Before   the  age  oi    pu- 

ln  tl lueation  of  a  child,  as  it  is  of  the  great-  berty,  only  easy  exercises  si Id  be  practiced,  and 

est  importance  that  its  body  be,  from  its  birth, as  all  violent  exertions  that   might   impede  natural 

perfect  as  possible,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  growth,  should  be  avoided.     Aim  attaining  the 

parents  be   suitably  matched,  and   that   women  age  of  puberty,  boys  may  devote  three  years  to 

during  their  pregnancy  receive  substantial  tool,  other  branches  of  instruction;  then   more  ditii- 

and  be  preserved  as  much  as  possible  from  men-  cult  exertions  and  privations  may  be  practiced; 

tal  agitation.     Children  who  at  their  birth  are  and  during  this  time  mental  occupations  should 


40 


ARITIIMKTIC 


receive  less  attention;  for  the  activity  of  the  mind 
is  impci  ltd  1  >  v  tile  exertion-  "1  tin-  liody,  ami  the 
activity  of  the  body  ><y  the  exertion.^  ,.t  the  miiul. 
Musical  education  deserves  specia]  attention  on 
account  of  its  ethical  iiilliieiiec.  Music  nunc  than 
any  other  art, is  the  art  of  imitation,  and  reflects 
in  the  soul  of  the  hearer,  in  a  manner  both  at- 
tractive an  1  instructive,  the  various  affections 
and  emotions  of  the  mind.  The  Doric  melody  is 
specially  n  ommended,  as  keeping  the  right 
mean  between  passionate  excitement  and  woman- 
ish weakness.  The  last  class  of  subjects  to  be 
taught  in  the  instruction  of  youth,  are  those 
which  serve  for  theoretical  purposes,  or  for  the 
acquisition  of  the  so-called  dianoetical  virtues. 
which  are  only  to  be  found  in  the  more  intelligent 
class  of  men.  Thes  i  subjects  arc  the  pure  sciences, 
as  mathematics,  dialectics,  and  philosophy.     The 


high  is1  "I 
oiny,  is  not 
are  too  ine: 
which  politi 
cational  thei 
theories  of 
free-born  yo 
theeducatio 

of  slave-.  . 
the  moral  : 
slaves  shoul 
Among  H 
Nicom  i  i 
views  on  ed 
of  Aristotle 


ARITHMETIC 


treatment  of  this  branch  of  instruction, — the  dis- 
sociation, to  a  great  extent,  of  mental  from  writ- 
ten arithmetic  :  whereas  they  should  be  b m- 

bined  as  to  constitute  only  different   exercises  of 

the  same  subject.  Quite  within  the  memory  of 
some  of  our  living  educators,  the  text-books  of 
arithmetic  generally  in  use  were  simply  single 
books  of  definitions,  rules,  and  examples.  Such 
were  (1st rauder's.  Pike's,  Dabols  etc.  These  were 


well 

piael 


of  this  subj 
quite  inadei 
time,  the  i 
being  a  tole 
of  the  funda 
denominate 

knowledge,. 


ilitical  econ- 
i-  the  young,  as  they 
■  net  ions  of  life  on 
>e  1. — like  the  edu- 
id  other  <  !  reeks,  the 
exclusively  refer  to 
ittention  is  paid  to 


>f  Anstotle  still  extant,  the 
ami  the  /',,',7/e.s-  contain  his 


O,  edited  by  J.  B.  T. 
the  same,  translated 
L874);    The  Politics 

.  notes),  by  Richard 
The   Ethics,  with  Es- 

Gbant,  (Lond.,  1874); 

i  iiin-!hi,  from apt&fids, 
uliers.  This  subject  oc- 
i  the  curriculum  of  all 
unary  and  grammar,  as 
or  disciplinary,  as  its 
estimate,  not  less  than 
hue,  for  the  first  eight 
:e,  is  given  to  the  study 
results  are   t ften 

generally  be  claimed 
ty  with  the  processes 
•onimon  fractions,  and 
th  a  veiy  imperfect 
.cesses  of  decimal  frac- 


suceeeded  i>v  two  classes  ot  text-books, — one, 
called  Mental  Arithmetics,  of  which  Colbum's  is 
a  type;  and  the  other,  such  as  presented  an  at- 
tempt to  explain  the  reasons  of  the  processes  in- 
volved m  the  different  rules.  Of  the  latter, 
Adams's  Ken-  Arillimrlk  affords  a  fair  example. 
Following  these  two  lines,  the  science  has  been 
practically  divided  into  two  :  and  so  diverse  are 
these  in  their  methods,  that  a  pupil  may  be  quite 
expert  in  one.  and  almost  entirely  ignorant  of 
the  other.  If.  in  addition  t.»  this,  the  tact  is  con- 
sidered that  the  text  books  in  the  course  have 
been  multiplied  until  there  ale  now  two  books 
in  mental  arithmetic,  and  three  in  written,  in 
several  of  the  series  in  general  use.  the  rea- 
son for  the  length  of  time  consumed  on  this  sub- 
ject in  our  public  schools  will  be  obvious.  But 
there  is  Btill  another  cause  which  operates  with 
i  onsiderable  force;  that  is.  the  cumbi  ring  of  our 
text-books  with  so  many  subjects  that  are  utt<  riv- 


es a  kl 


,//,,,/ 


r/ee, 


ds,  or 


the 


duodecimals.  It  is  indeed  important  that  a 
pupil  should  know  how  to  reduce  a  fraction  to 
Its  lowest  terms:  but  no  ordinary  case  requires 
a  knowledge  of  the  process  for  finding  the g.  c. 
,/..  oor  are  we  accustomed  to  use  it."  For  the 
process  itself  we  have  no  use  until  we  reach 
higher  algebra,  and  the  demonstration  of  the 
process  is  quite  too  intricate  for  the  ordinary 
pupil  in  elementary  arithmetic.  Again,  no  one 
uses  the  processes  of  alligation  alternate;  and  but 
few  indeed  of  the  great  mass  of  our  school  chil- 
dren can  comprehend  the  conditions  which  give 
rise  to  much  of  our  business  arithmetic.  It  is 
not  intimated  that  such  problems  as  those  which 
arise  in  stocks,  arbitration  of  exchange,  general 
average,  etc,  should  not  have  a  place  in  an  arith- 
metical course,  but  only  that  they  do  not  belong 
in  the  course  for  the  masses.  There  are  other 
topics,  more  elementary  and  re  generally  use- 
ful, to  which  the  time  of  these  should  lie  given. 
And  lastly,  on  this  topic,  of  wdiat  conceivable. 
use  arc  many  of  the  examples  which  occupy  so 
much  space  in  our  books,  and  so  much  time  in 
the  course?    Take  the  following  as  specimens: 

I  bought  a  hat,  coat,  and  vest,  lei  $34;  the  hat  cost 
I  of  the  price  of  the  coat,  and  the  vest  j  of  the  price 
of  tie  hat :  what  w  ;is  the  cost  ol  each? 

One-half  ol  A's  money  =  $  of  B's;  and  the  interest 
of  i  r,f  A's  and  A  of  lis  money,    at   I  per  cent  for 


'f  In-, 


ordinary  bush 
ing  the  usual 
least,  from  a 


ital    gyi 


However   ap 


ARITHMETIC  41 

plicable  the  principle  involved  in  this  maybe,  bers  be  selected  at  first,  as  will  cause  difficulty 

in  education  there  is  rcallv  no  need  of  it.    If  the  in  effecting  the  combinations.      Thus,  the   in.,i 

demands  of  actual   life  ai-e  so   meager,  that  we  questions  may  be,   "Mr.   A   had  300  sheep  and 

must  make  a   large   part    of   our   discipline  in  lost  5  out  of   each  hundred;  how  many  did  he 

arithmetic  coiiM.-t  in  unraveling  such  uianut'act-  Ins.'.'"     ■•  What  j  .1 1 1  ■-•  t  -..  ■  may  we  use  instead  of  '5 

ured  puzzles,  is  it  not  well  to  ask  the  question  out  of  each  hundred?'"     "Mr.   B   had  an  or- 

wlneh'\wll  afford    the   needed  .lis.i].  line  l.v  deal-  them:    how    mau'v  did  he  l'o,e  T      ••  What  phrase 

ingwith  the  actual  and  useful,  instead  of  wasting  may  we  use  instead  of  '  6  per  cent?'"  To  as- 
time  and  strength  on  the  purely  fictitious?  The  sign  as  the  first  example,  one  like  the  following 
arithmetics  of  to-day,  however,  are  a  great  ad-  would  be  a  gross  violation  of  this  principle: 
vance,in  this  respect,  on  those  in  use  fifty  years  "Mr.  A  put  out  $759,  on  7  per  cent  interest; 
ago;  but  no  editor  of  a  text-hook  on  arithmetic  what  was  the  interest  fora  year?"  After  the 
has  vet   felt  at  liberty  to  cut  out  entirely  these  principle   to  be  taught    is  clearly  seen,   larger 

,ne»  life  tunn-h  abundant  , mire 'that  the  work  be  written.     Bu1  thesame 

ction;  but  these  more  ab-  style  of  explanation  should  be  preserved;   and 

,t  fall  within  the  purview  greal  care  should  be  taken  to  haw  it  seen  that 

rae,  nor  come  within  the  the  method  of  reasoning  is  the  same  in  .-ill  cases, 

life  makes  upon  the  great  To  illustrate   still  farther:    as,  in  practice,  the 

majority  oi  persons.    There  are  a  great  number  computer  ordinarily  uses  the  rate  as  the  multiplier, 

and  variety  of  intricate  questions  which  do  act-    the  for f  explanation,  when  the  whole  is  given 

uallv  arise   in   dw-oiiutiii".   neeotial.le  paper.  as  ,, rally,  should  be  adapted   to  this  fact     At  first, 

well  as  in  the  abstruse  questions  which  insurance  such  an  example  as  the  first  above  will  naturally 

and  annuities  present ;  but  it   is  not    the  aim  of  be  solved  thus:    "If  Mr.   A   lost  5  sheep  out  of 

our  elementary  courses  to  train  pupils  for  such  100,  out  of  3  hundred   he   lost    ::  times  5,  or  L5 

specialties;   and  when  in  any  properly  co-ordin-  sheep."     But  before  leaving  such  simple  illustra- 

their  solution  will   tli  -n   neue  in  the  r  -ul.ir  line  ],Mi,e-  1  out  of   |iu>   i>  I, mi,. ..  .ill  of  the  number. 

of  the  application  of  g  m  tral  principles,  and  the  losing  5  out  of  iOO  is  losing  .05  of  the  number, 

student  will  nave  acquired  sufficient  maturity  to  lieu, v.  Mr.  A  lost   .05  of    300  sheep,  which  is 

comprehen  I  the  busin  ss,  economic  il.  or  political  1  .">  sheep."  Thus  in  all  c.i-es.  the  form  of  thought 

relations  which  give  risj  to  them.  which   will    ordinarily    be    required    in   solving 

117/.//   should  eontt  'ttte  /•'/•■  course  in  arith-  the  problem,  should  be  that  taught  in  the  intro- 

ough  unification  of  the  processes  of  mental  and  is  furnished  by  reduction.    At  first,  the  question, 

written  arithmetic.    There  is  but  one  science  of  "How  many  ounces  in  5  lb.?"  will  naturally  be 

duceth  •impre"ioh  m';  a  •  pupils  mm  1  that  there  lb.  there  are  5  times  16  oz.,  or  80  oz."  But  in 
are  two  species,the  one  intellectual  and  the  other  practice  the  16  is  ordinarily  used  a.s  the  multi- 
mechanical,  is  an  obstacle  to  his  true  progress,  plier,   and   it    is   better   that    the    introductory 


pel 

rusi 
ai 


ild 


whole  may  be  made  perfectly  h 
basis  upon  which  this  is  to  h 
principles  should  be  discussed  I 
small  numbers  which  can  be  < 
mind,  and  which  do  not  rende 
labor  of  combination  so  great 
attention,  or  divert  it  from  tin 
and  that  we  should  pass  grad 
the  reasoning,  to  larger  numbers 
an  1  complex  combinations,  in 
paper  are  necessary.  The  vati, 
ways  the  same  in  the  mental  (pi 
metic  an  1  in  the  written,  penci 
use  1  only  when  th  ■  n.ui.l    is  1" 

the  elements  too  numerous,  to 
cable  to  hold  the  whole  in  them 
suppose  the  pupil  to  be  enter 
jei  •  of  percentage.  The  first 
what  is  meant  by  per  cent. 


borne 


it.  It  shouli 
ess  men  r,ly  very  little  upon 
tions.  They  use  the  pen 
ost  every  computation.     In 

construetiim'  our   course  in 


ii  order  to  this,  is  no  exaggeration  to  say.  that  from  eighty  to 
small  numbers  will  be  used,  and  the  process  will  ninety  per  cent  of  the  pupils  disappear  from 
not  require  pencil  and  paper,  nor  will  such  nmn-    these  schools  by  the  close  of  the  seventh  school 


42 


ARITHMETIC 


year :  and  not  more  than  one  in  one  hundred 
takes  a  high  school  course.  Since  all  pupils  of 
the  common  schools  have  need  of  the  rudiments 


alize,  and  thus  to  view  truth  in  its  relations, 
as  for  the  amount  of  mere  arithmetical  knowl- 
edge which  may  be  added  to  the  pupil's  stock. 


is  dee 
object 


elltireh 


text-book 

ioIs.     The 


supply  the  means  of  giving 

in  their  seats,  and re  than 

minds  a  dislike  for  study  and 
i  disposition  to  expect  that 
do  all  the  work,  and  thus 
But  whatever  disposition  may 
\ry  arithmetic,  as  usually  un- 
:i  imperative  demand  that  the 
•  for  the  masses  should  be  so 
nore  important  practical  sub- 
1  and  mastered  by  a  majority 


necessary  draft  ii]i>> 
teacher,  renders  tli 
does  not  so  readilj 
them  work  to  do 
all.  begets  in  their 
self-exertion,  and  : 
the  teacher  must 
cam-  them  alone;, 
be  made  of  prime 

derst 1.  there  is  ai 

course  in  arithiueti 
arranged  that  the  i 
jects  can  he  reachei 
of  our  youth  durinj 
which  they  can  spe 
to  effect  this,  three 
(ha  rigorous  exc 

topics  present  ■!  an 


— addin.-    multiilvni-.ctc.  tl,     t  ,.,-lier  ,|,,es 

consume  so  much  tune  that  the  great  mas 
the  .moils  will  never  advance  beyond  the  mi 
rudiments  of  the  subject.     The  range  of  U 

willV'th'e  fundamental  rules;  common 
decimal   fractions;    denominate  numbers   t 

being  taken  to  reject  all  obsolete  or  inn 
denominations,  and   to   give  abundant    exer 

calculated    to   insure  a  definite    conceptioi 

the  meaning  of  the  denominations];    ,,,-rm, 


lu.li 


with  partial  payr, 


,„,'■■      If.  after  this 


tended, 
proport 


is  from 
I  .ere.  of 
ig  how 


which  the 

small,;-,  Ih, 


ssed  is  made 
plied,  and  ,f 
■aer.thenum- 


principles  out  of  which  they  all  grow 
doped.  In  this  method  ..f  treatment,  the 
iot  find  himself  merely  going  over  the 

subjects  through  whichhe  plodded  in 
his  childhood  hilt  new  ranges  of  thought 
sentcd.at  the  same  time  that  all  the 
md  processes  of  the  elementary  arith- 


l.lleh  ful- 

d  in  anv- 


il have  hi 
le   public 


breadth  and  scope  to  the  conceptions,  and  r 
<lucing  a  disposition   to  systematize  and   gene 


of  the  equation  can  be  introduced  :  nevertheless, 
enough  can  be  given  to  enlarge  very  greatly  the 
student's  power  to  examine  new  questions  for 
himself.  By  means  of  the  equation,  he  maybe 
taught  the  solution  of  such  problems  as  the  fol- 


ARITHMETIC 

lowing,  which  would   lie  quite  out  of  his  reach  ;  principles   by   the   pupil  so   that    he    can   state 
without  this  instrument  : 

To  find  "■'"''  ■■"'■'>  /"'.</»"' 
to  discharge  a  given  principt 


To 
has  h 

a  fnu 


be  in 

order 

them  in  a  general  way.  and 

(3)  a  ca 

in  the  ■■! 

refill  and  con- 
ass,  in  appli- 

equal 

'""■'- 

of  these  general  ends  of  ai 
Becure  the  s nd,  namely 

•itlinicti. 

al  study.  To 
and  accuracy 

chaser  shall  receive 
interest  from  that  na 
These  and  many 
problems  arc  quite 
simple  equation,  and  i 
tious  to  propose  to  a 
knowledge  of  this  in 


the  arithmetical  processes  under  the  few* 
sible  heads  and  showing  their  philosopl 
pendence,  the  whole  is  put  in  the  best  i 
form  to  be  retaine  1  in  the  memory.  I'lins, 
seen  that  a  sin-le  principle  rovers  all  the  e 
reduction,  that  another  .-imple  principle,-,, 
the  so  called  "problems  in  interest,"  thai 
common  intricate  questions  in  discount  ai 
ily  solved  by  the  simple  equation,  etc..  th 
cesses  will  not  be  the  evanescent  things 
they  have  often  been. 

Principles  I   —  to  be  kept  u 

while  teaching  arithmetic.  -  I.  I  li  i  ■  a 
distinct  and  strongly  marked  general  a 
arithmetical  study:  .1  To  master  the  ratio 
the  processes,  and    2)  To  acquire  facility! 


ass.  which  the  pupils  >hould  he  required 
with  the  utmost  promptitude,  and 
■feet  accuracy.  In  respect  to  all  mere 
d  combinations,  a.s  addition,  subtraction, 
■ation.  division,  involution,  evolution, 
drills  like  the  following  "ill  be  of  the 
use  and  should  be  continued  until  the 
tions  can  be  made  as  rapidly  as  we  would 
,-  read  the  numbers:  Teacher  repeats 
ie  pupils  follow  in  silence,  making  the 
tions,  "5+3-^2*  +3,  squared,  -7-=-7> 
larc  root,  etc."      These  oral  drill-  mav  be 


in.-.- 


...hi 


which     tion.a 
andsh 


■tilled 


e    eall    he 

stand  on 
iking  the 


The  means  which  secure  one  of  tl 
necessarily  adapte  1  to  secure  th  • 

secure  the  first,  for  example,  in  i 
dition,  the  steps  are,  learning  to 
how  numbers  are  group  id  in  the 
learning  how  to  make  tin-  addi 
finally,  by  means  of  a  knowledgi 
tic  digits  taken  two  and  two.  lear 
sum  of  any  given  numbers.  Ii 
latter  process,  the  pupil  needs  t. 
write  units  of  a  like  order  in  tl 
why  we  begin  at  the  units' columi 
•'  carry  one  for  every  ten.'  as  th 
But  all  this  maybe  known,  an 
make  sorry  work  in  practical  add 
to  secure  tl  knowledge  of  the  rati 

needs  to  be  clearly  explained  and 
and  then  the  pupil  must  be  requii 
whole,  -overand  pvei  again,  in  li 
Fortius  purpose,' much  class  .In 
board,  in  having  each  pupil  sepai 

he  has  before  performed,  wil 
Pupils  may  be  required  to  brii 

sufficient  time  he  given  to  explanation  from  th, 

slates.  These  three  things  repeated  in  about  th. 
same  way,  (1)  a  clear  preliminary  explanatioi 
of  principles  either  given  in  the  text-book  01 
by  the  teacher,  (2)  a  thorough  mastery  of  thesi 


ombina- 
al  value 


guage  the  reason  for  each  step.     But 

lis  is  secured,  there  will  be  found  need 
hill  on  examples  to  the  answers  of 
innot  have  access,  and  which  he  must 
1  solve  at  the  moment.  In  this  depart- 
i  valuable  exercise  may  he  given  by 
epuiiilswritt.il  notes  or  papers  indu. 


he  class    stated,  two  general  purposes  — the  theoret 

.,,,..  (i...  The  sians  of  division.  multiplication,  et.   . 

.         usrd  with   striit   propriety   in  tins   sp.vinen 

an     applied    to    the    r.-snlt    of    all    tie-    1 


i  parenthesis.    Thi 
ving  7,  this  square 


II 


AIMTITMI-TTr 


the  practical — which  must  run  parallel  through 
all  good  teaching  in  arithmetic,  and  that  they 
are  generally  to  be  attained  by  different  means. 
II.  In  order  to  realize  the  above,  a  careful 
discrimination  needs  to  be  made  between  simply 
telling  how  a  thing  is  done,  and  telling  why  it  is 
i  lone.      Very   much   of   what  we  read   in   our 


4  is  contained 
[    1 2  hds.        3  hds..    or  300  times. 
32  tens       8  tens,    or    80  times. 
|        24  units  6  units,  or       6  times. 
'■'<  units,  no  times. 


L547 


3s6  times. 


text-books,   and    hear    in    class-rooms,   under  the     with  a  remainder  3 


name  of  nitnli/sis,  in  explanation  of  solutions,  i: 

nothingmore  than  a  statement  of  the  process     i 

telling  how  the  particular  example  is  wrought 

This  vice  is   still   so   prevalent  as  to  need   the    secure  the  proper  em 

clearest    exposition    and  the  most  radical  treat-    is  coneerned   solely  ' 

meiit.    Indeed,  it  has  become  so  general  as  to    the  breadth  of  discip 

be  mistaken    by  the   masses    for   the    thing   it    ;s  ,„,t  great;    butt 

purports  to  he  :'  and  pupil  and  teacher  frequently     .„,,  alnJost   infinitely 

seem  to  think  that  this  parrot-like  way  of  telling    sei,pe  f,,r   mental   t 

what  has  been  done  is  really  a  logical  < 

of    the  principles   involved.       The   foil 

ample,  clipped  from  a  hook  not  now  a 
for  popular   favor,  will   serve   to  ilia- 


III.  There  should,  also,  be  a  careful  dis- 
crimination between  piweand  applied  arithme- 
tic, in  order  that  they  may  be  so  taught  as  to 
secure  the  proper  end  of  etch.     Pure  arithmetic 

is  e vmed  solely  with  abstract  numbers,  and 

the  breadth  of  discipline  to  be  secured  by  its  study 


lications  of  arithmetic 


que 


ed,  and  give  a  far  wider 
ig.  In  the  latter,  the 
multiply,  a«H.  subtract. 


-.Illll  7)3t;.3IIO()( 

21352         Commencing  the  di- 

34 

vision,  we  find  that  1  7 



is  contained    in   36,  2 

23 

times.      We  place  2  in 

17 

the  quotient,  and  sub- 



tract    2>   17   from  36. 

60 

The   remainder    is  23. 

51 

9(1 

quotient,  and  subtract 

85 

117  from  23.  To  the 



remainder  6  we  annex 

50 

one  of  the  0s,  and  find 

31 

that  17  is  contained  in 



60,  3  times   with   9  re- 

16 

mainder.    We  continue 

this  process,  aim 

sing  to  each  remainder  a  new 

figure  of  the  di\ 

idend,  until  we  find  a  final  re- 

inainder  16.  whie 

h   does  not  contain   1  7.  but  the 

division  by  17  m 

iv  be  expressed  by  writing  the 

Compare  this  with  the  following: 

Reasons  for  die  Rule  in  Short  Division.  - 
The  divisor' is  written  at  the  left  of  the  dividend, 
simply  that  we  may  be  able  to  see  both  at  once 
conveniently. 

We  begin  at  the  highest  order  to  divide,  be- 
cause by  so  doing  we  can  put  what  remains  after 
each  division  into  the  next  lower  order  and 
divide  it;  and  thus  we  get  all  that  there  is  of 
any  order  in  the  quotient  as  we  go  along. 

We  write  the  quotient  figures  under  the  Orders 
from  whose  division  they  arise,  because  they  are 
of  the  same  orders. 


the  commercial  relations  which  give  rise  to  the 
problems  of  foreign  exchange,  or  the  circum- 
stances out  of  which  many  of  the  problems  in 
regard  to  the  value  of  stocks  grow,  would  he  per- 
fectly preposterous. 

IV.  In  teaching  applied  arithmetic,  it  is  of 
the  first  importance  that  the  problems  be  such  as 
occur  in  actual  life,  and  that  in  expressing  them, 
the  Usual  phraseology  be  employed.  For  example. 
compare  the  following  : 

(i!  What  i-  the  present  worth  of  »500  due  3  yr. 
7  mo.  20  da.  hence,  al  6  per  cent  per  annum? 

(2)  I  have  a  7  per  cent  note  for  $500,  dated  Feb.  6th, 
Is:::,  ami  due  -I til v  lutti.  Is7<i.  Mr.  Smith  proposes  to 
buy  it  of  me  Sept.  18th.  1874,  and  to  pay  me  such  a 
sum  for  it  as  shall  enable  him  to  realize  lu  per  cent 
per  annum  on  hi-  in\  e-tinent.  What  must  he  pay  me? 
In  ether  wcril-.  what  i-  the  present  worth  ef  this  note 
Sept    Isth,  ls74'' 

The  first  supposes  a  transaction  which  could 
rarely,  if  ever,  occur,  and  even  disguises  that. 
Most  pupils  who  have  gone  through  discount  in 


l.-ked. 


Wl 


following  i>  an 
1517   equals 
and  3  units ; 


teivst  docs 
would  an- 
i  stood  that, 
r,  we  find 
interest- 


many   times  the  the  money  is  not  on  interest.    M 

dend,  by  finding  ,„,  such  paper     no  notes  not  l» 

I   in   the  parts  of  jn   the  market.    Again,  the  assumption  seems  to 

ilts.  |K.  that  the  note — if  even  a  note  is  suggested  a1 

1  by  tin  exampl .  all     is  discounted  at  the  time  it  is  made.    Thus, 

1547  by  4.     The  jt   is  obvious   that   the  first   form   is   calculated 

peration:  to  give  the  pupil   quite  erroneous  impressions; 

>  tens,  24  units,  whereas  the  second  brings  a  real  transaction  into 
full  view. 


ARITHMETIC  ARIZONA                         45 

V.  From  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  course,  in  which  the  faculties  chiefly  exercised  are  obser- 

it  should  be  the  aim  to  teach  a  few  germinal  prin-  vation,  or  perception,  and  memory,  and  in  which 

ciplesand  lead  the  pupil  to  apply  them  to  as  great    the  pupil  is  not  c petenl  toformidate  thought, 


ing  taught  him  the  names  of  the  numbers  u] 
fourteen,  will  show  bin  the  meaning  of  the  wi 
fourteen  (four  and  ten);  then  he  can  be  led  to 
on  tn  nineteen  by  himself  No  child  oughf  to 
told  how  to  count  from  fifteen  to  nineteen;  i 
after  twenty,  lie  needs  only  (.1  be  shown  how 
names  of  the  decades,  .-us  twen-ty,  thir-ty,  for 
and  tif-tv  are  forme  1,  to  1„,  able  to  give  the  1 
himself:' nor  does  hen,',   I  tobel  id  howtocot 

through  more  than  one  decade.  In  reference 
the  fundamental  tables,  it  may  be  suggested  t 
no  pupil  should  be  furnishe  1  Willi  an  additi 
subtraction,  multiplication,  or  division  table  rea 
made.  Having  been  taughf  the  principle 
which  the  table  is  constructed,  be  should  be 
.mired  to  make  it  for  himself.  As  prelimmi 
to  practical  addition  and  subtraction,  the  com 

any  number  up  to  is  (9+9)  should  be  m; 
perfectly  familiar.  Thus  the  ehild  should  ree< 
nize  1  +4,  and  'J  (-3,  as  5;  L+5,  '2  1.  and  \\  \ 
is  6;  etc;  and  this  should  be  male  the  foua 
tionof  addition  and  subtraction.  He  should 
ta11.4ht.that  if  he  knows  that  ::  •  1  7.  he  kno 
by  implication  thai  23  I  =  27,  33d  1  37,  e 
Passing  iron,, he  primary  arithmetic, he shoi 
be  taughf  common  fractions  by  means  of  t 
fewest  principles  an  1  rules  consistent  with 
ability.  Thus  in  multiplication  and  division, 
multiply  or  l<>  divi  /■  i  fra  U  m  by  u  wfi 
number,  and  To  multiply  or  to  divide  a  wh 
number  by  a  fraction,  are  all  the  cases  needi 
and  these  should  be  taught  in  strict  conform 
with  practical  principles.    Thus,  to  multiply 

whole  number  by  a  fraction  is  to  take  a  fr~ 
tional  pari  of  the  number;  and  to  divide  a  ira 
ber  by  a  fraction  is  to   tin  1   how  many  times  1 

latter  is  contai 1  in  the  former.     To  cover 

the  forms  of  reduction  of  denominate  numbe 
nothing  is  needed  but  the  principle  or  rule,  that 
pass  from  higher  to  lower  denominations,  we  m 
tiply  by  the  number  which  it  takes  of  the  lov 
to  make  one  of  the  higher;  and  to  pass  from  lov 
to  higher  we  divide  by  the  same  number.  Thi 
simple  principles  should  be  seen  to  cover 
cases,  those  involving  fractions  as  well  as  othe 

In  like  manner,  by  a  proper  form  of  statemt 
of  examples,  and  an  occasional  suggestion 
■question,  most  of  the  separate  rules  usually  giv 
under  percentage  may  be  dispensed  with. 
dealing  with  the  cases  usually  denominated  y »/-, 
lems  in  interest, a II  that  is  needed  isthefollowi 
brief  rule:  Find  the  effect  produced  by  usim 
unit  if  lli,-  number  required,  under  iff  gi% 
circumstmio's,  ,/»•/  co/,/yw/v  this  irith  tht  git 
effect.  This  should  be  'male  to  covei  thei  a 
usually  detailed  under  six  or  eight  rule-, 

VI.  There  tire  three  stages  of  mental  dcveli 
ment  which  should  be  carefully  kept  in  view- 
all  elementary  teaching :    (1)    Th irliest  sto 


ven  first,  and  illustrated,  demonstrated,  or  ap- 
ied  afterward.     (See  Analytic  Metuod,  and 
eveloping  Method.) 
ARIZONA   was   organized    as    a    territory 


.f  N( 


the   next    year.   I (her  and   n 

was  enacted.  Nothing,  howev 
tancewas  accomplished  toward 
of  a  system  of  common  schoul 


18  passed  by 
863,  author 
schools;  and 


I  si 


'ear,  the  governor  s 
ecu  put  in  operatio 
there  was  a  sutticii 
arger  portion  of   i 


satisfactory  progress."  In  1873,  the  total  school 
population  between  the  ages  of  li  and  21,  was 
reported  as  1,660,  of  whom  836  were  males,  and 
824  females.  Of  these  there  were  only  IS'.'  at- 
tending public  and  private  schools,  the  former. 
343.  The  whole  amount  paid  for  school  pur- 
poses  was   $11,060.      In  February,    IsT.'S,    the 


46 


ARKANSAS 


school  law  was  amended,  constituting  the  system 
as  it  now  exists. 

School  System.  —  The  governor  of  the  terri- 
tory is  ex  officio  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, and  apportions  the  school  fund  among 
the  several  counties,  according  to  their  respective 
school  population,  consisting  of  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one  years.  It 
is  made  Ins  duty  to  visit  and  inspect  the  schools 
as  often  as  once  in  each  year.  The  probate 
judges  df  the  several  counties  are  exofficio  super- 


Mi  of  a  majority  of  a  township,  the 
immissioner  should  sell  the  sixteenth 
forty-aere  tracts,  to  the  highest  bidder, 
,  of  thi'  purchase  money  1  icing  payable 


i  list  a  linn 
commissi 


the  maintenance  of  schools,  and  a  tax  of  1">  cents 
on  $100  for  the  whole  territory.  The  moneyis 
divided  in  proportion  to  the  school  attendance. 
Each  district  may  levy  additional  taxes  by  a  vote 
of  two  thirds  of  the  district.     Education  is  made 

compelled  to  send  their  children  sixteen  weeks 

during  the  year  to  sonic  school,  when  within  two 
miles  of  their  residence,  or  have  them  instructed 
at  home. 

Educational  Condition.— The  schools  of  Ari- 
zona are  all  of  a  primary  grade ;  and  teachers 
receive  from  SI 00  to  $125  a  month,  males  and 
females  receiving  an  equal  salary.  According  to 
the  report  of  Gen.  Safford,  of  Dec.  21st.  1875. 
there  were  in  the  territory  2,508  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  six  and  twenty-one,  of  whom 
598  attended  public  schools.  The  receipts  for 
the  preceding  vear  were  82K.7.V.).'J2,  and  the  dis- 
bursements were  $24,151.96. 

This  report  stated  that,  under  the  existing 
school  law,  the  free  school  system  had  been  made 


his  hands  to  parties  who  would  give  satisfactory 
notes  to  secure  their  payment  with  interest.  The 
practical  operation  of  the  lawwas  as  follows  :  A, 
B,  and  ( '  purchased  a  sixteenth  section,  say  Janu- 
ary 1st;   A  and   I!  being  security  for  C's  notes 


school  commissioner,  say  rive  hundred  dollars,  as 
his  first  payment,  and  took  his  receipt.  The  same 
day,  they  each  borrowed  five  hundred  dollars 
from  the  school  fund  of  the  county,  thereby  vir- 


wliieh  every  child   in  the  territory  might  obtain 
the  rudiments  of  an  e  lueation. 

ARKANSAS.  This  state  was  originally  a 
portion  of  the  territory  of  Louisiana,  purchased 
from  the  French  government  in  1803.  It  re- 
mained a  part  of  that  territory  until  1812,  when 
Louisiana  being  a  lmitt  id  as  a  state,  it  became  a 
part,  of   the    Vlissouri    territory,  which    was  or- 

when  it  was  organized  as  a  separate  territory.  It 
was  admi  ted  into  the  Union  as  a  state  in  1836. 
Educa  ional  History. —  The  constitution  of 
1836  contained  a  declaration  in  favor  of  educa- 
tion to  the  effect  that  "  as  knowledge  and  learn- 
ing, generally  diffuse  1  through  the  community, 
are  essential  to  the  preservation  of  free  govern- 
ment," it  should  be  the  duty  of  the  general  as- 
sembly to  provide  for  the  sale  of  lands  donated 
to  the  state  by  the  general  government  for  edu- 
cational purposes,  and  to  apply  tin'  money  re- 
ceived therefrom,  to  the  establishment  and  sup- 
port of  schools.  In  accordance  with  this  pro- 
vision of  the  constitution,  the  legislature  passed 


of 


the  -eii --ion  ,,i  the  state,  payments  were  made 
in  confederate  money,  and  purchasers  of  school 
lands  were  not  slow  to  complete  their  payments 
in  that  currency  at  par.  I  hiring  this  period,  the 
state  auditor  was  the  chief  executive  school  of- 
ficer, and  made  his  report  to  the  governor.  The 
last  school  report,  under  the  ancien  regime,waa 
made  by  William  R.  .Miller,  state  auditor,  to 
Governor  Rector,  who  held  office  at  the  time  of 
the  secession  of  the  state.  In  its  printed  form, 
it  consisted  of  one  leaf  of  a  book  about  as  large 
as  Webster's  Spelling  Hook, and  states  that  there 
were  then  but  two  public  schools  in  the  state. 
Evidence  from  other  sources   shows   that,  by  the 


IlISS    I 


Ark; 


ast rons  conscipic 


a  state  of  civil  war.  a  very  large  proportion  of 
the  sixteenth-section  and  other  school  lands  of 
the  state  was  squandered,  without  creating  any 
considerable  permanent  school  fund.  Of  that 
which  was  created,  the  sum  of  §8,000,  the  last 
remnant,  was  invested  in  the  purchase  of  medi- 
cines for  the  confederate  troops ;  and  the  medi- 
cines were  lost  on  a  steamer  which  was  wrecked 
on  Brazos  river,  in  Texas. 

Two  provisions  of  the  Constitution  of  1868 
related  to  public  schools.  Section  I.  of  Article  VI. 
provided  that  "  The  executive  department  of 
this  state  shall  consist  of  a  governor,  etc.,  and 
a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  all  of 
whom  shall  hold  their  several  offices  for  a  term 
of  four  years."  Article.'  XI.  related  to  education, 
and  its  several  sections  provided,  ll)  that  the 
general  assembly  should  establish  and  maintain 
a  system  of  free  schools  for  the  gratuitous  in- 
struction of  all  persons  between  the  ages  of  five 
and  twenty-one  yea  is  ;  (2)  that  the  supervision 
of  such  schools  should  be  intrusted  to  a  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction;  (3)  that  a  state 
university    should    be   established;     (4)   that  a 

acl I  fund  should  be  created  from  the  sales  of 

...t I   lands    escheats,  estrays,  grants,  gifts,  one 

dollar  capitation  tax,  etc.;    (5)  that  no  part  of  the 


school  fund  should  be  invested  in  the  bonds  of 
any  state,  city,  county,  or  town;  (6)  that  the 
distribution  of  the  sehool  fund  should  be  limited 
to  such  districts  as  had  kept  a  achool  for  at  least 
three  months  in  the  year  for  which  the  distribu- 
tion was  made  ;  and  that  each  child  should  1  e  re- 
quired to  attend  school  at  least  three  years;  (7) 
that,  in  every  district  in  which  the  .school  fund 

should  be  insufficient  to  support  a  scl I  for  at 

least  three  months  in  the  war.  the  general  as- 
sembly should  provide  by  law  for  levying  a  tax  ; 
(8)  that  all  lands,  moneys,  etc.,  held  in  the  va- 
rious counties  for  s 
duced  into  the  gem 
the  general  assem 
raise  money  by  t; 
houses.  In  additioi 
of  the  article  on  Jii 
money  for  school 
treasury. ami  obliga 
the  rate  of  six  perc 
This  constitutio 
1868;  and,  upon  i 
Deeding,  an  electioi 
General  Powell  ( 'la 
and  Hon.  Thomas  S 
instruction.  On  t 
the  first  legisktuw 
met,  and.  in  due  t 
school  law,  which  w 


nd;  and  (9)  that 
ie  empowered  to 
building  school- 

ivisions.  a  sect  ion 


$45,000  of  outstanding  notes,  to  the  solicitor- 
general  for  collection.  In  all,  the  claims  of  the 
state  for  school  lands  sold  and  moneys  loaned, 
with  accrued  interest,  amounted  to  about  three 
quarters  of  a  million  of  dollars.  The  several 
amounts  of  the  school  fund  on  hand  at  the  be- 
ginning and  end  of  the  period  embraced  in 
Superintendent  Smith's  first  biennial  report,  wire 

Oct.  1,  1868.     V.  S.  Currency.    .  .  .$  2,691.98 

State  Scrip 56,302.97 

Total $58,954.95 

Oct.  1,  1870.     U.  S.  Currency  . . .  .*22,2nl .:!7 
State  Scrip 12,991.12 


ie   Kith  day  of    March  suc- 
for  state  otlicers  was   held. 


Total $35,192.49 

During  this  period,  the  school  revenues  were 
subject  to  depletion  from  three  causes:  (1)  The 
taxes  on  sixteenth-section  lands  were  merged  in- 
to the  general  revenue  of  the  state;  (2)  The 
"fines,  penalties,  and  forfeiture-."  levied  by  the 
various  courts,  wire  loosely  handled  by  the  col- 
lecting officers ;  t.'b  In  many  cases,  the  electors  of 
the  various  school  districts  refused  to  authorize 

the    levying  of  the   local    tax    for   school  houses; 


lib.- 


constitution 
enacted  the 
icatioiis.  few 
haraeter,  has 


ever  si  i 


is  la 


lit  of  cir- 
tell    pi.li- 

!  iii  their 


i  his  bien- 
nd  einbar- 
uiized    his 


cult  superintendents,  one  m  each 
rial  districts  of  the  state,  whosi 
several  circuits  were  analogous 
state  superintendent,  in  supervi 
ports,  etc.  A  school  trustee  w 
each  school  district,  with  the  sain 
already  specified.  The  reports  o 
tees  were  made  annually  to  tl 
intendents,  who  transmitted  tin 
the  state  superintendent,  to  be 
nial  report.  Under  many  diffictj 
rassments,  Superintendent  Smit 
department   in  August.  1868;  and  in  December 

were  elected.  In  September,  1869,  a  special  ses- 
sion of  the  state  board  of  education— composed 
of  the  state  and  circuit  superintendents  —  was 
held.  At  this  time  the  only  free  schools  existing 
in  the  state  were  a  few  for  pci-sons  of  color, 
established  by  the  United  States,  through  the 
agency  of  the  Freed  men's  liureau.  The  resources 
of  the  school  department  consisted  of  (1)  saline 
lands,  about  20,000  acres;  (2)  seminary  lands, 
about  1. (Mill  acres;  (.",)  sixteenth-section  lands, 
about  841,000  acres.  The  original  quantities  of 
these  lands,  which  were  donated  by  the  United 
States  government  for  common  school  purposes. 
were  two  sections,  each  of  the  first  two  classes, 
and  928,000  acres  of  the  third  class.  Of  the 
saline  and  seminary  land  funds,  about  $12,000 
in  specie,  war-bonds,  confederate  money,  etc.,  had 
been  transferred,  after  March  (ith,  1861,  to  the 
general  revenue  fund  of  the  state ;    and  about 


Notwithstanding  all  these  obstacles,  the  school 
system  was  able  to  present,  in  1870,  considerable 
progress  since  the  preceding  year,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  statistics  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age. 

"       "         "     attending  scnoi 
11    schools 

"        "  teachers  

"        "   teachers'  institutes.    .  . 
Amount  of  money  paid  teachers. 

The  whole  number  of  school  houses  built  prior 
to  1868,  was  632  ;  in  L869  and  1870,  it  was  657, 
The  apportionment  of  the  state  fund  lor  1868 
— 1869  was  P77.919.94,  and  the  district  tax, 
1215,348.79.      In  addition  to  these  evidences  of 


1870 

1869 

180,274 

nr./no 

lilT.alls 

07,412 

2,537 

1,489 

2,302 

1,335 

41 

12 

$405,74* 

J1nn,;;:i7 

ilind 
I  dur 


handsome  buildings;  erected  for  their  accommo- 
dation. 

Superintendent  Smith's  second  report,  for  the 


districts  had  become  deeply  involved  in  debt, and 

had  levied  exorbitant  taxes  to  remove  the  in- 
cumbrance; the  depreciated  paper  was  destroy- 
ing the  schools  and  driving  the  best  teachers  from 
the  state:  and  the  circuit  superintendents  were 

neglecting   the  schools.     The  following  was  the 

condition  of  the  school  fund  : 

..$14.-,lo.s| 
..   24,186.25 


State  Scrip.. 


.Ml,  Ml  1. 22 


Total. 


48 


ARKANSAS 


The  amount  of  money  distributed  since  Oct.  1st, 
1870,  was  as  follows : 

lTnit_'il  Si.;!  -s  Cnneiicv                 .  ..J  :!:i,t;ss.o:i 
State  Scrip ." 454,407.76 


To  :il  .    -1 38,095.79 

The  balance  on   hand  at  the  above  date  was 
$39,876.75,  of  which  nearly  the  whole   was  in 

state  scrip.  The  following  general  summary  of 
statistics  shows  a  decrease  m  nearly  every  item 
as  compared  with  those  of  1870  : 

ls72 


ARKANSAS  UNIVERSITY 


transferred  to  the  secretary  of  state,  "until  othcr- 
h  ise  i  in  Aided  by  law.' 


mentary  Jus/fur 


mlv 


if  school  age 


l!.4.:;i  I 


I'm;.-:;; 
ti!i,!i'J7 
2,128 


Almost  the  only  encouraging  feature  of  the 
period  covered  by  Superintendent  Smith  s  second 
report,  was  the  opening  of  the  Arkansas  Iiidus- 


and  the  only  report  which  lie  issued  was  for  the 
year  ending  September  30th,  1873.  Prior  to 
this,  tic- general  assembly  passed  a  new  revenue 
law,  which  was  construed  to  repeal  the  provision 
of  the  former  law  appropriating  two  mills  on 
the  dollar  out  of  the  ordinary  revenue  of  the 
state  for  school  purposes.  This  reduced  the 
amount  of  the  semi-annual  apportionment  from 
$210,000  to  $55,000,  all  of  which  was  in  state 
scrip,  worth  at  the  time  about  35  per  cent.  The 
same  legislature  abolished  the  office  of  circuit 
superintendent,  and  substituted  that  of  county 
superintendent.  It  also  limited  the  local  tax  to 
a  maximum  of  five  mills ;  and  a  decision  of  the 
supreme  court  made  even  this  tax  payable  in 
state  scrip.  The  following  are  the  principal 
items  of  the  school  statistics  for  the  year  1873  : 


A  new  constitution  was  adopted  in  187  1. of  which 
the  following  are  the  chief  provisions  in  regard 
to  education: — (I)  Thai  (he  stale  •■  shall  ever 
maintain  a  general,  suitable,  and  efficient  system 
of  free  schools,  whereby  all  persons  in  the  state, 
between  theagesof  six  and  twenty-one  years,  may 
receive  gratuitous  instruction;"  ('-')  That  no 
school  money  or  property  shall  be  used  for  any 
other  purpose;  (.'{)  That  the  general  assembly 
shall  provide  for  the  support  of  common  schools 
by  a  tax,  not  to  exceed  the  rate  of  two  mills  on 
(he  dollar,  on  the  taxable   property  of   the  state; 


Officers  08   may    be    provided  for    by  the   general 

a  sembly."     Under  this  last  provision,  the  duties 
i      upi'i  Intendenl   of    public    instruction  were . 


schools  in  the  state  at  presenl  i  Nov.  1875)  are 
those  of  the  city  of  Little  Rock,  which  wire 
opened  September  1 3th,  1 875.  'I  he  sole  n  liance 
of  the  mass  of  the  citizens  for  educational  advan- 
tages is, therefore,  upon  private  school.-,,  of  which 
a  large  number  were  opened  at  the  beginning 
of  the  school  year.     No  school  report   has  been 


is;;:,  as  the  a 
of  ,ia!e  have  n 
theschools  imp 
local  oihi  era  are 
Normal  Insb 
for  the   training 


the    se, 


Tin     chief    provision 
rs  in  the  state  is  the 


common  schools,  and  the  latter,  those  of  the  high 
schools.  Male  applicants  for  admission  are  re- 
quired to  be  L6  years  of  age.  and  females  14.  A 
training  school  is  operated  in  connection  with 
this  school.  Besides  this,  Quitman  College,  in 
Van  Buren  county,  is  a  normal  school  for  the 
training  of  colored  teachers.  There  is  also  a 
state  teachers  a latum. 

Sup  r  Instruction. — The  most  prominent 
of  the  higher  educational  institutions  of  the  state 
are  the  Arkansas  Industrial  University,  at 
Fayetteville  (q,  v.),  and  St.  John's  College,  at 
little  Rock  (q.  v.)  :  the  latter  of  which  is  under 
the  control  of  the  masonic  fraternity. 

Special  Instruction.—  The  Arkansas  Deaf- 
Mute  Institute  and  the  Arkansas  Institute  for 
the  Education  of  the  Blind,  both  ai  i  ittb-  bock. 

The  former  was  i nrporated  as  a  state  institu- 
tion in  1868.  The  latter,  the  same  year,  was  re- 
moved from  Arkadelphia  to  Little  Rock.  The 
financial  embarrassments  of  the  state  have  great- 
ly impeded  the  progress  and  efficient  operation 
of  these  institutions. 

Ijl  in  atio>ialJburnal,ete.-  -The  last  educational 
journal  published  in  the  state  was  the  Arkansas 
Join-mil  nf  hW/triifmii,  which  suspended  publica- 
tion in  1872  :  and  the  only  works  on  the  schools 
of  the  state  are  the  three  educational  reports  of 
(he  state  superintendents. 

While  the  present  educational  condition  of 
Arkansas  is  by  no  means  cheering,  it  is  not  quite 
hopeless.  The  decadence  of  the  school  system, 
which  a  short  time  ago  was  so  promising,  is  the 
result  of  financial,  political,  and  social  evils  ami 
misfortunes  that  have  alHictcd  the'  state  from  its 
earliest  history.  .Many  of  these  evils,  however. 
are  already  things  of  the  past,  of  which  only  the 
etl'eets  remain.  Under  the  presenl  administra- 
tion, much  has  been  done  towards  developing  the 
natural    resources  of  the    state;   and   there   is  no 

doubt  that,  in  a  few  years,  its  educational  pros- 

ARKANSAS  INDUSTRIAL  UNIVER- 
SITY,  at  Fayetteville.  Arkansas,  was  provided 


ARMY  SCHOOLS 

for  by  an  act  of  the  state  legislature  in  1868, 
but  was  not  opened  until  January  22.,  1872. 
'Ph.'  law  regulating  the  institution  provides  for 
:\2~  beneficiaries  who  are  entitled  to  four  years 
free  tuition.  The  value  "t  the  grounds,  build- 
ings, etc.  is  $180,000.  'I'Im-  buildings  will  accom- 
modate four  hundred  students,  and  consist  oi  a 
brick  edifice  five  stories  high,  21  t  feel  in  length, 
with  a  depth  in  the  wings  oi  122  feet,  with  five 
large  and  .several  small  halls,  ami  thirty  class- 
rooms. The  report  of  the  university  foi  1874 
showed  an  atl  radance  of  321  students,  hi  its 
various  departments,  under  the  instruction  of 
seven  pi"!  --  '!-  ami  three  other  instructors.  I  he 
institution  includesa  preparatory  and  a  normal 
department,  a  college  of  engineering,  and  a  college 
of  general  science  and  literature.  A.  college  of 
agriculture  and  a  college  of  natural  science,  with 
a  school  of  military  science,  and  a  school  of  coiu- 
M)  iree,  are  also  piw  ided  for  :  and  an  experimental 
farm  for  the  agi  [cultural  college  lias  I >een  secured. 
The  university  library  is  as  yet  quite  small. 
Gen.  Albert  W.  Bishop  is  the' president  of  the 
institution. 

ARMY  SCHOOLS.  Ski:  Military  Schools. 

ARNDT,  Ernst  Moritz,  a  German  patriot 
andauthor,  wasbi  >rn  1  >ec.  26.,  I  769,  at  Schoritz  on 
Riigen,  and  died  Jan.  29.,  1860,  at  Bonn.  He 
was  appointed,  in  1805,  professor  at  the  university 
of  Greifswalde ;  but  he  wrote  violently  against 
Xapoleon  and.  therefore,  fled,  after  the  battle  at 

Jena,  in  1806,  to  Sweden.    In  L8  19,  he  retur 1. 

and  henceforth  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  na- 
tional movement  in  Germany  which  led  to  the 
wars  of  liberation  (1813  to  isle),  and  the  over- 
throw of  the  French  rule  in  Germany.  In  1818, 
lie  was  appointed  professor  of  history  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Bonn;  but,  in  the  next  year  he  was 
retired  in  consequence  of  his  liberal  sentiments. 
In  1840,  he  was  re-instated  by  the  new  king 
Frederick  William  IV.  ;  and,  in  1848,  he  was 
amernberof  the  National  Assembly  of  Frankfort, 
which  attempted  the  reconstruction  of  a  united 
Germany.  Arm  It  is  chiefly  famous  in  Germany 
as  one  of  the  foremost  promoters  of  patriotism. 
One  of  his  songs,  Was  ist  </es  T)rnl*cln-n  J'/Ar- 
land?  was  long  regarded  as  the  most  popular 
national  hymn;  but  was  superseded  in  popular 
favor,  during  the  Prance-German  war,  by  Die 
Waeht  am  Rhein.  Some  of  Arndt's  numerous 
works  are  of  a  pedagogical  character,  the  most 
important  of  which  is  Fragments  uber  Menscken- 
bildung  (Altona,  1805),  which  explains  the  prin- 
ciples of  a  rational  education  of  man  in  accor- 
dance with  the  dictates  of  his  nature.  In 
opposition  to  the  ideas  of  Rousseau,  he  insisted 
that  the  essence  of  man  must  not  be  sought  in 
the  sensuous  nature  of  the  isolated  individual, 
but  in  his  spiritual  part,  and  in  his  rela- 
tions to  parents,  family,  society,  and  his  native 
country.  From  this  point  of  view.  Arndt  con- 
tends, with  Pestalozzi,  that  the  mother  shoidd  be 
the  first  teacher  of  the  child,  and  that  her  in- 
struction should  proceed  from  the  concrete.  He 
represents  love,  necessity,  and  freedom  as  the 
three  powers  which  co-operate  in  the  education 


of  man.     The  work  of  these  three  great  powers 


special 


his  wc 

weisung  eines  Fursten  (Berlin,  1813).  These 
educational  works  of  Arndt  exercised  far  less  in- 
fluence upon  the  rising  generation  of  Germany 
than  his  fairy  tales,  ami  especially  his  patriotic 
songs,  many  of  which  are  to  be  found  in  most 

Herman  reading-hooks  and  thus  have  contributed 
very  much  toward  shaping  the  German  mind  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  In  his  autobiography, 
h'riiiiirrniiqii,  mis  ilfin  t'iiixm-rrii  Lrlu-n  (l.eip- 
sie.  2.  ed..  1840),  Arndt  treats  fully  of  his  own 
education.  Biographies  of  Arndt  have  been 
written  by  Eogen  Labes  (I860), H.  Rehbein  and 
R.  Ceil  (1861),  and  D.  Schenkel  (1866).— See 
also  G.  Freytag,  in  Deutsche  AUgemeine  Bio- 
graphie,  art.  Arndt. 

ARNOLD,   Thomas,  D.  D.,  the  illustrious 

('owes,  in' the  Isle  of  Wight."  in  1  T'J.V  He  was 
educated  at  Winchester  College  and  Oxford 
University,  from  the  latter  of  which  he  obtained 
a  first -class  degree  in  1814.  He  attained  his 
greatest  fame  as  head-master  of  Rugby  School. 
to  which  position  he  was  elected  in  IS'JS,  and  in 
which  he  continued  till  his  death.  In  the  course 
of  instruction  of  this  school,  he  introduced  many 
improvements ;  but  it  was  the  system  of  moral 
teaching  and  training  which  he  established,  that 
gave  to  him  and  to  the  school  their  greatest  distinc- 
tion. He  preserved  among  the  boys  the  highest 
tone  of  moral  and  religious  sentiment  ;  and.  with 
consummate  tact,  habituated  them  to  the  practice 
of  the  principles  which  he  taught,  making  him- 
self both  feared  and  loved.  His  chief  reliance 
was  upon  guiding  the  public  opinion  of  the 
school,  as  the  most  powerful  element  of  control 
in  every  community.  For  the  practice  of  "  fag- 
ging" previously  in  vogue  in  the  school,  he  insti- 
tuted a  .-ysiem'of  iv^pou-ihle  Mij.cn  Won  by  the 


boys,  thus 


exercise  of  those  virtues  which  they  had  been 
taught.  Rugby,  however,  by  no  means  occupied 
all  his  time  and  attention."  For  some  time  he 
held  a  place  in  the  senate  of  the  London  Uni- 
versity, and  a  short  time  before  his  death,  ac- 
cej.ted  the  appointment  of  Regius  I'rofcssor  of 
Modern  History  at  Oxford,  where  lie  delivered 
some  introductory  lectures.  To  this  position  he 
intended  to  devote  his  whole  energies,  retiring 
from  Rugby;  but  his  plans  were  frustrated  by 
his  sudden  death,  in  1842.     His  greatest  literary 


A  KT-KDF  CATION 


work  is  the  History  of  Rome,  which  he  publish-  The  genius  of  Phidias  and  Praxiteles  must  havi 
ed  in  three  volumes  (1838—1840  —  1842),  owed  its  development  to  the  results  of  many 
brought  down  to  the  end  of  the  Second   Punic    centuries  of  previous  culture.     The    Parthenon 


War.  This  work  he  did  not  live  to  complete 
Bis  miscellaneous  writings  are  varied  and  numer- 
ous. Dr.  Arnold's  purity  and  elevation  of  char- 
acter, his  conscientious  zeal  and  wise  efforts  as  a 
practical  educator,  his  learning  and  literary  skill, 
and  the  excellent  example  which  he  pn  -  nted  m 
all  the  relations  of  life,  entitle  him  to  be  con- 
sidered "one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  his 
age."  —  See  Stanley,  Arnold's  Idfe  and  Cor- 
respondence (London,  1845)  ;  also  Tom  Brown's 
School-Days  at  Rugby  (London  and  Boston, 
1857). 

ARNOLD,   Thomas  Kerehever,    an  En- 


glish clergy  man, 


born  in   1800  and  died 


ctergyi 
L853.     lie  is  chiefly  noted  for  Ins  sc 
uals  for   elementary  instruction  i 


was  the  noblest  achievement  of  the  loftiest  genius 
making  use  of  the  agencies  and  results  of  the 
most  complete  culture  and  education  in  art.  We 
have,  however,  no  history  of  that  education  in 
detail.  Instruction  in  the  art  of  design  I , 
was  quite  general  at  Athens  and  in  some  of  the 
otb  i  Grecian  states  ;  and  Aristotle,  in  his  scheme 
of  education,  attributes  to  it  great  importance  as 
a  means  of  cultivating  the  sense  of  the  beautiful. 
The  establishment  of  art -schools  and  schools  of 
design  for  the  masses  is,  however,  of  modem 
origin,  and  is  due  to  a  consideration,  based  upon 
experience,  of  the  great  value  of  general  artistic 
skill  in  increasing  the  sources  of   national  wealth. 


French.  ( Jerman 
These  book-  lm 
country  as  well 
upon  a  thorouo 
the  peculiarities 
Mr.    Arnold   al 


id  some  otb  ir  languag  - 
extensively  used  in  this 
'. ■  i __•  1 . i  r i  1  They  are  based 
:n  of  practical  drill  in  all 
•  language  to  be  taught. 
pared   a   series  of  school 


classics,  and  published  articles  on  various  reli^ 
ious  and  ecclesiastical  questions.  His  manuals 
for  classical  study  are  based  on  a  system  similar 
to  that  of  Ollendorff. 

ART-EDUCATION.  Every  complete  sys- 
tem of  education  must  provide  for  the  cult- 
ure of  all  the  varied  faculties  of  the  human 
mind,  physical  and  intellectual,  moral  and  spir- 
itual, esthetic  and  emotional ;  and  must,  be- 
sides, supply  the  means  necessaryfor  thedevelop- 

nt   of  those  practical   capacities    upon   which 

the  social  and  national  progress  of  every  civilized 
lepends.  Among  the  agencies  required 
,  purpose,  art-education  claims  profound 
attention.  The  element  of  beauty,  which  exists 
in  the  human  mind,  when  made  the 
progn  ave  cultivation,  and  applied  to  the  vari- 
ous industries  of  sociaJ  life,  becomes  a  thing  of 
pecuniary  as  well  as  esthetic  value.  The  train- 
ing of  the  hand  and  eye,  which  is  obtained  by 
drawing,  is  proved  by  experience  to  be  of  very 
greal  a  [vantage  to  the  operative  in  every  branch 
,i  indu  ■>  :  indeed,  in  many  occupations,  draw- 
in-  is  indispensable  to  success.     But  the  value  is 

of  the  perception  and  conception  of  forms  and 
their  combinations  is  added,  leading  to  skill  in 
branch  of  art  of  the  highest  valu. 


sss 


skm.  in  its  summary  of  the  inquiry  on  profes- 
sional education  :  '■Among  all  the  branches  of 
instruction  which,  in  different  degrees,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest  grade,  can  contribute  to  the 
technical  education  of  either  sex.  drawing,  in  all 
its  forms  and  applications,  hits  been  almost  unan- 
imously regarded  its  the  one  which  it  is  most 
important  to  make  common."  Heretofore,  in 
the  struggle  and  conflict  of  nations  for  suprema- 
cy and  power,  it  was  believed  they  could  depend 
exclusively  upon  armed  men  and  heavy  guns ; 
luil  to-day  the  great   nations  of  Europe  rely  on 

-  industrial  education,  ami   the  general  culture  of 

-  the  people.  The  Worlds  Fair  held  at  London,  in 

-  1851,  revealed  plainly  to  England  that  she  was 
i  far  behind  her  great  rival  France  in  the  produc- 
l  tion  of  articles  'requiring  skilled  labor  and  taste, 
1  indeed,  below  all  the  other  civilized  nations  ex- 
l  cept  the  United  States.  Convinced  of  her  inferi- 
s  oiiiv.  she  went  vigorously  to  work  to  give  general 
I     in-t'rnctioii   in   the   tine   and    industrial  arts,  by 

establishing  schools  for  special  training,  free  of 
cost,  to  those  whom  the  science  and  art  depart- 
ment of  the  government  had  selected  for  art- 
masters.     Art-schools  were   founded  for  instruc- 


tion in  drawing,  modeling,  and  design,  in  many 
of  the  large  cities  .and  towns  throughout  the  king- 
dom. The  British  official  report  for  1872  shows 
that  there  were,  at  that  time,  in  England  122  in- 
dustrial art-sel Is;    besides    which  there  were 

l!M.">l'.t   children   receiving  instruction  in  draw- 
ing in  the  -schools  for  the  poor."     Up  to  that 
time,  there    had    been    established   one    well-ap- 
verv  manv  departments  of  manufacturing  ill-    pointed   art-school    of    190    students    for   every 
dustrv.  "Art-education",  says  an  eminent  author- 1  210,000  of  the  population;   so  rapidly  was 


ity,  ••  embraces  all  those  apj 
of  training  by  which  the  sei 
portion  is  developed.     It    is 


ethods    struction  in  art 


ugly  ami    what     is    beauti 

ideas  of  form  in  drawing 

other  sorts  on  the  written  page." 

Art  culture  among  the  ancients  must  have 
been  carried  to  the  highest  degree  of  p  rfection 
its  is  obvious  on  an  inspection  of  Egyptian,  As- 
syrian, and  more  especially  Grecian  antiquities. 


they  could  no  loll 


applied  to  industry  provided 
of 


lown.  At  tin-  Paris 
ood  in  the  first  rank 
u  ssed  someol 
ried  off  the  highest 
tade  by  the  English 
■  French.  They  saw 
that  prestige  which 


nedt 
rely 


had  always  placed  them  at  the  head  ;  and  they. 


ART-EDUCATION 


in  turn  began  fo  reconstruct,  improve,  and  in 
crease  their  art-schools.  The  commission  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor  Napoleon  III.,  after  (iu« 

consideration,  made  an  elaborate  report,  and  tin 


and  Germany.the  Pruss 
and  industry  issued  a  ( 
government  and  the  peo 
of  Prance ;  and  it  is  o 
theschoolsof  Prussia.fi 
the  university.  Nol  o 
and  Germany,  but  in  n 
pean  countries  is  this  en 
cation  in  progress.  I  In 
all  enlightene  I  nations, 

vai incut  and  little  effi 

York,  Massachusetts,  an 
enacted   laws  concerniri 


1825.  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  was  chosen  to  pre- 
side over  a  new  association,  just  then  formed, 
called  the  New  Fork  Drawing  Association. 
It  \\a.-  out  of  the  small  number  of  artists  who 
constituted  this  association,  and  who  met  three 
times  a  week  todraw  fr casts,  that  the  present 


ircith 

r  calling 

upon  tl 

mill 
arh 

Kujl.ni. 
ill  the  "i 

School   t 

.  franc 

i  art-edi 
alone  i 

little  a 

rt  in 

lii.sdirei  t 

on.   \e\ 

1  a  fi 

w  other  st 

ites  hav 

g   tin 

teaching 

of  fret 

hand  drawing  in  the  public  schools,  and  m  this 

way  have  shown  some  appreciation  of  the  great 
importance  of  the  subject. 

During  the  first  twenty-five  years  of  the  na- 
tion.,1  iiuTepeiideii.vc.f  tlieYnited  States,  nothing 
was  accomplishc  1  in  art  e  lucation.  All  teai  hing 
was  confined  to  the  few  lessons  that  were  given 
by  professional  painters.  Even  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  present  century,  no  sch  o]  ha  1 
been  established.  In  1802,  however,  a  proposi- 
tion was  made  to  found  an  institution  for  the 
promotion  .if  the  arts  of  drawing,  painting,  and 
sculpture,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  under  the 
name  of  The  New  Fork  Academy  of Fine  Ar 
( in  account  of  the  want  of  public  interest  in  th  ■ 
enterprise  and  the  inactivity  of  th  ■  -■  who  start- 
ed it.  the  charter  for  the  academy  was  not  ob- 
tained until  1808.  In  1st).,,  the  Pennsylvania 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  was  founded  atPhiladel- 
phia  by  seventy-one  citizens;  and  in  Boston,  in 
1807,  the  Public  Library  and  Department  of 
Fine  Arts  was  established.  These  institutions 
arc  still  in  existence  :  but  the  New  York  Academy 

only  lasted  till  1816.    There  is  i vidence  that 

there  were  any  schools  of  importance  connected 
with  the  first  academies.  The  Few  artistswho 
belonged  to  them  probably  practiced  drawing 
from  casts,  and,  it  may  be,  Bometimes  from  life. 
—  Among  the  names  of  those  who  took  an  in- 
terest in  art-matters  at  the  early  date  here  refer- 
red to. may  be  found  Mime  of  the  best  men  of  the 
time;  and  at  their  heal  stool  De  Witt  Clinton, 
certainly  the  foremost  man  in  the  State  of  New 
York.  He  was  the  president  of  the  Academy. 
and  delivered  an  address  upon  the  Fine  Arts 
when  he  retired  from  active  participation  in  its 
affairs.  According  to  the  venerable  Thomas  A. 
CummingS,  a  veteran  artist  at  this  date  (1876), 
this  address  was  probably  the  first  ever  delivered 
in  this  country  on  that  subject  It  islikelj  thai 
there  were  some  artistic  societies  classes,  or  club-, 
besides  those  mentioned, struggling  into  existence 
in  cities  like  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore, 
Richmond,  and  Charleston,  but  of  these  we  have 
but  little  or  no  history.  It  is  quite  certain  that, 
up  to  1816,  no  attempt  had  been  made  to  in- 
struct students   anywhere    in   this   country.   In 


1  among  the 
iation,  on  ac- 
Trumbull,  the 
esidenl  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  to 
them.  These 
v  and  success- 
Mid  the  young 

I'l-niiibiill  was 
and  according 


lished  on  a  fin 
Academy  qf  De 
1826,  with  twen 
of  eleven  studen 


ss  estab- 

Yittiwtttl 


-.  Morse  delivered  an  ad- 
ion  of  the  new  academy, 
a  new  departure  from 
,'s  of  the  art-associations 
been   established.      His 

ie  as  that  adopted  and 
is  a  bitter   fend    between 


ademy 


:n.   and 

til-able 


i I    ilia 


■ducatioi 

Methoi 

drawing 


that 


st  class  school  for  the  edu- 
i  this  account,  the  institu- 
tnii  to  be  a  national  one. 
ii  has  kept  pace  with  the 
j  of  the  country. 
truction. —  The  modes  of 
s  of  art-schools  are  nearly 
y  were  in  the  Old  World 
two  hundred  years  ago;  that  is.  in  schools  in 
which  pupils  are  trained  tube  professional  artists. 
After  students  have  learned  to  draw  from  the 
Hat,  from  lithographs,  drawings,  etchings,  etc..  on 
paper,  they  are  required  to  draw  from  plaster 
casts.  —  mostly  figures  and  fragments  of  the 
antique,  statins,  and  busts.  The  teacher  of  draw- 
ing very  often  selects  for  the  student  those  casts 
which  are  best  suited  to  his  taste,  style,  and  abil- 
ity. These  casts  are  generally  so  arranged  and 
illuminated  as  to  show  strong  contrasts  of  light 
and  shade;  and  each  student  is  provided  withan 
old-fashioned  drawing  board,  which  is  simply  a 
board,  eel icrally  about  :ia  25  inches,  with  two 
legs,  resting  upon  the  floor  and  thus  support- 
ing one  cud.  while  the  other  end  rests  on  the  lap  of 
the  student.  A  charcoal  outline  of  the  object  to  be 


52 


ART-EDUCATION 


drawn  is  first  made.  This  being  easily  rubbed 
off,  tin'  student  is  thus  enabled  to  get  the  outline 
with  less  trouble  than  would  be  possible  with 
crayons,  which  are  onlj  resorted  to  aftei  a  correct 
outline  has  been  obtained.  Tin-  iifi  school,  as 
it  is  called,  or  more  properly  speaking,  drawing 
from  the  living  form,  is  generaUj  conducted  in 
the  following  manner.  The  model,  01  person  who 
is  t«i  stand,  ui'  /»»'.  is  placed  generally  under  the 
light,  in  whatever  position  may  be  chosen  by  the 


position.  A  rest  is  then  taken,  and  at  will  the 
model  again  assumes  precisely  the  same  position 

as  before,  and  the  drawing  goes  on  until  each 
student  has  finished. 

Art-SrhtHils  in  the  Ohited'States. — The  num- 
ber of  art-schools  or  institutions  affording  art- 
instruction,  in  the  United  States,  according  to 
the  Report  of  the  CJ.  S.  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, for  IsT  Lis  twenty-six;  as  shown  in  the 
follow  nig  table. 

Institutions  affording  Art-instruction  in  U.  S. 


Name 

Location 

When 
founded 

School  of  Design  of  the 

San   Francisco  Art-As- 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 

1873 

Yale  School  of  the  Fine 

"~    Arts 

New  Haven,  Ct. 

1864 

Art-Schools    of   Chicago 

Academy  of  Design    . . 
Illinois  Industrial  Univer- 

Chicago,  111. 

1867 

Urbana,  111. 

1874 

Schools  of  Art  and  Design 

of  Maryland  Institute   . 

Baltimore,  Md. 

1848 

Art-School 

Baltimore,  Md. 

1874 

Boston  Art-Club 

Boston,  Mass. 

1855 

Lowell  School  of  Practical 

-    Design 

Boston,  Mass. 
Boston,  Mass. 

1872 

Mass.  Inst,  of  Technology 

1861 

Mass.  Normal  Art-School 

Boston,  Mass. 

1873 

/"Worcester    County    Free 

Institute    of    Industrial 

Science.           

Worcester,  Mass. 

1865 

St.  Louis  trt-School          St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Manchester   Art-Associa- 

tion Manchester,  N.  H. 

L872 

1871 

l!ri...Uw,    Vrt-A— .M-iali-.ti  Brooklyn,  X.  V. 

1861 

Cornell'  University 

Ithaca,  X.  Y. 

1865 

1  ladies'  Art-  Assoi  iation 

New  York,  N.  Y. 

1870 

'National  Academy  of  De- 

sign   

Xew  York.  X.  V. 

1820 

The  Palette  Club 

Xew  York,  X.  Y. 

1869 

'CooperUnion  Art-Schools, 

1.  Women's  Art-Scl 

Xew  York,  X.  Y. 

1855 

s-    2.   Free  School  of  Art.. 

Xew  York,  N.  Y. 

1857 

College  of  Fine  Arts  of 

Syracusi    1 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

1872 

School  of  Design  of  tic 

'     University  of  Cincinnat 

Cincinnati.  0. 

1869 

Toledo  University  of  Arts 

and  Trades 

Toledo,  0. 

1872 

Franklin   Institute  Draw- 

ing i  llasses 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

1824 

Art-Classes  of  the  Penns. 

Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

1806 

.Philadelphia    School     ot 

Di  -i    ii  tor  Women  ... 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

1S47 

Pittsburg  School  of  De 

sign  for  Women 

Pittsliurg,  Pa. 

1865 

Of  these  institutions  three  are  the  great  art- 
schools  at  Philadelphia,    Xew  York,  and   New 


Haven:  namely,  the  Pennsylvania  Academy 
of  the  Fine  Arts,  the  National  Academy  of 
Design,  and  the  Yale  School  of  the  Fine  Arts. 
Ten  of  these  institutions  are  for  the  special 
training  of  artists.  Three  others,  the  Boston 
Irt-Cli  the  Palette  Club,  and  the  Ladies' 
Art-Association,  are  voluntarj  associations  of 
artists,  with  life-classes,  etc.,  for  their  own  im- 
provement. 

in  some  of  these  schools  nearly  every  kind  of 
art-culture  receives  attention.  —  drawing  from 
the  flat,  from  simple  objects,  easts,  the  antique, 
.paintings,  and  from  life;  modeling  in  clay.  wax. 
and  plaster;  painting  in  oil  and  water  colors; 
architecture;  and  fresco  painting.  In  others,  the 
instruction  is  given  with  special  reference  to  the 
practical  application  of  science  to  art,  to  the  edu- 
cation of  skilled  artisans,  to  mechanics,  manu- 
facturers, etc. 

The  number  of  art-schools  is  so  small,  com- 
pared  with  the  number  of  inhabitants,  that,  in ' 
fact,  but  very  little  national  progress  in  art-cul- 
ture can  be  expected.  On  account  of  the  lack 
of  opportunities  for  studying  painting  and  sculp- 
ture, most  students  who  have  the  means  go  to 
Europe  to  obtain  those  facilities  which  are  not  to 
be  found  in  tlus  country.  According  to  the  Re- 
port above  quoted,  there  are  only  -7  tirt-iimst ■mils 
and  arPcoHections,  of  colleges,  etc.,in  the  United 
State,  nt  these  seven  are  in  New  York,  six  in 
Ma.-.-. u  In, -.  i'  two  each  in  Connecticut  and 
Pennsylvania,  and  one  each  in  Illinois.  Indiana. 
Louisiana,  Maryland.  Michigan,  New  Hampshire, 
Ohio,  Rhode  Island,  Vermont,  and  the  District 
of  ( 'olunibia.  The  incomes  of  eight  of  these 
institutions,  in  L874,  were  reported  as  amounting 
in  tie  ,._ji  -ate  to  about  i?200,000;  but  of  this. 
$70,000  was  reported  as  the  income  of  the  Cor- 
coran Art  Gallery,  at  Washington,  which  has  an 

endowment  of  SI  ,(1(10,000.  Kleveli  of  the  twenty- 
seven  institutions  above  referred  to  are  art-collec- 
tions connected  with  colleges  or  universities,  and 
mosi  of  them  are  of  recent  foundation. —  five 
since  L872. 

Instruction  in  Drawing. —  There  is  a  growing 
appreciation  of  the  value  of  drawing  a-  a  blanch 
of  common  school  instruction,  and  a  much  clearer 
perception  of  the  fact  that  to  teach  drawing  sys- 
tematically in  the  schools  of  the  people  is  to  lay 
the  foundation  not  only  of  national  art-culture, 
but  of  national    progress   in   the   industrial   arts. 


The 

sit  pi 

e-ll\ 

the] 

educating  thai  cL 

the  future 
nation. 


city 


agement  ot  drawing  in 

ill\  for  the  purpose  of 
tjiils  who  are  to  become 
killed  laborers  and  artisans  of  the 
an  illustration,  we  quote  the  words 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Indiana  :  "Indiana,  as 
much  as  any  slate  in  the  Union,  needs  to  look 
after  these  interests,  and  needs  to  educate  her 
children  for  the  work  which  must  either  be  done 
by  them  or  by  some  more  skillful  class,  imported 
from  al. mad  lo  supply  their  places.  Her  wood, 
wool,  minerals,  and   other  rough  materials   are 


ART-EDUCATION 


ARTS 


53 


carried  away  and  manufactured 

into  tl "lii- 

monest  articles  of  daily  use,  and 

are  returned  to 

the  stair  as  imported  articles  i 

it  an  enormous 

cost.  .  .  .  The   skill    of   our    nati 

re   workmen    is 

limited  through  want  of  training 

.and  our   labor 

is  not,  therefore,  of  the  most  pr 

ofitable  quality. 

That  our  system  of  education  is 

in  this  point  de 

fective,  and  that  it   needs  such   i 

inprovement  as 

shall   look    to   the   preparation 

nt    persons   for 

skillful   labor,  are   no   longer  n 

atters  of   ques- 

tion."   (See  Report,  L874  i      He.t 

mends  that   the  statutes   of    tl 

ie    state     be    so 

amended  as  to  include  draw  ing 

as  t'   th 

common  school  branches  of    stu 

dy.     in    Massa-' 

chusetts,  much  has  been  done  in  t 

bis  direction,  hi 

compliance  with  the  law  of  1870. 

which  provided 

town  having  more  than  10,000   ti 

[habitants  shall, 

annually  make  provision  for  giv 

ing  free  instruc- 

tion  in  industrial   or   mechani  a) 

drawing  to  per- 

sons  over  tilt  ten  years  of  ag  ■■' 

Of  the  twenty- 

three  cities  and  towns  of   the 

State,   in    1874, 

twenty  ha  1  complie  1  with  the  sti 

llllte.       Ill   1871, 

.,n  the  invitation  of  th  i  scl 1 

committee,  Mr. 

Walter   Smith,   head-master    of 

the     school     Of 

art  in  Leeds,   England .  took    tl 

le    direction    of 

this  branch  of   instruction   in  tl 

le  public  schools 

of    Boston  :    and    subsequently 

State-Director  of  artreducation. 

In    I-;::.  il,  i 

State   Normal    Art-School   was 

established    at 

Boston,  under  the  direction  of 

Mr.  Smith,  for 

the  training  of  art-teachers,  or 

teachers  of   in- 

dustrial  drawing,  which  institute 

m.  in   L874,  had 

12  instructors  and  240  Btudents. 

The  results  of 

this  system,  so   complete   and   i 

iduiiral.le.    have 

thus  far  been  eminently  success 

fill,     ddie  state 

of  Xe«  York,  following  the  exi 

unpleof  Massa- 

whoso  work  consists  in  the  production  of  forms, 
would  lie  better  trained  iii  this  way.  To  the  de- 
signer of  fabrics,  drawing  on  flat  surfaces  is 
the  preferable  practice ;  but  in  nearly  all  other 
cases,  modeling  affords  the  most  efficient  train- 
ing.    A   set   of    objects  classified  ami   graded, 

from  the  simplest  to  the  iii.i-t plicated  forms. 

as  well  as  compositions  for  drawing  and  model- 
ing purposes,  is  of  great  value  in  this  instruction; 
and,  accompanying  this,  there  should  lie  a  com- 
prehensive ti  xt-liook  or  manual,  eivmg  directions 
as  to  the  modes  of  teaching,  the  arrangement  of 
rooms  and  studios,  th-  adjustment  of  lights,  and 
die  placing  of  casts  and  model,;  togetherwith  a 
mil  description  of  the  materials  and  instruments 
needed  at  each  stage  and  in  each  department  of 
the  instruction.  For  valuable  information  and 
suggestions  in  tins  direction,  see  Art-Education, 
by  Prof.  CO.  Thompson.u]  Report  of  Commis- 
sioner of  Education  (1873). 

Importance  of  Art-Education-  'I  his  country 
can  compete  with  foreign  nations  in  the  produc- 
tion ,,f  articles  re,|iiiiinu  taste  and  skilled  labor 
only  by  establishing  schools  for  instruction  in  the 
fine  arts  and  in  industrial  art.  so  that  the  native 
artisans  may  lie  properly  educated.  Millions  of 
men,  women,  and  children,  m  l.uroiie.  arc  at  the 


d  St 


trial  drawing  to   be  taught  in  all  the  common 
schools  of  the  state.     (See  Drawing.) 

Mode  of  Establish,,,  /  Art-Schools.— The  first 
thing  necessary  for  the  establishment  of  art- 
schools,  or  for  the  introduction  of  drawing, 
modeling,  and  designing  into  schools  already 
established,  is  to  obtain  capable  teachers,  or  art- 
masters.  These  must  be  trained  in  the  art  in 
normal  schools  ;  or  the  officers  of  school-districts 
may  institute  classes  for  this  purpose.  The 
Cooper  Institute,  in  the  City  of  New-  York,  and 
the  Sri,,,,,!  if  Design,in  Cincinnati,  and  some 
others,  have  prepared  a  considerable  nmnber 
of  excellent  art-teachers.  The  state  normal 
schools  have  also  done  something  in  this  direc- 
tion, but  have  the  facility  and  means,  if  properly 
applied,  to  do  very  much  more.  The  customary 
mode  of  procedure  in  art-instruction  has  already 
been  explained;  but  the  various  methods  of  in- 
struction in  drawing  will  lie  given  in  another 
part  of  this  work.  (See  Drawing.)  Modeling 
has  not  yet.  become  as  prominent  in  industrial 
artreducation  as  its  importance  demands.  With- 
out doubt,  the  modeling  of  real  forms  is  much 
more  beneficial  for  the  future  artisan  than  the 
representation  of  forms  upon  flat  surfaces.     It 

will  be  readily  perceived  that  the  w 1-carver, 

cabinet-maker,  machinist,  jeweler,  and  all  others 


ele.-i 

rly  show  this  necessit 

.  JLpj 

ih  skilled  aiidnieehai 

led,  of    the  value    of 

-kill 

si:: 

The 

Le  of  such  articles  imp 
the  same  year,  the 
ed  labor  exported  ir. 

contrast  presentsan 
importance  of  art  ,■, 
ational  wealth  and   p 

!■.-  articles  upon 

or  had  been  ex- 

,835  :   while  the 

as  8177,857,132. 

■    ot     taste    and 

iee  amounted  to 

to  3384,787,944. 

tin'  lesson  as  to 

m    its  relation 

v      S.  ,•  Modern 

Art-Education   (Boston,  !-;."•  ;    Official  Report 

of  the  Vienna    Exposition  (1873) ;    Reports    of 

i:  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  (1872,  -3,  -4.) 

ARTISANS,   Education    of.      See  Tech- 

ARTS,   Liberal.     The  term  arts,  or  liberal 

arts,  was,  during  the  middle  ages,  applied  to  cer- 
tain studies  which  constituted  an  essential  pan 
of  a  learne  1  ,  ducation.  'I  he  full  course  of  study. 

at  that  period,  (  ml.raeed  "  the  seven  libera]  arts," 
three  of  which  grammar,  logic,  and  rhetoric- 
composed  what  wascalled  the  /,;,■,„,„  , the  triple 
way  to  eloquence);  and  the  remaining  four- 
constituted  thequaarivium  (the  quadruple  way). 
The  term  /'■/,  ulty  of  mis  denoted,  in  the  univer- 
sities, those  who  devoted  themselves  to  philos- 
ophy and  science,  in  contradistinotion  to  the 
taenia  of  theology,  of  medicine,  or  of  law. 
Vast  r  (La.t.maaister  was  used  to  designate  one 
who  taught  the  liberal  arts  ;  and  doctor,  one  win. 
taught  or  practiced  divinity,  law,  or  medicine. 
The  first  degree  <,/>•<„/, is)  of  proficiency  in  the 
arts,     instituted,  as    it    is    said,   by  <  Jregory  IX. 


54 


ASCI]  AM 


ASTRONOMY 


about  the  middle  of  the  13th  century,  was  that 
of  bachelor  (Lat.  baccalaureus);  and  the  second 

l hat   of  ni'isi.'i-.   which   originally   conferred   the 

<me  or  more  of  the  liberal  arts.  This  title,  in  the 
colleges  and  universities  <>t  the  United  Stales, 
England,  and  France,  is  now  merely  honorary. 
(See  1)ki;i:i:i  -.) 

ASCHAM,    Boger,    a    celebrated    English 
scholar  and   teacher,  who  flourished  during  the 


power  to  control    the  succession  of  our  ideas  or 
thoughts  very   much  depends  upon  the   habits 

we  may  have  firmed  in  cstablishine.  these  assoeia- 


1.1, 


became  a  college  tutor,  and  was  appointed  to 
Greek  in  the  public  schools.  In  l">4o.  he 
lished  Toxophilus,  or  the  School  of  Shoot 
in  which,  as  Dr.  Johnson  says.  "  he  designed 
only  to  teach  the  art  of  shooting,  but  to  eiy 
example  of  diction  more  natural  and  more  t 
English   than  was  used  by  the  common  ui 

of  the  learned  languages  to  the  la  ly  Elizal 
afterwards  ipieen.  and  continue  1  to  perforin 
service  for  two  years.  In  1553,  he  was  appoi 
Latin  secretary  to  Queen  Mary,  and  was  co] 
ued  in    the  same  office  by    Elizabeth,    bef 

acting  as    her   tutor    in    Latin  and    Greek. 
most  noted  work  is    "  The  Sdiolemaster,  < 
Plain  and  Perflte    Way  of  teacJiina   Chili 


F.,st, 


of  Northern  Wortiiies,  vol.n.;  Quick,  Essays 
on  Educational  Reformers  (London,  1868.)  The 
last  mentioned  work  contains  an  excellent  sketch 
of  Ascham's  method. 

ASSOCIATION    OF   IDEAS.       Bv    this 


are  acquainted,  so  that  they  How 
inintermitting  logical  stream.  Ma- 
il Sir  Jami  s  Mackintosh,  "His  mind 
lagazine,  admirably  arranged;  every 
here,  and  every  thing  was  in  its 
judgments  on  men,  on  sects, 
ftd  been  often  and  carefully  tested 
.  and  had  then  been  committed, 
proper  receptacle,  in  the  most 
I  most  accurately  constructed  mem- 
f  human    being  ever  possessed,     It 

been  strange  indeed,  if  you  had 
ything  that  was  not  to  be  found  in 
-e   storehouse.     The    article    which 

.  own   proper  compartment.     In  a 

as  brought  down,  unpacked  and  dis- 
n.^  admirably  expresses,  of  course  in 
legr if  development,  and  partly  as 

a  natural  stitutioii  of  mind,  the 

[iialitv  to  beaimed  at  by  the  teacher, 
i  with  the  association  of  ideas.  It 
from  this  that  the  law  by  which 
■  permanently  associated  bj  means 
,  should  have  a  most  important  place 
[deration  of  the  teacher.  Certain 
knowledge  require  the  special  appli- 
s  law;  suchas  arithmetical  tables, 

para  ligms,  and  all  other  things  that, 
gical  relations,  arc  to  be  arbitrarily 

ihe  point  to  be  gained  in  such 
is  to  connect  these  ideas  in  the  mind 
ytliat  one  will  instantly,  and.  as  it 
itically,  suggest  the  other.    The  per- 

sighl  and  hearing  may  both  be 
i  play  in  accomplishing  this.  The 
uiliMiu  doubt,  the  strongest  and  the 
«   as  Bon truly  says, 


tion.     reelings 
associated  with 


use  of  the  blackboard  and  slate,  par- 
lie  former;  also  the  importance  of 
iloud   from  the  printed   page.       (See 

u.   EnuCATiON,  Memory,    Mnemonics, 


ASTRONOMY  [<  Jr.  :„-7r,u:;i  star,  and  n,/,.,, , 
law),  the  science  which  treats  of  the  heavenly 


thoroughly  virtuous  character.     This  la 

very  important  application  in  the  in 
training  of  the  youno  and  in  the  eoiiera 
tion  of  the  mind.  Here  we  are  to  con 
various  ways  in  which  the  law  of  as 
operates.  (See  Faculties, Development 


tion     most  interesting  feature  of   the  intellectual  I 
The     ry  of   the  period,  and  its  cultivation  in  this  < 


try  has  shed 
scientific  and 
mediate  result 
ous  as  those  oi 
concedi  1   a  p 


ASTRONOMY 

upon  American    short  tin 
alius.      The   im-    own,  as 


ch  an  experience  of  their 
iicin  to  pin-sue  the  study 
ess.     As  soon  as  they  have 


surface  of  the  earth  by  longiti 
fixing  the  boundaries  oi  count 
country,  of  accurately  mappi 
of  navigating  the  ocean,  of  as 
nitude  and  exact  figure  of  the 
habit,  and  determining  its  re 
verse,  certainly  should  not  be 

inarily. astro ny  is  a  science 

materials  are  observed  facts  ; 
many  other  natural  sciences  it 
facts,  far  from  explaining  tin 
peculiar  exercise  of  conceptio 
reason,  in  order  to  inter  froi 
which  they  obscurely  indicate. 
observe  the  varying  apparent 

sun   and    moon,   the   phei ie 

ti  les.  the  progressions,  station 
tions  of  the  planets,  etc.,  we  hi 
ever  accurate  our  observation! 
a  solution  of  the  mysteries  for 


the  effort. 
!  prelimi- 

in  astroii- 


elia  o 
e.g.t 

to  col 


ition   ..f  their  orbi 
it    motions:     (.'!) 
as  equator,  equii 


,.1  their 
.  of  the 


;ject.  the  order  of  folveSti- 
icthod.  should  be  at  first 
is:  ih  because  in  this  way 


In  teaching 
gation  -the  ai 
adopte  1.  for  n 
we  are  able  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil 

el-arer  c  inception-  of  fundamental  facts,  and  (2 
because  he  will  thus  form  the  habits  of  thought 
which  arc  particularly  neede  I  in  the  -tu.lv  of  this 
science.  We  should  in.-ist  upon  his  observing  for 
himself  all  the  more  obvious  phenomena,  and 
then  stating,  as  fully  and  accurately  as  possible, 
the  result  of  his  observations.  It  is  astonishing 
how  many  persons  go  through  the  world,  filling 
the  measure  of  a  lone'  life,  without  casting  any- 
thing but  an  indifferent,  unin. purine,,  .,,7,1  un- 
interested glance  at  thegloriesof  the  stellar  firma- 
ment. So  it  is  also  with  children,  before  their  at- 
tention is  attracted,  and  their  interest  aroused, to 
observe  the  wonder-  of  the  heavi  ns.  The  teat  hi  r, 
therefore  should  lead  his  pupil-,  by  qui  sti  ming 
them,  to  notice  some  of  the  most  ordinary  phe- 
nomena; a.-  the  rising  and  setting  oi  the  sun  and 
tin-  moon,  the  p|n.  ..  ,  ,   ,1,    i.  ...  ,    ,|„.  apparent 

diurnal  revoluti t  the  stare   the  positions   and 

apparent  movements  oi  the  larger  and  more  con- 
spicuous planets  among  the  stars,  the  ebb  and 
flow  of  the  tides,  the  solar  and  lunar  eclipses, 
etc.  Finding,  from  such  questioning,  that  they 
have  really  been  inattentive  to  what  they  might 
readily  have  observed,  the  pupils  will  strive  to  see 
these  things  for  themselves,  and   will  thus,  in  a 


Job. 


lid  lead  1.1-  mind  to  a  clear  idea  of 
of  longitude  and  latitude  on  the  surface 
earth,  we  ask  him  to  locate,  that  is.  to 
the  location  of,  any  point  on  the  surface 
■Ie  will  soon  be  led  to  Derceive 


uith.  in 

in  the 

dcclina- 


part  at  least,  be  worked  out.  however  rudely,  for 

the  student  from  the  data  of  observation:  or  lie 
should  be  reijuired  to  work  them  out  himself, 
after  being  taught  the  principles  and  methods 
involved.  Thus,  the  teacher  may  begin  with  the 
diameter  of  the    earth,  and   show    how    this    has 


56 

ATHENBUM 

been  det< 
from  the 
aature  a 
suneter  i 
then  the 

rmined;    then   the  d 

id    use   Of   |..il..ll;i\: 

the  sun  from   its  i 
Bidereal    year   of    tl 

about  133  A.  H.  It 
ry.  and  silso  served  sis 
i,  specially  appointed 
ruction  in  poetry  and 
this  name  is  frequent- 
lie-  association  or  the 
issociation  meets.  In 
is  used   in  designate 


IS.) 


constitute  a  pari  of  i 
and  apparatus  should  Solon.)  They  are. 
i  in  gh  ing  the  instruc-    opposition    to    the 


id  Ne 

nri:,. 

hich 

[ellas 
which 

.,1  1. .  x 

si 

millet    of  education. 

vii.  rich  and   | r. 

learn  how  to  read  : 
1 1  as  well  as  truai 


he  children  of 

.  es     In     lllllsir. 

ipations.  If  it 
DStructed,  the 
in  in  his  old 
in   Brsl  one, 


...  I  ii  i- 
,who 


science.  In  tl 
sphere  will  pn 
The  rehgioi 
lie  lust  sigh)  .. 
Btudent  should 


any  other  scie 

\ ■    will     ■■! 

youthful  nun 
the  senses.  |.i 
fancy  with  I 
power  hi   i  bin 


poems.  Homers  works  were  in  almost 
gel I;  and.it   is  said,  Alcibiades,  on  one 

in.  boxe  1  Ins  t  mliei  s  ears  because  he  did 
ml  a  copy  of  Homer  in  his  school.  The 
I  book  oi  the  Iliad,  which  enumerates  the 
and  princes  who  followed  Agamemnon  to 
rojan  war,  and  the  allies  of  the  Trojans, 
ed  the  outline  of  the  instruction  in  geog- 
,history,and  genealogy.  The  grammatdst 
aught  the  children  the  alphabet,  the  forma- 
if  Tetters  into  words,  and  reading;  direct- 
inn  to  |mv  s  |  in  in  I  attention  t"  long  and 
svllaliles.    to    e.  .rivet    accentuation,    lllld    to 

■nions  |„o.inii.iiiiio„.  When  they  had  ac 
I  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  reading,  instruc- 

i.n  1i\-i:iiiIiv  i .-In in  h.nnl  writing)  and  cal- 

,'to  theAlhenmi,  short  hand  writers.     The 

i  were  drawn  by  a  stylus   a  sharp-pointed 

n-,,„l,„,„ wax    tali  •-.ami    eopied    by 


ATLANTA  UNIVERSITY  ATTENDANCE                    57 

the  lyre  or  cithara.     Many  learned  also  to  play  J  by  a  law  passed  in   1874,  it   receives  an  annual 

on    tin'    flute.      The  instruction  in   music    was  appropriation  of   $8000   from    the   State.      Its 

difficult,  as  the  Greeks  used  a  very  .-. .nipli<-at.-<l  library  contains  about  3000  volumes.      In  1S74, 

system  of  notation,     Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  its  corps  of  instructors  numbered   II:  and  the 

however,  music       ■-  .,    had  a  much  more  com-  whole  number  of  students  was  236  :  in  the  pre- 

prehensive    significati bracing    grammar,  paratory  department  46  ;  in   the  collegiate,  18 ; 

rhetoric,  and  poetics.     The  scl l-house  (to  StSa-  to  the  theological  class.  3;   and  in  the  normal 

-:,.,/  ,...  had  benches  for  the  boys,  and  a  chair  or  courses,  169.  The  normal  department  ha.-  sup- 
pulpit  i ..  h  I  i     For  the  teachi  i    I  he  teat  hers  of  plied  a  large  number  of  teachers  for  the  schools 

the  ele ntarj  schools  enjoyed   bul   little   repu-  of  the  State.     The  president  of  the  institution 

tation  in  consequence  of   the  small   amount   of  is  Edmund  A.  Ware.  A.M.     Its  annual  tuition 

their  knowledge  and  their  severity  toward  their  fee  is  $24  :   but  all  pupils  are  required  to  work 

pupils.     The  children  of  affluent   parents  were  for  the  institution  at  least  one  hour  a  day. 

educated    in  the   higher  branches  of  study,  as  ATLAS  is  the  name  applied  to  a  collection  of 

well  a-  ti. lined  by  i.  gulai  bo  lilj  exercises  in  the  maps,  first  thus  used  by  Mercator  in  thesixteenth 

t/ymnasia     Ul  the  children  were  obliged  to  take  century,  the  figure  of  Atlas,  bearing  the  globe 

part  in  the  gymnastic  exercises,  in  order  that,  by  a  on  Ins  shoulders,  being  on  the  title-page  of  his 

for  their  duties  a-  citizen-,  both  in  peace  and  war.  was  one  of'  the  Titan-',  who    for  the  crime  of  at 

At  the  heal  of  each  gymnasium,  wasthegymna-  tempting  to  take  heaven  by  storm  was  compelled 

.-iarch.wlr.ua-,:    |    I  by  the  citizens  for  the  term  to  bear  the  vault  oi  the  heavens.    Somesuppose 

of  oneyear.and  <vh  .not  only  did  not  receiyeany  thai  by  this  myth  is  communicated  the  fact  that 

salary,  but  ha  I  to  pay  for  the  oil  which  was  used  a  certain  king,  named  Atlas  labored   to  solve  the 

for  tiie  auoiui  in  at  oi  th  i  pupils      The  eyiima-i-  astronomical  problem  of  the  -tarry  universe.  The 

maintain  order,  di-cipljne.  and   c|eaulme-s.     The  was  that  of   .Tedidiah  \h.r-c  in  1  77a.    Vast  nuni- 

boys  were  required  to  attend  at  f  these  in-  bers  of  this  work  were  issued;  and  Blackwood's 

stitutious  for  a  term  of  two  year-  bul  they  were  Magazint  remarked,  that,  it  had  quite  superseded 

allowed   to   make    their   own   selection.      They  all  other  works  of  the  kirn!   in  this  part  of   the 

practiced  in  these  institutions  jumping,  running,  world.     Many   new    editions  of    the  work  were 

climbing,  riding  on  horseback,  driving  chariots,  subsequently  published.      That    of     Sidney    E. 

wrestling,  throwing  javelins  and  quoits,  fencing,  Morse  in  1823  was  widely  noted ;  and  of  thisan 

and  similar  exercises.   Speci  ,  I  attention  was  Liven  edition  with    cerographie' map-  afterward   had  a 

toswimming,  which  all    Athenian    boys   had   to  cerv  extensive  .-ale  down  to  comparatively  recent 

learn.     Every  gymnasium  had  a  hath  which  was  times.     Among  the  most  important  and  valuable 

closed  at   sunset,  and   which  strangers,  during    atlases,  apart  from   scl I   geographies,  at   the 

bathing  hours,  were  forbidden    to  enter  upon  present  time,  may  he  mentioned  Stieler's  Hand- 

ivnaltv  of  death.  The  private  tutor    -,./„,,,.,  i  Atlas,     issued     from  Justus     Perthes's    world- 

of  an  Athenian  family  was  generally  a   trust-  renowned  cartographical  establishment  a1  Gotha, 

worthy  slave,  to  whosecare  children  were  com-  under  the  editorial  supervision  of  A.  Petermann 

mitted  on  attaining  their  sixth  or  seventh  year,  (completed  in  1875  .     These  maps  are  noted   for 

lie  wet  with  them  to  a„d  from  the  scl 1  and  their  minute  accuracy      Blacksand  Johnston's 

gymnasium,  and  was  rather  their  custodian  than  Atlases,  published  in  Kirjland,  atv  ot  ,iv:,i  merit 

their  teacher.     The  lattei    ■■    -.     o,    instructed  and  value.      Von  Spruner's  Historico-Geogrqph- 

them  in  grs nar  mii-ie  and  other  branches  of  i,-,,l . !//,/.-. and  Menkes  Orbit  Antiqui  Descriptio, 

learning.      The  education  of  girls  was  almost  ex-  also  deserve  to  he  mentioned.     Among  astronom- 

clusively  left  to  their  moth  ax.  and  was  generally  ical  atlases,  those  of  R.  A.  Procter  arc  the  most 

much  neglected.    Orphan  children,  whose  parents  elaborate  and  correct. 

had  fallen  in  battle,  were  carefully  educated  in  ATTENDANCE,   School.     This  is  an   iin- 

-SeeSi  IIM1I.T.  '-•  -,/„e/,/.  ,/,;■  /',,,/„  „„„/..  vol    I  ;'  effectiveness  of   anv    svsten'i  of   public    education. 

Wachsmuth,   Helienisck,      [UerthumsJeunde,  vol,  as  showing  what  proportion' of  the  community 

ii.;  It.  I.  Schmidt,  History  of  Education  (N.  V..  participates  in  its  ben,  tit-.    Educational  statistics 

L842);  Grvie, Histm-y  of  Greece,\ol.vm.(N.Y.,    are  too  imperfect  and  t leficient  in  uniformity 

1859.)  to  render  anv  comparison  Of  different    states  and 

ATLANTA   UNIVERSITY,   at   Atlanta,  countries  in  this  respect  entirely  reliable.     The 

Ga.,  was  organized  in  1869,  is  non-sectarian,  and    average    attendance,    accurately  nputed,    as 

offers  the  advantages  of  education  to  either  sex.  compare  1  with  the  entire  school  population,  can 
without  regard  to  race,  color,  or  nationalitv.  alone  show  in  what  derive  the  people  of  anv  state 
It  was  established  in  accordance  with  a  plan  or  country  participate  ,',,  the  advantages  of  the 
formed  early  in  the  history  of  the  work  of  the  education  provided  by  the  government,  and,  con- 
American  Missionary  Association  in  the  South,  sequently,  the  need  of  measures  designed  to  in- 
the  means  being  furnished  by  the  Freedmen's  duce  or  enforce  school  attendance.  I  he  annual 
Bureau  and  the  state  of  Georgia,  as  well  as  by  average  attendance  is  usually  found  by  adding 
the  Association.  The  value  of  its  grounds,  together  the  whole  number  of  pupils  present  at 
buildings,  etc..    is  estimated    at  $100,000;  and  I  each  session  during  the  year,  and  dividing  the 


58 


ATTENDANCE 


sum  by  the  number  of  sessions.  Of  course,  this 
does  not  afford  an  Herniate  basis  for  comparison 
where  the  schools  are  kept  open  during  different 
periods  of  the  year:  since  a  school  which  has 
been  kept  open 'all  the  year  would,  with  the  same 
number  of  pupils,  show  no  larger  average  attend- 
ance than  one  kept  open  only  one  half  the  year. 
To  rectify  this,  the  aggregate  number  of  pupils 
in  attendance  at  all  the  sessions  is  often  divided 
by  a  fixed  number,  without  regard  to  the  actual 
number  of  sessions.  This  method  is  sometime* 
legally  enjoined  for  the  purpose  of  tin  equitable 
distribution  of  the  school  moneys.  Obviously, 
both  the  actual  average  and  statute  average  are 
needed  to  ascertain  the  true  effectiveness  of  a 
system  of  schools.  The  average  attendance  com- 
pared with  the  "  average  number  belonging''  is 
useful  as  showing  the  temporary  regularity  or 
irregularity  of  attendance,  arising  from  various 
local  or  incidental  causes.  (See  Absenteeism.) 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  in  the  United  States 
—  particularly  in  the  Northern  and  Western 
States  —  there  are  but  few  native  children  who 
do  not  attend  school  some  portion  of  the  year, 
or  who  have  never  attended  any  school  during 
their  lives.  It  is  chiefly  among  the  foreign  pop- 
ulation, that  the  opportunities  for  school  attend- 
ance are  neglected. 

Table  of  School  Attendance. 


ton  (see  fie, 
for  1874), 
sachusetts, 


Alabama 
Arkansas . 
California..  .  . 
Connecticut  . 
Delaware  . 

Florida 

Georgia 

Illinois 


Kansas  .  . 
Kentucky  . 
Louisiana  . 


Michigan 

Minnesota  . 
Mississippi  . . . 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Nevada  

New  Hampshi 
New  Jersey  . 
New  York'... 
North  Carotin 

Ohio 

Oregon 
ivnn  1  iv  ani 
Rhode  Island 
South  Carolini 
'l  ennes  see 

Texas 

Vermont  .... 
Virginia 
Weal  Virginia 
Wisconsin.. .  . 


31.7 
30.9 

To.;, 
74.fi 
72.1 
6S.1 

? 
2G.5 

6  i.i 

49.2 

100 


47.5 
44.8 
3s.f) 
26.8 
15.9 


57.8 
63.7 
62.2 


!)S.2 
59.9 
i:s.:: 
51.G 


,1  age. 


of  ;,  and  1  a  enrolled  in  the  .»,  hool,  in  1>7L'— 3 
was,  in  Alabama,  .'is  :  Delaware,  59;  Florida, 
42  ;  Maine.  90  ;  Maryland.  (IT  ;  Mississippi,  70  ; 
Missouri,  88 ;  North  Carolina,  :"il  ;  South  Caro- 
lina. 4ti :  Pdiode  Island.  !>l  :  Tennessee,  50; 
Texas,  56  ;    Virginia,  5]  :   West  Virginia,  (17. 

In  England  and  AVales,  the  average  attendance 
at  the  public  schools,  in  1873,  was  about  28  per 
cent  of  the  population  of  school  age  (between 
3  and  13);  and  about  69  per  cent  of  the  total 
enrollment;  and,  consequently,  the  enrollment 
was  about  41  per  cent  of  the  school  population. 
Under  the  compulsory  education  act  in  force  in 
that  country,  the  school  attendance  had  con- 
siderably increased.  (See  England.)  A  careful 
comparison  of  the  census  returns  of  different 
countries  shows  that,  on  the  average,  the  children 
between  the  ages  of  6  and  12  constitute  about 
17  per  cent  of  the  entire  population.  Comparing 
this  rate  with  the  following  percentages  of  school 
attendance  as  compared  with  population,  we  may 
ascertain  approximatively  the  relative  rate  of 
attendance  in  each  country.  In  Saxony  the 
school  attendance  is  about  20  per  cent ;  in  Prus- 
sia, 15  per  cent;  in  Norway,  14  per  cent;  in 
the  Netherlands,  13;  per  cent;  in  Denmark,  13 
icr  cent  ;   in    Scotland   and   Protestant  Switzer- 


P< 

land, 
Austrin 
Ireland 
in  Era: 
cent  :  ii 
in  Spaii 
Mr.  I 
Schooli 
remark- 


in  Belgium,  1 1  per  cent  ;  in 


W] 


The  above  table   is  chiefly  based  on  returns 
rule  to  the  Bureau  of  Education  at  Washing- 


tendance  than  in  many  of  the  Sta1 
of  them  the  principal  Northern  ai 
States — yet,  so  far  as  concerns  our  he 
great  mass  of  the  population,  we  stall 
level  with  some  of  the  most  backwan 


per  cent ; 
.  lj  per 
.  1  to  US; 

.  I  to  TOO. 
the  Free 

ui  of  the 
it  of  Kng- 
ore  select 
igularat- 


ATTENDANCE 

slave  states.  I  do  not  forget  that  our  average 
attendance  is  estimated  upon  a  longer  school  year 
than  that  in  most  of  the  states,  but  against  this 

fact  may  be  set  the  later  scl 1  age  in  the  United 

States:  ami  where  allowance  is  made  for  every 
difference  which  would  tell  in  om  favor,  there 
can  be  but  one  conclusion — that,  in  the  work  of 
getting  the  masses  into  school,  we  are  still  far 
behind  a  country  in  which  absenteeism  and  irreg- 
ularity of  attendance  are  admitted, on  all  hands, 
to  be  the  must  crying  evils  under  which  their 
system  labors." 

'  There  is  considerable  ilifferenee  in  the  school 
attendance  in  cities  and  in  rural  districts,  greatly 
m  favor  ,,f  the  former,  owing  to  the  difference  in 


ATTENTION 


ATTENTION   (from  the   Latin  iendere,  to 
rain,  implying  a  strained  effort  of  the  mind)  is 


subje 


.through 
s  it  were, 

ml  study 


rural  labors  of  their  homes:  and  m  the  winter 
they  are  often  prevented  from  attending  school 
by  the  long  distance,  which  they  have  to  travel. 
frequently  over  bad  roads,  in  order  to  reach  the 

school.  The  following  exhibits  the  attendance  in 
some  of  the  large  cities  of  the  Union  : 


1  Per  cent  of 
Per  cent  of  I  attendance 
attendance 
on  populat.      enrollment 


li  iltimore 

Boston 

Brooklyn 

Chicago 

( !incinnati 
Cleveland  . . . 

Detroit 

Jersey  City  .  . 

Newark 

New  York   .. 

Philadel a 

St.  Louis 

Sin  Francisco 

The  only 
parison  of  1 
places  is  eiti 
school    population    between    certain    ages.      The 

enrollment  is  not  to  be  depended  upon,  1 ause 

it  is  not  kept  the  same  way  in  different  places. 
In  some,  it  is  greatly  increased  by  including  all 
the  children  enrolled  in  any  of  the  schools  during 
the  year,  many  pupils  being  thus  counted  several 
times. 

The  following  table  will  permit  a  comparison 
between  the  American  and  English  cities  in  re- 
spect to  school  attendance  : 


of  any  given  class  of  facts  or  ideas,  the  student 
learns  to  evolve  new  truths,  or  analytical!)  to  ex- 
plain the  intricacies  of  abstruse  problem,-.  When 
the  attention  has  become  obedient  to  the  will, 
this  branch  of  mental  training  is  complete  :  and. 
therefore,  the  aim  of  the  educator  should  be  to 
instill  habits  of  controlling  the  attention,  and 
rigidly  preventing  those  of  desultory,  wayward 
application, or  listlessness  This  power  of  con- 
tinuous attention  is.  without  doubt,  the  most 
valuable  resull  of  intellectual  training.  To  pro- 
duce this  result,  ii  is  of  the  first  importance  to 
interest  the  pupil,  especially  in  the  earlier  stages 
of  instruction.  Young  minds  have  an  intense 
desire  to  know— not  words  merely,  but  tilings. 
They  have  a  strong  craving  for  new  ideas,  and 


117.4 


le  basis  for  a  com- 

lance   of   different 
oiiulation     or    the 


things  with 

ich  may  be 
or  the  pur- 
ine object, 
ile.  so  as  to 


Date  of 

Number 
enrolled 

Per  cent  of 
attendance 

Liverpool. . . 

Leeds  

Bristol    .... 

Feb.  1st:. 
Feb.  L875 
Feb.  1875 

57,698 

44.4:is 
25,182 

6L8 

7(1.7 

Newcastle  j 
onTyne    \ 

Tiiniiineliaiii 
M he  ster.. 

Jan.   1875 

17.444 

69.6 

Jnne  1875 
Feb.  1675 

51,334 

67.6 

117.1 

The  attention  should  not  be  exercised  for 
long  periods  of  time.  When  the  teacher  per- 
ceives that  it  is  flagging,  it  is  best  to  stop  the 
exercise:  for  all  that  is  done  while  the  child's 
attention  is  relaxed,  is  worse  than  fruitless. 
It  is  from  an  inattention  to  this  truth  that 
children  are  often  made  incurably  listless  in 
school.  They  are  set  at  exercises  which  awaken 
no  interest  in  their  minds,  ami.  consequently,  ac- 
quire ineradicable  habits  of  siiju-i  t'a  lal.  careless 
attention.  In  all  the  subsequent  .-ludie-  ot  the 
pupil.it  is  essential  that  his  interest  be  awakened 


inch 


d.l. 


It  will  be  thus  seen  that  the  average  attendance. 

as  compared  with  the  number  enrolled,  is  better 
in  this  country  than  in  England. 

In  estimating  the  cttii  iency  of  school  systems. 
the  period  of  attendance  is  a  very  important  ele- 
ment to  be  considered.  (See  School  Age,  and 
School  Year.) 


will,  as  a  matter  of  duty,  apply  his  mind  to  the 
studies  prescribed  for  him  :  ami  this  very  appli- 
cation, if  earnest  and  diligent,  will  soon  excite 
the  deepest  interest  in  the  subjects  of  study. 

The  dependence  of  memory  upon  attention  is 
well  known  to  all  who  have  observed,  however 
superficially,  the  operations  of  the  mind:  and  the 


CO 


AL'CCSTAXA   COU.KCK 


power  to  recall  at  will  our  mental  impressic 

and  acquisitions  is  jx-ihaps  directly  in  proporti 
to  the  attention  with  which  the  association-  hii 
ing  them  together  were  formed.  When  tin 
are  feeble,  loose,  accidental,  and  formed  wi 
little  volition,  the  mind  will  have  but  an  imp 
feci  control  of  its  thoughts,  and  will  thus 
wanting  in  the  chief  quality  of  a  sound  intell 
tual  character. 

Attention   requires  a  vigorous 
brain,  and.  therefore,  is,  more  or 

upon  the   physical   idition. 

been  exhausted  by  labor,  either 

possible;  and  the  effort  to  give  it  is  injurious, 
because  it  induces  still  farther  nervous  pros- 
tration. Neither  should  deep  attention  be 
exerted  or  attempted  immediately  after  a  beartj 
meal.  The  nervous  energy  is  then  directed  to  the 
digestive  functions,  which  active  cerebration  will 
greatly  disturb.  Hence,  the  diet  of  a  student 
should  be  light,  but  nutritious.  The  brain  should 
also  be  supplied  with  thoroughly  oxygenated 
blood.  No  one  can  think  well  in  an  impure  at- 
mosphere, especially  if  it  is  contaminated  by  the 
breathing  of  many  persons.   In  this  way, children 


of  the 
dependent 
1  this  has 
y  or  men- 
is  scarcely 


AUGUSTINE 

teachers  and  theologians,  was  born  Nov.  13.,  354. 
at  Tagaste.  in  Numidia.thc  modern  Algeria.  His 
father,  Patricius,  was  a  pagan;  his  mother,  Mon- 
ica, a  fervid  christian.  He  was  sent'  by  bis 
father  to  the  famous  school  of  Madaura,  and 
after  the  death  of  his  father  continued  his  studies 
at  Carthage.  His  life  at  this  time  was  very  licen- 
tious; but  he  never  forgot  the  pious  instructions 
which  his  mother  had  given  him,  nor  the  devo- 
tional exercises  to  w  hieh  she  had  accustomed  him. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  religious  systems  of  the  an- 
cient Creeks  and  Romans,  as 'well  as  with  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  scriptures,  he  tried  to  find 
rest  for  his  mind  in  the  Maniehean  system.  At 
Rome,  to  which  he  went  at  the  age.  of  29,  he 
achieved  great  reputation  as  a  teacher  of  elo- 
quence. Six  months  later,  he  was  called  to  Milan 
as  ateacher  of  rhetoric.  Bis  intercourse  with  Saint 
Ambrose.  w ho  was  then  bishop  of  Milan,  and  the 


oftei 


is  loss  of  health.     They  are 

ts  too  small  for  the  number 


give  close  and  c; 

of     instruction. 

II, 

ability,  and  the 

be   followed    by 

disas 

spect    has    the 

aph 

in  a  sound  bo  1\ 

a 

In 


at  to  do  it 

rous    results 

■ism,      ■■  A     sound     mind 

in, re  forcible  application 
than  to  the  exercise  of  attention.  For  what 
contrast  can  be  stronger  than  that  presented  by 
the  poor  wretch  whom  disease  has  bereft  of  every 
mental  state  but  wandering  thoughts  or  absolute 
vacuity,  and  the  man  of  sound  health  and  a  well- 
trained  mind,  who  is  ready  at  will  to  concentrate 
all  his  intellectual  energies  upon  a  given  subject, 
and  to  keep  them  steadily  fixed  upon  it  until  the 
object   of   his   investigations    has    been    attained! 

(See  Intellect,  u.  Km  ■  ltiok.) 

AUGUST  ANA  COLLEGE  was  founded  a! 
Paxton,  111.,  in  1863,  by  the  Swedish  Augustana 
Synod  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church.  It 
was  removed  to  Hoik  Island,  111.,  iii  1875,  where 
it  has  buildings. grounds, and  apparatus  estimated 

at  $50,000  in  value.     It  has  a  library  of  7 1 

volumes,  a  faculty  of  seven  professors  and  two 
tutor-,  and  1 1(1  student: 
collegiate  department, 
college  is  to  afford  to  yo 


,f    who 


cation  at 
per  annuo 


ow  est     pi 


ige.     Aft 

■leetedhl 

.''sneee'-,;' 

h  of  Vali 

.an.lmnt 

io  till  his 

writer,    s 

oon    fill.-. 

and    his 

influence 
the  theo 

ogica]   s.l 

■al   doe- 
of  the 
Christian  world   proved   to   be  greater  than   that 
Of  anyone  who  had  preceded  linn- 

The  most  famous  of  all  the  numerous  works  of 
\  noiist  in,-,  the  Ctiiifi-ssiiiiHi,  has  also  a  great  edu- 
cational interest,  as  it  contains  the  reflections  of 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of  the 
I  'hristian  church  on  his  own  education.  He  de- 
monstrates, in  the  clearest  light,  the  strong  and 
imperishable  influence  of  maternal  education 
upon  the  whole  after  life  of  man  :  and  from  his 
touching  account  of  the  tierce  conflict  between 
the  highest   intellectual  and  philosop'  ' 


dlh 


'ertullian    in   advocati 
iagan    authors    from 
'hristians.    Especially  i 
f  the  •■  impious  fables 


professed 
study  of 
i  followed 
lusion  of 
if  young 
e  reading 


gations.  The  l!ev.  T.  X.  I  lasselquist.  I  >.!>..  is  the 

president.    (1876.) 

AUGUSTINE,  Saint  (Lat.  Aurelius  Au- 
gustinus),  a  celebrated  doctor  of  the  Latin 
church,    and    one    of    the    greatest    of    (hristian 


many    defenders.      (See 


lugustine   have 

I  'lim-l  I  \\    (  'l.\ssles.l 

By  the  establishment  of  a  training  institution  for 
candidates  for  the  priesthood,  \ugustine  laid  the 
foundation  of  episcopal  seminaries,  and  gave  a 


AUSTIN  COLLEGE 

powerful  impulse  to  the  diffusion  of  theological 
science  among  the  clergy.  He  refused  to  ordain 
any  one  as  a  pries!  who  had  not  been  edu- 
cated in  his  seminary.  A  number  of  his  pupils 
established  similar  institutions  in  their  diocese.-.; 
and-  when  the  church  of  Jsorth  Africa  was  dev- 
astated by  the  incursions  of  the  Vandal-,  the 
African  bishop.-,  established  seminaries  in  manj 
of  the  places  where  they  found  .1  1  sfuge. 
Byhis  work  l>  cateckizandis  rudibus,  Augustine 

became  the  fatherof  Christian  catecl -     Thi 

work  was  compiled  in  compliance  with   the  ap- 
plication of  a  deacon  of  Carthage,  by  the  name 


AUSTRALASIAN   COLONIES 


til 


palians  form  the  dominant  body  as  regards  num- 
ber. Next  to  these,  are  the  Roman  Catholics, 
who  constitute  about  25  per  cut  of  the  total 

population.      The    Methodists  rank    third.     All 


d  and  controlled  bythestate.bu 
to  schools  established  by  othe 
they  submit  to  certain  regula 


Of 


QDulsorv.     With  regar 


scholar,  and  I)  ■  m 
as  the    best    teaehe 

character.  --See  S 
gogik,  II.  59, sq.; 


vol.  1.;  The  marks  of  St.  Augustine,  edited  by 
M.  Dods  (London,  isT4— 6).  Of  the  earlier 
editions  of  his  works,  that  by  the  Benedictines, 
in  11  vols.  (Paris.  L679— 1700)  is  considered  the 
best. 

AUSTIN  COLLEGE,  at  Huntsville, Texas, 

was   founded   in    1849,  by    Presbyterians.      Its 

f rounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus  are  valued  at 
60,000.  It  has  a  library  of  3000  volumes,  and 
a  preparatory  and  classical  department.  The 
number  of  students  is  about  90.  The  Kev.  S. 
M.  Luckett,  A.  M.,  is  the  president.  The  annual 
tuition  fee  is  from  $30  to  Sail. 

AUSTRALASIAN  COLONIES.  This 
name  is  now  commonly  used  to  designate  the 
English  colonies  on  the  continent  of  Australia. as 
well  as  the  neighboring  islands  of  Tasmania  and 
New  Zealand.  The  following  exhibits  the  area 
and  population  of  each  of  these  colonies  : 

New  South  Wales      308,560  sq.  m.      584,278  inhalj. 

Victoria 88,451      "  807,756      " 

Smith  Australia  .  . .   3*0,602       "  204, ss:!       " 

Queensland Mix, 259      "  ltio.iino       - 

West  Australia ....  975,824      "  26,209      " 

Northern  Territory    526,531      "  200 

Tasmania....  26,215      "  105,000      " 

New  Zealand 106,259      "  299,500      " 


Total ::, i>7T, 7(11  sq.  m.  2,ls7,s2i;  inliali. 

55,000 
15,500      ' 


N»«veB    j^^ahun, 


(hand  Total 2,288,326  inhab. 

The  progress  of  most  of  these  colonies,  especial- 
ly that  of  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and  South 
Australia,  has  been  very  rapid:  and  it  maybe 
safely  inferred  from  their  vast  resources,  as  well 
as  from  their  rapid  progress  in  the  past,  that 
these  colonies  will,  ere  long,  bold  a  prominent 
place  among  the  civilized  countrii  of  the  world. 
Their  national  language  isthe  English.  There  is 
no  state  church  as  in   England,  but  the  Episco- 


iv  and  Melbourne,  the  former  in 
students,  the  latter  with  122.  A 
v  was  more  recently  established  at 
'Zealand,  and  a  fourth,  in  I  ST.",.  at 
monthly    periodical,    devoted    to 


The  Australian  Handbook  mid  Almanaciat 
L876  gives  the  following  educational  facts  and 
statistics  for  tin- several   countries: 

New  South  Wales.  —  The  number  of  schools  is 
returned  at  1 508,  with  233  I  teachers  of  both  sexes, 
and  I  10,287  schokre.of  whom  57,917areboys,and 
52,370  girls.     Under  the  council  of  education, 


id   1   to  the 

trol  of  the 
tools.     The 


5sr»" 

St.  Paul's 

College      1. 

and  Dumb 
of  these  ( 
6154,220  ' 
and  667,37 


the  Deaf 

e  support 
■   sum   of 

.eminent, 
fees  and 


voluntary  contributions.  The  number  of  Sunday 
schools  was  1,023,  with  an  average  attendance  of 
51,478,  and  6,497  teachers. 

Victoria.  —  Of  day  schools,  including  state 
schools,  private  educational  establishments,  col- 
leges, and  grammar  schools,  there  were.  March. 
31.,  1ST:!,  1936,  with  an  attendance  of  160,743 
scholars  and  4,257  teachers.  The  common  schools 
numbered  1.04S.  with  2.41  (i  teachers,  73,s'J(i  boys, 
and  62,136  girls.  The  local  receipts  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  schools,  arising  from  tecs  and 


ikiim  a  total  of    OK 


ate  schools 


rollr, 

Presl 

The 
and  i 
of  sti 


62       AUSTRALASIAN  COLONIES  Ai 

numbered    881,   with    11.024  male  anil    13.595    educational  purposes 
female  >elic >lars.  and   52s  male  and    12 .'Hi  female 
teachers.     The  number  of  grammar  schools  and 

if  which  2  weiv  Episcopalian,  3 

Methodist,  and  1  Roman  Catholic. 

ilier  of  masters  in  these  colleges 

chools  was  77.  the  total  number 

52.  Cnder  the  new  educational 
act,  the  instruction  in  the  state  schools  is  free, 
secular,  and  compulsory.  The  governing  power 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  minister  of  education,  assis- 
ted by  a  secretary.  Each  school  is  under  period- 
ical inspection.  The  teachers  are  required  to  pass 
an  examination,  and  are  paid  byfixed  salaries:  but 
theyalsn  receive  the  fees. if  the  scholars. and  have 
a  further  allowance  aecordiii".  to  tin-  progress 
made  by  the  scholars  under  their  charge.  The 
number  of -Sunday  schools  was  1,381;   Episeopa- 

yterian  308,  Wesleyan  324,  I'rini- 

:  7.:.  Congregationalist  54.   Bap- 
Catholic  171;  with  111,540  schol- 
ars and  1 1  315  teachers. 

South  Australia.  —  The  central  board  of 
Education  consists  of  7  members;  the  officers 
are  .'!  inspectors  and  a  .secretary.  The  number 
of  licensed  schools  open  at  the  close  of  1874  was 
320,  with  17,426  enrolled  pupils,  and  315 
teachers. 

•U.l.  -     The    legislative    council    ill 


educational  purposes  in  1874  was  £72,0110,  the 
local  subscriptions  were  £3,116.  The  property 
vested  in  the  board  was  valued  at  £83,358. 


Man 


tist 


Wei 


elans 


and  assisted  scl Is.    The  former  are  maintained 

wholly  at  the  cost  of  the  colony,  the  latter  are 
private.  1  nit  may  receive  a  capitation  grant  on 
submitting  to  government  inspection  for  secular 

results,  and  to  the  observance  of  a  strict  conscience 
the  tour  hours  of  secular  instruc- 
I > v  the  Act.  The  elementary  schools 
are  under  the  control  and  supervision  of  a  central 
board  appointed  by  the  governor,  and  the  local 
district  boards  electa  I  by  the  electors.  Attendance 

at  scl I   ni.iv   be  enforced  My  the  local   boards. 

Dn  the  elementary  schools,  one  hour  a  day  is  de- 
voted, under  the  provisions  of  a  conscience  clause, 
to  reading  the  Bible  or  other  religious  books 
approved  by  the  board;  but  no  catechism  or 
religious  formulary  of  any  kind  can  be  u  ed  and 
the  Bible  must  be  read,  if  at  all,  without  note 
or  comment.  In  1874,  the  number  of  national 
and  assisted  schools  was  85,  with  an  average 
attendance,  of  over  3,000.  There  is  a  Church  of 
England  collegiate  school  in  Perth,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  bishop. 

(Jitcfiislmiil.  —  Education  is  free.  The  prop- 
erty of  the  schools,  and  the  land  granted  for 
school  purposes,  are  vested  in  a  board  of  educa- 
tion. Aid  is  granted  to  schools  not  established 
by  the  board,  on  complying  with  certain  regula- 
tions.    The  state  also  assists  in  the  establi.-l nt 

of  grammar  schools,  whenever  a  district  raises  a 
sum  for  this  purpose  by  subscription.  In  1874, 
there  were  20!!  primal  \  scl Is.  with  590  teach- 
ers, and  29,012  scholars.  There  were  also  62 
private  schools,  with  IIS  teachers  and  2,123 
scholars.     The   parliamentary  appropriation  for 


1874,  147.  average  attendance  7. '.170,  scholars 
enrolled  12,158,  teachers  108  male  and  1  Hi  female, 
besides  39  pupil  teachers  and  paid  monitors. 
There  are  four  schools  of  a  higher  grade.  The 
number  of  Sunday  schools  is  112,  with  1,112 
teachers  and  1.0,0]  1  scholars. 

In  \.  w  Zealand,  each  province  has  its  own 
laws  and  regulations.  To  both  national  and  de- 
nominational schools,  in  Mime  cases,  state  aid  is 
given  ;  in  others,  it  is  limited  to  national  schools. 
Dunedin  has  a  university.  In  1871,  out  of  chil- 
dren from  5  to  15  years  of  age,  59  in  every 
hundred  could  read  and  write,  and  72  were  at- 

tending  school.     The  increase  in  attendance  fi 

L872  to  1874  was  very  large.  The  number  of 
common  schools,  in  L874,  was  19  1.  of  colleges 
and  grammar  schools  I.  and  of  private  schools 
182;  total  680,  having  an  attendance  of  41,027 
scholars,  of  whom  21,774  were  males,  and  19,253 
females  Of  the  entire  attendance.  33,790  be- 
longed  to  the  common  schools;  498,  to  the  col- 
leges and  grammar  schools;  and  6,739,  to  private 
schools.  Besides  these,  there  were  47  native 
schools,  with  68  teachers  and  1.211  scholars. 

AUSTRIA  (Germ.  Oesterreich  or  Oestreieh, 
eastern  empire),  officially  designated  since  1868 
as  the  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy,  has  an 
area  of  240,381  sq.  m.,  and  a  population,  ac- 
cording to  the  last  census,  in  1869. of  35.904,435. 
The  empire  now  consists  of  two  main  divisions, 
Austria  proper  and  Hungary,  each  of  which  has 
the  legislative  and  administrative  control  of  its 
own  educational  affairs.  In  this  article  we  shall 
treat  only  of  Austria  proper,  called  also  Cis- 
leifhania,  because  the  small  river  Leitha  con- 
stitutes part  of  the  frontier  between  it  and  Hun- 
gary.    For  the  rest,  see  Hungary. 

Austria  proper,  or  Oisleithania,  consists  of 
14  provinces  with  an  aggregate  area  of  1 1 5,925 
sq.  m.,and  a  population  numbering,  according  to 
the  census  of  1869,  20,217,531,  and  estimated  at 
the  close  of  1874  at  21,169,341.  The  provinces 
formerly  were  either  independent,  or  belonged  to 
different  states,  and  they  still  are  inhabited  by 
people  of  various  nationalities.  An  official  cen- 
sus of  the  nationalities  has  not  been  taken  since 
1850 ;  but  their  comparative  strength  is  well 
known,  and  the  estimates  made  by  writers  on 
this  subject  substantially  agree.  'I  he  Ccrmans 
number  about  7,109,000,  or  35,16  per  cent;  the 
Czechs  and  Slovacks,  4,719,000,  or  23,34  per 
cent  ;  the  Poles,  2,444,000,or  12.09  per  cent ;  the 
Ruthenians,  2,585,000,  or  12,80  per  cent;  the 
Slovens  or  Winds.  1.196.200.  or  5,92  per 
cent;  the  Croats  or  Serbs.  522.400.  or  2.5s  per 
cent  :  the  Magyars.  1  7.700,  or  0.09  percent  :  the 
Italian.-.  588, i.  or  2,91  percent  ;  the  Rouma- 
nians, 207.900,  or  1,02  per  cent;  the  Jews, 
820,000,  or  4,05  per  cent.    Two  of  the  provinces. 


A  ustria 

Austria 


Salzburg,  are  wholly  Ger- 
mans have  a  majority  in 


three  or  four  teachers,  who  shi  luldgive  instruction 
in  the  Latin   language,   geography,  history,  com- 


csM  Mi~lnne.,t.  at  iIlc  seat 


,  was  also 

rlier.  At- 


nposeil  upon 


ami  euar.lian.-   who  should   tail    to 

ildren  to  school.  All  teachers  were  b 
the   text-books   which   the    governi 

'I'hesel i  law  «;lf.  .-lii.-th    the  mil 


population ;  the  Jews 
Sox  Cveks  2,27,  tin 


fori 


eks  ill. 


lercent)  and  the  United 
:ent).  The  Koinan  ( !ath- 
lajority  in  every  province, 
and  in  every  nationality. 


i  of  Passim.  <  loun 
>ress.  In  accordanci 
cil  of  state  propose 


Un 

Armenians  (I 

olic  Church  ; 

except  the  I 

excepl  the  Roumanian. 

Until  the  government  of  Maria  The 
education  was  in  a  very  backward  stal 
as  1770,  thirty  years  after  the  accesi 
empress  to  the  throne,  only  'J  1  p, 
the  children  from  the  5th  to  the  li 
age  attended  the  public  schools  of  . 
Lower  Austria,  only  L6  per  cent:  in  5 
4  per  cent.     The   large  majority  of  tl 

especially  in  tin untry,  grew  up  w 

instruction.  The  firsl  impulse  to  the  tl 

ganizationof  a  publicscho 

a  memorial  which  the  laV 

Firniian.aililresseil  to  the  i 

with  his  suggestions,  the  a 

the  establishment  of  two 

mittees  tor  the  provinces  of  Upper  ami  Lower 

Austria  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  methods 

of  teaching  ami  the  administration  of  the  schools. 

committee  was  established  May  19.,  1770.  tine 
of  the  first  acts  of  the  committee  was  the  estab- 
lishmentof  a  model  school  at  Vienna,  in  January, 
1771 ,  ami  of  a  model  school  fund.  The  influence 
of  these  reforms  was  so  satisfactory,  that  the 
establishment  of  school  committees,  school  funds, 
and  model  schools  in  all  the  other  provinces, 
was  either  carried  into  effect,  or  at  least  begun. 
The  establishment  of  a  court  committee  on  stud- 
ies (Studienhofamvmission),  February  12.,  1774, 
which  was  to  have  the  chief  control  of' all  the  edu- 
cational affairs  of  the  empire,  was  another  re- 
form of  great  importance.  In  December,  1774, 
the  first  comprehensive  school  law  was  published. 
It  provided  for  the  establishment,  in  connection 
with  every  parish  church,  of  a  common  trivial 
school,  in  which  religion.  Ih'hlo  hi-toty.  ivadim.'. 
writing,  and  the  elements  of  arithmetic.  >liould  be 
taught;  for  the  establishment  in  each  circle  of  at 
least   one  principal-school   (//icy/si  7/ »/'•>,    with 


reformatory  schemes.     He  cut 

sory  laws  the  education  of  all 


12  years  of 
school  census  t 
churches  were  l 
lishment  of  a 
church  which  v 


and.  in  1 1 
iken. 


•ws.  also,  were  ai  first  authorized,  but  si 
anl  commanded,  to  establish  schools  for  ( 
ion  of  their  youth.    Great  prominence  v 


given,  even  111  ] 
ing  of  the  (it 
which  was  an 


ing,   mechanical   work,  am 
mmended.   Corporal  pun 


A  ust  i 


prov 


schools  in  common  wit 
reign  of  the  emperor 
tions  were  organized, 
these  associations  were 
boards  of  education. 
studies  [Studienrevisio 
formed  in  1795,  under 


pared  a  new 
which  was  pi 
long  time  tin: 
Austria.  Tl 
associations  ( 
greatly  restri 
oftheCathol 


ishment  was  limited 

was    to    be   provided 

nentary  schools.  In 
ircles  into  which  the 
ded,  school  commis- 

dSmT  During1  the 

lelegates  chosen  by 
ted  to  the  provincial 

visory  committee  on 

nperor  Francis,  pre- 

r  the  public  schools. 
5,  and  formed  for  a 

achersand  teachers' 

64 


which  made  attendance  at  the  review  course  of 
instruction  compulsory  until  the  close  of  the 
15th  year  of  age  or  the  cud  of  apprenticeship. 
In  1828,  the  government  began  to  publish  statis- 
tical accounts  of  the  progress  of  public  educa- 
tion, which,  as  appears  from  these  accounts,  con- 
tinued to  be  steady  in  all  the  provinces  of  the 
empire.  A  peculiar  feature  in  the  educational 
history  of  Austria,  at  that  time,  was  the  more 
general  introduction  of  the  vernacular  languages 
of  the  various  nationalities  into  the  public 
schools,  in  place  of  the  German,  which  thus  far 
had  been  too  predominantly  used  even  in  some 
districts  not  German.  Among  the  first  re- 
sults of  the  revolution  of  1S4H,  which  led 
to  the  abdication  of  the  emperor  Ferdinand  I., 
and  the  accession  of  the  emperor  Francis. I oscph  I.. 
<trv    of   public 


was  the  establishment  of  i 
instruction,  which  in  the  same  y  ar  published  an 
outline  of  the  proposed  reorganization  of  all  the 
Austrian  schools.  This  outline  established  several 
important  principles:  11)  The  maintenance  of  a 
public  school  was  made  obligatory  for  the  com- 
munities; (2)  Instruction  was  everywhere  to  be 
given  in  the  mother- tongue  of  the  pupils;  and 
(3)  For  the  candidates  of  teachers  who  formerly 
had  received  only  a  six  months'  instruction,  a 
special  course  of  two  or  three  years  was  arranged. 
\\  liicli  was  gradually  to  be  developed  into  a  teach- 
ers'seminary,     fn  1849,  Count    Leo  Thun  was 


schools).  The  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the 
former  are  religion,  language,  arithmetic,  writing, 
geometrical  forms,  the  elements  of  natural  science 
and  history,  singing,  and  gymnastic  exercises. 
According  to  the  number  of  teachers  allowed. 
it  may  have  from  one  to  seven  classes.  In  the 
Burgerschvle,  moreover,  composition,  natural 
science,  geometry,  book-keeping,  and  drawing  are 
taught.  Schools  of  the  latter  class  have,  when  com 
plete,  8  classes,  or  if  connected  with  a  I  rolkssckule 
of  5  classes,  only  3  classes.  The  communities 
must  establish  a  school  whenever,  in  the  circuit 
of  one  hour's  walk,  40  children  are  found  who 
attend  a  school  at  least  half  a  German  mile 
distant.  A  second  teacher  is  allowed  when  the 
number  of  children  exceeds  80;  and  another 
for  e\eiy  additional  HO.  The  school  age  lasts 
from  the  <ith  to  the  14th  year.  There  are  special 
school  boards  for  the  communities,  districts,  and 
provinces.  The  number  of  Burgerschiden  and 
VoUcsschvlen  in  1871,  was  L4.769,  of  which  6560 
were  German,  5746  Slavic.  L080  Italian.  24 
Eoumanic.  5  Magyar.  3  t  J  reck,  and  1352  mixed. 
The  number  of  male  teachers  was  20,904;  of 
female  teachers,  3,445.  The  attendance  at  school 
was  941,497  boys  and  878,193  girls.  In  two 
provinces,  the  Tyrol  and  \bna\  in.  the  number  of 
children   attending  school  exceeded  that  of  the 


..nil 


effect   some   0 
ne,  and    orga 


partly  of  experienced  educators  who  received  the 
title  of  school  councilor  (Sr/iulra/h),  and  partly 
of  administrative  officers.  But  the  chief  aim  of 
this  minister  was  the  establishment  of  a  far-reach- 
ing control  of  the  I  'atholic  Church  over  the  public 
school  system.  Theconcordat  between  Austria  and 
the  I'ope.  which  was  concluded  in  August.  Is.'i.'i, 
provides  that  the  entire  instruction  of  the  Cath- 
olic youth,  both  in  public  and  private  schools, 
must  1«-  in  accordance  with  the  ( 'atholic  religion; 
that  all  the  teachers  in  the  Catholic  schools  are 
placed  under  the  superintendence  of  the  church, 
and  that  the  bishops  will  propose  to  the  govern- 
ment fit  persons  for  the  office  of  school  superin- 
tendents. The  disastrous  issue  of  the  war  against 
France  and  Italy  led  to  the  introduction  of 
several  sweeping  reforms,  and  the  establishment 
of  a  national  representation,  or  Reichsraih,  in 
which  the  Liberal  party  impetuously  demanded 
the  emancipation  of  the  public  schools  from  the 
control  of  the  church,  and  the  abolition  of  the 
concordat.      The  ministry  of  instruction,  which 

was  looked  it] by  the  Liberals  its  a  tool  of  the 

church  was  totally  abolished:  but  the  govern- 
ment showed  great  reluctance  in  yielding  to  other 
demands  of  the  Liberals.  A  new  organization 
of  the  public  school  system  was  provided  for  by 
the  law  of  May  1  1..  L869.  It  substitutes  for  the 
former  Haupt-  und  Trivialschulen  high  and 
common  schools)  a  division  into  Vulkssrhtili-ii 
I pie's   schools'    and     I  It*  iy,;<r/,  ulrit    (citizens' 


between  50  and  55;  in  <  ■alieia.  20;  in  I  lalinatia.  1  5; 
and  in  the  Hukovina,  only  I  -  percent  The  middle 
schools,  which  prepare  boys  for  the  higher  studies. 
are  either  gymnasia,  realsc!tools,OT  n  algymnasia. 
The  gymnasia  prepare  their  pupils  for  the  uni- 
versities, the  realschools  for  the  higher  technical 
schools,  and  the  realgymnasia  for  both.  In  1870, 
there  were  97  gymnasia  with  27,287  pupils.  24 
realgymnasia  with  3.210,  and  50  realsuhools  with 
]3,22!l  pupils.  Of  univci-sitics  there  are  7:  those  of 
Vienna,  Gratz,  Innspruck.  Prague,  Cracow,  Lem- 
berg. and  I  'zernowitz.  They  all  contain,  like  the 
Herman  universities.  -I  faculties,  except  Lemberg 
and  ( 'zernowitz.  which  have  only  3.  The  number 
of  students,  in  the  winter  semester  of  1874 — 5, 
was.  at  Vienna  4,223, at  Gratz  930,at  Innspruck 
633,  al  Prague  2,011,  at  Lemberg  upwards  of 
1100,  and  at  Cracow  upwards  of  L,000.  There 
are  seven  technical  high  schools:  2  at  Prague 
( 1  <  ierman  and  1  <  izechic),  and  1  each  at  Vienna. 
Gratz,  Brunn,  Lemberg,  Cracow,  and,  in  all,  aboul 
270  professors  and  3,000  pupils.  Male  teachers 
seminaries  were  first  established  in  accordance 
with  the  new  law  of  L869,  in  L870.  Of  these, 
there  were,  in  1873.  40.  with  L45  principal  and 
207  assistant  teachers,  and  2.111  pupil.-,  of  whom 
1,093  wee  Germans,  530  Czech-.  215  Poles,  93 
Ruthenians,  128  Croats  or  Servians,  95  Italians. 

and  15  Roumanians.  For  the  educati i  femali 

teachers,  there  are  21  seminaries,  with  L05  princi- 
pal and  111  assistant  teachers,  and  1,667  pupils. 
The  number  of  special  schools  is  very  large, 
embracing  theological,  medical,  and  industrial 
s,ho..|s.  schools  for  navigation,  mining,  agricul- 


AUTHORITY 


ture,  forestry*  and  the  fine  arts,  together  with 

military  institutions,  institutions  for  the  deaf  ami 
dumb,  and  the  blind,  orphan  asylums,  infant  in- 
stitutions (creches). 

The  most  important  educational  periodicals 
are -De)'  Oesterreichisr/n-  ,sW/»/We  i.-ince  1.-51 1 
and  Zeitsckrift  filr  Sstreichisdlie  Gymnasien 
(since  1850). 

A  full  .account  of  the  history  and  statistics 
of  public  education  in  Austria  is  given  by  Dr. 
Ficker,  in  Soiimid's  PMagog.  Encyclopadie,  vol. 
v.  p.  242—566.  Sec  also  Helfert,  System  der 
oslreich.  Vblksschtde  (Prague,  1861),  a  collection 
of  all  the  laws  relating  to  the  public  school 
system;  Sciiiumkr.  S/ul'isti/,-  <(<-r  L-hmiisttiltrn. 
des  Gstreidh.  Kaiserstaates  von  L851  — 1857, 
(Vienna,  1858).  The  latest  official  statistics 
are  annually  published  in  the  Shilistisrh?  Julir- 
buch,  by  the  central  statistical  commission  of 
Vienna. 

AUTHORITY    (Lat.  auctoritas),  the  right 

the  right  is  exercised  ;  sometimes  also',  in  matters 
pertaining  to  the  intellect,  the  power  to  iutlu  nee 
or  exact  belief.  In  education,  the  term  has  espe- 
cially this  twofold  application:  (1)  to  the  disci- 
pline, or  management  of  children  ;  |2)  to  th  ir  in- 
struction. The  primary  authority,  both  in  re- 
spect to  time  and  importanc  i,  to  which  the  child 
is  subjected  is  that  of  the  parent  ;  and  for  several 
years  no  other  can  be  exercised  over  it,  except  in 
loco  parentis.  It  is  true,  the  state  extends  a  pro- 
tecting care  over  the  child  ;  but  only  by  an  exer- 
cise of  its  authority  over  the  parents,  requiring 
them  to  perforin  their  proper  duties  as  the  nat- 
ural guardians  of  their  children.  When  the 
parents  neglect  ot  repudiate  these  duties  or  are 
guilty  of  acts  iu  contravention  of  them,  the  Mate 
interposes  its  authority,  but  not  even  then  direct- 
ly, upon  the  child,  but  only  to  place  it  under  the 
authority  of  those  who  will  better  care  for  its 
interests,  and  perform  for  it  the  aatural  duties 
of  its  parents.  The  right  exercise  of  parental 
authority  is,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  important 
elements  in   the    education    of    the    child.      (See 

Parental  Education.)  If  the  child  from  its 
earliest  years  has  been  accustomed  to  recognize 
and  submit  to  the  authority  of  its  parent  3,  firmlj 
but  judiciously  exercised,  th  ire  \\  ill  be,  ordinari- 
ly, but  little  (iiiticnlty.on  the  part  of  the  teacher, 
in  making  his  authority  effective  The  child,  on 
entering  the  school,  feels  for  the  first  time  thai 
it  is  under  an  authority  different  from  that  of  ii  5 
parents,  to  which  it  has  previously  learned  to 
submit  with  unquestioning  obedience.  Its  first 
impulse  is,  perhaps,  to  refuse  submission  to  this 

new  authority  ;  and  the  intlncn f  the  teacher 

over  the  child  will  greatly  depend  upon  the  man- 
ner in  which  obedience  is  enforced.  (See  Disci- 
pline.) In  the  authority  of  the  teacher,  as  well 
as  in  that  of  the  parents,  two  eh- nts  are  com- 
bined,— one  that  attracts  and  encourages,  aud 
one  that  curbs  and  subdues.  Without  the  former, 
authority  is  arbitrary  and  violent:  without  the 
latter,  it  is  feeble  and  often  powerless.  In  other 
words,  the  authority  that  truly  educates  should 


be  founded  not  alone  upon  fear,  but  upon  love 

and  esteem  as  well.     The  authority  of  the  teacher 


the  teacher  is  in  loco  parentis  :  not.  that  he  has 
exactly  the  authority  of  the  parent,  but  only  so 
far  as  it  is  not  limited  by  the  general  usages  of 
society,  or  by  special  contracts.    The  conscien- 


isdt 


break  a  contract,  or  violate  a  most  sacred  trust  ; 
and.  in  cither  case,  his  authority  will  be  either 
weakened  or  destroyed. 

When  schools  arc  controlled  by  boards  of  edu- 
cation or  boards  of  trustees,  such  constituted 
authorities  stand  to  the  children  in  place  of  the 
parents,  in  respect  to  school  education  ;  and  the 
teachers  become  simply  the  agents  of  the  school 
board,  and  can  only  exercise  an  authority  limited 
by  the  rules  of  such  board.  The  limit's  of  the 
authority  delegated  to  teachers  by  the  appointing 
power,  vary  considerably  in  different  places, 
some  school  boards  reserving  to  themselves 
certain  powers  or  functions  which  others  confer 
upon  the  teacher.  It  is  a  matter  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  all  persons  concerned  in  the  edu- 
cation of  the  child  should  co-operate  harmoni- 
ously; since  nothing  tends  so  much  to  weaken 
the  force  of  authority  in  the  mind  of  the  child  as 
to  notice  a  conflict  among  those  under  whose 
control  it  is  placed.  Father  and  mother  parenl 
and  teacher,  tea'  her  and  school  board,  should,  at 
any  rate,  as  fai  as  the  child  is  aware,  agree  ab- 
solutely; sine  'the  less  children  know  of  any  differ- 
ence of  opinion  between  their  custodians,  the 
more  cheerfully  will  they  respect  and  submit  to 
the  priu.  iple  of  authority  in  general. 

Many  cases  will  arise,both  in  the  family  and  in 
the  school,  in  which  children  will  refuse  submis- 
sion to  the  authority  of  their  educators  :  and  hence 
the  mode  of  enforcing  authority  becomes  a  mat- 
ter of  serious  importance.  Authority,  of  course, 
implies  a  control  of  the  will  of  those  over  whom 
it  is  exercised;  and  the  means  by  which  this  is 
to  be  obtained  will  differ  according  to  the  dis- 
position and  habits  of  the  child,  and,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  id.- 1  according  to  the  character  of 
the  educator  himself .  A  violent,  irascible,  morose, 
or  capricious  parent  <r  teacher  will  have  a  con- 
stant conflict  with  the  <  hild.and  will  never  be  able 
to  establish  his  authority,  to  whatever  extent,  for 
the  time  being,  lie  may  compel  a  seeming  obedi- 
ence. Authority  is  thus  described  by  an  eminent 
teacher:— "It  is  not  mere  legal  form,  nor  the 
instrumentalities  for  executing  it,  that  constitutes 
authority.  It  is  a  power  in  the  individual  him- 
self, independent  of  :dl  circumstances,  and  rising 
in  its  own  majesty  above  all  mere  conventionali- 
ties. It  is  a  power  difficult  to  describe,  but 
which  sends  out  its  streams  of  influence  along 
the  teacher's  pathway.  It  exists  in  the  man,  de- 
manding, securing,  and  retaining  cheerful  obedi- 
ence." Authority'should  not  be  exercised  ius  such; 


AlTllomTV 


"  the  right-feeling  parent."  says  Herbert  Spencer, 
"like  the  philanthropic  legislator,  will  not  rejoice 
in  coercion,  but  will  rejoice  in  dispensing  with 
coercion. *'  (See  Moral  Kiutatiox.)  In  this  connec- 
tion, arises  the  question  of  the  propriety  of  corpo- 
ral punishment  to  enforce  authority  in  the  family 
or  school.  AH  educators  are  agreed,  thai  the  use 
of  physical  force,  if  at  all  sanctioned,  should  be 
only,  as  a  dernier  ressort,  brought  in  when  every 
other  mans  of  coercion  has  failed;  some,  how- 
ever, condemn  the  "use  of  the  rod"  utterly. 
Locke  assents  to  it  only  in  cases  of  extreme  ob- 
stinacy. "  The  teacher,"  says  D.  P.  Page,  "  has 
the  right  to  establish  authority  by  corporal  in- 
fliction J  and   thus  to  save  the  school   and   also 

save  himself It  is  his  duty  to  establ    h 

au  h   '  i  3 .  i     i  e  :M\ .  indee  1,  if  he  may. — forcibly 

if  he  lnu-t."       (See    CoRPORAL    PUNISHMENT.)       Ill 

the  ex  ireiseof  authority,  both  parent  and  teacher 
should  faithfully  consider  the  influence  they  are 
exerting  over  the  future  character  of  the  child. 

As  Locke  say.-,  ■  I  a   ry  man  must  sometime  or 

other  be  trusted  to  himself  and  his  owi nduct  ; 

and  that  he  is  a  good,  a  virtu  in  .  and  able  man, 
must  be  made  so  within."     In  the  family  ami 

bc] I.  as  in  the  great    world  beyond,  authority 

should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  exercised  without 
being  felt.  Richter  justly  remarks.  -Th-  l»-i 
rule  in  politics  is  said  to  be  yx/.s  tru/i  t/,wr,  -run- '; 
it  is  also  true  in  education." 

The  principle  of  authority  has  an  important 
application  to  the  mental  as  well  as  the  moral 
education  of  children.  In  the  earliest  stages  of 
intellectual  instruct  ion.  the  child  must  receive 
most  of  the  information  imparted  to  it  on  the 
authority  of  its  teacher;  but  modern  principles 
and  methods  require  that,  even  from  the  first,  as 
far  as  possible,  the  child  should  learn  for  itself 
by  the  exercise  of  its  perceptive  and  conceptive 
faculties,  and  not  merely  on  the  authority  of  its 
teachers.  .Much,  however,  must  be  imparted, 
that  is  beyond  the  scope  of  the  child's  under- 
standing and  experience;  and.  consequently, 
there  will  be  a  wide  range  for  the  operation  of  the 
teacher's  authority.  It  will,  of  course,  be  greater 
or  less  in  proportion  to  his  personal  influence  in 
other  respects,  and  particularly  in  proportion  to 
the  confidence  felt  by  his  pupils  in  his  wisdom 
and  attainments.  In  some  instances,  as  exem- 
plified in  the  history  of  religious  orders  and 
cued-  and  of  the  schools  of  philosophy  and 
science,  the  authority  of  eminent  teachers  has 
often  been  so  great  as  to  exert  an  influence  for 
many  centuries,, vcr  thousands,  or  even  millions. 


much  by  authority,  and  failing   to  appeal  suffi- 

ei  ;i,:\  to  the  reason  and  judgment  of  the  pupil 
is  an  error  to  be  carefully  avoided  ;  since  it  must 
exert  a  disastrous  influence  upon  the  student's 
habits  of  thought  and  acquisition.  With  all 
due  deference  to  the  philosopher  of  Samos,  who 


was  content  to  have  his  disciples  depend  upon 
the  Ipse  dixit  Pythagoras,  his  example  cannot 
be  wisely  imitated  by  the  teachers  of  our  time. 
Every  one  must  learn  to  form  his  own  opinions, 
carefully,  dispassionately,  after  due  investigation, 
and  a  proper  consideration  for  the  conclusions 
and  experience  of  other  minds  ;  but  still  they 
must  be  his  own.  The  teacher  should  infuse  into 
the  minds  of  his  pupils  an  intellectual  independ- 
ence. —  not  a  skeptical  questioning  of  every- 
thing, but  a  thoughtful  investigation  of  the  why 
and  the  ir/irrtfnn:  a  diligent  balancing  of  the 
weight  of  testimony,  and  a  habit  of  inquiring 
into  the  ultimate  reasons  of  things,  as  far  as  they 
can  be  adduced.  This  will  impart  coneentrathc- 
aess  and  activity  of  mind,  and  call  into  exercise 
the  judgment   and    reflection   upon    whatever    is 

j  presented   to  the  attention,  whether  in  study. 

|  readme,  or  conversation.  The  pupil  thus  in- 
structed would  soon  realize  the  force  and  beauty 
of  that  fine  sentiment  of  Emerson:  "I  had 
bette]  peverseea   I k  than   be   warped  by  its 

stronglj  conde ed  the  prevalent  i leof  teach- 
ing by  authority.  "  Let  the  tutor,"  says  he, 
"make  his  pupil  examine  and  thoroughly  sift 
every  thing  he  reads,  and  lodge  nothing  in 
his  head  upon  simple  authority  and  upon  trust 
....  Let  him  know  that  he  does  know."  Rous- 
seau also  severely  criticised  the  pedagogy  of  his 
time,  For  basing  the  science  of  education  on  the 
principle  of  authority.  He  demanded  that  the 
pupil  should  not  know  anything  merely  because 
it  was  told  him  by  the  teacher,  but  because  he 

underst 1  it.     Be  should  not  learn  the  science, 

but  discover  it.  "If."  said  he.  "  you  give  him 
an  authority  instead  of  a  reason,  he  will  never 
think  independently,  but  will  always  be  the  foot- 
ball of  the  opinions  of  others."  This  is  an  ex- 
treme  view,  as  every  teacher  of  experience  must 
know.  The  authority  of  the  teacher  cannot  be 
eliminated  in  iutt  Uectual  education  ;  since  to  do  so 
would  put  the  undeveloped  understanding  of  the 
pupil  on  an  equality  with  the  mature  and  devel- 
oped intellect  of  the  instructor;  neither  can  its 
just  limits  be  definitely  fixed.  The  disposition 
to  accept  the  statements  ,,f  the  teacher  as  truths, 
when  not  fully  understood,  should  be  cultivated. 

Modesty  is  often  as  requisite  and  as  tx dug  in 

thought  as  in  morals.  The  great  principle  to  be 
kept  iii  mcw  -and  it  is  to  the  credit  oi  Rousseau 
that  he  so  clearly  perceived,  and  so  emphatically 

enunciated  it — is,  that  authority  should  uot  have 
its  aim  within  itself,  but  that  its  object  should  be 
to  develop  the  faculties  of  the  pupil,  so  that  he 
may  fully  understand  as  true  ami  right,  what  he 
has  received  on  the  authority  of  the  teacher. — 
See  Montaigne,  Essais  [Cotton's  translation, 
edited  by  W.  ETazlitt) ;  Locke,  Thoughts  <m 
Education;  RoussEAt .  Emileou  de  V Education; 
Heriikrt  Si'knckr  ,  Education:  Intellectual, 
Mural,  and  Physical. 


BACCHANTS 


BACCHANTS  (Lat  Bacchantes)  is  a  term 
applied  in  mediaeval  times  to  those  university 
students  who  had  not  yet  finished  their  nrel 
year's  studies,  and  being  taxed  for  drinking  pur- 
poses by  the  older  students,  were  thus  drawn 
into  revels  and  debauchery.  Later,  this  name 
was  given  to  those  idle,  dissolute  students  who 
traveled   about    the   country,  collecting   money, 


that  rash  and  unfortunate  nobleman  was  under 
trial.  Bacon,  evidently  from  fear  of  the  queen's 
displeasure,  spoke  .severely  against  him.  and  was 
instrumental  in  securing  his  conviction.  This  has 
subjected  him  to  much  obloquy,  as  being  guilty 
of  meanness  and  ingratitude.  After  the  acces- 
sion of  .lames  I..  Bacon  rose  rapidly  in  the   royal 


Sometimes  they   were  at pamed    by   pupils, 

whom  they  compelled  to  steal  and  beg  tor  them. 

(See  A  1!  ( '-Suootkrs.)  So  numerous  were  these 
itinerant  scholars,  that  organizations  of  them 
existed  with  constitutions  and  rituals;  and  some- 


->M" 


in  Germany  and  England  down  almost   to  the 

present  century.  Burkard  lingg  .and  Thomas 
Platen  were  Bacchants,  whose  autobiographies  in 
Ceruiau  are  still  extant. 

BACHELOSlLat.  /itw/.i»,v»s|,  a  .term  ap- 
plied t ie  who  has  reached  a  certain  grade  in  a 

college  or  university  education  :  as.  /,',/.  ■//,•/,,/■  nf 
Arts  (A.  I:.,  or  B.A.),  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law 
(B.C.L.),  Bach   or   >'  D  <  m  /  (B.  I'.i.ctc.  The 

was  introduced  into  the  I  nivcrsity  of  Paris  by 
Pope  Gregory  IX..  in  the  L3th  century,  and  ap- 
plied as  a  title  to  those  students  wdio  had  passed 
certain  preliminary  examinations,  but  were  not 
prepared  lor  admission  into  the  rank  of  master. 
teacher,  or  doctor.  Afterwards,  it  was  adopted 
by  other  European  universities,  to  indicate  the 
lowest  academical  honor,  as  it  is  now  used  both 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe.  (See  Arts,  and 
Dbg 

BACON,  Francis,  Viscount  St.  Albans 
and  Karon  Verulam,  one  of  the, most  illustrious 
of  English  philosophers,  was  born  in  1/mdon, 
.Ian.  21.,  1561,  and  died  April  !).,  1626.  little  is 
known  of  his  early  education,  but  from  the  social 
position  of  his  father.  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  he 
must  have  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  the  best  in- 
struction that  could  have  been  obtained.  He 
was  matriculated  at  Trinity  College.  Cambridge. 
in  1573;  and,  after  going  abroad  for  a  time,  he 
returned  and  commenced  the  study  of  tin1  law 
in  1580.  He  was  soon  called  to  the  bar.  and  in 
1590,  his  reputation  was  so  great,  that  he  was 
made  ''counsel  extraordinary''  to  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. He  afterwards  served  in  parliament,  when 
he  showed  so  much  spirit,  that  on  receiving  the 
royal  rebuke  for  a  certain  speech,  which  he  had 
delivered,  he  nobly  replied,  that  "he  spoke  ill 
discharge  of  his  conscience,  and  his  duty  to  Cod. 
to  the  queen,  and  his  country."  As  an  orator. 
he  was  much  commended  by  his  contemporaries. 
Ben  Jonson  said  that  while  he  was  speaking. 
"  the  fear  of  every  man  that  heard  him  was  lest 
he  should  make  an  end."  The  earl  of  Essex 
had  been  his  friend  and  benefactor ;  but  when 


annum.  In  1616,  he  was  made  lord  high 
chancellor,  and,  besides,  received  the  ml-  of 
Baron  Verulam;  ami,  in  L621,  he  obtained  the 
additional  til le  of  Viscount  St.  Albans.  At  this 
time,  he  sto,,d  upon  the  highest  pinnacle  of  polit- 
ical preferment  and  literary  fame;  for  he  hail 
just  published  In-  greatest  work,  the  Novum 
Organum.  From  this  lofty  position  he  suddenly 
fell,  accused  and  condemned  of  mkine.  bribes 
from  those  whose  cases   were  before  his  court. 

facts  had  b-,-ii,li-,-l,.-„l  bvan  investigation,  were. 
•■  I  do  plainly  and  ingenuously  confess  thai  I  am 
guilty  of  corruption,  and  do  renounce  all  detia.se. 


ment  in  two  days,  and  tin 

remitted.      lb-    never    nr 

had  so  disgracefully  lost.' 


ary  tvti 
apolitk 
a  lnarki 


all  probi 
not  only 
and  got 
neither  1 
could  be 


ty.  But 
re  such  as 
ions   were 


to  be  resisted,  and  serious  dangers  to  be  bra.ved." 
His  desire  to  keep  up  a  grand  establishment,  to 
make  a  brilliant  figure  in  society  by  the  princely 
character  of  his  entertainments,  his  equipage,  and 
all  the  other  fascinations  of  luxury,  caused  ex- 
penditures far  beyond  his  means,  which  he 
endeavored  to  meet  by  unlawful  gains.  His 
philosophical  views  were  in  one  sense  entirely 
consistent  with  his  character.  They  were  prac- 
tical :  they  aimed  to  make  science  minister  to  the 
worldly  wants  of  mankind.    The  scholastic  lcarn- 


of  new  truth,  that  it  might  "mix  like  a  living 
spring  with  the  stagnant  waters."  "  Two  words." 
says  Macaulay,  ''form  the  key  of  the  Baconian 
doctrine  —  utility  and  progress.  The  ancient 
philosophy  disdained  to  be  useful,  and  wa-  <  <>n- 
tent  to  be  stationary.    It  dealt  largely  in  ill ies 


BACON 
rfection,  which  were  so  sublime  that 


llial 


jrta- 


tiuns  to  the  attainment  i.t  unattainable  frames  . 

mind.     It  could  not  ideseend  to  the  humb 

office  of  ministering  to  the  comfort  of  human  bt 
ings."  Bacon  held  thai  all  knowledge  must  I 
olitaiin'il  by  a  careful  and  unprejudice  1  inductio 
from  facts.'  Hence  the  importance  of  experiment 
for  without  experiment  man  may  indeed  stumbl 
on  the  discovery  of  truth,  but  by  experiment  ii 
ventions  are  made.  "  Bacon,"  says  Euno  Fische 
"is  the  philosopher,  not  simply  of  experiene 
but  of  invention.  I  lis  only  endeavor  is  philosopl 
ieally  to  comprehend  and   fortify  the   Enventi\ 


telli'itual  revolution  was  already  in  progress. 
The  Aristotelian  philosophy  so  ealled,  which  was 
indeed  a  p  'i-veisioii  of   Aristotle's    teachings,  and 

the  senseless  attempt  to  employ  the  syllogism  as 
an  instrument  of  discovery,  had  already  disgusted 

a  large  number  of  active  minds,  as  being  utterly 
barren  of  fruit.  As  Macaulay  remarks."  Before 
the  birth  of  Bacon,  the  empire  of  the  scholastic 
philosophy  ha  1   been    shaken   to  its    foundation. 

had  ceased  to  awe  mankind."  Bacon's  mind  was 
so  constituted  as  to  sympathize  at  once  with  this 
changed  condition  of  things;  and  throwing  the 

weight  of  his  vast  intellect  against  the  already  tot- 
tering fabric,  he  precipitated  its  fall.  As  Aristotle 

analyzed  the  method  of  deductive  reasoning,  so 
Bacon  explained  the  principles  and  method  of  in- 

<>i-r/,iiinii.  for  the  discovery  of  truth  and  the  im- 
provement of  the  condition  of  humanity.  The 
full  title  of  his  great  work  is  Xnnuii  On/timim 
sirr  Indicia  Vera  de  Tnterpretattone  Natural 
et  Regno  Hominis.  {The  New  Orqanon  or 
True  Directions  concerning  the  Interpretation  of 
Nature  and  the  Kingdom  of  Man.)     The  key  to 


BAHRDT 

fails  to  remark  in  it  something  overlooked  before." 
In  his  essay  on  Education,  Bacon  refers  all  its 
efficacy  to  custom,  or  habit:  "Certainly  custom 
is  most  perfect  when  it  beginneth  in  young  years: 
this  we  call  education  :  which  is,  in  effect,  but  an 
early  custom."  But  Bacon's  contribution  to  edu- 
cation does  not  consist  in  any  particular  precepts 
concerning  it  or  any  special  treatment  of  that  sub- 
ject; but  in  the  general  effect  of  his  philosophical 
views,  in  setting  tree  the  human  mind  from  errors 
and  prejudices,  and  placing  it  on  the  direct  road 
which  leads  to  scientific  truth.  The  best  edition 
of  Bacon's  works  is  that  edited  by  Spedding, 
Kllis.  and  Heath. vols. i. — xv. (London  and  Boston, 
L858-  L861).  In  this  is  contained  the  life  of 
Bacon  by  William  Rawley,  1>I>..  his  chaplain.— 
See  also'  Macaulay's  Essays,  s.  v.  Bacon;  Hep- 
worth,  Personal  History  of  Lord  Bacon  (Lon- 
don, 1859);  Remusat,  Bacon,  sa  vie  et  sou  in- 
Huena  (Paris,  L857);  Euno  Fischer,  Francis 
Bacon  von  Vemlam  (2d  edit.,  Leipsic,  L875), 
which  has  been  translated  into  Knglish  by  John- 
Oxenpord  (London,  1857) ;  American  Journal 
of  Education,  vol  iv.  (1829),  passim. 

BADEN.     See  German. 

BAHRDT,  Carl  Friedrich,  a  German 
professor  and  scholar,  was  born  in  1741,  and 
died   in    17!iL'.      As   professor    of    tl logy   at 


ssolute  life 
tf  theology 
bunded  by 

wiss  canton 
As  be  soon 


the 


the  aphorisms  of  which  it   is  composed:    "Ma 

do  and   understand  so  much,  and  SO  much  on] 

as  he  has  observed,  in   fact  or  in  thought,  of  tl 

course  of  nature  ;  beyond  this  he  u 

any  thing  nor  can   do  any  thing." 

the  publication  of  this  work,  he  h 

Tlie  Advancement  of  Learning   i 

was  the  germ  of    Be   Auomeniis 


'v!o"s"o 

i.  which 

grl 

n'l,  ,1 

works. 

stablish- 

likew 

published  or  proper  I  le- 
an Instauratio  Magna 
ment  not  only  of  the  tr 
investigation  but  of  scieni 


work  was  the  l-'.ss.n/s.  originally  published  in  llci 
L597,  but  afterwards  enlarged  and  improved.  Idtet 
Dugald  Stewart  has  said  of  this  work.  "  It  may  (177 
be  read  from  beginning  to  end  in  a  few  hours,,  whit 
md  \'i  after  the  twentieth  reading,  one  seldom]  but 


<ewise  unsuccessful,  and  the 
in  the  brink  of  ruin,  when 
ly  summoned  before  the 
icrial  Court  Council)  for 
it  in  accord  with  any  of  the 
mized  in  the  empire,  and, 
irived  of  all  his  offices.  The 
eatmenl  gained  for  him  a 
by.  and  from  the  Prussian 

but  in  consequence  of  the 

habits,  he  held  this  posi- 
tion" time,  and  lost  with  it 
all  who  knew  him.  Bahrdl 
gifted    men  of  his  age.  and 

t  of  moral  character,  would 

•n  to  great  eminence,  both 
ter  and  a  practical  educator, 
catioual  periodicals,  entitled 
■arisches  <  brrespondenz-  und  InieUigemblatt 
5)  and  P&dagogisches  Wochenblatt  (1778), 
h  clearly  indicate  the  rare  talent  of  the  editor, 
neither  of  which  survived  the  first  year  of 


l.ded 


BALDWIN  UNIVERSITY 

its  existence.  The  disrespecl  which  was  generally 
felt  for  Bahrdt,  greatly  injured  the  entire  school 

Of  PhilauthropiniMs.     Ilr  puUidied  an  nuiol.joo.- 
graphy,  entitled  Dr.  i:,,hr,/l'.<  his/,,,-,  ■  '      - 
'■  '   qpr 


BALTIMORE 


69 


wick,  L790),i 
the  informati 
ments  of  thus 
rich  Bahrdt 


■  ives  of  the  educational  move- 
",.  -See  \A\^v..K„rlFried- 
lit..  \.  uMa.lt.  1870). 
BALDWIN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Berea, 
Ohio,  was  established  in  ls4ti  as  Baldwin  Insti- 
tute.'for  the  education  of  both  sexes,  by  the 
North  Ohio  conference  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal church.  Ten  years  afterward,  it  was  char- 
tered as  a  university  under  its  present  name. 
Its  design  is  to  provide  the  means  of  a  thorough 
general  education,  or  to  afford  to  students  a  com- 
plete scientific  basis  for  the  various  industrial 
pursuits.  It  has  a  scientific  and  a  classical  de- 
partment, in  each  of  which  there  tire  preparatory 
and  collegiate  classes.  There  is  also  a  college  of 
pharmacy  connected  with  the  institution.  It 
received  a  valuable  endowment  in  quarry  land 
from  .John  Baldwin,  after  whom  it  was  named. 
[tssuccessive  presidents  have  been  JohnWheeler, 
D.D.,from  I--""',  to  L871  ;  W.D.Godman,  D.D., 
from  1st  1  to  1875;  and  A.  Schuyler,  LL.  D., 
from  1875.  The  number  of  students  in  the  in- 
stitution, in  1875—76,  was  180.     The  tuition  is 

free. 

BALTIMORE.  The  first  attempt  to  pro- 
vide the  means  of  education  for  the  lower  classes 
in  this  city  was  the  establishment,  in  lsjd.  of  a 
school  on  the  Lancasterian  system.  In  1825,  an 
act  was  passed  by  the  legislature,  which  author- 
ized the  establishment  of  public  schools  in  Balti- 
more, and  empowered  the  corporate  authorities 
to  levy  a  tax  for  their  support.  In  L828,aboard 
of  six  school  commissioners  was  organized  ;  and. 
the  next  year,  three  schools  were  opened,  and  269 
pupils  enrolled.  The  first  school-house  wa  i 
erected  in  1830,  hired  buildings  having  previously 
been  used,  [n  1839,  the  number  of  pupils  en- 
rolled had  increased  to  L.126;  and  the  mayor 
and  city  council  requested  the  commissioners  to 
establish  a  high  school.  The  request  was  promptly 
complied  with,  and  the  school  opened  the  same 
year.  This  had  the  effect  not  only  to  raise  the 
grade,  but  to  increase  the  efficiency,  of  the  com- 
mon schools;  for,  the  next  year  1840),  there 
were  nine  schools  in  operation,  with  1 ,83 1  pupils. 
Since  that  time  the  growth  of  the  system  has 
been  rapid.  In  1874,  there  were  L22  schools. 
and  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled  was  29,108,  of 
whom  there  were  23,362  in  average  attendance. 
The  first  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
was  Rev.  J.  X.  McJilton,  who  served  for  about 
twenty  years,  acting,  from  L849tol866,  as  treas- 
urer of  the  board  as  well  as  superintendent  of 
the  schools.  He  was  succeeded,  Feb.  L,  L868, 
by  William  R.  Creery ;  and  alter  his  death. 
May  1..  L875,  the  present  incumbent,  Prof. 
Henry  E.  Shepherd,  was  elected  to  the  position. 
School  Statis/i,:s.  —  For  the  year  ending 
Sept,  30.,  1875,  the  following  statistics  were 
reported : 


Number  i)f  schools 12. j 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled t'.2.>'i 

Average  daily  attendance '2  t, His 

Number  of  teachers 706 

Number  el  i itiis  schools  were  open.        1(1 

Amount  paid  for  teachers'  salaries - 126,719.75 

do  do    for  school  buddings.  K7,;.,:;.,s 

do  do    lor  books  and  stationery.. ..  .     .">  1 ,7.">T.41> 

do         do    for  colored  schools 15,496.78 

do  do    for  other  expenses 25.601.1)2 

Total  expenditures $716,938.82 

The  school  age  is  from  6  to  18  ;  and  the  num- 
ber of  children  in  the   city  between    those   ages 

School  System,-  The  system  consists  of  a 
school  board  id'  twenty  members — one  for  each 
ward  of  the  city:  a  city  superintendent,  and  as- 
sistant superintendent:  a  city  college:  two  female 
high  schools;  a  Saturday  normal  class:  L9  male 
and  20  female  grammar  schools ;  61  primary 
schools:  in  evening  schools,  of  which  4  are 
colored  ;  and  1 1  daj  schools  for  colored  children. 

The  Commissioners  of  Public  Schools,  con- 
stituting the  sel [-board,  are  appointed  by  the 

two  branches   of  the   city   council   assembled   in 


SShtschoX 

letermine  t  heir  sa  la  lies,  to 

,f  study  and  the  1 kstobe 

i.l  to  make  all  needful  reg- 

Thestucliesp     *  ■ 

<ied/orth  primary  schools 

are  spelling,  definitii 

ii  of  comi words,  read- 

ing,    writing,   geogn 
arithmetic,  drawing, 
the  ma  ■  grammar  a 

hooh  are  spelling,  etymol- 

of  Maryland   nature 
am    studies  are  pres 

j  composition,  orammar. 
the  1  nited  Mates,  history 
philosophy,  arithmetic,  al- 

1C  and  .-ingle  entry  book- 
maie  grammar  schools  the 
•ribed.  except   algebra  and 

Examination  and  Qualification  of  Teachers. 
—Applicants  for  the  situation  of  teachers  in  the 
public  sel Is  must   pass  a  written  examination 

before  the  committee  On  examinations  of  the 
board.  The  regular  time  for  such  examinations 
i-  the  scon, I  Saturday  in  November  and  May  of 
each  year:  and  a  certificate  is  given  to  each  suc- 
cessful candidate,  showing  the  result  and  the 
grade.  The  following  are  the  studies  for  each 
position  and  grade  : 

I  p.,,  am  situation  in  tl ity  college  or  for  prin- 
cipal ,,i  a  female  high  school,  the  studies  required  to 

II.  I'm  Vir-t  a —Wants  of  a  female  high  school,  arith- 
metic, algebra,  geometry .  history,  natural  philosophy, 
chemistry,  and  mora!  plnlnsnphv. 

III.  For  any  other  situation  in  a  female  high  school. 
the  studies  which  the  candidate  would  be  required  n, 
teach  if  appointed. 

IV     For  principal  and  first  assistant  ol    < 
mar  school,    arithmetic,  algebra,  rtyiiml. 
pbv.  grammar,  history,   orthography,  natural  philos- 
ophy, and  music. 


70       BALTIMORE  CITY  COLLEGE 


V.  For 
laminar 

•  IV,  elvm 

VI.  For 


nf  a  female 
graphy,  his- 
ainl  music. 


i-'  1 1.   ■jraiiiiii.ir.    :u itlmi.-tic.    orthography,   modern 

geography,  and  music. 

In  addition  to  these,  all  teachers  must  pass  an  ex- 
amination in  geometry  and  physiology  helon-  m™ 
ing  a  ci  rticate  of  any  grade. 

Two-thirds  of  the  questions  in  each  branch  must  be 
answered  in  order  to  pass  the  candidate  for  any 
grade. 

No  person  is  eligible  to  any  position  as  teacher 
in  any  of  the  schools  under  the  following  ages : 
Professor  in  city  college   or  principal   of  a 

male  grammar  school 21  years. 

l-'n-i  as-istant  in  male  grammar  school 10  years. 

Principal  of  female  "rainmar  school 20  years. 

Pi ipal  "I  a   primary  school   20  years. 

First  assistant  in  female  grammar  school..  ..18  years. 

Assistant  in  female  high  school is  years. 

Second    assistant    in    grammar   or  primary 

school    17  years. 

lHilimtri.il  Kiliiruliiui.  Voluntary  instruction 
in  the  domestic  and  industrial  branches  of  female 
education  is  given  by  the  teachers  in  several  of 

commenced  at  tin-  request  lit  tin-  president  of  the 


BAPTISTS 

A  handsome  and  spacious  edifice  for  the  accom- 
modation of  this  institution  was  completed  in 
1875. 

BALTIMORE  FEMALE  COLLEGE, 
at  Baltimore,  Md..was  founded  in  184,9,  and  was 
under  the   control    of    the    .Methodist    Episcopal 


Church  Iron,  t! 
of  the  legislate! 
a  permanent  co 
composed  of  .Mi 

byteriaiis.  The 
stitution  is  (18*3 
LL.D.,  has  been 

its   to,,, el:, i 

from  the  State 

stitute  its  chit 

higher  edueati, 

and  sent  forth 

occupying  positions  of  responsibility  in  academies, 

high  schools,  and  colleges. 

BAPTISTS,  a  denomination  of  Christians 
distinguished  by  the  denial  of  baptism  to  infants, 
and  by  the  restriction  of  that  rite  to  those 
who  therein  profess  personal  faith  and  regenera- 
tion. They  baptize  by  immersion  only,  and  in  the 
form  of  their  church-government  are  congrega- 
tional. In  England,  they  are  known  as  General  and 
Particular,  the  former,  which  is  by  a  few  years 


ate  to  1868,  when,  by  an  act 
e  Hoard  of  Trustees  became 
ition  :  and  the  Board  is  now 
iste,  Episcopalians,  and  Pres- 
nber  of  students  in  the  in- 
:.out  LOO;  NathanC.  I '.rooks, 
president  of  the  College  since 
has  an  endowment  of  $2,500 
aryland.but  tuition  fees  con- 
pport.  While  its  course  of 
S  been  general,  it  lias  trained 
teachers,  most  of  whom  are 


proved,  as  anor. tmg  an  aei-onipiisnineni  oi  great 
practical  value  both  in  the  home-circle  and  as  a 
means  of  support. 

Training   of    Teachers. —  The   normal   class, 
established  Sept.    VI..   1S7-I.  is  designed  to  afford 

to  newly  appointed  teachers  of  the  city  schools 
instruction  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  teach- 
ing. It  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction.  The  State  Nor- 
mal School  is  located  at  Baltimore,  besides  which 
there  is  a  normal  school  for  the  instruction  of 
colored  teachers.     (See  M  wiYLAxn.) 

BALTIMORE    CITY    COLLEGE.      Phis 


r  on  the  roll  | 
lumber  of  iu- 
dmission  must 


pan 

of  the  common  scl 1  s 

It  was  originally  established  a 

Seh 

iol,  with  -4 ( >  pupils  ;  but  h 

thai 

3i°,°i874?was   lOoTand 

as    ( 'lose- < 'on 

nunion   an, 

( (pen  -  ( 'i ,,, 1 1 ii in i n ii i . 

the  larger  part 

of  the  den, 

miiiation  in  England 

being  Ope,,-.', 

uiniunioii. 

Baptists  came  to  this 

country  with 

the  first  settlements.     In   Rhode 

Island.' their  c 

lurches  are 

as  old  as  the  colony; 

and  before  the 

close  of  th, 

seventeenth  century 

they   had    gatl 

-red   church 

is   in    Boston,  in  the 

neighborhood  , 

llh'elnuine 

iced  about  the  middle 

Of   the   eights 

Revolution,  th 

ith  centurj 
ly  aresuppi 

At  the  time  of  the 
-ed  to  have  had  about 

25,000  commu 

1  876,  they  have  more 

The   grea 

t  body  are  known  by 

the  appellalioi 

Baptists;  1, 

sser  bodies  are  known 

as  Free-Will,  i 

r  lately  as  E 

ree,  Seventh-Day,  Six 

!,!t!!t11'1tsfM-, 

Old   School 
ion  only   of 

All  these  lasl  con- 

those    who    bear   the 

generic    name. 

The  Disci 

iles,  or  Campbellites, 

followers  of   i 
secession,    dist 

JcMinder    1 

nguished  bj 

ampbell,  are  a  large 
peculiar  theological 

views.     In  thi 
by  this  the  i 
Close-Commui 

country,  t 
,,ei  denom 

ie    Baptists,  meaning 
nation  so  called,  arc- 
is.   believing    thai    no 

baptism  is  regi 

believer   and  b 

lay  which  is 

not  the  baptism  of  a 
,  and  that  a   regular 
ipation  in  the  Lord's 

(■strict      thei 

■  communion  to  the 

whether  pupils  of   the  public  schools  or  not.  may 
be  admitted  on  passing  the  required  examination. 


ise  of    the 


sitv  graduates:  but  that  source  hopelessly  tailing 
with  the  Restoration,  the  Baptists  are  found, 
with  other  denominations,  taking  measures  for 
the  education  of  a  ministry  by  means  strictly  their 


71 


own.  The  first  resort  was  to  private  tuition,  and 
Mr.  John  Tombes,  at  one  time  preacher  in  the 
Temple  church,  London.,  was  the  teacher  of 
young  ministers.  In  L675andin  L689,  concerted 
action  was  taken  in  1 1n*  denomination  in  this 
direction.    Kdwai'd  Jewel]  of  lilistol,  dving  about 


era.  the  Bristol  College.  W  ith 
the  denomination  several  other 
which  according  to  the  -  Bapt  is! 


(Loud 


7(i)    were 


The 


the  lap 
known 
the  gr 
college 

Hand-Book  for  1876 
located  in  the  followil 
Leeds  (founded  at  Hortoi 
Rawdon  1859);  Pontypool 
gavenny,  1807,  removed  t< 
Regents  Park.  London  i  fom 
toBegents  Park,  1856  .  II 
ed  1839)  :  Chilwell.  near  > 
1797,  removed  to  Chilwell. 
lee,..  Metropolitan  Tabernac 
lsfdi:  Llangollen,  or  No 
L862);  Manchester  Baptist 
tion  (founded  L866) ;  The  Easl  End  Training 
Institute  for  Home  and  Foreign  Missions,  Lon- 
don -founded  1-7::  .  All  these  coll  _■  ai  ■  un- 
derstood to  lie  for  the  education  oi  ministers 
only. 

hi  the  American  colonies,  the  denomination 
hail  not  grown  to  sufficient  magnitude  in  the 
seventeenth  century  to  undertake  ;m\  denomi- 
national work  in  education.  In  the  earlier  veins 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  appear  their  first 
graduates  from  American  colleges.  Mown  to 
and  including  1776,  the  number  of  their  college- 
bred  ministers,  so  far  as  can  now  be  ascertaine  1, 
was  19,  of  whom,  however,  two  were  not  gradu- 
ates. They  had  an  equal  or  larger  numb  it  w  hose 
education  was  not  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  a 
■  illi  -   course. 

Notices  of  attempts  towards  the  education  of 
their  ministry  under  denominational  auspices, 
appear  early  iu  the  history  of  the  Philadelphia 
Association, — the  benefactions  to  Harvard  Col- 
lege of  -Mr.  Hollis,  a  London  Baptist,  having 
been  a  stimulus  in  that  direction.  Similar  in  az- 
ures were  taken  in  1755  in  the  Charleston  As- 
sociation. In  17-~a.  was  opened  tin-  Academj  a 
Hopewell.  X.  J.,  which  was  the  cradle  of  Rhode 
Island  College,  now  Brown  University,  organized 
in  1701.  Academies  had  been  opened  and 
sustained  for  many  years  by  individual  teaehers. 
in  tin' half  century  following  the  establishment 
of  Brown  University,  but  no  general  movement 
in  the  direction  of  education  i 
the  time  of  the  organization  of 
for  the  work  of  missions.  In 
education  was  embraced.  To  this  date.  I  s  I  J — JO 
must  be  referred  efforts  to  establish  theological 
schools  in  Philadelphia  and  New  York  City,  a! 
Waterville,  Maine,  and  at  Hamilton,  X.  Y.,  and 
the  rise  of  several  societies  to  give  pecuniary  aid 
to  young  men  preparing  for  the  ministry.  The 
Philadelphia  movement  became  merged  in  the 
founding  of  Columbian  College,  Washington   D. 


C;  the  New  York  movement  in  tin' rise  of  the 
institution  at  Hamilton,  now  known  as  Madison 
University,  but  having  in  alliance  with  it  a  the- 
ological seminary:  and  the  Waterville  movement 
in  the  establishment  of  the  college,  now  known 
as  Colt  University.  With  the  close  of  that  de- 
cade commenced  the  rapid  establishment  of  col- 
lego  and  universities   under  the  auspices  of  the 

denomination  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  ( leorge- 
town  College,  K\..  bears  the  date  of  1829; 
Denison  University,  Ohio,  1831 ;  Shurtleff  Col- 
lege, 111.,  1832;  WaterForesI  Coll i.N.C,  1834; 

Franklin  College,  hid.  1834  ;  Mercer  University, 
Ga.,  1837;  Richmond  College.  V,,..  L840;  How- 
ard College,,  Ala..  1843;  Baylor  University, 
Texas,  1845  :  Ciii\vr,it\  at  Leu  i-b,,rg.  I"a..  1.-47; 
William  Jewell  <  ollege,  Mo.,  1849;  University 
of  Rochester.    X.  V..  1>.".H:    Mi>,i>,ippi    College, 


College 

111..  Is.' 


.    Is.".:;:    Kalaniaz ollege,    Mich.. 

iel  College.  Ky..  1856;  McMinnville 
egon.  1858;  University  of  Chicago. 
Waco  University,  Texas,  186]  ;  ?as- 
.  X.  Y„  L861  :'  University  of  Des 
a.i.  1865;  La  Grange  College.  Mo., 
ird  College.  Xew  Liberty,  Ky.,1866; 

laptist  Colli Mo.,  1869;  California 

il  :  Monongahela  College.  Pa.,  1871  : 
rn    I'nncr.-itv.  'I'eiin..  L-74.     Of  the 


char; 
and  i 
of  tl 


isl  year  book  of  1876,  the  total 
opertj  held  by  the  Laptist  colleges 

This  must  be  accepted  as  a  proxi- 

i it    only,  and   is   in  part   probably 

Brown    University   has   a    rerj 

rv  oi  45,000  volumes,  several  have 

9,000  to  12,000  volumes ;  Brown 


id  till  about 
■nomination 
organizat  ion 


bers.  however,  are  of  uncertain  significance,  be- 
cause in  some  cases  protc-sional.  and  in  many 
cases  preparatory  students  arc  included.  The 
curriculum  of  these  colleges  \aiie-  in 
but  corresponds  in  thai  respeel  with  the  vary- 
ing character  ot  American  colleges  in  general. 
Some  of  them  take  rank  with  colleges  of  the 
first  class. 

There  are  in  the  United  States  six  Baptist 
theological  seminaries  of  the  highest  grade,  be- 
sides departments  of  theology  in  four  or  more 
colleges.  Of  these  seminaries.  Hamilton  was 
founded  in  1820,  Newton  in  1825,  Rochester  in 


7'2 


i'.\i:n  \  fin 


1850,  Southern  in  1859,  Chicago  in  186*7,  and 
Crozer  in  1868.  In  these  seminaries,  there  were 
in  L875— 76,  362  students,  of  whom  probably 
about  300  were  in  the  complete  courses.  These 
courses  designed  for  graduates  of  colleges,  are  as 
high  and  as  thorough  as  are  known  to  theological 
seminaries. 

There  are  likewise  in  the  United  States  about 
forty  academies,  or  institutions  of  thai  grade 
having  other  names,  which  aiv  da>«ed  asunder 
Baptist  auspices,  holding  property  of  the  estimat- 


she  married  the  Rev.  Rochemont  Barbauld,  with 
whom  she  kept  school  for  eleven  years.  Her 
most  noted  educational  publications  aiv  /•.'//•/;/ 
Lessons  for  Children,  Hymns  in  Prose,  and 
the  pieces  which  she  contributed  for  Evenings  'it 
Home,  published  by  her  brother  lh\  John  Aikin. 


Her  miscellaneous    writings   are   muni 
varied.      Mrs.  l'arbaulds   1 ks  fo 


the  protection  and  patronage  of  the  American 
Baptist  Home  Mission  Society,  at  Washington. 
Richmond,  Raleigh,  Columbia.  Augu,ia.  \a.li- 
villc.  and  New  Oilcans,  for  the  education  of 
colored  preachers  and  teachers.  These  institu- 
tions, though  in  their  infancy,  are  performing  a 
very  important  and  successful  service. 

There  have  been  three  epochs  of  remarkable 
character  in  the  educational  work  of  American 
Baptists.  The  first,  about  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century,  had  for  its  n  nil  the  founding  of 
Hopewell  Academy  and  Brown  University.  The 
second,  contemporaneous  with  the  missionary 
movement,  and  a  part  of  the  movement  itself, 
was  the  prolific  source  of  all  the  later  colleges 
and  seminaries.  The  third  maybe  referred  to 
the  year  1870,  when  the  first  national  educa- 
tional convention  of  the  Baptistswas  held  under 
the  auspices  of  the  American  Haptist  Educational 
Commission, in  Brooklyn,  N.Y.  A  remarkable 
impulse  was  given  by  thi 
founding  and  endowment 
which  purpose  very  large  t 
since  been  raise  1.  From  tl 
,,f  educational  questions  ii 
have  been  marked  by  a  grea 
and  force,  the  mimberoi  rti 
seminaries  has  been  increas 
money  for  the  endowment  of 
ing  has  become  a  simulta 
effort.  A  second  educatio 
held  in  Philadelphia  in  1872.  In  1873,  the 
American  Baptist  Educational  Commission  re- 
commended the  celebration  of  the  I'enle al  "I 

the  nation  by  a  common  movement  for  the  rais- 
ing of  funds  for  educational  purposes,  and  that 
work  is  now  proceeding. 

The  Baptists  have  had  many  distinguished 
educators,  of  whom,  among  the  dead.  Francis 
W'a.ylanil  and  Horatio  B.  Ilackett  may  be  named 


shed  by 

compose 
in  read- 
to  effect 


(Lor 
J  A  Leg 


w  for  Pi 


he  same  lady  also  published 
■i  Ladies  (Lond.,  1826),  com- 
piled  from    Mis.  Ilarbauld's  posthumous  papers. 
BARN  ARD,  Frederick  AugustusPorter, 
LL.  II..  was  born    at  Sheffield,  Mass..  May   5., 

was  tutor  there  in  1830*,  and.  subsequently! 
teacher  ill  the  asylum  for  the  deaf  and  dumb 
at  Hartford,  and  in  that  of  New  York.  From 
IsliT  to  1848, he  was  professorof  mathematics 
and  natural  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Ala- 
bama, and  afterward  of  chemistry  and  natural 
history  till  L854,in  which  year  he  took  orders  in 
the  Protestant   Episcopal  church.     Ee  was  pro- 


1   chancellor 

he  resigned,      in   I860, 

to  observe  the 

idol,  and   in  the 


f  money  have 
e.  discussions 

Kt1858tol86i118when0he6 

i f  breadth 

u'taieeh^'.'f':!,    °Kuf?  L 

fchera!  Lngoi 
and   universal 

same  year  was  elect*  I  pn  adi 

Association  for  the  Advancei 

was  one  of  th iginal  mem 

Academy  of  Sci -.  p 

iventioii     was 

1863     1  he  was  in  charge  ol 

ISele 


L864,  which  office  It 
1867  was  one  of  the  United 
ers  to  the  Paris  exposition, 
a  member  of    various  learne 


(if, 


cut  space  here  for  their  enumeration. 
BARBAULD,  Anna  Beetitia,  an  Ki 


principal  of  an  academy  in   l.anca>liiiv 
g.reat  pains  in   educating    Ins  children. 


Iture  (1854) ;  History  of  the   United  States 
ast    Survey   (1857);     University    Education 


BARNARD 

(1858);  Undulatory  Theory  of  Light  (1862) ;  I 
'Machinery  and  Processes  of  the  Industrial  Arts, 
etc.  (1868);  and  Metric  System  of  Weights  and 
Measures  (1871). 

BARNARD,  Henry,  LL.  D.,  was  bom  in 
Hartford.  <'t..  in  lsll.  He  graduated  limn  Yale 
College  in  L830  with  honor,  his  course  having 
been  marked  by  diligence  and  success  in  the 
classics  and  an  unusual  devotion  to  English 
literature.  The  next  Ave  years  were  devoted 
chiefly  to  the  study  of  the  law,  joined  to  a  dili- 
gent reading  of  the  best  English  and  classical 
authors.  During  this  period,  he  taught  Bchool 
for  a  time,  and   toward   its  close  spent   Borne 


BASEDOW 


::; 


anil,  in  1  S."i(I,  In-  commenced  I  he  | ml ilir.it inn  of  the 
American  journal  of  Education.  From  1857 
to  1859,  he  was  chancellor  of  the  university  of 
Wisconsin,  and  in    1865       6  president    of   St. 


nnal    schools.      Ai 


NationalEdue 


foot  through  England 
land,  devoting  his  atte 
condition  of  the  peot 


r,„, 


ual,  and  moral  condition  of  the  people  engaged 
his  attention,  embracing  the  education  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  blind,  the  care  of  the 
poor  and  insane,  the  reorganization  of  county 
prisons,  the  establishment  of  public  libraries,  and 
the  completion  of  the  geological  survey  of  the 
state.  His  great  work  was  the  originating  and 
securing  the  passage  of  an  "Act  to  provide 
for  the  better  supervision  of  common  schools," 

which  created  a   I rd  of  commissioners,  whose 

duty  it  was  to  investigate  the  condition  of  the 
schools,  and  to  endeavor  to  improve  them  by  ad- 
dresses, lectures,  correspondence,  the  publication 
of  a  journal,  and  the  recommendation  of  appro- 


and   Mihlaru  Sr/„„,U  llsCl'l. 

BASEDOW,  Johann  Bernhard,  the  found- 
er of  the  Philanthropin,  was  born  in  Hamburg, 

happy,  owing  to  the  excessive  severity  of  his 
father  and  the  habitual  melancholy  of  his 
mother.     While   Still   a  boy.  he  ran  away  from 


foolish  tricks.  In  L741,hewent  to  the  gymnasium 
of  Hamburg,  where  Reimarus,  the  famous  author 
of  the  WolfenbvMel  Fragments,  was  among  his 
teachers.  While  there,  be  had  to  support  him- 
self by  giving  private  lessons  and  writing  occa- 
sional poems;  but  a  large  portion  of  the  money 
which  he  earned  was  spent  in  debauchery,  and 
hisown  studies  were  conducted  without  system 


,.r  ih. 


ular  education  in  the  United  States,he  was  a] 

pointed  commissi t  of  public  schools  iii  Rhod 

Island,  an  office  which  he  bad  been  instruments 
in  creating.  In  five  years  he  organized  an  ej 
cellent  system  of  popular  education,  and  on  n 
tiring  from  office,  in  consequence  of  ill  healtl 
in  L849,he  received  the  unanimous  thanks  of  th 
state  legislature.  During  this  period  bepublishe 
several  volumes  relating  to  the  schools  i 
Rhode   Island,  and  edited  (1845     9)  the  Jam 

Kro,'„     \--  .',..    I  -V|',"he  was    principal' ,'f  7h 


again  editing  the  Com  mm,  S,-h,„il  .limrinil.  In 
L855,  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  American 
Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Education, 


d  wl 


worked  .nit  for  his  pupils  a  new  method  of 
studying  languages,  an  account  of  which  be  has 
given  in  ,i  Latin  dissertation,  entitled  "  Deinusi- 
taia  <■/  optima  honestioris  juventutis  erudiendw 
methodo"  (Kiel,  1752  .  Berr  von  Quaalen,  who 
was  much  pleased   with  the  results  of   Basedow's 


el      l|„ 


■al 


, for  '.     h  i  was  obliged,  in  1761, 

to  remove  to  the  gymnasium  of   Altona.     Here, 

two  other  li.-t,  r..d..-;  publications.  I'bi/a/rthiaand 
Methodical  Instruction  in  both  Natural  and 
Biblical  Ri'/igion,  involved  hiin  in  a  ■>.  re  con 
troversy  with  several   theologians,  among  other's 


u 


BASEDOW 


Senior  Gbtze  of  Hamburg,  and  caused  him  and 
his  family  to  be  excluded  from  the  Communion. 
Tu  I  767,  he  conceived  a  comprehensive  plan  for  a 
radical  reform  of  public  c  lucatiou.  and  soon  suc- 
ceeded in  secnriii".  the  support  of  the  Danish 
minister  Dernstorff,  who  relieved  him  from  the 
dut  s  of  bis  position,  and  granted  him  a  salary 
ot  eight  hundred  tlialers.  in  171)8,  he  pub- 
lished the  Address  to  the  Philanthropists  and 
Men  of  Property,  upon  Schools  and  Studies, 
andtheir  Influence  upon  0  :  Public  Weal  i  Vor- 
stellung  an  Menschenfn  nd  etc.)  with  the 
plan  of  an  elementary  work  on  human  knowl- 
edge. He  applied  to  many  princes,  governments, 
ecclesiastical  dignitaries,  trccinasons  lodges,  and 
other  learned  men  and  ■  societies,  to  aid  him  in 
the  publication  of  the  elementary  work  which  lie 
proposed;  and  the  success  of  these  applications 
was  so  great,  that,  in  1771  .contributions  amount- 
ing to  more  than  Slll.iHMi  had  been  received.  As 
the  first  part  of  the  proposed  Elementarwerk, 
Basedow  published,  in  L770,  Methodenbuch  (book 
<>f  iiirllnuls),  of  which  a  sec nd  edition  appeared 
in  1771.  and  a  third  in  1773.  The  chapter  on 
Education  of  Princes,  was  omitted  in  the  second 
edition  of  the  work,  and  having  been  revised 
••  with  a  care  worthy  of  the  subject,"  it  was  pub- 
lished in  1771,  as  a  separate  work,  under  the 
title  of  AgaOwcrator.  Prince  Albert  of  Dessau 
sent  the  author,  in  return  for  a  copy  of  this 
book,  ion  (balers;  and  the  emperor  Joseph  11., 
a  medal  with  his  portrait.  At  the  same  time. 
Basedow  received  from  the  ruling  prince  of  Des- 
sau Leopold  Frederic  Francis,  a  call  to  Dessau, 
to  earn  in  In-  plan  ot  a  large  reformatory  edu- 
cational institution.  Having,  accordingly,  re- 
moved to  Dessau,  he  published  there,  in  1771, 
his  long  expected  Elementarwerk,  in  1  vols., 
illustrated  with  one  hundred  plates,  mostly  en- 
graved by  ( 'boilow  iecky.  The  object  of  this  hook 
is  as  Basedow  himself  remarks,  (1)  Elementary 
instruction  in  the  know-ledge  of  world  and  things  ; 
(2)  An  original  method,  f tded  upon  experience, 

loss  of  thiic  .  vnm-a I  knowledge;  i-li  Knowl- 
edge of  morals,  the  mind,  and  reasoning;  (5)  A 
thorough  and  impressive  method  of  instruction 
in  natural  religion,  with  a  perfectly  impartial  ac- 
count of  dogmatic  arricle-  of  belief;  and  (6)  A 
knowledge  of  social  duties,  of  commerce,  etc 
This  work  was  translated  into  Latin  l>\  Mangels- 
dorf,  and  into  French  by  I  [uber. 

The  foundation  of  the  educational  institution 
which  became  famous  in  history  as  the  Philan- 
"',  rop  \  i  laid  in  Dessau,  Dec.  '-'7..  177-1. 
The  prince  of  Dessau  gave  the  building,  a 
garden,  and  $12,000.  The  object  of  the  in- 
stitution was  to  supply  a  model  school  in 
which  the  principles  of  the  Elementarwerk 
could  be  applied  to  practical  methods.  Poor 
pupils  were  received  at  reduced  rates,  under  the 
name  of  famulants.  In  177A  the  number  of 
boarders  was  nine,  and  of  famulants  six.  Many 
of  the  prominent  scholars  and  educators  of  the 
tune,  a  K a nt .  ( Ibeilin ,  Nicolai,  and  Zollicoffer. 
took  a  prof d  interest  in  this  novel  institution. 


BATES  COLLEGE 

which,  as  Basedow  promised,  was  to  lie  free  from 
sectarian  bias  and  to  be  carried  on  without  a  re- 
sori  to  corporal  punishment  ;  gymnastic  exercises 
were  to  be  afforded  and  the  wink  of  learning  was 
to  be  made  •■three  tunes  as  short,  and  three 
I  ones  as  easy  as  it  usually  is. "  The  expectations 
raised  by  Basedow's  enthusiastic  announcements 
and  promises  were,  however,  not  realized.  As 
early  as  Dec,  1771.  Basedow  was  obliged  to 
transfer  the  supreme  management  of  the  institu- 
tion to  Campe,  under  whom  the  number  of 
pupils  rose  to  50.  For  a  short  time,  Basedow 
was  again  placed  at  the  head  of  the  institution; 
but.  in  1778,  he  had  finally  to  leave  it.  In  1784, 
the  periodical  of  the  Philanthropin,  entitled  Ped- 
agogical Conversations  (Die  pddagogisclien  re- 
time, the  institution  declined  rapidly,  and  was 
soon  entirely  abandoned.  The  teachers,  however, 
were  scattered  through  all  parts  of  Germany,  ap- 
plying in  various  ways  the  principles  of  the 
founder.  Basedow  devoted  the  last  years  of  his 
life  to  writing  theological  and  educational  works. 
He  died,  July  25.,  1790,  ai  Magdeburg.  His  last 
words  were,  "I  desire  to  be  dissected  for  the 
benefit  of  my  fellow-men."  Like  Rousseau, 
Basedow  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  the  discus- 
sion of  new  educational  theories :  and  he  re- 
sembled Rousseau,  too,  in  being  entirely  unfitted 
for  a  practical  educator.  There  was  much  in 
his  method  of  teaching  that  appeared  strange. 
eccentric,  and  even  farcical:  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  those  who  most  severely  criticise  his  defects, 
readily  acknowledge  that  his  life-long  labors  in 
behalf  of  education  were  not  in  vain.  His  pur- 
pose was,  without  doubt,  honest  and  unselfish. 
Like  Rousseau,  he  labored  ardently,  and  with 
consi  lirable  success,  for  the  removal  of  many  un- 
natural restraints,  which,  at  that  time,  were  SO 
common.  Physical  education,  according  to  his 
system,  was  attended  to  in  a  maimer  unite  original 
at  that  time;  and  the  favorite  principle  of  Base- 
dow that  the  scholars  should  learn  with  love,  and 
not  with  repugnance,  had  a  most  beneficent  in- 
fluence upon  the  practical  methods  of  other 
educational  institutions.  —  Sec  Radmeb,  Ge- 
schichte  (ler  Pddagogik,  vol.  n.  (translated  in 
Barnard's  German  Educational  Reformers); 
Max  Mui.i.ki;  (grandson  of  Basedow!  in  Alh/f- 
meine  Deutsche  Biographie,  art.  Basedow; 
Meykii.  Character  und  Schriften  Basedow's 
VI  vols..  Hamburg,  L791-  L792);  Quit  k,  Edu- 
cational Reformers  (London.  1868,  and  Cin- 
cinnati. 1874). 

BATES  COLLEGE,  at  Lewiston.  Mr.,  was 
established  in  L863,  by  the  Free  Baptists,  and 
named  in  honor  of  Benjamin  B.  Bates  of  Boston, 
who  contributed  S'jou.ooo  to  its  endowment.  It 
has  handsome  grounds,  three  fine  college  build- 
ings, and  a  president's  residence.  The  value  of 
its  grounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus  is  about 
$200,000.  In  1874,  it  had  a  corps  of  8  instruct- 
ors, and  KM)  students  in  the  different  college 
classes,  of  whom  3  were  females.  Nine  different 
schools  and  academies  act  as  preparatory  schools 
for  this  college.    There  is  here  an  endowed  schol- 


BELGIUM 


75 


.arship  for  a  lady  student,  supposed  to  be  the  first 
instance  of  such  an  appropriation  in  any  of  the 


college 

scho 


IV,  1 


the  abbot  Benedict  Biscop,  in  Wearmouth,  he 
devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  occupied  his  spare  time  in  learning, 

in\\"'~uZJu\\'n?\\\;lnXnh    m   Mudy  al,,l 

t.-JI.-l.il..-.  MndacuUircda    'All,  IvmilallM,  1:1:11.  -IS 


)f  J. 


the  children  of  those   who  have  fallen  in  defcn.- 
of  their  country,  and  always  to  those  who  at 
indigent  and  meritorious.     There  is  a  professo 
ship  of   mental  and    moral    philosophy,  name 
after  As,  Reddington,  I.I,.  D.,  of   Lewiston,  wh 
gave   a    large   amount    toward    its  endowmen 
The  ( lobb  professorship  of  logic 
evidence  was  named  ii 
of  Lewiston,  who  contributed   the  chief  portion 
of  the  funds  for  its  endowment.     The  various 
libraries, — college,  theological,  and  societies',  con- 
tain about  9.(100  volumes.     The  president  of  the 
institution  is  (1876)  Rev.  0.  B.  Cheney,  D.  D. 
The  annual  tuition  fee  is  $36. 

BAVARIA.     See  Germany. 

BAYLOR  UNIVERSITY,  at  Independ- 
ence, Tex.,  was  founded  in  1  Me  by  the  Baptists.  It 
had.  in  1874,  a  corps  of  5  instructors,  2  endowed 
professorships,  81  students,  and  a  library  of  about 
3.0011  volumes.  It  has  a  theological  as  well  as  a 
collegiate  department.  The  value  of  itsgrounds, 
buildings,  etc.  is  estimal 


i :  its  endow- 
ii.  I  !.  I  'nine. 
it.    The  an- 


BEACH  GROVE  COLLEGE,  at  Bead 
Grove,  Tenn.,  was  founded  in  L868.  Itliad.it 
1874,  a  corps  of  5  instructors,  and  106  students 
in  its  preparatory,  and  18  in  its  collegiate  depart- 
ment. Its  -round.,  college  buildings,  and  ap- 
paratus are  valued  at  $30,000.     M.  Parker,  A 

BEBIAN,  Roch  Ambroise  Auguste,  a 
noted  teacher  of  deaf-mutes,  was  born  on  the 
island  of  Guadeloupe,  in  1789,  and  died  there  in 
1834,  lie  was  godson  of  the  abb-  Sicard,so 
celebrated  for  his  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  instruc- 
tion of  deaf-mutes,  and  undi  r  him  was  prepared 
for  the  task  which  he  afterwards  assumed.  After 
the  publication  in  1817,  of  his  Essai  sur  les 

appointed  a  professor  al  the  royal  institution: 
but  the  jealousy  and  opposition  excited  toward 
him  by  his  zeal  for  innovation  and  reform,  com- 
pelled him  to  resign,  in  1825,  after  which  he  re- 
turned to  Guadeloupe.     1 1  i    /  -    ,    historiq  ■   rf< 

emy.  Bis  other  important  publications  are,  Mima 
graphie,  I  ■   ■  mimique  ,  1822) 

and  Manui  '.  (fenseign    n        pro  iqw     1827  . 

BEDE,  or  Beda,  styled  the  venerable  Bede 
a  celebrated  Saxon  ecclesiastic  and  scholar,  and 
the  earliest  English  historian,  was  born  in  Dur 


ot  Ins  method  >,t  teaching,  n 
but  it  consisted,  without  doub 
students.    There  is  no  doub 
an  attractive  delivery,  and  th 

diction    may  be   seen    from    1 
11  is  st  u,  lies' were,  by  no  means 

.  of  lectures  to  the 
that  he  possessed 

!    excellence  of    his 

is   literary  works. 
,  confined  to  theol- 

from  bis  work  on  orthographj 
arte  metrica,  Liber  de  schetm 
scripturae,  and    De   natura 

-cieiice.  as  we  see 
and  his  works  De 
tis  et  tropis  sacra, 
rerum,  the   latter 

treating  uJ   phv-de-,.  a.stionom 

■  and    gcogiapl.y. 

History  (f  the  English  Nation,  written  in  Latin 
[Historia  Eodesiastica  Gentis  Anglorum),  was 
translated  into  Anglo-vSaxon  by  King  Alfred, 
and  is  still  the  best  authority  for  the  period  on 
which  it  treats.  Bede's  complete  works,  as  far 
as  extant,  have  been  published  by  Dr.  Giles 
(London,  1843— 1844).  A  new  English  trans- 
lation appeared  in  1871.-  See  also  Wriqht,  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica  Literaria,  vol.  i.  (London. 

BELGIUM,  a  kingdom  of  Europe,  has  an 
area  of  11,373  sq.  m.,  and  a  population,  in  1873, 
of  5,253,821.  Almost  the  entire  population  be- 
longs nominally  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  number  of  Protestants  is  variously  estimated 


while  the  Walloons  h 
incesof  Liege  (S9.6 
N'amur  (99.1  p.  a),  i 
The  country  constitu 


Hid  the  Walloon. an 
fhe  Flemings  are 
cent  of  the  popula- 

i sof  BastFlan- 

d  population),  Ant- 

(88,8  p.  a),  West 
rabant  (56,1  p.  c), 
ajoritj  in  the  prov- 

linaull  (95.8  p.  c  . 
emburg  84.7  p.  e.j. 
pre.-, -ut  kingdom  of 


literary  ability.      His  biography,  written   by   his 

niil  Cuthbert,  says  of   him,  that  having  been 
ught  by  his  relations,  in  his  seventh  year,  to  | 


gundy,  conjointly  with  which  it  was  inherited  by 
the  king's  of  Spain.  The  peace  of  Utrecht  ( I  713) 
gave  it  to  Austria,  from  which,  in  I7'J4,  it  was 


76 


conquered  by  the  French.  On  Napoleon's  abdi- 
cation in  1*14.  it  was  united  with  Holland,  with 
which  it  remained  until  1830, -when  • 
revolution  established  its  independence.  The 
first  schools  after  tin-  introduction  of  <  Ihristian- 
ilv  were  connected  with  convents  and  collegiate 
churches,  and  some  of  them,  as  the  schools  of 
Liege,  Gemblours,  Dornick,  Ghent,  etc.,  achieved 
a  high  reputation.  Elementary  schools  were 
established  in  many  places  by  the  monastic  order 


schools  of  Kun.pe.  and  at  one  time  was  attended 
by  6000  students.  During  the  Dutch  rule,  a 
thorough  system  of  inspection,  reports,  and  full 
publicity,  was  instituted:  a  normal  school  was 
established  at  Liege  in  1817,  and  in  L822  all  per- 
sons were  forbidden  to  exercise  the  functions  of 

schools  who  were  not  authorized  by  a  central 
board  of  examination.  <>n  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, the  efforts  of  the  Hutch  governmenl  to  re- 
press the  use  of  the  French  language  and  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  produced 

an  intense  and  general  di— atidaction.  mid  1 ame 

one  of  tin'   primary  <  an- ■-  ot   the   revolution    of 


in  every  large  city.  Tn  1  Soil,  this  class  of  schools 
was  changed  into  secondary  schools.  The  schools 
are  managed  by  the  communal  council,  and  the 


ies  of  a  normal  school.  They  must  receive  a 
certificate  of  qualification  from  a.  board  consist- 
ing of  a  lav  and  a  clerical  member,  the  former 
appointed  by  the  state  and  the  latter  by  the  ec- 
clesiastical authorities.  The  communal  council 
may  suspend  the  teacher  for  three  months,  the 
provincial  inspector   may.  on    consultation    with 


I  S.",(l. 
from 
Dutel 


Hutch  government     In  the  place  of  the  strict 

control  of  the  entir lueational  system   by  the 

state,  the  most  absolute  freedom  of  instruction 
was  now  introduced.  The  clergy  founded  a 
number  of  schools,  which  remained  under  the 
exclusive  control  of  the  church,  while  the  Liberal 


the  communal  council. dismiss  linn.  I  lie  inspec- 
tion of  primary  schools  is  exercised  both  by  the 
state  government  and  the  ecclesiastical  author- 
ities. The  king  appoints  a  cantonal  inspector 
for  each  canton,  and  a  provincial  inspector  for 
each  of  the  nine  provinces.  The  cantonal  in- 
spector is  appointed  for  the  term  of  three  years. 
He  must  visit  each  school  of  his  district  at  least 
twice  a  year,  and  report  to  the  provincial  inspect- 
or. The  latter  must  visit  each  school  at  least 
oncea  year,  and  report  to  the  minister  of  the  in- 
terior. All  the  provincial  inspectors  assemble 
once  a  year  as  a  central  commission,  under  the. 
presidency  of  the  ministerof  the  interior.  The 
bishops  also  appoint  cantonal  and  diocesan  in- 
spectors, and  must  once  a  year  report  to  the 
minister  of  the  interior  on  the  state  of  moral 
and  religious  instruction.  In  the  Protestant  and 
Jewish  school.,  a  delegate  of  the  consistory  super- 
intends the  religious  instruction.  The  govern- 
ment annually  publish,  s  a  li.-t  of  text  books  that 


party 

sun-mid     in 

scl 1   system.     In   1836,  a 

colli] 

ro'mise  betweei 

church  and   state  was  ar- 

livci 

mtlu 

at.       The  cover 

lav  upon  the  st 

iment  "aye  to  the  clergy  an 
ite  schools,  while  the  church 

subji 

•ted   all    its   sell 

>ols  which  r. iced  support 

from 

fund 

the  . 

.to  the  inspect 

the  government,  or  public 
in  of  the  state.  Since  1865, 
ion  has  been    the  subject  of 

a  vei 

y  animated  com 

roversy  between  the  liberal 

and 

he  Catholic  par 

ies.      The  Liberals  founded 
Liffue  de  Vemeignemeni, 

from 

ncipating  the  state  schools 
the  church. 
ion    is  based  on  the  law  of 

normal   schools 
school  at  Lierre, 

There  are.  besid 


This 

lllest 


division  of  the  statel  must  have  at  least  one  public 
elementary  school,  unless  the  instruction  of  all  the 
children  is  sufficiently  provide!  for  to  the  satis- 
faction of  il vi  riimcnt.in  private, endowed, or 

denominational  scl Is.     Tl lementary  school 

must  be  free  to  the  | ',   and    may  be  made  free 

to  all  by  vote  of  the  communal  council.  The 
I iri 1 1 1. 1 1  \  chool  must  give  instruction  in  religion 
and  morals,  in  writing,  in  the  mother-tongue  of  the 
children  (French  or  Flemish),  and  in  arithmetic. 
The  law  provides  for  a  superior  elementarj  school 


sections,  one    tol 

responds   to  the 
six   years,   and 


onferences,  generally  occupying  only 
ml  never  more  than  three,  are  held 
urine  vacations. and  conducted  by  the 


dinl850. 

Ies.     The 

ludes  two 
Inch  cor- 
ind  is  for 

struetion. 
amy.  and 

ice  oi  sec 

inspectoi 

of   L850 

an   instruction 


[conseil  de  peifectionnement),  consisting  of  at 


BELGIUM 

least  8  and  not  more  than  10  members.  The 
highesl  grade  of  instruction  is  that  dispensed  by 
the  univeisities.  Of  these,  there  are  four.  Two. 
those  of  Ghent  and  Liege,  belong  to  the  state; 
one,  that  of  Louvain,to  the  bishops;  and  one. 
that  of  Brussels,  lo  an  a  soriation  of  liberals. 
Ghent,  Liege,  and  Brussels  have  each  four  facul- 


Iil-'.IL 


77 


studio 


latter  class  has  increased  since  L851  by  1 ,098,  the 
former  only  l.iv  U'-l.  'I 'he  schools  for  adults  nuin- 
lieivd  l:i:i,!i:>7'  pupils,  !l.21!l  more  than  in  Isls. 
being  o.!1*  per  cent  of  the  population.  The 
aggregate  expenditures  made  for  primary  instruc- 
tion, in  1874,  were  as  follows:  national   govern- 

nt.  6,643,415  francs:   provinces  l.X.MHl  fr.  ; 

communes  .->.m;3.:.61  fr. ;  total  14.0!mi.;im;  fr. 
To  what  extent   illiteracy  still  prevails   may    U- 


■"*"/" 


■vd    to 


rectors  and  8  professors  of  the 
1  fro  n  cadi  faculty  |,  the  schoi 
some  private  individuals,  lndu 
is  given  in  institutions  of  tlnvi 
instruction,  in  the  special  schi 
manufactures  and  mines,  attai 
vcrsity  of  Liege,  in  those  of  i 
and  of  arts  and  manufactures, 
University  of  Client,  and  in  the  superior  in- 
stitute of  commerce  at  Antwerp;  intermediate 
instruction  in  the  industrial  departments  at- 
tached to  all  the  athenaeums  and  high  schools ; 
primary  instruction,  in  the  industrial  schools  for 
workmen.  The  latter  are  very  numerous,  lace- 
making  alone  being  taught  in  586sehools.  There 
is  a  military  school  tor  training  otlicei-s  of  all 
arms,  regimental  schools  for  the  instruction  of  ig- 
norant soldiers,  ami  a  school  for  the  education  of 
soldiers'  children.  There  are  '.'  vetei  inai  yschools, 

painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture,  a  national 
observatory,  2  schools  for  deaf-mutes,  I  for  the 
blind,  6  for  orphans,  and  3  for  young  criminals. 

Education  in  Belgium  is  not  compulsory,  and 
the  number  of  children  receiving  no  kind  of  in- 
struction is  still  large.  Of  the 'conscripts  there 
were,  in  1845,391  out  of  L000,  who  could  neither 
read  nor  write:   in  lsii.'i.  .'{Il'_». 

The  salaries  of  primary  teachers  were  fixed  by 
a  law  of  1863  as  follows:  (1)  in  schools  with 
more  than  100  scholars,  minimum  salary  1,050 
francs;  (21  in  scl Is  with  from  60  to  100  schol- 
ars. 950  francs;  (3)  in  schools  with  less  than 
60  scholars,  850  francs.    The  chief  town  of  c\ 


_-t  that. 
for  th. 


1,31  I 


province  has  a  special 
i  caisse  de  prevoyance 
is  required  annually  to 
from  his  salary,  and  w 
tions  from  the  provini 
individuals.     Every   t 


bank  for  teachers 
,-ery  teacher 
xed  amount 
es  contribu- 
and  private 
who  is  sixty  years 


old  and  has  served  thirty  years  is  entitle,!  to  a 
life  pension.  The  fidl  pension  of  teachers  is  also 
paid  to  their  widows  and  to  their  orphans  till  the 
latid  have  reached  their  L6th  year. 

Of  the  four  universities  of  lielgium,  the  free 
Catholic  University  of  I/mvaiii  had.  in  187'-', 
the  largest  number  of  students  (901);  the  free 
{liberal)  University  of  Brussels  had  583;  the 
State  University  at  Liege  436,  and  the  State 
University  of  Ghent  210  ;  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  at  Antwerp,  1576  students.  The 
Conservatory  of  Music  at  I  Srussels  was  attended 
by  675  pupils,  that  of  Liege  by  7s'.).  The  number 
of  teachers  in  the  primary  schools,  in  1*7  I.  was 
10,629,  of  whom  7,032  were  laymen,  and  3,597 
members  of   religious  orders  and  clerics.     The 


"ens     .  •  -  trots  degres;  Annuaire  stati- 

BELL,  Andrew,  1*.  D.,  a  distinguished  edu- 
cationist, the  author  of  the  system  of  mutual 
or  monitorial  instruction  sometimes  called  the 
Mm/nis  si/sli-ni,  was  horn  at  St.  Andrews,  Scot- 
land, in  1753,  and  died  at  Cheltenham.  England, 
in  L832.  lie  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  St.  Andrews,  went  to  America,  and  after  a 
short  residence  there,  returned  and  took  orders  in 
the  Episcopal  Church.  In  17*7,  he  embarked 
for  India,  and  on  his  arrival  at  Madras,  was  ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  the  English  garrison,  and  also 
superinb  ndenl  of  the  school  then  recently  estab- 
lished for  the  education  of  the  orphan  children 
of  I'.iitidi  ,-oldi.  r-.  I " :  i . .  1 1 1 .  ■_  e|v,,i  difficulty  in 
obtaining  the  as  istance  of  competent  teachers 
in  this  arduous  work,  he  resorted  to  the  expedi- 
ent of  conducting  the  school  by  means  of  the 
pupils  themselves.  This  method  was  partly 
suggested    to    his  mind    by   his  seeing,  on  one  of 

his   i iimg  rides,    the  children   of    a   Malabar 

school  sitting  on  the  ground  and  writing  with 
their  fingers  in  sand.  He  immediately  intro- 
duced this  method  of  teacliing  the  alphabet  into 
his  school,  and  finding  the  ushers  averse  to  the 
innovation,  gave  the  A  B  <  '-class  to  a  boy  whom 
he  selected  as  especially  lifted  for  the  task.  This 
boy,  whose  name  was  John  Frisken,  and  who 
was  probably  the  first  monitor  in  English  educa- 
tion, was  the  son  of  a  soldier,  and  then  about 
eight  years  old.  The  success  of  this  lad  induced 
Dr.  I  Sell  to  extend  the  experiment.    He  appointed 

other  boys   to  teach  the   lower  classes  :   and  s 

afterwards  applied  his  system  of  monitors  to  tin- 
whole  school  (1791).  This  was  continued  under 
his  superintendence  till  his  return  to  Europe,  in 
L796.  (See  Monitorial  System.)  Vfb  c  hi 
arrival  in  England,  he  drew  up  a  full  report  of 
his  school,  w  Inch  was  published  in  London,  in 
L797.  under  the  title  of  An  Experiment  in 
Education,  made  at  the  Male  Asylum,  Madras; 


h„   whit 

■„)„Prth, 


Of  the  Master  or  Pur,„t.  This  pamphlet  at- 
tracted little  attention,  until,  through  the  efforts 
of  Joseph  Lancaster,  the  monitorial  system  of 
instruction  invented  by  him  was  introduced  into 


78 


BELL 


the  schools  of  the  Dissenters.  A  controversy  as 
to  the  respective  merits  of  the  systems  of  Bell 
and  Lancaster  then  sprung  up,  the  friends 
and  adherentsof  each  claiming  for  it  not  only 
superiority  in  merit,  but  priority  of  invention. 
The  idea  of  mutual  instruction  was,  however, 
not  new.  Indeed,  it  is  as  old  as  Lycurgus ;  and 
Lancaster  was  too  candid  a  man  to  claim  an  ab- 
solute originality  for  his  plan.  In  his  first  pam- 
phlet, published  in  1803,  he  says  :  "  I  ought  not 
to  close  my  account  without  acknowledging  the 
obligations  I  lie  under  to  Dr.  Bell :  I  much  re- 
gret that  I  was  not  acquainted  with  the  beauty 

of  his  system   till  somewhat  advaj I    in   mj 

plan.  If  I  had  known  it,  it  would  have  saved 
me  much  trouble  and  some  retrograde  move- 
ments." This  controversy  was  as  much  sectarian 
as  educational,  as  the  rival  systems  were  favored, 
the  one  by  the  I  >isseiiters.  and  the  other  by  \U  • 
Church  of  England.  It.  however,  served  a  use- 
fid  purpose,  in  giving  an  impetus  to  the  progress 
of  education.  In  1811,  a  society,  called  the 
Xn'i',1  m' Sifirt,/.  was  formed  for  the  establish- 
ment of  schools  in  connection  with  the  Church 
of  England,  on  Dr.  Bell's  plan;  and  I  >r.  Bell 
was  appointed  to  superintend  the  enterprise,  a 
duty  which  engrossed  much  of  his  time  ami  ef- 
fort's until  his  death.  By  this  means, the  Madias 
.system  obtained  an  introduction  not  only  in 
England,  but  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  as  well 
as  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States.  For  the 
purpose  of  bringing  it  to  the  notice  of  educators 
on  the  continent.  Dr.  Bell  made  an  extensive 
tour,  in  the  course  of  which  he  visited  the  schools 
of  I'cstalozzi  and  Fellenberg,  with  the  former  of 
whom  he  was  quite  charmed,  "lie  has  much 
that  is  original,  he  remarked,  "  much  that  is  ex- 
cellent. If  he  had  a  course  of  study  —  if  he 
were  to  dismiss  his  masters,  and  adopt  the 
monitorial  system  and  the  principle  of  emu- 
lation, he  would  be  super-excellent."  In  the 
mean  time,  the  analogous  system  of  I,ancastcr 
had  been  carried  into  effect  in  numerous  schools 
cstabli.-heil  l.\  .-in  association  of  I  >i-.,  i , i ,  j  -  ,-i\  I,  1 
The  British  and  For  ign  S  '-  Society;  an  I 
much  active  rivalry  existed  between  the  two  so- 
cieties. (See  Lancaster,  Joseph.)  During  his  life, 

Dr.  Bell  received  several  lucrative  offices  in  the 
Church,  from  which  he  was  enabled  to  amass  a 
large  fortune.  The  whole  of  this,  amounting  to 
£120,000,  he  bequeathed  to  various  towns  in  his 
native  country  for  the  endowment  of  schools.  He 
founded  Madras  College,  at  St.  Andrews,  and  a 
lectureship,  at  Edinburgh  1  'niversity,  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  teaching,  and  on  the  monitorial  system. 
On  his  death.in  1832,  he  was  buried  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey,  the  highest  dignitaries  of  the  Church 
and  many  distinguished  noblemen  attending  as 

mourners.      An  elegant    mo m    marl  ■    b  3 

resting-place,  with  an  inscription  in  which  he  is 
characterized  as  the  "Author  of  the  Madras 
System."— See  Southet,  Life  of  the  Rev.  An- 
drew Bell,  D.D.  (Load.,  1844);  the  Edinburgh 
Review,  vol.  xxxnx;  Leitch,  Practical  Educa- 
tionists and  their  Systems  of  Teaching  (Glas- 
gow, 1876). 


BELLES-LETTRES 

BELLES-LETTRES  is  a  French  expres- 
sion for  polite  literature,  i.  e.,  books  and  language 
in  so  far  as  they  are  shaped  by  the  idea  of  beau- 
ty. It  has  been  used  in  English  to  designate  a 
somewhat  vague  class  of  studies  connected,  more 
or  less  nearly,  with  the  mastery  of  literature  on 
its  esthetic  side.  Some  of  the  colleges  in  the 
United   States  have  had  a  professor  of  belles- 

ttres.  lb-  has  taught  rhetoric  and  elocution 
mainly:  but  poetry,  drama,  prose  fiction,  criti- 
cism, classical  philology,  the  humanities  in  gen- 
eral, are  all  in  his  province.  Blair's  Rhetoric  was 
long  widely  used  as  a  text-book  in  this  branch  ; 
and  several  editions  of  it  are  still  kept  in  print. 
—  Esthetics  (the  science  of  beauty)  and  philol- 
ogy have,  of  late  years,  made  great  advance  and 
new  text-books  are  needed  to  set  forth  modern 
methods  of  studying  literature  and  language,  so 
as  to  understand  their  beauties.  The  elements 
of  the  study  should  be  taught  early.  In  the 
kindergarten  or  other  infant  school,  the  children 
should  be  taught  to  admire  ami  examine  beau- 
tiful objects,  to  notice  the  qualities  which  give 
them  beauty,  to  name  the  object-  and  the  qual- 
ities ;  they  should  be  told  anecdotes  in  which 
beautiful  persons  do  beautiful  acts,  and  the 
words  expressive  of  beauty  should  be  spoken 
with  tones  and  gestures  which  may  give  them 
lively  associations  and  a  permanent  place  in  the 
memory;  passages  of  verse  or  rhythmical  prose 
in  which  beautiful  thoughts  arc  fittingly  ex- 
pressed, and  of  which  the  teacher  is  fond,  should 
lie  repeated  till  they  are  caught  by  the  pupils. 
Such  passages  may  be  among  the  noblest  of  our 
literature.  It  is  not  necessary  that  they  should 
be  wholly  comprehended  by  the  learners.  They 
may  be  regarded  as  music,  producing  compar- 
atively vague  intellectual  processes,  but  quick- 
ening powerfully  the  emotional  element  of  es- 
thetic culture.  Language  and  literature  should 
lead  the  youth  of  cultured  races  to  a  more  rapid 
development  than  the  natural  growth  of  the 
understanding.  Beautiful  and  noble  words  thus 
learned  by  heart  will  serve  as  molds  in  which 
the  expanding  intellect  may  flow  and  form.  This 
early  oral  instruction  may  be  happily  aided  by 
learning  to  read  in  illustrated  books,  in  which 
beautiful  pictures  are  made  to  interpret  and  en- 
force the  thought.  Some  of  the  magazines  for 
children  afford  such  aid  in  a  good  form;  such 
as  The  Nursery  (Boston);  St.  Nicholas  (N.Y.). 
(  hildrcn  taught  in  this  way  will  be  ready  to 
pursue  the  study  of  belles-lettres  when  they 
have  learned  to  read  with  ease.  The  simplest 
method  used  in  our  schools  is  the  reading  in 
class  of  selections  of  characteristic  works  of  the 
most   admired   authors  in  our  own  and  other 


icon  Authors  (Boston  ;  '/'v/-/e,,/  ,v.  ',  ,/;,,,,,<  /'rum 
the  best  English  Authors  from  the  K'./A  to  the 
[9th   Century  (Clarendon   Press,  Oxford!;  most 

series   of   School    Headers    have   a   cla.-s  I hot' 

literature,  and  some  of  them  are  well  selected 


BELLES-LBTTEES 


70 


and  arranged.  The  kind  of  beauty  earliest  appre-  I 
ciated  is  that  of  adventure.  .Short  stories  please; 
such  as  fables  and  parables.  The  style  must  be 
simple,  the  movement  rapid.  Lyrics  or  orations  [ 
expressing  tender  or  noble  feelings  come  next. 
The  appreciation  of  epic  and  romantic  narrative 
will  grow  rapidly:  minute  delineation  of  char- 
acter, the  drama,  and  the  modern  novel  will  then 
follow,  and  finally  descriptions  of  works  of  art, 
scenery,  and  nature.  The  liking  for  innate  lan- 
guage, figures  of  speech,  rhythmical  effects,  and 
other  arts  of  style,  generally  1 ds  special  culti- 
vation to  make  it  strong  in  young  readers. 
Whatever  be  the  passages  chosen  to  read,  the 
teacher  aiming  to  give  instruction  in  belles- 
lettres  will  direct  the  attention  of  the  class  to 
beautiful  thoughts,  figures,  and  expressions,  and 
will  have  them  read  with  care  and  expression, 
so  as  to  bring  out  the  thought  and  feeling 
of  each  passage.  He  may  also  mention  criti- 
cisms which  have  been  made  on  the  passage, 
tell  of  occasions  on  which  it  has  been  quoted  or 
imitated,  quote  similar  passages  in  other  authors 
or  the  same  author,  and  have  parts  committed  I 
to  memory.  In  such  studies,  more  is  caught 
than  taught.  The  teacher  must  feel  the  beauties 
and  communicate  the  feeling  by  looks  and  tones. 
Pupils  who  read  with  expression  should  also  be 
used  to  heighten  ihe  interest  of  the  exercise.  A 
single  good   reader   will  often  stimulate  a  whole 


class.    Comment  and  critici 

sm  should  be  mainly 

used  for  pointing  out   beau 

ies,and  exciting  ad- 

miration  for  them.       \  i  :    ■ 

•iative  rea  |i     ■    com- 

ment,  and  memorizing  may 

thus    be    made  a  ile- 

lightful  introduction  to  lite 

ature,  leading  natur- 

ally  to  further  study  in  twi 

main  directions, 

the  historical  and  ill  i  philosi 

ihieal.  The  historical 

is  the  easier  in  its  beginnino 

( louraes  of  lectures 

on  the  history  ol  literal  ure 

nd  text  booksgiving 

materia]  for  In-:  irical  and  1 

iographii  al  study  in 

connection   with    selections 

i  ii    r   i  ling,  are  to 

be  had.    (  Ilb\  eland's   Com 

.„■■',■  !  of  English 

Literature  (N.  Y.)   include. 

the  most   eminent 

authors  from  Sir  John    Ma 

uleville   to   Cowper. 

The  same  author  has  publis 

led  similar  works  on 

the  Literature  of  thel9th  C 

ntery,andon  Aimer- 

icon  Literature  (X.  Y.).  Somewhat  like  them 
are  Shaw's  History  and  Specimens  of  English 
Literature  (edition  by  Backus,  N.  Y.)  ;  and 
Chambers's    Manual    of    English     Literature. 

Larger  works  for  the  teacher  and  for  reference 
are  Chambers's  ( lyclopaidiaqf  English  Literature 
(N.  Y.);  and  Dcvckinck's  i  'i/r/,,/„n/i,i  of  Amer- 
ican Literature  (Phila.);  and  indispensable  to  the 
thorough  teacher  is  Ai.i.ii;onf,'s  Itiiiiimnrii  <>f 
Authors  I  Phila.),  which  is  a  great  store  house  of 
biography,  bibliography,  and  criticism  gleaned 
from  many  sources,  and  quoted  at  length.  With 
these  aids,  the  student  of  belles-lettres  must  be 
led  to  point  out  how  each  successive  beauty  in 
the  passages  which  are  read  is  related  to  the 
character,  education,  and  times  of  the  author: 
and  by  well-directed  study  he  may  acquire,  in 
time,  clear  ideas  of  the  representative  works  of 
literary  art  in  the  great  eras  of  history, — first  of 
English  history,   then   of  the  history  of   other 


nations.  This  will  require  the  reading  of  many 
more  hooks  than  can  usually  be  read  in  school. 
The  teacher  should,  however,  see  that  many  are 
read,  This  can  best  be  done  by  requiring  writ- 
ten exeri  tses  of  such  a  kind  as  to  assure  him  of 
the  fact  without  taking  much  of  his  time.  He 
may  have  brief  outlines  of  stories  handed  in, 
as,  of  some  of  the  Canierbx  ry  71  -,  oi  thegist 
of  the  critical  views  ol  some  author  on  a  partic- 
ular point,  as  Coleridge's  in  regard  to  Hamlet;  or 


Or  he  may  ask  for  biograpl I  facts  on  which 

works  of  art  are  based  ;  as,  what  events  in  Mil- 
Ion's  life  suggested  passages  in  Parai  it    Lost 

o,,^K!r,a'Xiiii!n^mital',^pmd,n.,o!!'!l.''to 

be  sure,  what  is  to  be  expected  of  the  young  stu- 
dents of  belles-lettres;   but   they  should  use  their 

peiis  freely,  ill  such  a  way  as  the  authors  they  ad- 
mire or  their  own  powers  may  prompt.  If  they 
show  signs  of  talent,  the  teacher  should  encourage 
them.  The  meters  of  the  poets  may  easily  be 
im  ita  nd:  and  it  is  only  by  practice  in  production 
thatth       ■   el    oi    tyle  are  attained  or  thoroughly 

under,! I.     The   student   of  belles-lettres  will 

soon  learn  that  the  I-  nglish  is  only  one  among 
many  classic  literatures.    He  will  wish  to  become 

acquai I  with  Homer,  Virgil,  and  Dante  as 

well  as  with  Milton:  with  Boccacio  as  well  as 
t  lhaucer;  Goethe  as  well  as  Shakes]  eare  I  le  will 
wish  to  learn  Greek,  1  atin.  Italian  I  rench,  Ger- 
man. (See  the  articles  on  these  and  other  lan- 
guages.) No  literature  can  be  mastered  without, 
mastering  the  language  in  which  d  was  original- 
ly written;  but  much  may  be  done  by  transla- 
tions. Several  text-books  of  such  selected  trans- 
lations are  available  :  Longfellow's  J'orts  and 
Poetry  of  Europe  (Phila.)  ;  Elton's  Specimens 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Poets  (PhilaJ  :  Wright's 
TheGolden  Treasury  of  ancient  Greek   Poetry 

(Oxford);   Bamage's  B tiful  Thoughts  from 

Greek  Authors;  same  from  /.-  tin  Authors;  from 
German  and  Spanish;  from  Frenchand  Italian 

L Ion   :  Angel's  French  Literature  (Phila.); 

I  Ieraed  -  Spanish  Art  and  Literature  (Phila.) ; 
Botta's  Universal  Literature  (Boston);  and  The 
Hebrew  Poetry  in  the  English  Bible.  But  in 
order  to  render  this  historical  study  as  valuable 
as  possible,  it  should  be  accompanied  with  the 
critical  study  of  literary  works  relating  to  the 
principles  of  art.  or  the  laws  of  beauty.  Such 
study  requires  a  knowledge  of  descriptive  rhet- 
oric and  prosody,  and  of  the  technical  terms  of 
esthetic  criticism  ;  so  that  the  students  may  be 
able  to  classify  and  name  the  facts  which  come 
before  them,  and  talk  of  them  with  perspicuity. 
They  should,  for  example,  when  set  to  study  a 
beautiful  passage,  recognize  the  rhetorical  forms 
which  occur  in  it,  such  as  similes,  metaphors, 
personification,  etc ;  if  it  is  poetry,  they  .should 
recognize  the  poetical  forms,  such  as  the  meter, 
with  its  management  of  the  feet  and  caesuras,  of 
rhyme  and  alliteration  ;  they  should  be  able  to 


80  BELLES-LETTRES 

apply  the  ideas  of  order,  proportion,  form,  ex- 
pression, and  the  like,  to  single  beautiful  pas- 
sages, or  to  whole  works  of  art.  This  presup- 
poses the  study  of  the  science  of  beauty.  (See 
Esthetic  Culture.)  The  most  effective  general 
theory  of  the  beautiful,  for  use  in  studj  of  this 
kind,  is  that  which  looks  to  variety  in  unity  to 
explain  all  eminent  beauty.  Take,  for  example, 
Shakespeare's  Julius  <  'cesar  for  study,  t  >n  read- 
ing the  tirst  scene,  let  the  class  point  out  the 
variety  (1)  among  the  characters,  as  between 
the  tribune  and  the  populace,  between  the  loud 
and  the  gentle  tribune,  between  the  simple  car- 
penter and  the  punning  cobbler,  and  the  like  ; 
(2)  in  the  action, — the  meeting,  the  haranguing, 
the  dispersing  of  the  crowd  :  (3)  in  the  mode  of 
thought,  -now  comic,  now  tragic,  foolery  and  elo- 
quence;  (4)  in  the  language, — part  prose,  part 
verse,  cobbler's  puns,  tribune's  tropes,  and  the  like. 
Tin,  -i  :iil\  of  \;iriVi\  ilir.'i-ts  attention  to  all  the 
particulars  of  beauty,  the  elements  by  which  the 
sensibilities,  always  craving  novelty,  are  kepi 
pleasurably  excited.  After  these  elements  have 
been  faithfully  collected  let  the  pupils  seek  for 
the  unity  by  which  all  this  variety  is  made  to 
gratify  the  reason.  Let  them  point  out  the  central 
thought  in  the  play :  give  an  outline  of  the  plot 
by  which  the  thought  is  developed;  and  then 
show  how  each  scene  is  necessary  to  bring  out 
the  thought,  and  bow  each  character,  each  event, 
e.hli  |.:irtieiilar  beauty,  is  fitted  for  its  place,  and 
contributes  to  the  one  end.  Teachers  may  find 
such  an  examination  of  Milton's  I'uradise  Lost, 
in   Addison's  papers  in  the   Sp    tator.     Topics 


..tli 


rlieul:, 


ty  of  la 


is  not  all  included  in  the  study 
of  it  as  combined  in  connected  discourse.  In 
single  words,  also,  when  we  examine  their  ety- 
mology and  history,  much  poetry  is  to  be  found. 
This  is  an  interesting  department  of  belles-lettres, 
and  the  study  of  essays  in  it  is  a  favorite  one 
witli  most  good  teachers  of  language  and  liter- 
ature. Among  these,  may  be  mentioned, Trench. 
On  the  Study  of  Words;  and  Glossary  of  En* 
qlish  Wurds:  and  1)k  Vkre.  Studies  in  English 
(N.T.,  1867).  These  hooks  afford  many  hints 
which  the  teacher  may  use  to  enliven  the  study 
of  literature  Teachers  should  also  be  familiar 
with  critical  essays  on  art,  and  introduce  them 
to  the  acquaintance  of  their  pupils;  these  consti- 
tute a  part  of  belles-lettres.  Such  are  Ruskin's 
Lectures  on  Art,  of  -which  selections  have  been 
made  foi  reading  (N.  V.);  Winckelmann's  His- 
tory of  Ancient  Art  (Boston);  Lessing's  Laoc- 
oon  (Boston);  Jameson's  Sacred  and  Legendary 
Art  [Boston).     To  these  may  be  added  similar 

I ks  of  criticism  on  literary  art :  such  as  those 

of  DeQi  i\.  ky.  Lowell,  Emerson;  II  ikt's  Spen- 
ser  and  the  Fairy  Queen  (N.  V..  1847);  Hud- 
son's Shakespeare  (lioston,  1*51 —('.);  Whites 
Shakespeare's  Scholar  (N.  Y\,1854);  Schlegel's 
Lectures  on  Literature  il'hila.). 


BENEDICTINES 

BELOIT  COLLEGE,  at  Beloit.  Wis.,  was 
founded  bv  the  < 'ongrcgationalists.  in  1S45.  In 
L874,  it  had  a  corps  of  11  instructors,  L46  stu- 
dents in  the  preparatory,  and  (i5  in  the  collegiate 
department. and  a  library  of  about  '.Mil Ml  volumes. 
Its  productive  funds  amount  to  $120,000,  and 
the  value  of  its  "rounds.  college  buildings,  and 
apparatus,  to  $90,000.  The  president  oi  the  in- 
stitution is  (1876)  the  Rev.  A.  L.  Chapin,  D.D. 

BENEDICTINES,  Schools  of  the.  The 
monastic  order  founded  by  St. Benedict  of  Nursia, 
,ii  the  I.. -inning  of  the  6th  century,  occupies  a 
prominent  place  in  the  early  history  of  education 
in  Christian  Europe.  Parochial  and  communal 
schools  could  not  thrive  well  at  a  time  when  the 
people  tit  large  felt  no  desire  for  education,  when 
the  number  of  teachers  was  so  small,  and  when 
the  few  schools  that  were  established,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  parish  churches,  had  to  suffer  so 
much  from  constant  wars.  The  education  offered 
by  the  liene.lictine  order  was.  at  tirst.  intended 
only  for  boys  who  were  to  enter  upon  a  monastic 
life.  According  to  the  fundamental  rule  of  the 
order,  the  separation  of  the  monk  from  the  world 
should  begin  as  early  as  possible.  Boys,  called 
pueri  oblati,  were  a  Imitted  when  only  five  years 
of  age.  The  di  i  lim  wa  strict.  The  rod  was 
used  to  punish  offenses  against  punctuality  and 
order,  and  deficiencies  in  re.  Stations;  moreserioua 
re  sometimes  punished  bj  the  .-.  ourge. 
Latin  was  a  prominent  part  of  the  instruction, 
and  almost  exclusively  the  language  of  conversa- 
tion. Reading,  writing,  and  the  singing  of  psalms 
were  the  prominent  subjects  of  instruction;  but 
the  com  -e.ilso  included  rhetoric,  dialectics, arith- 
metic, astronomy,  geography,  natural  science,  and 
medicine.  Special  attention  was  given  to  history, 
as  is  proved  by  the  numerous  annals  and  chron- 
icles i.-Micl  from  the  Benedictine  convents.  As 
few  schools  outside  of  the  Benedictine  convents 
could  be  found, -which  offered  equal  opportunities 
for  the  education  of  children,  the  monks  were 
soon  requested  to  admit  also  boys  not  devoted  to 
monastic  life.  These  applications  came  especially 
from  noble  and  wealthy-  families,  and  were  so 
numerous  that  it  was  soon  found  necessary  to 
provide  special  rooms,  and  probably  also  special 
courses  oi  instruction,  for  each  class  of  boys 
[sehuhi  interiores  and  exteriores).  —  The  in- 
struction in  the  elementary  branches  was  im- 
parted b\  a  teacher  called  scholaslicus ;  in  the 
larger  schools  and  for  higher  studies,  learned 
monks,  called  magistri,  were  appointed,  under 
whose  direction  other  monks,  called  seniores, 
acted  as  assistant  teachers.  —  Many  convents  of 
the  Benedictine  nuns  had  similar  schools  for 
girls,  though  they  were  not  so  numerously  at- 
tended as  those  of  the  monks.  Somel  imes  these 
schools  of  the  convents  also  admitted  boys. 
With  the  decay  of  the  liene.lictine  order  these 
schools  declined.  Convent  education,  after  the 
12th  century,  did  not  retain  the  ascendency 
which  it  had  formerly  enjoyed;  and  where  it  was 
still  preferred,  it  passed  to  a  large  extent  into  the 
hands  of  other  monastic  orders.  (See  Convent 
Schools.) 


BBNGEL 


8] 


Among  the  most  famous  schools  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, were  Monte  Casi Bobbio,  Rome,  and 


Fulda,     Fritz 
I'riim,    Lora 
burg,   Korvei 
In    England, 

.,,-.    Hersfeld 
i.   Weissenbi 

Mayei 
y  'and 

s| 

y| 

had  a  wide-sp 

eadreputaUo 

i.   throu 

heodore 

ot'    Tarsus    ;v 

double  convi 
which  was  fo 

1  his  compa 
it   of    Wean 
inded  in  673 

tte 

111 

Farrow, 

to    Egbert    a, 
pupils   the   Cf 
Though    the 

i  teachers  the! 
ie.)    Vork.w 
,1    Adelbert, 
lebrated    Ale 

it  the  beginni 

'ilL.HV 

■;, 

\i..ti.v) 
ch    the 
Idle  age, 

theeducatioi 

of   Call 

oli 

was  never  rei 
duct  a  numbe 

overed,  they 
■  of  educatiot 

tilleont 
al   insti 

08.      At 

present  (1876),  they  have  a  number  of  colleges 
ami  gymnasia  in  the  United  States,  in  Austria, 
Switzerland,  and  several  other  countries. 

BENEKE,  Friedrich  Eduard,  an  ingenious 
German  writer  on  the  art  of  education,  was  born 

at  Berlin,  Febr.  17..  1798. 
and  philosophy  at   the  uni\ 
Berlin,   and    finally  decide 
wholly  to  philosophy  in  ord 

Hestui 

1   t,.  d& 

!,,!' 

lleolo-y 

die  anil 
himself 

!.!,)',  oi 

"i'i'i 

lose  11  ill  V 

at  the  university  of  Berlin  in  1820,  and,  placing 
himself  wholly  upon  the  standpoint  of  empiri- 
cism and  denyingthe  possibility  of  a  priori  cogni- 
tions, at  once  boldly  attacked  the  system  of  Hegel 
whoatthat  time  was  all-powerful.  The  Prus- 
sian government,  in  \XT1,  deprived  him  of  the 
right  of  lecturing  at  thr  university,  because 
as  the  minister  of  public  worship,  Alten- 
stein,  personally  explained  to  him,  a  philosophy 
which  did  not  derive  everything  from  the  ab- 
solute, could  not  lie  recognized  as  a  philosophy 
at  all.  Beneke  removed,  in  L824,  to  the  university 
of  Gottingen,  whence  he  returned,  in  1*27,  to 
Berlin,  where  he  was  appointed  after  the  death 
of  Hegel,  in  L832,  extraordinary  professor  of 
philosophy.  He  suddenly  disappeared,  March  1„ 
L854,  and  a  year  later  his  corpse  was  found  in  the 
canal  at  <  'harlottenlmrg.  It  has  never  been  ascer- 
tained whether  he  committed  suicide,  or  whether 
bis  death  was  caused  by  an  accident  Most  of 
the  numerous  works  of  Beneke  are<  if  a  phili  w  iph- 
ical  character;  as  an  educational  writer,  he 
became  first  known,  in  1835,  by  a  work,  entitled 
Theory  of  Education  and  Instruction  (Erzie- 
hungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre),  which  made  a 
profound  impression  among  teachers  and  friends 
of  education.  The  system  of  education  pro- 
posed by  him  is  based  exclusively  on  psychology, 
and  he  claims  for  it  the  character  of  a  wholly 
empirical  science.  He  found  many  enthusiastic 
admirers,  one  of  whom.  Dressier  (in  llcrgang's 
Realencyclopadie,  i,  p.  264),  says  of  him:  All 
former  achievements  in  the  province  of  pedagogy 


were  surpassed  by  Beneke.  Through  him  the 
education  of  man  has  gained  a  character  which 
was  formerly  unknown  —  certainty  of  success. 
Previous  successes  were  accidental,  but  the  psy- 
chology   of    Beneke    lias    given    lis    a    power    over 


published  in  L836,  and  entitled    Our    Uni- 
ties and   irli.tt  they   need,    attracted  great 


BENEVOLENCE,     good-wi 


ceive  a  careful  cultivation  in  tl 
young.  <  Ihildren,  in  general. 
benevolent.    Their  undevelopei 


their  sensibilities  should,  as  much  as  possible,  lie 
aroused;  they  should  not  be  subjected  to  harsh 
or  inconsiderate  treatment,  and  thej  should  not 
only  read    and    hear    stories    that    awaken    their 

sympathies,  but  should  be  made  to  observe  ob- 


well  as  all  distrust  that  is  not  based  upon  indis- 
putable iaets.  The  quarrels  of  children  may  for 
this  purpose  become  the  means  of  wholesome 
discipline  in  instruction  ;  sinee  the  disputants 
themselves  may  be  made  to  feel  the  desirability 
of  mutual  forbearance,  and  their  associates,  by 
being  brought  in  to  aid  in  reeoneiline  them,  may 
be  impressed  with  the  beautiful  character  of  the 
peace-maker.  In  the  treatment  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals by  children,  thereis  much  occasionfor  this 
kind  of  training  ;  and  the  skillful  teacher  will  not 
fail  to  make  use  of  the  numerous  incidents  of 
school  life  to  impress  tins  virtue  upon  the  child's 
character.     (See  Moral  Education.) 

BENGEL,  Jobann  Albrecbt,  a  celebrated 
(Jen, .an  theologian  and  educatorin  Wurtemberg, 
was  born  in  1687,  and  died  in  1752.  He  is 
chiefly  famous  its  a  theological  writer,  being  well 
known  as  one  of  the  most  prominent  representa- 
tives of  German  pietism,  lie  was,  from  1713  to 
1741,  a  very  successful  teacher  at  a  theological 
seminary  at  Denkendorf,  and  while  there  intro- 
duced many  educational  reforms.  The  course  of 
studies  which  he  drew  up  for  his  school,  in  con- 
cert with  his  colleagues,  attracted  great  attention. 
From  an  educational  point  of  view,  his  writings 
are  valuable  as  illustrating  the  peculiar  position 
which  pietism  occupies  in  the  history  of  German 


82 


BENTLEY 


pedagogy.  His  life  was  written  by  his  son-in- 
law.  Oh.  Burk.  —  See  also  Palmer,  Evangelische 
PadagogiJc. 

BENTLEY,  Richard,  considered  the  best 
classical  scholar  England  lias  ever  produced,  was 
born  at  Oulton,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1662,  and 
died  at  Cambridge  in  1742.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge  University,  but  subsequently,  while 
tutor  of  the  son  of  Dr.  otillingneet,  he  pursued 
his  classical  studies  at  Oxford.  His  most  cele- 
brated work  was  his  Dissertation  on  the  Epistles 
of  Phalaris,m  which,  in  controversy  with  the 
most  eminent  scholars  and  literary  men  of  bis 
time,  he  proved  that  the  h'/>is//rx  were  spurious. 
■■This  was.  "says  Holland,  "the  first  great  literary 
war  in  England;"  arid  Bentley  showed  such  pro- 
found scholarship,  acute  criticism,  and  masterly 
logic,  that  be  not  only  vanquished  his  opponents, 
but  achieved  for  himself  a  reputation  throughout 
Europe.  In  1700,  he  was  appointed  Master  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  in  which  he  con- 
tinued till  Ms  death  :  but  his  arrogance  and  rapaci- 
ty involved  him  in  the  most  bitter  and  protracted 
quarrels  and  lawsuits,  and  at  one  time  came  near 
ignominiously  depriving  him  of  his  position.  He 
published  critical  editions  of  many  classical 
authors,  of  great  merit  and  value,  among  which 
his  Horace  was  the  most  elaborate  and  the  most 
popular.  His  edition  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost 
(1732)  was,  however,  quite  unworthy  of  his  fame. 
His  edition  of  Homer  he  did  not  live  to  complete. 

Bentlej  didamost  valuable  service  not  only  to 
classical  scholarship,  but  to  historical  criticism, 
the  latter  of  which  he  established  on  a  new  basis. 
While  as  an  official  he  was  arbitrary,  exacting, 
and  severe,  in  private  life  he  was  courteous  and 
amiable.  —  See  T.  H.  .Monk,  Life  of  Bentiexj 
(1830);  Hartley  Coleridge,  Lives  of  'Northern 

Worthies  [edited  by  his  brother.  London,  L852); 
1>f.  QtriNCEY,  Essays  on  Philosophical  Writers, 
vol.  n.  (Boston,  1854 

BEREA  COLLEGE,  at  Berea,  Ky.,  was 
founded  in  1858.  [t  supplies  the  means  of  edu- 
cation to  students,  both  white  and  colored.male 
and  female.  In  1875.  it  had  14  instructors  and 
271  students;  of  the  latter.  157  were  males  and 

I  I  I  females  ;  12(5  white,  and  145  colored.  ( >f  the 
colored  students.  (J7  were  females.  It  includes  a 
preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department.  All 
the  female  students  are  included  in  a  ladies'  de- 
partment, under  the  special  supervision  of  a  lady 
principal.  No  separate  course  of  study  is  ar- 
ranged for  females,  but  both  sexes  recite  together 
whenever  their  studies  are  the  same.  There  is 
also  a  normal  department  with  a  special  course 

for   teachers;   also  a  commercial  course.    The 

college   is  well  sup]. lied   with   apparatus  and  has 

a  library  of  nearly  2,000  volumes.    The  college 

buildiii'is  are  spacious  and  elegant,  particularly 
the  Ladies'  Hall,  erected  in  L873.  Rev.  E.  li. 
Fairchild  (1875)  is  the  president  of  the  institu- 
tion.  The  annual  tuition  fee  is  $10. 

BERNHARDI,  August  Ferdinand,  one 
of  the  most  eminent  schoolmen  of  Prussia  in  the 
beginning   of    this    century,    was   born    in    1769, 

in   Berlin,   and  died  m    1820.      lie   became  a 


BIBLE 


teacher  in  the  Friedrich  Werder  Oi/r, 
Berlin,  in  1791,  and  director-  of  the  same  in- 
stitution in  1808.  In  the  same  year,  he  gave 
Pestalozzi's  method  of  teaching  arithmetic  a  trial. 
enlarged  the  exercises,  and  finally  introduced 
it  into  his  school.  His  success  as  director  of 
the  gymnasium  was  remarkable,  the  number  of 


for  the  publication  of  large  w< 
his  essays  and  lectures  have  bet 
the  title  of  A  view  of  the  Or 
Learned  Schools.  The  progi 
him  in  1809, 1810,and  1811,g 


principles  of  method,  and  on  the  Firsiprim  iples 
of  discipline.  In  later  essays,  published  from 
1814  to  1816,  he  gave  a  fuller  exposition  of  the 
proper  course  of  studies  for  a  gymnasium;  and 
the  ideas  which  he  developed  in  regard  to  this 
subject,  haw  gained  for  him  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  best  writers  on  the  German 
gymnasia. 

BETHANY  COLLEGE,  at  Bethany,  W. 
Va..  was  established  in  1841  by  the  Rev.  Alex- 
ander Campbell,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Bap- 
tists, called  Disciples.  This  institution  had.  in 
1873,  a  corps  of  9  instructors,  and  L23  students 
in  the  collegiate  department.  Its  productive 
funds  amount  to  $60,000,  and  the  value  of  the 
college  property,  —  grounds,  buildings,  etc..  is 
estimated  at  $250,000.  The  president  of  the 
college  is  (1876)  W.  lv.  Pendleton. 

BETHEL  COLLEGE,  at  Russelville.  Ky., 
was  founded  by  the  Bethel  Baptist  Association 
of  South-western  Kentucky,  in  L849,  as  a  high 
school;  and.  in  1856,  it  was  chartered  as  a  col- 
lege. Its  successive  presidents  have  been  B.  T. 
Bfewitt  to  1861  ;  Rev.  Geo.  Hunt,  from  1863  to 
1864;  Prof.  J.  W.  Rust,  from  L864  to  1868; 
Noah  K.  Davis,  from  1868  to  1873.  The  dis- 
cipline of  the  college  is  now  under  the  direction 
of  Ijeslie  Waggener.  as  chairman  of  the  faculty. 
In  the  winter  of  1861 — 2,  the  college  buildings 
were  used  as  a  hospital  by  the  Confederate  forces 
lying  at  Bowling  Green.  The  endowment  funis 
amount  (1875)  to  $85,000,  besides  which  it,  has 
a  beneficiary  fund  of  about  $8,000,  and  its  real 
estate,  iii  addition  to  the  college  buildings  and 
grounds,  is  valued  at  $85,000.  It  contains 
schools  of  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  natural 
science,  English,  mental  science,  biblical  knowl- 
■!.;  ml  thecl:;;v,in  which  in  18''4— *  th  k 
were  about  350  students;  of  whom  97  were  in 
the  collegiate  department.  The  school  of  English 
is  very  complete,  affording  to  its  students  a 
knowledge  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  language,  as  a 
basis  for  a  critical  knowledge  of  KnglMi  gram- 
mar and  literature.  The  tuition  fee  is  $60  per 
annum. 

BIBLE  (<  Jr.  Si.Ma,  books),  the  sacred  scrip- 
tures of  the  Christians.  All  churches  which 
recognize  Christ  as  their  founder,  whatever  may 
be  their  denomination,  agree  in   regarding  the 


Bible  as  the  divinely  inspired  book  which  eon- 
tains  the  tenets  of  ( 'hristian  belief  and  of  Chris- 
tian ethics.  TheBible  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
called  the  01,1  and  the  New  Testament.  The 
former  is  regarded  as  I  writ,  not  only  by 
Christians,  but  also  by  the  Jews.  There  is  not 
an  entire  agreement  in  regard  to  the  number  of 
books  constituting  the  Old  Testament.  Several 
books  are  regarded  by  tin-  Catholic  Church  as 
belonging  to,  and  partaking  of,  the  inspired 
character  of  the  Scriptures,  which  Protestants 
generally    regard   as  a   class  of    works    highly 


l.-etl 


but 


of  di 


ori-in 


12*20.  forbade  laymen  to  read  the  Bible  in  the 
vernacular  language  ;  and.  in  modern  times,  the 
efforts  of  the  Bible  societies  have  been  repeatedly 
condemned  by  the  popes.  In  Protestant  coun- 
tries, the  reading  of  the  Bible  has  been  a  very 
prominent  agent  in  the  development  of  public 
education.  The  Bible  having  become,  through 
Luther  and  other  Reformers  of  the  sixteenth 
centurjr.the  principal  book  for  the  church  and  the 
home-circle,  the  instruction  of  children  in  this 
book  continued  for  a  long  time  to  be  the  chief 
object  of  popular  education.  Children  were 
taught  to  read  in  order  that  they  might  be  able 


Abyssinian 
■  books  ac- 
itestauts.  a 
Vow  Testa- 


same  in  the  <  latholic  <  !hurc 
churches  :  but  one  I  hristian  I 
Church,  recognizes,  in  additii 
eepted  by  both  Catholics  i 
number  of  others  as  a  part 
ment. 

Catholics  and  Protestants,  though  accepting  the 
same  books  as  the  sources  of  divine  truth,  differ 
widely  in  the  interpretation  of  their  contents. 
Most 'of  the  biblical  Protestants  regard  the  Bible 
as  the  only  source  of  Christian  faith,  and  main- 
tain that,  whatever  differences  of  opinion  may 
exist  in  regard  to  some  particular  doctrines, 
the  great  fundamental  truths  of  •  !hristianity  are 
set  forth  in  it  so  clearly,  as  to  supersede  fully 
the  need  of  any  other  standard  of  faith.  The 
Catholic-  Church,  on  the  other  hand,  holds  that 
the  Bible  was  not  given  by  God  to  man  to  be  the 
only  guide  for  the  formation  of  his  religions  be- 
lief, but  that,  for  that  purpose,  an  infallible 
church  was  instituted,  whose  office  it  is  to  ex- 
plain to  the  faithful  the  true  meaning  of  the 
Bible. 

From  the  different  position  which  these  two 
large  denominations  of  Christians  assume  in  re- 
gard to  the  Bible,  it  follows  that  they  must  teach 
a  different  way  of  using  it.  Thus, the  Protestant 
churches  consider  it  a  matter  of  prime  import- 
ance that  every  child  should  become  acquainted 
with  the  Bible  as  the  only  infallible  source  of  the 
pure  word  of  God,  and  should  learn,  as  soon  as 
possible,  to  read  and  understand  it;  while  the 
Catholic  Church  enjoins  upon  its  members  to 
keep  constantly  in  mind,  in  reading  the  Bible, 
that  only  the  infallible  church  possesses  the  key 
to  its  true  meaning.  The  Protestant  churches 
earnestly  desire  that  the  Bible  should  be  placed  m 
the  bauds  of  every  Christian:  and  they  have, 
therefore,  founded  in  all  Protestant  countries 
Bible  Societies,  designed  to  carry  out  this  object, 
and  thus  have  already  fully  succeeded  in  mak- 
ing the  Bible  the  most  widely  circulated  book  in 
the  world.  The  Catholic  Church  prefers  the  use 
of  annotated  Bibles,  or  of  selections  from  the 
Bible,  to  that  of  the  Scriptures  without  note  and 
comment.  When,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the 
Albigenses  translated  the  Bible  into  their  ver- 
nacular languages,  and  referred  their  members  to 
the  text  of  the  Bible  as  contradicting  the  teach- 
ings of  the  church,  the  synod   of  Toulouse,  in 


tures.  in  process  of  time,  the  relation  of  Bible 
reading  to  other  branches  of  education  became 
greatly  modified;  but.  wherever  public  schools 
still  have  a  distinctively  Protestant  eharaeter.  the 
reading  of  the  Bible  is  retained  as  a  special 
branch  of  instruction.  Protestant  educators  dif- 
fer in  regard   to  the  question,  whether  it   is  pief- 


ed   bv 


ind,  educators  have  gsnerally 
ding  to  teachers  not  to  re- 
ile  to  be  lead  consecutively 
to  leave  out  those  portions 
ppropriate  or  too  difficult  for 


agreed  in  r. 
quire  the  e 
by  the  pupi 
which  are  ei 
children. 

The  Catholic  Church  is  opposed  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Bible  without  i  note  or  comment 
into  schools,  and  substitutes  for  it  the  use  oi  bib- 
lical histories  and  selections  from  the  Bible. 
Recent  Catholic  works  on  education  express  the 
wish,  that  to  the  reading  of  suitable  .selections 
from  the  Bible  greater  prominence  should  be 
given  than  has  heretofore  been  the  case.  See 
Rolpds  &  Pfister,  Real-Snoyclopadie  des  l-.'r- 
ziehungs-  und  VkterricTUswesens  nach  katho- 
lischen  Principien,  art.  Bibel 

Bible  Question.-  In  the  United  States, the  pub- 
lic schools  are  of  an  undenominational  character, 
Vicing  intended  to  receive  children  of  all  kinds  of 
religious  belief  or  unbelief.  The  quest  ion  whether 
the  reading  of  the  Bible  is  to  be  retained  in 
the  public  schools,  has  been  and  still  is  the  sub- 
ject of  animated  discussion  and  agitation.  The 
decision  of  this  question  is  mostly  left  to  the 
local  boards  of  education,  which  may  prescribe, 
allow,  or  forbid  the  reading  of  the  Bible.  The 
legislation  of  several  of  the  states  of  the  Union  pro- 
vides, however,  that  no  ordinance  shall  be  passed 
by  any  local  board  of  education  forbidding  the 
use  of  the  Bible.  The  majority  of  the  Protes- 
tant churches  still  favor  the  reading  of  the 
Bible,  though  some  of  the  most  prominent  cler- 
gymen have,  of  late,  taken  the  ground  that  it 
would  be  unjust  to  request  the  children  of  (  ath- 
olics,  Jews,  or  Non-Christians  to  take  part  in  re- 


si 


BIBLE  HISTORY 


ligious  exercises  to  which  their  parents  object. 
The  <  'atholics  ami  .lews,  together  with  all  the  op- 
ponentsof  <  'hristianity,  generally  demand  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  llilile  from  the  schools.  In  the 
city  of  Cincinnati,  a  resolution  by  the  board  of 
education  forbidding  the  reading  of  the  Bible  in 
the  public  schools,  led,  in  L869,  to  a  legal  contest 
which  lasted  four  years.  The  superior  court  of 
Cincinnati,  in  L870,  decided  against  the  board  of 
education;  but  the  supreme  court  of  Ohio,  in 
June  L873,  reversed  this  judgment,  and  sus- 
tained the  Cincinnati  board  of  education.  The 
school  board  of  Chicago,  in  L875,  followed  the 
example  of  Cincinnati,  and  forbade  the  reading 
of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools.  The  question 
has  also  In  on  vehemently  agitated  in  the  city  of 
New  York. — See  The  Bible  in  the  Public  Schools; 
Arguments  in  the  cose  of  John  1>.  Minor  et  al. 
versus  the  Board  of  Education  of  the  Oily  of 
C'iii'-iiiiiiili  i-l  ill.  [Cincinnati,  1*70);  Boci-.m;, 
History  of  the  Public  School  Society  (N.  Y.. 
L870);  Bobsb,  Public  Education  in  the  City  of 
New  York  (New  York,  L869  :  T.  II.  Huxley, 
The  School  Boards,  in  Critiques  and  Addresses 

1 1 Ion,  and  N.  Y.,  L873);  Gbimkb,   Use  of  the 

Bible  in  Common  Education,  in  Amer.  Annals 
of  Education,  vol.  in.  (Is:::;),  and  The  Bible  as 
,i  <'/<<.<.<  11,,,,/,:  in  .[,/,/rrsses  (1831.) 

BIBLE  HISTORY,  or  Biblical  History. 
The  connected  history  of  the  events  narrated  in 
the  Bible  is  in  many  schools,  both  Prote3tant  and 
Catholic,  a  part  of  the  prescribed  religious  in- 
struction. The  method  of  teaching  it  greatly 
varies  according  to  the  age  of  the  scholars. 
\\  hile  children  of  the  primary  grade  are  taught 
only  the  most   notable  events  of  sacred  history. 

in  guage  adapted  to  their  age.  more  advanced 

studeiitsare  introduced  into  a  full  understanding 
of  the  Bible.  In  the  compilation  of  text-books 
for  this  study,  the  authors  have  sometimes 
endeavored  togive  the  whole  narrative  asmuch 
as  possible  in  the  words  of  the  Bible,  so  as  to 
make  the  book,  in  fact,  an  abridgment  of  the 
Bible.  Others  have  deemed  it  better  to  pay  less 
attention  to  retaining  the  words  of  the  Bible, 
and  to  look,  in  the  first  place, to  making  the  sub- 
ject as  interesting,  attractive,  and  intelligible  to 
children  as  possible.  <  Jermany,  where  Biblical 
history  [Biblische  Oeschichte)  is  generally  adop- 
ted as  a  part  of  the  course  of  "instruction  in 
public  schools  of  various  grades,  has  a  very  ex- 
tensive literature  on  the  .subject,  including  many 
manuals  for  teachers.  Of  scientific  theology, 
Bible  history  forms  an  essential  part,  and  is  di- 
vided, like  the  Bible  itself,  into  two  sections,  the 
history  of  the  Old,  and  the  history  of  the  Xew 
Testament.  It  forms  the  connecting  link  between 
exegetical  and  historical  theology,  explaining,  on 
the  one  hand,  the  contents  of  the  Bible,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  treating  and  elucidating  them 
the  same  as  any  other  historical  subject. 

Bible  history  may  also  be  viewed  as  a  history 
of  the  vi  ilume  containing  the  sacred  writings  of 
the  Christian  church  In  this  sense,  it  treats  of 
s  composing  the 
the  canon.     The 


the  origin  of  the  several 
Bible,  and  of  their  collection  i 


BLACKBOARD 

works  treating  of  this  subject  are  generally  en- 
titled Iiitriiiln,  linns  In  the  Bible;  but  a  number 
ol    prominent  theologians,  rejecting  this   title  as 


of  this  class  an  ;  Eta  -.  TM  <■  icJii  U  der  heil 
Schriften  des  N.  T.  (1853,  3d,  edit.  1860);  Gue- 
ricke,  Gesammtgeschichte  des  X.  T.  I  Leip.,1854); 
Haneberg,  Versuch  einer  Geschichle  der  bibli- 
se/i,  ,i  Offenbarung  (Ratisbon,  L850). 

BIRCH,  as 
rods  or  twigs  w. 
fiiction  of  corp 


'  ot     the  tree  ft'Olll  which 

erly  obtained  for  the  in- 
shment,  is  often  used  a,- 
denoting  this  species  of  punishment  :  and  tin- 
tree  is  frequently  referred  to  in  connection  with 
school-keeping  in  the  olden  time.  Shakespeare 
speaks  of  the  "threatening  twigs  of  lurch";  and 
Shenstone,  in  The  Schoolmislnss,  thus  refers 
to  the  tree  and  its  connection  with  school-man- 
agement : 


"Ami  all  ii 
Which  Lei 
Wliilnm  a  ■ 
Tl gh  to. 


tree, 


stew, 


■  Jieat'loi 
ur  grew. 


Doubtless,  the  toughness  and  elasticity  of  the 
twigs  of  the  birch  made  them,  before  the  intro- 
duction of  the  rattan.  Very  useful  implements 
for  the  purpose  of  school  chastisement.  (See 
Corporal  1  'cnishment.J 

BLACKBOARD,  an  important  piece  of 
school  apparatus  now  in  use  in  all  classes  and 
grades  of  schools.  It  is  generally  constructed  of 
wood,  and  is  cither  attached  to  the  wall  of  the 
room,  or  made  to  stand  on  an  easel  or  revolve  in 
a  frame.  Instead  of  blackboards,  wall  slates  are 
now  very  frequently  used,  which,  although  much 
more  expensive,  are  to  be  preferred  on  account 
of  their  durability.  Sometimes,  a  portion  of  the 
wall  itself  is  painted  black,  or  covered  with 
liquid  slating,  lot  this  purpose;  and  at  the  pres- 
ent time  a  kind  of  slated  cloth  is  manufactured, 
which  being  attached  to  the  wall  answers  every 
purpose  of  a  blackboard. 

The  blackboard  for  the  use  of  the  teacher  in 
giving  his  instruction  or  explanations  to  the 
whole  school  or  class,  should,  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience, be  placed  near  his  desk  and  in  front  of 
the  pupils.  It  is  a  great  advantage  also  to  have 
sufficient  blackboard  surface  to  admit  of  its  use 
by  all  the  pupils  of  a  class,  or  by  sections  of  it. 
This  is  especially  desirable  in  higher  instruction; 
but  even  in  elementary  district  schools  will  be 
found  to  be  quite  desirable.  Some  of  the  pupils 
of  a  school  can  be  employed  in  writing,  drawing, 
or  working  out  arithmetical  problems  on  the 
blackboards,  while  others  are  engaged  in  oral  rec- 
itation. There  is  scarcely  any  branch  of  in- 
struction, or  any  kind  of  teaching,  from  the  ob- 
ject lesson  of  the  primary  school  to  the  lecture 
of  the  college  professor,  in  which  the  use  of  the 
blackboard  is  not  found  to  be  almost  indispen- 


BLAi  !KBURN  UNIVERSITY 

sable.  In  teaching  mathematics,  it  has  an  espe- 
cial value.  Scarcely  a  teacher,  at  the  preseni 
day.  in  t lie  most  remote  country  school  bouse, 
would  think  i if  teaching  arithmetic  without  a 
blackboard.  But  it  is  a  most  important  aid 
aNo   in  teaching    writing,  drawing,   geography, 


so  that  they  may  be  lifted  out  of  the  pauper  class, 

and  be  enabled  to  earn  a  respectable  livelib 1. 

There   is  a   great  diversity  in   the  number  of 


mad,'  ver 
larly  whei 
In  some  st 


useful   in  teaching 
this  subject    may  I 


o  300 ;  and  in  Egypt,  I  to  200.  In 
ss,  the  number  of  males  among  the 
ids  that  of  the  females;  and.  in  the 
ites  about  one  half  of  the  blind  are 
ars  of  age.  The  proportion  of  those 
to  those  who  become  so  after  birth  is 


effc 


mathematics  Mfli  a-  lojic  meiapnv-'.  -.  ;,,  m  ,,l 
and  moral  philosophy,  etc.  By  this  means  the 
divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  subject,  with 
their  exact  logical  relations,  arc  pres  inte  1  to  the 
mind  through  the  rye.  and  a  much  stronger, 
clearer  and  more  durahlc  impression  i.s  thus 
made,  for  an  excellent  example  of  this  kin  1 
of  teaching,  see  Mark  Bopkiss,  An  OvMne 
Study  of  Man  (New  York.  L876).  See  also 
W.  A.  A.lcott,  Slate  and  Blackboard  Ecercises; 
Wickersham,  School  Economy  (Philadelphia, 
L868). 

BLACKBURN  UNIVERSITY,  at  (  larlin- 
villc.  III.,  was  organized  in  L867,  by  the  Presby- 
terians. It  has  a  preparatory,  a  collegiate,  an 
eclectic,  a  scientific,  and  a  theological  course,  to 
which  both  sexes  are  admitted  on  equal  terms, 
and  receive  the  same  honorary  degrees  on  the 
completion  of  the  course  pursued.  There  were, 
in  1873,  257  students,  of  whom  111  belonged  to 
the  preparatory  and  1  16  to  the  e  illegiate  depart- 
ment; and  the  corps  of  instructors  numbered  13, 
exclusive  of  1  endowed  professorships.  The  value 
of  its  grounds,  buildings,  etc.  is  S'.IO.IKIO  :  and  its 
productive  endowment  $90,000.  The  president 
of  the  institution  is  (1876)  Rev.  J.  W.  Barby, 
D.I>.     The  annual  tuition  fee  is  $25. 

BLIND,  Education  of  the.  The  blind 
constitute,  in  every  country,  a  numerous  class  of 
afflicted  person-  tor  whom  </■■  >■/,;/  /„..',•■<■  i,uh  is 
needed.  Blindness,  or  los.-  oi  - i - 1 1 1 .  is  either  con- 
genital, or  is  caused  by  accident  or  di  ea  e  oc 
curring  after  birth.  The  statistics  of  different 
countries  show  that  the  number  of  blind  persons 
in  all  ages  has  been  quite  large  ;  and.  in  modern 
times,  this  has  led  to  considerable  effort  with  the 
view  to  afford  to  these  unfortunates  the  means 
of  education,  not  only  for  their  mental  improve- 
ment, hit  to  train  them  to  independent  support. 


led  against   the   Moslem! 


eminent,  and  afterward  became  the  U,„i„l  i„ali- 
tution  for  th,  Blind.  I  le  subsequently  founded 
institutions  for  the  blind  at  St.  Petersburg  and 
at  Berlin.  About  the  same  time,  similar  insti- 
tutions were  established  in  England  and  Scot- 
land ;  and.  after  the  example  of  that  at  Berlin, 
in  many  of  the  cities  of  Germany.  There  are 
now  16  public  institutions  for  the' blind  in  Eng- 
land, the  oldest  of  which  is  the  School  for  the 
Blind,  in  Liverpool,  founded  in  1791  :  4  in  Scot- 
land, of  which  the  Asylum  for  Industrious 
/.'//»</.  in  Edinburgh,  was  founded  in  I  7!U  :  and 
4  in  Ireland,  the  oldest  being  the  Richmond 
X„tin„„l  InsHluti,,,,,  in  Dublin,  founded  in  l-lli. 


has  13  schools  for  the  blind,  besides  the  Hiis/tice 
des  Quinze -Vingts.  There  are  between  thirty 
and  forty  institutions  for  the  blind  in  Germany, 
of  which  the  oldest  is  that  commenced  at  Berlin, 
in  1806,  by  llaiiy.  The  Netherlands.  Belgium, 
and   Switzerland    have  .similar  institutions.     In 


the  Netherlands,  they  are  supported  entirely  by 
voluntary  subscription.  In  Belgium,  an  asylum  for 
the  blind  is  said  to  have  been  founded  at  Bruges 
in  1305;  but  the  first  school  was  opened  at  Brus- 
sels in  1833.  In  Spain,  there  are  two  institutions 
for  the  blind,  one  at  Madrid,  and  the  other  at 
Barcelona.  There  are  also  institutions  of  the 
kind  in  Italy,  and  a  school  for  tin-  instruction  of 
the  blind  at  Bio  Janeiro,  commenced  in  1854. 
The  first  institution  for  the  blind  in  the  United 


States — the  Perkins  Institution  at  Boston,  was 
chartered  in  1829,  but  not  opened  till  August, 
1832.  It  was  named  after  Col.  Thomas  H. 
Perkins,  who  gave  his  mansion  for  its  accom- 
modation. It  was  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Samuel  (J.  Howe  until  his  death  in  L876.  The 
New  York  Institution  for  the  Blind  was  opened 
.March  15.,  1832.  The  foil,  .wing  table  of  statis- 
tics has  been  compiled  from  the  Report  of  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Bducation  for  1*7.1. 


Institutions  for  the  Blind  in  the  United  States. 

g 

us 

,|„ 

A.-d 

NAME. 

LOCATION 

if 

1  SIJIJ 

Control 
State 

i-ii. 

40 

2 

J  If 
-Is. I 

Inst,  for  Deaf  anil  Dumb,  ami  Blind. 

Talladoira,  Ala...  . 

fio.oiio 

Inst,  tor  Edticatii.il  of  the  Blind   .  - .  Little  Bock,  Ark.. . 

1859 

107 

13 

7,703 

30,1 

Inst,  for  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Blind    Oakland,  Cal 

84 

3 

36,001 

B  in.  oi  in 

Georgia  Academy  fur  the  Blind          Mien.  (la. 

1  B52 

Corporation. 

144 

11 

13,1 

75, 1 

Inst,  for  the  Education  of  the  Blind,  .In.  k-..iiyilh-,  Ill 

500 

29 

31.110(1 

11,(1,000 

ln-t.  h.r  the  Education  of  the  Blind     Indianapolis  In,! 

521 

25 

32,601 

525,000 

1863 

State  . 

317 

2S 

26,001 

5110.(100 

65 

11 

9,001 

10,0011 

358 

20 

19,380 

lllO.DIIO 

In-'t.  t..r  tin-  Kdu.ati t  the  Blind     Baton  Boinr.'.  La... 

1-71 

63 

6 

8,001 

250,000 

173 

16 

22,(1(1(1 

255, ) 

Inst.' for  Colored  Blind  and  Deaf-M.  Baltimore.Md 

1-7'.' 

i  ol  poration. 

18 

7 

1(1,000 

211,0011 

Perkins  Inst,  and  Mass.  Asylum           Bo-t"ii.  Ma- 

. ,-]  poration 

48 

30,000 

354,716 

ins),  for  Ileal  and  liuuil.,  aii.l  Blind    I'lint.  Mel,  . 

1-,:; 

Trustees 

- 



51,872 

375,315 

Inst,  for  Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Blind    Faribault,  Minn 

1  366 

32 

4 

6,000 

25,000 

275 

111,0111) 

10,000 

33H 

23 

21,001 

200,001) 

29 

3 

25,000 

70,0011 

X.  V.  In-lit  .it  i.  >n  tor  tlie  Blind              \.-\i  York.  \.  y. 

i  lot  poration. 

1,172 

oo 

62,501 

324,51111 

Inlt'to'   i','li„l!t..''i'iol"!h''  l.luil \'  .dmul'il^o' 

1837 

State 

loll 

6 

50 

40,0110 

60,785 

50,000 

5011,01)1) 

12 

3 

'-', 

Inst  for  lnstiic  ti t  the  Blind         Philadelphia,   Pa 

oi  poration. 

885 

03 

39,000 

201 ,000 

TeraSLe8fhono1  KoTo'ind'''''''  Na^'iilc^Tonn  '  ' 

175 

1 

15,000 

60,000 

so,  1100 

Texas  lu-titut.-tor  the  Bond      '           \ustin,  Tex.....".'. 

L856 

10 

10,650 

45,01)0 

Inst,  ioi  DeafandD b ,  and  Blind    Staunton,Va     ... 

1S3!)  - 

State.] , 

208 

5 

10,1101) 

175,011(1 

In-t.  for  [i.at  and  liuuil..  and  B.liud    Romney,  W.  Va. .  . 

1870 

State.... 

29 

3 

25  000 

70.1)1(0 

h-i,  for  Education  ol  the  Blind  . 

Jaue-Mllc,  Wis. 

1850 

State 

230 

21 

83,000 

85,000 

From  the  above  table  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
are  29  institutions,  either  exclusively  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  blind,  or  for  that  of  the  blind  and  the 
deaf  and  dumb ;  and  that,  since  1*32.  when  the 
New  York  and  Boston  institutions  went  into 
operation,  about   7,500   blind   persons   have  re- 


thc  branches  which  are  usually  taught,  in  the 
common  and  high  schools,  to  the  seeing;  the  prin- 
cipal difference  being  in  the  apparatus  and  meth- 
ods of  teaching  employed.  Instead  of  the  black- 
board, wall-maps,  slate  and  pencil,  and  pen  and 
ink.  there  are  employed  topographical  maps,  em- 
bossed books,  slates  with  movable  type  to  repre- 


cal 


in   grounds,  buili linos,  etc..  hclonoiii".  to  ilicm.  i- 

re  than  84,500,000.     It  is  an  interesting  fact 

also  that  22  of   these   establishments  are    purely 
state  institutions. 

Methods  of  Instruction.— An   institution  for 


as  blindness  renders  necessary.     In  the  literary 

department,  the  course  of  instruction   includes 


system.— also  for  the  Now   York  system  of  alpha- 
betic writing  and  musical  notation. 

The  first  efforts  to  instruct  the  blind  found 
expression  in  an  attempt  to  teach  them  how  to 
read  by  means  of  the  lingers.  Many  alphabets 
in  relief  have  been  devised,  but  all  may  be  in- 
eluded  in  two  classes:  (1)  Those  composed  of 
lines,  forming  the  ordinary  capital  or  small  let- 
ter- in  their  original  form,  or  in  some  modifica- 
tion i if  it  ;  (2)  Those  in  which  the  letters  are 
formed  of  raised  points,  or  dots,  in  no  respect 
resembling  the  ordinary  letters,  and  called  the 
point  alphabet.     These  can  be  both  printed  and 


written  in  a  tangible  form.  The  use  of  line  let- 
ter text-books  in"  classes  is  very  limited,  from  the 
fact  that  a  classification  according  to  reading 
ability  differs  entirely  from  that  based  upon 
mental  capacity  and  attainments.  For  this 
reason,  the  instruction  in  each  of  the  depart- 
ments is  chiefly  oral. 

The  instruction  of  the  blind  in  music  is  of 
paramount  importance.  It  develops  and  refines 
ih/ taste,  promotes  general  culture,  affords  con- 
stant and  inexhaustible  enjoyment,  as  well  as 
the  means  of  respectable  support.  The  musical 
course  of  instruction  comprises  voice  lessons, 
part  and  chorus  singing,  lessons  and  practice  in 
piano  and  organ  playing,  and  a  thorough  course 
of  teaching  and  training  in  the  tuning  of  pianos. 
Wind  organists,  t.'tiehets  of  the  piano,  and  piano- 
tuners  may  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  country. 
(  toe  of  the  best  tuners  employed  by  Steinway  & 
Sons,  the  celebrated  pianoforte  makers  of  Xew 
York,  is  totally  blind.  Heretofore,  this  depart- 
nient  of  instruction  has  been  exclusively  oral; 
but  there  is  now  in  press  a  piano  instruction 
book,  in  the  New  York-  point  system  of  musical 
notation,  by  which  the  blind  pupil  may  learn  by 
finger-reading  from  the  printed  or  written  page. 

The  importance  of  mechanical  training,  in 
comparison  with  other  branches  of  instruction, 
in  the  education  of  the  blind,  is  a  matter  of  vital 
interest.  Some  are  of  opinion  that  instruction 
in  trades  is  of  the  first  importance;  others  give 
it  simplv  a  place  co-ordinate  with  other  depart- 
ments of  teaching:  while  still  others  attach  the 
chief  importance  to  such  branches  as  leal  to 
those  employments  in  which  skille  1  manual  oper- 
ations are  required.  The  latter  position  cannot 
lie  maintained,  since  in  all  such  operations  the 
guidance  of  the  eye  is  more  or  less  essential  to 
perfection  and  dexterity  of  manipulation;  from 
which  fact  it  is  obvious  that  purely  mechanical 
pursuits  are  not  necessarily  the  best  adapted  to 
those  who  are  deprived  of  sight.  This  being  so, 
it  is  a  great  mistake  to  rest  the  education  of  the 
young  blind,  and  the  prospects  of  their  future 
usefulness  and  welfare,  exclusively  upon  such 
employments.  The  true  plan  is  to  give  manual 
pursuits  such  a  place  in  the  scheme  of  education 
as  is  required  by  the  conditions  which  blindness 
imposes.  The  training  of  the  young  blind  in 
one  or  more  industrial  occupations  should  be 
rigidly  enforced,  not  because  such  employments 
furnish  the  only,  the  best,  or  the  most  available 
means  of  future  support,  but  because  such  train- 
ing and  discipline  of  the  head  and  the  hand  in 
work  are  necessary  to  the  proper  education  of 
every  pupil.  Thus,  manual  training  is  made  the 
means  to  an  end,  but  not  the  end  itself.  Male 
pupils  are  taught  to  make  brooms,  mats,  mat- 
tresses, and  brushes;  to  put  cane  bottoms  into 
chairs:  and  to  perform  other  handicraft  labors. 
Female  pupils  are  taught  to  sew.  knit,  and  cro- 
chet, to  use  the  sewing  and  knitting  machine, 
and  to  work  a  great  variety  of  articles  useful 
and  ornamental. 

<  locum in  ml  ,tml  DixcijiUne. — From  necessity, 
the  pupils  board  and  lodge  at  the  institution  ; 


and.  consequently,  the  government  is  twofold : 

(1)  that  of  a  large  and  well  ordered  family  ;  and 

(2)  that  of  a  thoroughly  organized  school.  The 
rules  are  such  only  as  are  necessary  to  secure  the 
easy  and  effective  performance  of  the  many  kinds 
of  work  which  are  carried  on  in  the  different 


blind  in  this  country,  except  those  of  Boston 
and  Philadelphia.  The  institutions  arc  not  de- 
nominational, each  pupil  being  permitted  to  at- 
tend the  particular  church  and  Sunday  school 
which  are  chosen  by  parents,  guardians,  or 
friends.  Discipline  is  maintained  in  the  Xew 
York.  Boston,  and  some  other  schools,  entirely 
by  moral  means,  no  recourse  being  ever  had  to 
corporal  punishment. 

Systems  of  Printing  and  Notation. — Tangible 
letters  were  first  constructed  in  the  18th  cent- 
ury; afterward,  the  noted  blind  pianist.  Theresa 
von    Paradis,   of    Vienna,    represented    musical 


I"-"' 


iffciv  I 


tor  the  best   alpnabel    and    mi 

for  the  blind.  This  alphabet 
Roman  capitals  simplified,  an 
same  as  that  used  formerly  in 
stenographic  alphabet,  inventei 
Bristol,  England,  is  used  in  so 
of  that  country.  A  few  year, 
alphabet  was  invented  by  Mr.  F 
duced  into  some  of  the   Engli 

sisted  of  lines,  was  invented  by  Mr.  Moon.  This 
alphabet  has  been  used  in  many  schools.  The  al- 
phabet   forming   the   system  of   tangible   point- 


n  r 


m. 


SeeReportsqf  U.S.  Commissioner  of  Education 

for  1ST'.'.  -,"..'  and  1  ;  Proceedings  of  the  Asso- 
ciation  of  American   Instructors   of  the  Blind 

(W.  B.  Wait,  for.  Sec):  also  the  publications 
of  the  American  Bible  Society. anil  of  the  Ameri- 
can Printing-House  for  the  Blind. 


KUx'HMAW 


BLOCHMANN,  Karl  Justus,  an  emit 
German  educator  and  pupil  of  Pestalozzi, 
founder  and  for  many  years  the  director  i 
celebrated  educational  institute,  called  after 
Blochmann'sch  s  /■  tit,  was  bom  in  L786, 
died  in  L855.  He  studied,  from  L805  to  1 
at  the  university  of  Leipsic,  theology  and  p 
gogy,  and  at  the  same  time  endeavored  to 
quire  a  practical  experience  as  a  teacher. 
I  so1.),  he  went  to  Switzerland  and  became  at 
struct or  in  I'estalozzi's  school,  where  he  ivma 


uln.l 


own  school  in  182  I.  which  was  tin 
Vitzthum  Gymnasium  in  L829  ;  ani 
from   the   Saxon   <_i;i .\ . -ri iiiu-nt    the 


tion  to  his  son-in-la 
number  of  promine 
princes,  have  receiv 


thized  with  the  liberal  movements  in  rrot- 
estant  theology,  Blochmann  was  firmly  devoted 
to  the  strictest  orthodoxy. 

BLUE -COAT  SCHOOL.  See  Christ's 
Hospital. 

BOARD  OF  EDUCATION.  See  School 
Board. 

BOARDING-SCHOOL,  a  school  in  which 
the  pupils  receive  board  and  lodging  as  well  as 
instruction.  Boarding-schools  are  generally  the 
propertj  of  private  indh  i  luals  ;  but  sometimes 
they  belong  to  associations  or  religi  "is  de- 
nominations.   Their  manag  i  nent  is  independent 

of  any  control  by  the  state,     [nsoi untries, 

the  governmenl  does  not  allow  anyone  to  keep 
a  boarding  or  any  other  private  school,  who 
lines  not  bold  a  1    icher's  license ;  in  oth  irs  as  in 

the    I'niteil    Si.,:  -     th  ■  .■--;,!.] l-ll  nelit  of    private 


of  this  kind  i 
extensive. 

of  tntS-ctili 


.elief  that  th  re  they  will  l.e  under  Letter  and 
iioi-e  constant  educational  influence  than  the 
internal  roof  can  afford  them. 

As  boarding-schools  are  entirely  independent 
if  public  school  boards,  there  is  the  greatesl 
nissible  variety  in  their  courses  of  instruction. 
Moreover,  since  the  financial  success  of  these  in- 
vitations depends  u] the  number  of  pupils 

secured,  the  propi  ietors generally  find  it  necessary 
mi  only  to  receive  pupils  at  any  time  of  the 
rear,  bu1  to  proi  ide  spei  ial  instruction  for  every 
mpil,  of  what  vi  r  grade  "i  capai  itv.  The  inev- 
1  ihle  cons  quence  oi  this  is,  that  the  classifi- 
ation.  in  the  majority  oi  these  schools,  is  unsat- 
sfactory.  Ver;  greal  danger,  moreover,  arises 
rom  the  fact  thai  a  large  number  of  children  of 
■\  il  habits   are  often    received  into  such  insti- 


pleasant  associations  to  which  the  children  are 
exposed,  partly,  because  the  course  of  study 
appears  to  be  insufficient.  Even  in  large  towns 
and   eities    where   there    is  no    want    of    eood 


sneh'  pupil's    than  "p 

aore  successful  mreforming 
iblic-school   teachers.     The 

greatness  of   the  da 

iger   which   an   ass  iciation 

with  children  of  thi. 

class  involves,  for  all  the 

pupils  of  the  in.-titllt 

,n,  cannot  be  overestimated, 

and   is  certainly   not 

sufficiently  appreciated   by 

many  of  those  who  1 

ave  the  charge  of  boarding- 

schools.     On    the   o 

her    hand,   however,  il     has 

l.ee,,  strongly  and  ji 

sth   urged  that  instructors 

of    superior   qualifj 

aii'ons   often     find    in   this 

class    of   sel Is  an 

excellent  and,  it   may   be, 

the  only  opportunit 

y  of  turning  their  peculiar 

talents  to   the  use 

if  mankind.      Many  of  the 

at  ever  lived,  would  never 

-t  their  theories  practically, 

if  they  had   not   be 

•ii   at   the    head    of   private 

boarding  institution 

The  boarding-school  un- 

doubtedly  offers  toe 

lneatioiial  reformers  a  grand 

field  of  usefulness,  ai 

•  1  tie  re  the  public-school 

system  suffers  in    an 

•  particular  place  from  the 

incompetency  of  scl 

ml  boards,  or  the  more,  in 

large  cities,  the  Stan 

lard  of  the  public  schools  is 

depressed,  the  more 

tronglywil)  the  demand  for 

private  and    boardi 

g   schools    make  itself  felt. 

Nearly  all  boarding-s 

tools  also  admit  pupils  who 

attend    only  for  inst 

■notion     day-scholars);  and 

\en  commonly  they 

also  pro\  ide   board  for  ehi'l- 

dren  of  resident   pan 

Ufa  [(lay-boarders). 

BOLIVIA,    a   n 

mblic  of  South    America, 

pupils    for  no   other    rea 


ha  m'ii"  an  ana  of  500,880  sip  m.,  and  a  population, 
iii  L865,of  L,831,585,  exclusive  of  aboul  250,000 
savage  Indians.  The  civilized  population  consists 
of  native  whites,  for  the  most  part  descendants  of 

the  Spanish  settlers,  mestizos  or  ( 'holos  (mixed 
white  and  Indian),  mnlattoes,  zambos  (mixed 
Indian  and  negro),  and  Indians  in  a  domesticated 


BOOK-KEEPING 


state.  About  three-fourths  of  the  total  popula- |  formation  of  Ponce's  invention.  His  plan  is 
Hon   is  of   Indian  descent.     Nearly   the  entire    fully  explained  in  his  work,  Reduction  de  las 

population  of  tin intry  belongs  to  the  Roman    leh-as  y  artes  para ensefUir  a  hablar  alos  mudos 

Catholic  Church.    The  exercise  of  other  relig-    (Madrid,  1620),    which    was  the    firsl     formal 

ions  ,len„n,u,ati„u>  is   „.,t    prohibited  :    but   un-    treats  .... /h"  j.nm.-h  >>f  spe.-ial  iiwtru.l , ....    He 

Bolivia.  l',V  alt!-1Vn'ia'.7\v.n.r!'i,,l  'with'the  all',  t..a.l"  use  of  a'l.lai'niai'ali .l"..il "t .'«  I.'il-l.'  was 
Pope  in  L851,the  Bolivian  government  promised  almost  exactly  the  same  as  the  single-hand  alpha- 
to  support  missions   am. mil;   the  savage  tribes,    bet  now  in  use.     Bonet   was  secretary  to  the 

pagan  and  uncivilized.  The  national  language  patron,  who  had  become  deaf  when  only  two 
is  the  Spanish,  but  several  Indian  tribes,  esp,-  yea.-  .,t  a^.  This  young  man  was  introduced 
cially  the  Vymaras  and  the  Quichuas,  continue  to  prince  Charles  oi  England  during  the  visit  of 
t<,  s.,eak  their  own  language.  the  latter  to  Spain,  in  1623;  and  it  was  stated 

The  territory  of  Bolivia,  after  its  conquest  by  by  Sir  Kenelm  Digby,  one  of  the  prince's  escort, 
the  Spaniards,  formed  a  part  of  the  viceroyalty  that  he  could  not  only  understand  an  ordinary 
of  Peru  till  1780, -wh 
name  of  <  narcas  wit 
La  Plata.  The  declai 
the  establishment  of  t 
pla.-e  in  1 825.  Since 
almost  without  intern 

The  condition  of  e 
satisfactory.  There  is 


ew  viceroyalty  of 
in  1,  pendence  and 
lie  of  Bolivia  took    glisht 


arkable  distinctness.     (See  Deaf-Mutes.) 
BONNYCASTLE,   John,  an  eminent  En- 
ad  rnathematician,  and  the  author  of 


Cochab 
of  the. 
named 
theJes 
with  fa 
an  exce 
is  .lev. 
are  at 
The  su 
Latin, 
ethics,  ; 
ecclesia 
a  high  : 


ethics  are 
and    Cochi 
clusively. 
school  al  I 


-  priests,  but  its  pup 
•  tor  any  other  rocati, 

vsics.    Dhilosophv  floa 


BOOK-KEEPING. 


entire  republic,  there  are  1 1 
which  8  are  colegios  ■<■  tit  ncic 
pupils,  and  16  col  gios  de  art 
schools).    There  were,  in  1  B  II 
stitutions  of  a  higher  grade,  wi 

number  of  primary  scl Is,  p 

aeeor.lin^to  the  latest  reports. 

21, I  pupils.      The    scl 1-1,, 

extent  translations  from  th 
Schmtd,  RealrEneychp.,  art.  .' 
iu.iny.  Description  geografu  • 
distica  <!<>  Bolivia  (2  vols.,  Pa 
BONET,  Juan  Pablo,  c 
instructors  of  deaf-mutes,  wa 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  . 
Pedro  I'on.v.  a  Spanish  Bene 
lived  about  fifty  years  befor 
.  method  of  teaching  1 
is  of  an   alphabet  of 


Bonet  is  attributed  the  credit  of  originating  a  I  fact  that  the  eumplete  iv,,,r,l  ,,t  any  transaction 
similar  method,  since  he  could  have  had  no  in- !  requires  at  least  two  entries  in  the  ledger — one 


lanual  signs,  to    that  known  as  double  entry,  so  called  fr. 


BOOK-KEEPING 


on  the  debit  or  debtor  side  of  some  account,  and 
one  on  the  credit  or  creditor  side  of  some  other 
account.     The  terms  debit  and  credit  (meaning 

(li'litnr  and  creditor,  and  usually  marked  Dr.  and 
Or.)  are,  for  the  most  part,  used  arbitrarily. 
They  are  really  significant  only  when  applied  to 
personal  accounts;  but  their  uniform  application 


of  gain  or  loss,  must  occur  between  the  two 
classes  of  accounts  represented  by  cash  and  mer- 
chandise— the  one  taking  cognizance  of  measur- 
ing financial  worth,  the  other  indicating  its  in- 
crease or  diminution.  (The  mere  exchange  of 
one  fixed  value  for  another, such  as  the  canceling 
of  a  personal  indebtedness  by  receiving  or  pav- 
ing cash,  should  be  called  a  liquidation  rather 


il   ta 


emati 

of  finance,  and  in  the  tests 
rectness  of  the  work  at  any 
principles  underlying  the  s 
cinctlv  stated  thus:   (li    All 


resources, 
he  money 


of 

concern,  thus  measured,  less  the  sum  of  all  its 
liabilities,  is  its  real  or  present  worth;  (3)  All 
increase  or  diminution  in  wealth  conns  from 
one  of  two  sources;  namely,  the  receiving  of 
more  or  less  for  an  article  than  its  cost,  or  the 
appreciation  or  depreciation  of  the  value  of  an 
article  while  in  possession;  It)  The  immediate 
result  of  all  gains  or  losses  is  the  adding  to,  or 
taking  from,  the  net  worth  of  the  concern; 
and,  consequently,  the  net  gain  or  net  loss  of 
a  business  during  any  specified  time  must 
agree  with  the  increase  or  diminution  of  its 
net  worth  for  the  same  period.  The  foregoing 
propositions  may  be  said  to  be  self-evident  facts  : 
but  they  arc  important  facts  nevertheless,  and 
such  as  any  competent  presentment  of  business 
affairs  must  recognize  and  enforce;  and  this  is 
just  what  double-entry  book-keeping  does. 

The  science,  or  philosophy,  of  the  system  is 
shown  in  the  ledger, which,  as  before  staled,  con- 
sists of  accounts.  An  account  is  a  collection  of 
homogeneous  items  pertaining   to  s e   part   of 

the  business,  such  as  the  receipt  and  disburse- 
ment of  money  {cash),  the  purchase  and  sale  of 

ctiriing  and  liquidating  of  persona]  indebted- 
ness, etc.  All  accounts  are  alike  in  their  struct- 
ure, each  having  a  title,  more  or  less  significant, 
and  two  sides,  with  the  items  on  one  side  exactly 
opposite  in  effect  to  those  on  the  other;  and, 
like  plus  and  minus  quantities,  each  canceling 
the  other  to  the  extent  of  the  lesser  side,  the 
preponderance,  or  excess,  of  either  side  being  the 
true  showing  and  significance  of  the  account. 
Thus,  the  debit  or  left  hand  side  of  the  cash  ac- 
count contains  the  items  of  cash  received;  and 


iiii;  of  goods,  it  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  prog- 
ress of  the  business,  having  in  it  no  element  of 
gain  or  loss.)  The  real  transactions  of  the  busi- 
ness being,  therefore,  divided  between  these  two 
classes  of  accounts,  we  have  in  the  one  class — 
such  as  merchandise — the  indication  or  state- 
ment of  all  the  separate  gains  and  losses  which 
have  occurred,  and  in  the  other  -such  as  cash — 
the  complete  measure  of  the  net  resources,  or 
real  wealth;  the  two  together  establishing  the 
satisfactory  concurrence  of  cause  and  effect,  or 
assertion  and  proof.  Thus,  the  accounts  of  as- 
sertion or  cause  indicate  a  net  gain  or  net  loss, 
while  those  of  proof  or  effect  Bhow  correspond- 
ingly increased  or  diminished  net  worth. 

The  peculiar  methods  or  forms  of  recording 
business  affairs  are  so  various — owing  to  the 
great  variety  of  manipulation  or  processes,  as 
also  to  the  difference  in  tl stimates  of  a  com- 
petent record,  that  they  cannot  be  pointed  out. 
The  genera]  conception  of  the  purpose  and 
sphere  of  book-keeping,  however,  may  be  stated 
as  compassing  such  a  record  of  affairs  as  will 
enable  the  proprietor  to  know,  at  any  time,  the 
extent  of  his  wealth  and  of  wdiat  it  consists. 
Of  course,  if  the  real  worth  of  a  business  man 
can  be  ascertained  at  any  time,  the  increase  or 
diminution  between  any  two  periods  may  readily 
be  obtained. 

Book-keeping  by  the  double-entry  system  has 
been  in  vogue  since  the  latter  pari  of  the  lath 
century.  It  was  originally  practiced  in  Venice, 
and  is  even  now  known  as  the  Italian  method. 
The  ti rst  treatise  on  the  subject  was  written  by 
Luea  di  Borgo,  and  published  at  Venice  in  1495. 
A  (ierman  treatise,  written  by  .loliann  Gottlieb, 


was   published  at  Nuremberg 
and  in  England,  in  1 
lished  a  work  on  this 
title  .1   profitable  Tn 
good  order  of  the  b 


■M  <»ld 


,/.-/. 


17s:i 


have  prod  u.vd:  the  difference  .,r  \akmce,  when  all 
the  facts  are  shown,  being  the  preponderance  of 
production  over  cost,  or  of  cost  oyer  production,  as 
the  case  may  be — in  other  words  the  net  gain  or 
net  loss.  All  transactions  which  mark  the  prog- 
ress of  the  business,  having  in  them  the  element 


The  more  modern  publications  upon  this  subject 
arc  very  numerous  ;  and  the  most  recent  of  them 

provements  in  the  system,  some  of  which  arc 
rendered  necessary  in  older  to  apply  it  to  the 
processes  and  methods  of  commercial  transactions 
at  present  in  vogue. 

Hook-keeping  constitutes  an  important  branch 
of  instruction  in  all  commercial  schools  and  busi- 


BOOK-MANUAL 

ss  colleges,  in  some  of  which  it  is  pursued  by 
th  sexes.  It  is  also  taught  sometimes  in  con- 
etion  with  arithmetic  and  penmanship,  in  the 


struction,  however,  is  often  opposed  on  the 
ground  that  it  can  only  be  acquired  in  connec- 
tion with  the  actual  practice  of  the  counting- 
room.  The  objection  is  not  well  founded;  for 
while  it  is  obvious  that  no  theoretical  instruc- 
tion, in  this  or  any  other  art.  can  supersede  the 
necessity  of  actual  practice,  yet  that  instruction 
performs  an   important    function   in   laying  the  , 

secpiently  to  be  attained.  In  many  business  col- 
leges, for  the  purpose  of  obviating  this  objection, 
exercises  are  resorted  to  that  nearly  approximate 
to  the  operations  of  actual  business.  Thus  the 
.students  of  certain  colleges  carry  on  business 
correspondence  with  those  of  others  situated  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  ;  make  and 
receive  formal  consignments  of  merchandise,  buy 
and  sell  exchanges  upon  the  different  sections  ot 
the  Union  and  Canada,  and  in  this  way  learn  the 
business  peculiarities  of  different  places.  Toinsure 


who  led  I-  tic  p.idtionof  bill-clerk  and  collector 

to-day,  i-  : k-keeper  to-morrow,  shipper  the 

next  day,  etc.  By  tins  diversity  the  exercises  are 
not  only  made  more  effective,  but  more  interest- 
ing and   impressive.     (See  BUSINESS  COLLEGES.) 

BOOK-MANUAL,  a  scries  of  directions  as 
to  the  method  in  which  the  reading-book   should 

beheld  by  pupils  when  they  are  receiving  class 
instruction.  Minute  regulations  for  the  distri- 
bution of  books  to  the  pupils  of  a  class  as  well 
as  for  their  proper  manipulation  while  the  lesson 
is  given,  have  been  devised,  and  in  some  schools 
arc  strictly  enforced.  There  is  no  doubt  that  a 
regular  and  uniform  method  of  this  kind  not 
only  saves  the  book  from  injury  occasioned  by 
improper  handling,  but  also  contributes  to  the 
formation,  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils,  of  a  love 
and  habit  of  order  and  propriety,  which  they 
will  apply  to  other  things.  Indeed,  it  i>  in  con- 
nection with  the  apparently  unimportant  and 
trivial  things  that  the  teacher  needs  to  exercise 
the  greatest  care,  if  he  would  educate  his  pupils 
in  this  direction  ;  since  such  things  being  of  fre- 
quent occurrence,  habits  are  more  readily  formed 
by  the  constant  repetition  which  they  require 
than  in  any  other  way.  The  following  minute 
directions  wire  prepared,  some  years  ago.  for  the 
schools  of  New  York  ( 'ity,  and  were  for  many 
years  in  use.  They  are  still  employed  by  many 
teachers,  those  referring  to  book-monitors  being 
usually  omitted ;  since  at  the  present  time  each 
pupil  of  the  class  is  generally  supplied  with  a 
book  of  his  own.  The  distribution  of  books  for 
a  given  exercise  is  still  often  necessary. and  hence 
all  the  rules  hold  good  : 

I.  The  pupil  should  stand  erect,  his  heels  near  to- 
gether, toes  turned  out,  and  his  face  directed  toward 
th^  teacher. 


.  The  I k-nionitnr  should  stand  at  the  head  of 

class,    with     till'    idle    of    lioohs    to    he     distributed 

iss  his  lift  ;iiiii.  \\  it li  the  hacks  from  him,  and  with 

1.  The  I k- tor.  w  it  li  tie   right  hand,  hands  a 

k  to  oa.-h  | •  1 1 1 > : I  in  -i i— ion.  win,  should  receive 

i  his  riijht  hand  with  the  hack  of  the  hook  to  the 
and  then  p.i—  it  into  the  left  hand,  in  which  he 
ild  hold   it  with  the   hack   upward,  until  a  further 


,ce  to  the  middle  when  the  thiuiih  ami  little  linger 
made  to  press  on  the  two  opposite  paces.  If  the 
•  is  thus  found,  the  pupil  stands  holding  the  hook 
is  left  hand,  and  lets  his  right  hand  fall  by  his 


near  the  upper  corner  of  the  page,  while  the  forefinger 
lifts  the  leaves  to  bring  in  view  the  number  of  the 
page.  If  he  finds  he  has  not  raised  enough,  the  fore- 
tinger  and  thumb  hold  those  already  raised  while  the 
second  finger  lifts  the  leaves,  and  brings  them  within 
the  grasp  of  the  thumb  and  linger.  When  the  required 
page  is  found,  all  the  lingers  are  to  he  passed  under 
the  leaves,  and  the  whole  turned  at  once.  Should  the 
pupil,  on  the  contrary,  have  opened  too  far,  and  be 
places  the  righ'  " 


and  page,  and  the  leaves  are 

ie  old.  or  so  large  as  to  make 
il,  the  right  hand  may  sustain 


r:  and  then  the  right  hand  wi 


book-monitor,  who  should  receive  it  in  In-  ngb.1  hand. 
and  place  it  on  his  left   arm.  w,ih  the  back  towards 

the  body.    The  1 k-  wnl  thru  be  in  the  -t  suitable 

where,  without  being  crowded,  they  should  be  placed 

See  Manual  of  Public  School  Society  (New 
York,  1840);  Reportofthe  Board  of  Education 
of  the  City  of  New  York  (1855). 

BORGI,  Giovanni,  called  the  "  founder  of 
ragged  schools,"  was  born  in  Rome  about  1735, 
and  died  about  1802.  He  was  a  poor  artisan, 
who  took  a  compassionate  interest  in  vagrant 
children.      lie   commenced    his   benevolent   work 


suitable  building,  in  wliieh  considerable  numbers 
could  be  accommodated  and  taught  :  thus  estab- 
lishing what  was  afterwards  called  in  Scotland 
and  England  a  "  ragged  school."  The  institution 
founded  by  Borgi  was  continued  after  his  death, 
and  found  an  earnest  patron  in  Pope  Pius  VII. 
(See  Ragged  Schools.) 


92 


BOSTON,    the    capital    and    metropolis    of 
Massachusetts,  having  a  population,   in   1*75,  of 

341,919.     The  origin  of  the  public-sel 1  system 

of  Boston  is  found  in  the  following  order  adopted 
by  the  freemen  of  the  town,  on  the  13th  of  April, 
1635:  "likewise  it  was  then  generally  agreed 
upon,  that  our  brother  Philemon  Purmont  shall 
be  entreated  to  become  schoolmaster  for  the 
teaching  and  nurturing  of  children  with  us." 
The  school  thus  set  up  lias  been  perpetuated  to 
the  present  day.  and  has  long  been  known  as  the 
Public  Latin  School,  whose  chief  function,  during 
the_  whole  period  of  its  existence,  has  been  the 
fitting  of   boys  for  Harvard  College.     This  was 

tin ly  public  school  in   the  town  until   1682, 

when  it  was  voted,  in  town  meeting,  "that  a 
committee  with  the  selectmen  consider  and 
provide  one  or  more  free  schools  for  the  teach- 
ing of  children  to  write  and  cipher  within  this 
town."  Afterward,  schools  were  established  for 
teaching  reading  and  spelling.  These  reading  and 

writing  school.   |,;1V..  1 n   gradually     developed 

intothepres  atg  mn  r  schools.  Pupils  were  not 
admitted  to  th  ho  Is   until  they  were  seven 

years  of  age.     Girls  were  not   admitted   i  i  the 

hool  until  1789  ;  and,duri 
forty  years,  they  were  permitted  to  attend   only 
half  the  year,  from  April   to  October.      In  1*1*, 

primarj  scl Is -were  established  to  tit  pupils  of 

both  sexes  for  the  grammar  schools,  to  which 
children  four  years  old  and  upward  were  ad- 
mitted. In  lSL'l.  a  school  similar  to  the  Herman 
real  school,  and  n  one  1  the  |-  ngli.-h  i  : 
"was  instituted,  with  the  design  of  furni-hiiiLf  the 
young  men  of  this  city,  who  are  not  in  tend-..  1  t  i- 
a  collegiate  course  of  study,  and  who  have  en- 
joyed the  usual  advantages  of  the  other  public 
schools,  with  the  means  of  completing  a  good 
English  education."  A  normal  school  for  modify- 
ing female  teachers  for  the  public  schools  of  the 
city  was  established  in  1*.VJ,  in  which  a  two 
years'  course  of  training  was  provided.  The  plan 
of  this  school  was  soon  modified  by  extending  its 
course  of  study  to  three  years,  and  by  including 
in  its  curriculum  all  the  branches  usually  taught 
in  high  schoob.  |u  L872,  this  twofold' institu- 
tion. «hieh  bore  the  name  of  the  Girls' High  and 
Normal  School,  was  separated  into  two  distinct 
schools,  a  normal  school  for  girls  and  a  high 
school  for  girls.  By  the  annexation  of  adjacenl 
municipalities,  during  the  past  eight  years,  five 
mixed  high  schools  have  been  added  to  the  free 
public  schooLs  for  secondary  instruction.  Ele- 
mentary   evening   schools,  and    day    -el I.    |',,. 

newsboys  and  1 thlaeks    licensed' minor. i.  weiv 

established  in  1868;  an  evening  high  school,  in 
1869;  a  school  for  deaf-mutes,  in  lM'.'l;  evening 
industrial  .hawing  schools,  in  1*70:  a  kindergar- 
ten, in  1*7(1.-  'I'll.,  public  schools  were  originally, 
and  for  more  then  a  ceuturyanda  half,  managed 
by  the  selectmen  of  the  town,  the  clergy  being 
invited  by  them  to  visit  the  school.,  especially  on 
public  occasions.    From  1789,  until  the  adoption 

of  the  city  charter,  in  1822,  they  were  controlled 

by  a  board  composed  of  the  select n  and  twelve 

committee  men,  annually  elected  in  town  meet- 


ing.    Under  the  charter,  the  selectmen  were  re- 

pli d  by  the  eight  aldermen.     From  1835  until 

1855,  the  scl I   board,    called    the   Grammar 

School  Hoard,  consisted  of  twenty-four  com- 
mittee men.  two  being  elected  annually  by  the 
people  in  each  ward,  with  the  mayor  and  the 
i')i  -i.  but  of  the  common  council,  ex  officio.  I  p 
to  this  time,  the  primary  schools  had  been  under 
the  management  of  a  board,  appointed  annually 
by  the  Grammar  School  Hoard,  consisting  of  one 
member  for  cadi  school  or  teacher,  the  "number 
being  at  first   36,  but  increased  finally   to    190. 

During  the  past  twenty  years,  the  scl 1  system 

of  public  schools  has  been  in  charge  of  one  board, 
consisting  originally  of  74  members,  ti  being 
elected  in  each  ward  by  the  people,  to  hold  office 
for  three  years,  the  mayor  and  president  of  the 
common  council  being  also  members.  By  the 
annexation  of  municipalities  above  mentioned, 
the  number  of  members  was  ultimately  in- 
creased to  1  16.  'I  his  board  was  discontinued  at 
the  beginning  of  1876;  and.  in  its  place,  a 
board  was  constituted  cn.-i-tiug  of  the  mayor, 
and  24  members  elected  by  the  people  on  a 
general  ticket,  to  hold  office  for  three  years.- 

'I  he  office  of  supei  intendenl  of  scl ' 

lished  in  1851.  'I  he  first  incumbent  was  Nathan 
Bishop,  who  was  succeeded  by  John  D.  Phil- 
brick,  who  held  the  office  for  nearly  18  years, 
retiring  in  1*74.  The  old  board  did  not  fill  the 
vacancy:  ami  .Mr,  I'hilbrick  was  re-elected  to  the 
office  by  the  new  board  in  1876.  Under  the  new 
system  of  supervision,  the  school  board  isauthor- 
i/.ed  to  dee)  a  board  of  six  supervisors.  The  follow- 
ing persons  were  elected  to  this  board:  Lucretia 
Crocker,  George  M.  Folsom,  Samuel  W.  Mason, 
William  Nichols,  I : II i-  Peterson,  and  Benjamin F. 

Tweed.  The  sup. Til, ten, lent  is,!         ■"         ,   i    ,  mfcer 

and  the  chairman.  The  princi]  al  duties  assigned 
the  board  of  supervisors  are  those  of  examining 
candidates  for  teachers,  of  examining  the  schools, 
in  detail,  twice  in  each  year,  and  of  conducting  the 
annual  examination  of  the  pupils,  in  the  different 
grades  of  schools,  who  are  candidates  for  grad- 
uating diplomas. —  Besides  this  board  of  super- 
visor-, there  is  a  general  director  of  music,  and 
another  of  drawing,  each  having  several  assist- 
ants.— For  the  purposes  of  supervision,  the  city 
is  divided  into  nine  territorial  divisions,  each 
division  comprising  from  four  to  seven  territorial 
districts,  and  each  district  containing  one  gram- 
mar school  and  several  primary  schools.  The 
master  of  the  grammar  school  is  the  principal  of 
the  district,  having  the  supervision  of  all  the 
schools  situated  therein.  There  arc  no  primary 
principals.  Kadi  division  is  under  the  charge  of  a 
committee  composed  of  three  or  five  members  of 
the  school  board.  There  is  also  a  standing  com- 
mittee in  charge  of  the  high  schools. 

School  System. — Besides  a  normal  school  for 
girls,  with  a  course  for  study  and  training  for 
one  year,  to  which  pupils  are  admitted 
passing  a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  usual 
high-school  studies,  there  are  *  high  schools; 
namely.  3  large  central  schools,  the  Latin  and 
i lie  l.iigli-h  high  school  for  boys,  and  the  girls' 


high  school,  and  5  others  for  both  sexes,  located 
in  recently  annexed  districts.  These  schools 
(1876)  contain  2,180  pupils,  taught  by  50  male 
teachers  and  48  females,  whose  annual  salaries 
amount  to  $180,251.33.  There  are  50  grammar 
Bchools,  with  23,971  pupils,  taught  by  96  male 
teachers,  and  -"'11  females:  the  greater  part  of 
these  schools  are  unmixed.  In  the  primary 
grade,  for  children  from  5  to  >  years  of  age.  there 
are  1 8,665  pupils,  taught  by  111   teachers.     The 


day  and 
e  annual 
and  pri- 


ug.  These  schools 
lose  annual  salaries 
hole  number  of  reg- 


whole  number  of  pupils 
evening  schools  is  49,41' 
salaries  of  the  teachers 
mary  schools  amount  b 
cial  schools  are,  2  for  lii 
mutes.  1  kindergarten, 
schools.  1  evening  I  igl 
schools  for  industrial 
are  taught  by  177  teach 
amount  to  $42,824.64. 
ularand  special  teachers  employe  1  in  the  day  and 
evening  schools  is  1,296;  and  the  whole  amount 
of  their  salaries  is  SI  .21  7.do-..:rj  :  incidental  ex- 
penses, including  salaries  of  olli.vr.-..  ,-C>o7.3r.  t.r,:i; 
total  current  expenses,  SI  ,724,373.61.  The  amount 

expended  during  the  year,  besides  this,  forscl I- 

houses  and  sites,  was  $356,669.7  I.  The  cost  per 
scholar  for  tuition,  based  on  the  average  number 
belonging  to  the  day  schools,  is  $26.30;  for  inci- 
dentals, $10.55;  total  cost  per  scholar,  $36.85. 
Inl875,the  whole  number  of  school-houses  owned 
by  the  city  was  144,  which,  with  their  sites,  wire 
valued  at  $8,500,000.  The  revenue  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  schools  is  derived  exclusively  from 
an  annual  tax  on  all  the  personal  and  real  prop- 
erty in  the  city,  which  is  levied  by  the  city 
council.  There  is  no  legal  restriction  to  the 
amount  that  may  be  levied  for  schools.  The  school 

erected,  by  the  city  council:  but  the  plans  of  the 
buildings  and  the  sites  must  be  first  approved 
by  the  school  board,  who  have  the  authority  also 
to  determine  the  amount  to  be  expended  for  the 
salaries  of  teachers.  Tuition  isgratuitous  in  all 
the  schools:  drawing-books,  writing-boots,  and 
stationery  are  furnished  gratuitously  to  all  pu- 
pils; and.  to  indigent  children  text-books  arc 
also  furnished  at  the  public  expense. 

Salaries. — The  salary  of  the  superintendent  is 
$4,500  :  of  members  ot  the  board  of  supervisors, 
$4,000  each ;  of  head-masters  of  high  schools, 
$4,000;  of  masters  of  grammar  schools  and  mas- 
ters in  high  schools,  83.200;  submasters  in  gram- 
mar and  high  schools,  $2,600  :  of  ushers  in  gram- 
mar and  high  schools.  82.000  :  of  head-assistants 
(females)  in  grammar  schools.  $1  .loll;  of  assistants 
(female)  in  high  schools.'?!  ,000  to  $1,500;  of  assist- 
ants (female)  in  grammar  schools,  and  teachers  in 
primary  schools,  SsOO  ;  of  supervisors  of  music 
and  drawing,  $3,3110  each  ;  and  their  assistants, 
$2,500.  The  city  is  divided  into  14  truant  dis- 
tricts, each  having  a  truant  officer,  with  a  salary 
of  $1,200.  Habitual  truants,  pupils  who  have 
absented  themselves  from  school  several  tknes 
without  permission  from  their  parents  or  teach- 
ers, and  absentees,  legally  described  as  "  children 


found  in  streets  and  public  places,  not  attending 
schools  and  not  engaged  in  a  lawful  occupation.  ' 
are  sentenced  to  a  reformatory  for  one  or  two 
years.  This  plan  of  dealing  with  truants  dates 
from  1850,  and  it  has  proved  an  efficient  agencj 
in  promoting  g 1  attendance  at  school  Chil- 
dren gmwii.g  up  without  education  or  salutary 
control,  by  reason  of  orphanage,  or  the  neglect, 
crime,  drunkenness,  or  mher  vice  of  parents,  on 
complaint  of  the  truant  officers,  tna\  be  sent  to 
an  institution  assigned  by  the  city  for  the  pur- 
pose, where  thej  are  boarded  and  educated. 

Private  Schools  and  other  Institutions.  — In 
1874,  the  whole  number  of  pupils  in  private  tui- 


colleges,  with  19  instructors 
scl 1  of  pharmacy,  with  3 

udeiits:   2  scl Is  ot  deiitU- 


I  <ri 


2UII  student.-.;  1  museum  of  fine  arts,  value  of 
collections  $100,000,  value  of  buildings,  etc., 
SPIO.IIIMI;  1  museum  of  natural  histoiv.  limine 
10  0(1(1  volume.*:  value  of  collections.  8100.000,  of 

building.  SI  3-. i;    1  I  public  libraries.  -taC.  127 

volumes.  232.900  pamphlets;  value  of  buildings, 
$1,026,700;  Sundaj  a  tools,  15 7, with 4,450  teach- 
ers, 43,540  scholars,  and  83,700  volumes  in  lib- 
raries. There  are  two  conservatories  of  music, 
and  numerous  smaller  music  schools.  (  hie  of  the 
most  important  educational  institutions  in  Boston 
is  the  Lowell  Institut  .  established  in  L839  by 
the  munificence  of  John  Lowell,  to  provide  for 
"regular  courses  of/ree  public  lectures  upon  the 
most  important  branches  of  natural  and  moral 
science,  to  be  annually  delivered  in  the  city  ol 
Boston."  The  fund."  in  January,  L873,  was 
$642,711.32;  the  expenses  for  1872  were 
$31 ,912.47,  the  number  of  tree  lectures  delivered 
during  the  year  being  264.  Two  drawing-schools, 
and  the  school  of  industrial  design  in  connection 
with  the  .Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. 
are  maintained  by  the  fund.  The  Institute  is 
managed  by  one  trustee,  a  kinsman  of  the 
founder.  No  printed  document  or  report  has 
ever  been  issued  by  the  Institute.  The  Boston 
City  Free  Public  Library,  which  was  opened  hi 
ls."»3,  and  is  supported  by  taxation  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  public  schools,  has  six  branches, 
and  contains  3(l('..2s7  volumes:  the  annual  ex- 
pense of  maintaining  it  is  about  8130,000. 


94 


BOSTON  COLLEGE 


BOSTON  COLLEGE,  at  Boston,  Mass.. 
was  founded  in  1863  by  the  Fathers  of  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  by  whom  it  is  conducted.  Its 
object  is  to  impart  a  religious,  classical,  and 
scientific  education.  The  course  begins  with  a 
"  class  of  rudiments."  and  extending,  in  success- 
ive years,  through  three  "  classes  of  grammar,"  a 
"class  of  poetry,"  and  a  "class  of  rhetoric," into 
a  seventh  year  of  philosophy  and  chemistry.  As 
in  most  of  the  colleges  of  this  fraternity, classical 
studies  occupy  a  prominent  place  inallthe  classes 
of  the  entire  course.  In  1874,  there  was  a  corps 
of  16  professors  and  other  instructors,  with  15 
collegiate,  and  143  preparatory  students.  The 
value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  etc.,  is  $200,000, 
and  it  lias  a  library  of  about  4.1)00  volumes. 
Rev.  Robert  Fulton:  S.  .1".,  is  (1876)  the  presi- 
dent of  the  institution.  The  annual  tuition  fee 
is  $60. 

BOSTON  UNIVERSITY,  at  Boston. 
Mass..  was  founded  by  the  munificence  of  Isaac 
Rich,  who   bequeathed    for  that   purpose    the 

freater  pari  of  his  estate,  amounting  to  nearly 
2,000,000.  The  first,  however,  to  suggest  and 
advocate  its  establishment,  was  the  late  Lee 
Claflin.  father  of  a  recent  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, whose  views  found  an  earnest  supporter 
in  Jacob  Sleeper.  Hence,  these  three  persons 
are  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  institution, 
although  Mr.  Rich  was  its  most  munificent 
patron.  Its  charter  was  obtained  from  the  legis- 
lature of  Massachusetts  in  1  H(i!l.  Its  plan" of 
organization  is  unique  and  comprehensive,  in- 
cluding (1)  Preparatory  Departments;  (2)  Col- 
leges; (3)  Professional  Schools;  and  (4)  School 
of  aU  Sci s    Schola  Scholarum).     The  first 


BOSTON  UNIVERSITY 

designed  for  students  of  the  average  proficiency 
of  graduates  of  the  best  American  conservatories 
of  music ;  and  is  the  only  institution  of  its 
grade  and  kind  in  the  United  States.  The 
regular  courses  of  instruction  extend  through 
four  years,  and  include  (1)  a  course  for  vocal- 
ists ;  (2)  a  course  for  pianists  ;  (3)  a  course  for 
organists;  (1)  courses  for  orchestral  performers. 
.All  these  courses  include  the  study  of  musical 
theory,  also  the  history  and  i  sthetics  of   music. 


L873 


nchises  to  the 
rged  into  its 


llv 


.,:'-, 


supplementing  the  work  of  the  professional 
schools,  is  designed  to  be  a  universal,  or  non-pro- 
fessional school  of  elective  post  -graduate  studies, 
with  special  degrees,  scholarships,  and  fellow- 
ships. 

Of  the  colleges  three  have  .'iliv.-i.lv  been  or- 
ganized :  (1)  that  of  Liberal  Arts,  in  1873 ;  (2) 
that  of  Music,  in  1872  ;  (3)  that  of  Agriculture, 
supplied  by  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, at  Amherst,  associated  with  the  university 
in  lsT.l.  This  college  has  enjoyed  a  very  hiirh  rep- 
utation since  its  organization  in  1867;  and  by 
the  arrangement  made  with  the  Boston  Univer- 
sity, matriculants  in  the  latter,  who  desire  in- 
struction in  agriculture,  horticulture, and  related 
branches,  ciin  receive  it  in  the  College,  and  on 
completing  the  prescribed  course,can  receive  their 
degree  from  the  University  as  well  as  from  the 
College.  The  CoUege  of  Liberal  Arts  answers 
to  what  is  called   in  - American  universities 


bachelor    of   arts,  bachelor  of   philosophy,  and 
bachelor  of  science.     The  College  of  Music  is 


of  medicine,  iii  IsT.'i  :  of  oratory,  in  1ST.'!.  The 
School  of  all  Sciences  was  established  in  1874. 

Tlii' school  of  tl logy  was  formerly  the  Meth- 
odist Kpiscopal  Tlieoloe-ical  Seminary  of  Boston, 
which  was  organized  in  1847.  A  school  of  fine 
arts  is  projected. 

A  fundamental  idea  with  those  who  organized 
the  university  was.  that  a  university  should  exist 
not  for  one  sex  merely,  hut  equally  for  the  two; 
hence  the  most  ultra  principles  of  co-education 
are  carried  out.  Young  men  and  young  women 
are  welcomed  to  all  the  advantages  of  the  insti- 
tution on  precisely  the  same  conditions,  -not 
merely  to  the  bench  of  the  pupil,  but  also  to  the 
chair  of  the  professor.  The  trustees  of  the  New 
England  Female  Medical  College,  said  to  be  the 
oldest  medical  college  for  women  in  the  world, 
by  a  special  act  of  the  legislature,  in  I875,trans- 
ferred  all  its  properties 
Boston  University,  and  w 
broader  co-educative  school  of  medicine. 

1  "list-graduate  students  of  this  university,  de- 
siring to  fit  themselves  for  professorships  of 
Greek,  Latin,  modern  languages,  philosophy, 
history,  or  art,  enjoy  special  advantages.  By 
virtue  of  an  arrangement,  effected  in  1875,  with 
the  authorities  of  the  National  University  at 
Athens,  and  those  of  the  Royal  University  at 
Rome,  any  member  of  the  School  of  till  Sciences, 
duly  recommended,  may  pursue,  without  expense 
for  instruction,  and  for  any  number  of  years, 
select  or  regular  courses  of  study  in  any  depart- 
ment of  said  universities,  enjoying  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  university  citizenship ;  and 
upon  returning,  and  passing  a  satisfactory  ex- 
amination in  the  work  accomplished,  can  receive 
a  degree  from  the  Boston  University.  The 
faculties  of    these   two   foreign    universities   are 

thus  co-operating  faculties  of  the  School  of  all 
Sciences,  which  is  designed  (1)  for  the  benefit  of 
bachelors-of  arts,  philosophy,  or  science,  of  what- 
ttle  or  no  direct  refer- 


illege,  win 

lifting  th. 


eel. 


in  this  university:  (2)  to  meet  the  wants  of  all 
graduates  in  theology,  law,  medicine,  or  other 
professional  couise.  who  may  wish  to  supplement 
their  professional  culture  by  courses  of  study  in 
related  sciences, arts, and  professions.  This  school 
is.  thus,  like  the  studium  ,-  nerale  of  the  middle 
ages,  the  crowning  and  unifying  department  of 

Thus  far,  this  comprehensive  plan  has  been 
successfully  carried  out ;  and  the  institution  has 


receiwd  a  large  patronage  and  has  accomplished 
much  work.  In  1^,4 — 5,  there  were  745  stu- 
dents belonging  to  the  institution  :  of  whom  268 
were  in  the  preparatory  departments ;  81, in  the 
colleges ;  and  396  in  the  Bchools.     Of  the  entire 

number  in  the  colleges  and  .-el Is,  102  were 

females.  Its  graduates  from  the  schools  of  theol- 
ogy, law.  and  medicine  were  more  numerous 
than  those  from  the  corresponding  schools  of 
Harvard   or  Yale.      Its   financial   condition  is 


it  suffered  in  the  great  Uo-ton  couth,,. ration  of 
1872.  The  final  transfer  of  the  Rich  fund  does 
not  take  place  till  L882.  The  president  of  the 
university  is  William  P.  Warren.  S.T.  1  ».,  LI..  1  >., 
elected  in  1873.— See  Boston  University  Year 
Books,  edited  by  the  university  council,  vols.  i. 
II,  and  in. 

BOTANY  |(.'r.  hr6rr/.  herb,  plant),  the  sci- 
ence of  vegetable  life  treating  of  the  elementary 
composition,  structure,  habits,  functions,  anil 
classification  of  plants,  in  which  are  included 
herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees.  This  is  a  branch  of 
that  general  descriptive,  or  empirical  science, 
called  natural  history ;  being  based  upon  the 
facts  of  observation.  The  educative  value  of 
botany,  especially  in  the  early  stages  of  the 
mind's  development,  is  very  considerable. — far 
more  so,  indeed,  than  its  usual  place  in  the  cur- 
riculum of  school  education  would  indicate: 
since  it  is  generally  superseded  by  subjects  which 
seem  to  be  of  more  practical  importance  to  the 
pupil  in  his  after  life.  In  the  more  modern 
systems  of  elementary  education,  both  in  this 
country  and  in  Europe,  particularly  in  Germany, 
the  training  of  the  perceptive  faculties  by  the 
systematic  observation  of  objects  holds  a  very 
prominent  place,  indeed  is  considered  the  basis 
of  all  sound  mental  culture:  and  among  all  the 
objects  of  nature,  none  can  claim  precedence  in 
point  of  variety,  beauty,  ami  interest,  for  this 
purpose,  over  those  of  which  botany  treats.  It 
has  been  well  said  by  a  writer  upon  this  subject, 
"As  the  love  and  observation  of  flowers  are 
among  the  earliest  phenomena  of  the  mental  life, 
so  should  some  correct  knowledge  of  them  be 
among  the  earliest  teachings."  The  facility  with 
which  plants  may  be  collected,  handled,  and  ana- 
lyzed, as  well  as  their  general  attractiveness, 
makes  them  peculiarly  well  adapted  for  object 
teaching.  Bugs  and  beetles  are  often  quite  re- 
pulsive to  a  child,  but  where  is  the  girl  or  boy 
who  is  not  pleased  with  the  contemplation,  or 
the  manipulation,  of  leaves  and  flowers? 

For  the  purpose  of  this  kind  of  instruction, 
and  as  au  introduction  of  the  subject  to  young 
minds,  the  chief  point  is  to  direct'  the  attention 
of  the  child  to  the  most  obvious  characteristics 
of  plants  and  of  their  parts,  as  leaves,  stems. 
roots,  flow-el's,  seeds,  etc.  They  should  be  set  at 
once  to  collect  specimens  for  themselves,  and  be 
shown  how  (1 1  to  observe  them.  ('_')  how  to  state 
and  record  the  results  of  their  observations,  so 
that  they  may  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  words 
used  to  express  the  characteristic  peculiarities  of 
different  objects.     Here  will  be  afforded  a  wide 


VNY  95 

range  for  the  exercise  of  emu/iorotii-e  observation, 
in  the  perception  of  both  resemblances  and 
differences,  but  particularly  the  latter.  Ii  is  aoi 
requisite,  nay  it  would  be  injurious,  to  teach 
anything  of  classification  tit  this  stage;  nor  in- 
deed is  it  necessary  that  the  child  should  know 
the  name  of  any  plant  the  whole  or  part  of 
which  is  under  observation.  Some  prefer  to 
teach  the  names:  since  the  child's  mind  has  a 
craving  for  the  names  of  such  objects  as  interest 


plan  can  be 
invented  by 


plest  characteristics,  as  the  parts  of  the  leaf- 
its  blade,  petioles,  stipules:  its  venation,  margin. 
etc.  The  general  appearance  ot  these  ma v  be  at 
first  represented  by  pictures,  but  only  to' enable 
the  learner  to  study  the  natural  objects,  which 
he  carefully  observes,  and  writes  the  characters 
in  his  schedule,  attaching  each  specimen  to  it,  as 
a  verification  to  the  teacher  of  the  accuracy  of 
his  observation.  (See  Youmans's  First  Book  of 
Botany.)  It  will  be  easily  seen  that  by  a  con- 
tinuous application  of  this  plan,  the  pupil  will 
acquire  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  plants,  as  well  as  of  the  nomenclature 
of  the  science ;  and.  moreover,  that  .at  everj  step 
his  observation,  and  his  judgment  too,  will  be 
thoroughly  exercised  and  trained,  in  order  to  be 
able  to  describe  the  minute  di.-tiiu-tioiis  of  form, 
structure,  color,  etc..  that  are  subjected  to  hi-  dis- 


children  in  the  empirical  sciences  should  mainly 
consist  in  exhibiting  to  them  interesting  objects 
and  phenomena  :  in  allowing  them  to  look, 
handle,  and  ask  questions;  and  in  giving  oppor- 
tunity for  the  free  exercise  of  their  youthful 
imaginations.  A  teacher  may  guide  them  in 
their  explorations  of  the  neighborhood,  direct 
their  observations,  make  inquiries,  give  explana- 
tions, conduct  experiments,  call  things  by  their 
right  names  :  but  he  must  be  careful  to  do  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  not  to  check  their  play  of 
fancy  or  chill  their  flow  of  feeling.''  (See 
WioKF.iisti  wt's  MrthiuU  .//'  liis/riir/iim.)  But  the 
young  pupil  is  not  to  be  kept  constantly  at 
mere  observation, or  the  comparison  of  the  form. 
structure  color,  etc.,  of  leaves,  flowers,  and  other 
parts  of  plants:  his  attention  may  be  called  to 
the  simple  facts  of  vegetable  physiology,  .and  thus 
shown  ••how  plants  grow''  and  "how  they  be- 
have," as  well  as  w  hat  they  are.  The  elementary 
works  of  Prof.  (-Jray,  bearing  the  titles  above 
quoted  (Hoic  Plants  Grow,  and  How  Plants 
Behave), anA  \h.  Hooker's  CfiiloVs  Book  of  Nat- 
are,  will  be  useful   auxiliaries  to  the  teacher  for 


in; 


this  purpose.  Such  information  as  the  circula- 
tion of  the  sap,  its  use.  the  functions  of  the  leaf, 
the  root,  the  flower,  and  the  seed,  communicated 
in  an  appropriate  style  and  explained  by  their 
analogy  with  other  things,  familiar  to  the  mind 
of  every  child,  will  properly  supplement  the 
knowledge  gained  by  the  pupil  through  his  own 
observations.  The  following  description  from 
the  Child's  Book  of  Nature,  wil]  illustrate  what 
is  meant  by  this  : 

"The  bark  is  not  all  one  thing.  It  is  made 
up  of  two  parts  ;  or  rather,  we  should  say,  there 
are  two  barks.  There  is  an  outer  bark  and  an 
inner  one.     The  outer  bark  has  no  life  in  it. 

It  is  this  outer  bark  that  gives  such  a  roughness 
to  the  trunks  of  some  trees,  as  the  elm  and  the 
oak.  This  outer  bark  is  a  coat  for  the  tree.  It 
covers  up  the  living  parts  so  that  they  shall  not 
be  injured.  It  does  for  the  tree  what  our  clothes 
do  for  our  bodies.  It  is  not  a  perfectly  tight 
coat.  It  has  little  openings  everywhere  in  it.  It 
would  be  bad  for  the  tree  to  have  this  coat  on  it 
tight,  just  as  it  would  be  bad  for  our  bodies  to 
have  an  India-rubber  covering  close  to  thi   skin." 

In  such  a  simple  style  as  this,  and  with  the 
use  of  similar  illustrations,  much  interest  may 
be  awakened  in  the  child's  mind,  its  observing 
and  reasoning  faculties  quickened,  ami  a 
love  of  natural  objects  infused,  which  independ- 
ently of  the  practical  use  of  the  knowledge 
gained,  will  constitute  a  mental  culture  of  the 
highest  value  and  prove  a  life-long  blessing  to  its 


hi, 


tion  will  have  been  laid.  In  this  branch  of  study, 
as  in  all  other  departments  of  natural  history, 
the  1 1  n 'lit  a  1  processes  to  be  successively  performed 

are:  [1)  Observation,  with  the  view  1 ar 

ison  and  analysis  :  •_'■  Classification;  (3)  Induc- 
tion, or  the  discovery  of  principles,  so  as  to  em- 
body the  observed  facts  into  a  science  ;  and  (4) 
Application  of  the  scientific  principles  to  new 
facts.  The  elementary  exercises  already  described 
conduct  the  pupil  through  the  first  stage  only ; 
but  the  scientific  study  does  not  begin  until  the 
third,  and  is  not  completed  till  he  has  become 
practiced  in  the  fourth.  The  observation  of 
common  characters  in  plants  will  necessarily 
lead  the  mind  of  the  pupil  to  perceive  the 
method  and  the  value  of  classification  :  but  such 
exercises  need  not  be  very  protracted,  since  it  is 
natural  even  to  a  child  to  generalize  and  classify. 
He  will  soon  be  prepared  for  the  methodical 
study  of  systematic  botany:  and  then  very 
properly  may  be  supplied  with  a  good  text-book. 
Hut  the  pupils  must  only  use  it  as  an  auxiliary 
or  instrument,  in  the  study  of  nature.    Let  them 

still  be  ei uraged  to  colled  s| Lmens.to  notice 

as  fully  and  accurately  as  possible  their  peculiar- 
ities, and  to  describe  them  by  the  proper  terms. 
Some  simple  means  of  drying  and  preserving 
plants  will  he  very  serviceable,  so  that  the  school 
at  least  may  possess  a  tolerably  complete  her- 
barium. Magnified  and  colored  representations, 
such    as    those    supplied   by    Prang's   Natural 


History  Series,  and  especially  Henslow's  Botan- 
ical Charts,  will  prove  a  great  aid  in  showing 
clearly  what  the  pupils  fail  to  make  out  in  the 
actual  specimens.  For  the  purpose  of  analyzing 
flowers,  etc..  a  small  microscope  will  be  needed; 
one  that  can  be  so  used  as  to  leave  both  hands 
free  for  the  work  of  dissection,  is  greatly  to  be 
preferred.  This,  with  a  sharp  knife,  forceps, 
and  large  needles,  fixed  in  handles,  is  all  that  will 
be  needed.  Judgment  should  be  exercised  in 
the  selection  of 'the  flowers  for  analysis.  The 
simpler  and  more  obvious,  as  the  'l'riiri/,r<r. 
Rosacea ,  LeguminosOE,  Ranu?iculacea>,  Violacece, 
and  Labiatce,   before    such    orders  as  the  Com- 


The  artificial  keys  supplied  in  most  text- 
books should  be  used  with  judgment.  Students 
are  veiy  apt  to  become  absorbed  in  the  desire  to 
discover  the  names  of  plants  by  the  use  of  these 
devices,  as  if  that  were  the  end  of  the  study. 
But  while  there  is  no  doubt  that  much  progress 
can  be  made  by  the  verification  of  the  order  and 


peculiarities  of  plants,  and  in  their  classification, 
that  he  may  be  able  to  place  them  at  once  where 
they  belong,  only  using  the  key  when  he  has 
come  across  a  specimen  which  belongs  to  some 
order  with  which  he  is  unacquainted. 

'flic  utility  ot  botany  as  a  branch  of  school 
study  ha-  been  thoughtlessly  called  in  question. 
Its  value  as  an  educational  agent  has  already 
been  sufficiently  shown,  and  a  brief  consideration 
of  the  relations  of  vegetable  lib'  to  the  most 
important  interests  of  society  will  sullice  to 
demonstrate  its  exceeding  importanceasa  branch 
of  knowledge.  The  agriculturi  I  ;  greatly  a1 
fault  who  knows  nothing  of  the  principles  of 
vegetable  physiology,  who  cannot  distinguish  the 
properties  and  characteristics  of  the  plants  that 
cover  his  domain  —  some  the  object  of  his  most 
tender  care  ami  concern. others  his  greatest  bane. 
The  florist  and  horticulturist  are  certainly  un- 
acquainted with  their  own  arts,  unless  they  are 
proficient  in  a  knowledge  of  the  structure, 
functions,  and  habits  of  plants:  and  the  apoth- 
ecary and  physician  have  also  an  especial  need 
of  similar  information.  The  geographer  and  the 
geologist  :  and  indeed  the  scientist,  in  every  de- 
partment, needs  to  have  a  good  acquaintance 
with  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Says  Prof.  Hen- 
trey:  •  In  geography,  that  is,  physical  geography, 
ll < retc  natural  history  of   pi. ml     become;-  a 


;.l.y.- 


abstiact  point  of  view,  or  for  the  purpose  of 
practical  application;  while  the  systematic  classi- 
fications, and  the  natural  history  of  particular 
species,  become  the  only  guide  by  which  we  can 
attempt  to  trace  back  the  existing  conditions  of 
distribution  towards   their  origin,  and  thus  per- 


B0WPO1X  COLLEGE 

form  the  share  due  to  botany  :  in  the  historical 
connection  of  physical  geography  with  geology, 
of  which  it  is  properly  only  the  statical  part." 
Moreover,  to  the  clergyman,  the  lawyer,  the 
orator,  and  all  who  need  to  cultivate  and  employ 
the  art  of  persuasion,  involvingas  it  does,  too, 
the  art  of  elucidation,  feu  subjects  present  bo 
wide  a  field  for  familiar  and  impressive  illustra- 
tions as  the  domain  of  plant-,  rich  not  only  in 
those  natural  flowers  which  are  pleasing  to  the 
eye.  hut  also  in  those  Bowers  of  speech,  which 
constitute  the  most  attractive  ornaments  of 
rhetoric  and  poetry.  The  traveler  and  explorer 
in  distant  lands,  who  is  a  botanist,  can  find  in 
the  flora  of  every  region  he  visits,  food  for  prof- 
itable instruction  and  research  ;  and  the  rural 
wayfarer,  who  has  tied  the  bustle  an  I  confusion 
of  city  life  for  relief  and  rest,  w  ill,  in  a  knowledge 
of  this  science,  never  fail  to  realize. at  every  step 
he  takes,  the  most  refreshing  enjoyment.  Surely 
no  stronger  plea  can  beset  up  for  any  of  the 
branches  of  study  which  occupy  so  conspicuousa 
place  in  the  educational  schemes  of  schools  and 
colleges,  those  alone  excepted  which  n  institute  the 
indispensable  foundation  of  all  mental  improve- 
ment—See Youmans,  /■:■/,„■,,/„„„,/  <■/,,;,„<  „f 
Boftm»(N.T.,1870  .  First  Book  >  '  Botany  (Ts 
Y..  1870),  and  Second  Bool  of  Botany  iN.  Y„ 
18T3)  :  Gray.  How  Plants  Grow  (N.  . '..  L858  ; 
F.  A.  P.  Barnam>,  Early  Mental  Training,  and 
Henfeet's  lecture  on  the  Educational  Claims 
of  BotanicalS  ien  e,  in  Th  Culture  demanded 
by  Modern  Life,  edited  by  B.  LYocmans(N.  Y. 
1867);  Wickersham,  Methods  of  Instruction 
(Phil.,  L865  :  Bow  to  Teach,a  Manual  of  Meth- 
ods (X.  Y.,  1873). 

BOWDOIN  COLLEGE,  at  Brunswick. 
Maine,  the  oldest  and  most  prominent  literary 
institution  in  the  state,  was  chartered  in  1794, 
and  organized  in  181)2.  It  was  named  in  honor 
of  Gov.  dames  Bowdoin  of  Massachusetts.  The 
government  was  vested  in  a  board  of  trustees 
and  a  board  of  overseers,  which,  in  1801 .  elected 
Joseph  McKeen.  1).  If.  the  first  presided  of  the 
College,  lie  was  succeeded,  in  1807,  by  Jesse 
Appleton,  D.  D.,  who  served  till  1819,  when 
Hew  William  Allen  was  elected  his  successor.  I 
and  continued  in  office  till    1839,  when  he  was 

succeeded     I  iv    Leonard    W Is,     I  >.    I  >.,    who    held 

ollicetill  ISliti.    In  lMiT.  the  Key.  Samuel  Harris, 


ipplii 

•hoi,, 


lications:    l':ii    Philosophy,  comprising   psy- 
chology, metaphysics,  ethics,  esthetics,  and  pol- 

'  H  tei    including  tin-  I  hem -\   of   govern- 


ited  felloics,to  reside  at  the  college  with  all 
rivileges  of  the  same  one  or  two  years 

r,    without    charge,   enjoy  me    facilities   for 

s  -till  more  advanced,  with  opportunities 
aching    in    the   line  of   their  specialties. 

attention   is  given  to  phys 
-inn,    being   provided    with 

■d  upon  phv.-iolo. deal  and  h\ 

•al  culture,  a 

the  most  ap- 
are  carefully 

ith  the  view  to  develop  the  bodilypowers, 
v,  at    the  same  time,  subst  rvienl   to  the 
ine  of  the  mind.  Instruction  is  also  afforded 
itary  science,  and  daily  exercises  in  drill 

en   bv  an  officer  of  the  army  detailed   for 
lurpose.     Since  is;;!,  these  drill  exercises 
been   optional,   the  student-  electing  be- 
theni   and    the    gymnasium.      Medical 
ig  i-  given  through  the  Medical  School  of 

apparatus  is  a 

and    it-  pn 

hi. ■in. 

funds  amount 

o    S  |  ;»  t 

000. 

Th liege 

and  B0- 

ciety  libraries  i 

mtaini 

bout 

1,000  volun 

roll  of  alumni 

illustrious 

iiames 

Here,  in  1825, 

gradua 

ed  11 

nry  W.  Loi 

del  low 

and    Nathaniel 

llawt 

ionic 

and    subsc 

inentlv 

Franklin  Pien 

!,  ( feo. 

',.  <  !hl 

ever.  John  1 

.  Hale 

S.S.  Prentiss. 

nd  Cal 

vin  E 

Stowe.  'flu 

mas  ( !. 

tJpham,   D.  D. 

was  p 

ofessor  of  mental 

philos- 

ophy   from    18 

867  ■ 

and   H.  W 

Long- 

fellow  held    till 

positii 

n  of  ] 

irofessor  of 

nodeni 

i-lm; 


the  present  incumbent.  The  prevailing  religious  which 
denomination  is  the  <  'ongregationalist.  Provision 
is  made  in  this  institution  for  a  scientific  course 
of  study,  distinct  from  the  regular  collegiate 
course,  during  the  last  two  years,  and  especiallj 
embracing  the  modern  languages,  natural  science, 
engineering,  mechanics,  and  drawing.  There  is 
also  a  post-graduate  course,  which  affords  in- 
struction in  (1)  Letters,  comprising  languages, 
ancient  and  modern  (including  the  oriental). 
with  the  literature  of  each  :  philology,  rhetoric, 
logic,  history,  elocution,  and  the  fine  arts;  (2) 
Science,  comprising  higher  mathematics,  physics, 
natural  history,  and  chemistry,  in  their  uses  and 


■rally  afforded  to  indigent  students. 
BOYS,  Education  of.  In  the  education  of 
boys,  the  same  general  principles  are  to  heap 
plied  as  in  that  of  girls  :  and.  up  to  a  certain  age. 
in  their  school  education,  the  same  arrangements 
for  discipline  and  instruction  will  answer.  Edu- 
cation, however,  rightly  considered,  has   I 

object  to  aid  and  guide  the  develop nt   of  the 

powers  or  faculties,  both  generic  and  specific 
of  the  individuals  who  are  subjected  to  its  minis- 
trations :  and.  consequently,  its  processes  should 
vary  with  the  character  of  the  faculties  which 
are  to  be  developed.  And  this  is  by  no  means 
the  whole.     Education  is  to  be  add  n  i 


the  elements  of  character, — physical,  mental,  and 
moral.  There  are  propensities  to  restrain  and 
subdue  as  well  as  powers  to  bring  out  and  direct. 
There  are  tendencies  to  good  to  cultivate  and  en- 
courage; and  there  are.  from  the  first,  those  of  an 
opposite  character  to  repress  or  extinguish. 
There  is  not  only  the  intelligence  to  be  stimu- 
lated and  guided,  there  is  the  will  to  be  subdued, 
— to  be  made  subject,  not  only  to  the  authority 
of  the  educator,  but  to  the  conscience  of  the  edu- 
cated. Doubtless,  there  are  principles  sufficiently 
comprehensive  to  embrace  all  these  considera- 
tions, and  to  afford  a  safe  foundation  for  prac- 
tical methods  and  rules  sufficiently  minute  to 
reach  every  case,  however  peculiar  or  eccentric  ; 
but  what  we  wish  hen'  especially  to  lay  down,  is 
the  important,  fundamental  law,  thai  education, 
claiming  to  be  scientific,  and  nut  a,  mere  mechan- 
ical empiricism,  must  take  cognizance  of  all  these 
elements  of  human  character,  not  only  in  then- 
average  condition  and  degree,  but  in  those 
marked  diversities  which  constitute  individual 
character.  (See  Education.)  According  to  this 
principle,  boys  and  girls  can  never  properly  be 
subjected  to  precisely  the  same  processes  of  edu- 
cation, because  their  natures  are  very  different, 
— physically,  mentally,  ami  morally.  This  fact 
is,  however,  not  necessarily  in  conflict  with  co- 
education ;  indeed,  it  may  be  an  argument  in 
favor  of  it.  Children  of  both  sexes  may  be 
trained  in  the  same  family,  and  instructed  in  the 
same  school  or  class;  but  the  wise  parent  and 
the  skillful  teacher  will  often  have  to  make  a 
careful  discrimination  in  his  treatment  of  them 
as  boys  or  girls. 

The  ancients  had  very  different  educational 
systems  for  the  two  sexes,  for  two  reasons :  (1) 
because  of  I  heir  diverse  natures,  and  ('_')  because 
of  their  different  spheres  of  life.  Nearly  all 
that  we  read  of  ancient  education  concerns  boys; 
but  we  are  not  to  suppose,  for  this  reason,  that 
the  education  of  the  girls  was  overlooked.  That 
of  the  boys  was  public,  and  was  a  matter  of  pub- 
lic concern,  for  the  welfare  and  the  safety  of  the 
state  depended  upon  it ;  but  that  of  the  girls 
exclusively  belonged  to  the  social  circle,  and  was, 
therefore,  strictly  private. 

In  the  I'l/riipipi/in  of  Xenophon,  we  have  a 
beautiful  picture  of  the  education  of  boys  among 
the  Persians,  fictitious  in  some  particulars,  with- 
out doubt,  but  illustrative  of  ancient  manners 
and  views  as  to  the  objects  of  such  an  edu- 
cation. The  public  good  was  the  exclusive 
end  of  this  system;  and  as  the  education  of 
the  future  citizens  for  their  duties  in  peace 
and  war  was  the  most  important  concern  of 
the  state,  this  duty  was  not  left  to  the  parents, 
by  whom  it  might  be  neglected  or  improperly 
performed,  but  was  the  subject  of  s] ial  gov- 
ernmental regulations.  Boys  were  all  brought 
up  in  common,  according  to  a  uniform  system, 
which  prescribed  the  kind  of  food,  the' times 
of  eating,  the  nature  and  duration  of  physical 
exercises,  and  the  modes  of  punishment.  By 
a  very  plain  and  simple  diet,  the  boys  were 
accustomed    to    strict  temperance;    and    such 


modes  of  bodily  exercise  were  employed  as  would 
inure  them  to  the  hardships  and  fatigues  of  war. 
In  their  schools,  the  chief  object  was 'to  teach  the 
pupils  justice  and  virtue,  with  the  view  that  it  is 
much  easier  to  prevent  the  commission  of  crimes 
by  proper  early  education,  than  by  severity 
of  punishment 'at  a  more  advanced  period  of 
life. 

The  Spartan  system  of  educating  boys  re- 
sembled that  of  the  Persians  as  described  by 
Xenophon,  except  that  it  was  deficient  in  some 
of  the  finer  moral  elements ;  and  in  its  physical 
characteristics  was.  perhaps,  more  severe.  (See 
Sparta.)  For  an  account  of  the  education  of 
boys  among  the  Athenians,  see  Atiikxs.  Among 
the  Romans,  the  education  of  boys  was  under 
tie  guidance  of  the  father:  though  much  of  it, 
particularly  in  its  earliest  stages,  was  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  mother.  She  attended 
not  only  to  their  physical  wants,  but  took  pains 
to  form  their  language,  their  ideas,  their  moral 
sentiments,  and  their  religious  feelings.  » If  this 
we  have  an  example  in  Cornelia,  the  mother  of 
the  I  iracchi.  Later,  the  boy  was  furnished  with 
a  austos,  or  paedagogus,  who  sometimes  in- 
structed him  in  gymnastics,  or  accompanied  him 
to  the  exercises,  or  to  the  theatre,  being  responsible 
for  his  safety.  This  office,  in  a  Roman  family, 
was  performed  by  one  of  the  older  slaves,  and  its 
functions  continued  until  the  age  of  maul 1  was 

reached.  Some  distinguished  Romans,  the  elder 
Cato  for  example,  taught  their  own  sons;  but 
usually  teachers  were  especially  employed  to  give 

instruction  in  reading,  writing,  calculation,  rhet- 
oric, etc.  A  teacher  of  this  kind  was  called 
ludi  magister.  Youths  were,  for  the  space  of  a 
year,  exercised  in  arms  in  the  Campus  Martius, 
and  in  swimming  in  the  Tiber,  [r^cr  I.'omk.)  The 
most  celebrated  writer  on  the  education  of  boys 
among  the  Romans  is  Quintilian,  whose  great 
work  Tnstiivtiones  Oratoris,  although  designed 
to  explain  the  education  necessary  for  the  com- 
plete orator,  yet  treats  likewise  of  the  early 
training  and  instruction  of  the  boy.  Thus  he 
says :  "  Many  are  opposed  to  the  public  schools, 
for  the  reason  that  the  children  acquire  bad 
habits  there,  and  also  because  the  teacher  can 
bestow  more  attention  upon  one  than  upon 
many  ;  but  these  objections  against  the  good  old 
regulations  are  not  valid,  since  there  are  also 
many  evils  connected  with  private  instruction; 
and,  moreover,  if  boys  were  not  early  rendered 
effeminate, they  would  nol  be  so  easily  corrupted 
in  the  public  schools.  The  instruction  in  these 
schools  is  to  be  preferred,  especially  for  the  fu- 
ture orator,  in  order  that  he  may  accustom  him- 
self to  the  multitude,  and  be  stimulated  bvcom- 


of  his  pupils,  and  to  treat  every  one  according 
to  his  peculiar  traits.  Other  Roman  writers 
treated  of  the  education  of  youth.  Varro  wrote 
Capys,aut  de  Kberis  educandis, which, together 

with    most  of  this  author's  numerous  treatises, 


BOYS 

In  modern  times,  most  of  the  special  treatises 
on  education  refer  particularly  to  the  training 
and  instruction  of  boys.  This  is  true  of  Mon- 
taigne, Milton,  and  Locke.  Thespecial  education 
of  girls  has  engaged  the  attention  of  but  few 
writers.    Very  many, therefore,  of  the  principles 

and  rules  laid  down  are  based  upon  the  ] uliar 

disposition  and  character  of  boys.  Milton  8  defini- 
tion of  education  is  limited  to  the  one  sex,  its 
scope  being"to  tit  a  man  to  perform  justly,  skill- 
fully, and  magnanimously  all  tin-  others.  I ■■  »tli 
private  and  public,  of  peace  and  war";  and  his 
various  directions  as  to  studies,  physical  exer- 
cises, etc..  all  have  an  exclusive  application  to 
hoys,  who  lie  says,  among  other  things,  "  must  be 
also  practiced  in  all  the  locks  and  gripes  of 
wrestling,  wherein  Englishmen  were  wont  to 
excel,  as  need  may  often   be  in  fight  to  tug,  to 

grapple,  and  to  close."        Kellejng  he  part  icllln  I'l  V 

approves:  "  The  exercise  which  1  commend  first, 
is  the  exact  use  of  their  weapon,  to  guard,  and 
to  strike  safely  with  edge  or  point;  this  will 
keep  them  healthy,  nimble,  strong,  and  well  in 
breath,  is  also  the  likeliest  means  to  make  them 
grow  large  anil  tall,  and  to  inspire  them  with  a 
gallant  and  fearless  courage,  which  beiii".  t.  111- 
pered  with  seasonable  lectures  and  precepts  to 
them  of  true  fortitude  and  patience,  will  turn 
into  a  native  and  heroic  valor,  and  make  them 
hate  the  cowardice  of  doing  wrong." 

.Most  writers  on  education  have  recognized  the 
necessity  of  discriminating  between  the  sexes  in 
education.  "  From  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
year,"  says  Schwarz,  "the  two  sexes  require,  in 
almost  every  respect,  a  different  education.  The 
principal  concern  of  boys  are  the  studies  of 
school,  alternating  with  bodily  exercise.  Their 
amusements  are.  at  an  early  age.  of  the  more 
active  kind  :  chasing  the  butterfly,  and  scouring 
the  plain  with  other  boys;  at  a  later  age,  they 
should  engage  in  pedestrian  excursions  and  hold 
undertakings,  and  enjoy  the  cheerful  company  of 
their  equals;  taking  care,  however,  that  their 
playmates  be  of  the  proper  character,  and  that 
their  hearts  be  cultivated  for  what  is  noble  and 
generous.  This  vigilant  supervision  should  fol- 
low them  to  the  latter  years  of  youth, and  guard 
them  against  all  bad  company.  Their  propensity 
to  imitate  their  older  associates,  which,  among 
other  evil  practices,  so  often  leads  to  the  early 
habit  of  smoking,  and  the  like,  should  be  en- 
listed on  the  side  of  what  is  good  and  praise- 
worthy, by  constantly  managing  their  entire 
education  in  accordance  with  sound  principles." 
The  same  writer  also  observes  very  justly  :  ••  Al- 
though boys  should  be  chiefly  educated  by  men. 
and  girls  by  women,  the  two  sexes  should  unite 
in  the  education  of  both  boys  and  girls."  The 
boy  requires  the  mild  and  gentle  treatment  of 
the  mother,  in  order  that  his  sensibility  may  not 
become  callous  :  and.  besides. he  will  always  need 
sonic  intercourse  with  persons  of  the  other  sex, 
both  young  and  adult,  as  it  is  found  in  families, 
because  otherwise  he  will  contract  habits  of 
rudeness,  without  developing  a  susceptibility  for 
the  finer  feelings  of  humanity." 


The  requirements   of    modern   civilization,  as 
well  as  the  usages  of  modern   social    life,  appear 

to  dictate  a  separate  education  for  boys,  after  the 


however,  there  is  great  difference  of  opin- 
lanv.  and  particularly  females  themselves 
n. ling  to,  the  breaking  down  of  all  distinc- 


d  St 


that,  among  private  seminaries,  this  rule  chieflj 
prevails.  Hoarding-schools,  with  arrangements 
for  gymnastic  and  other  physical  exercis  and 
a  seh. ml  military  drill,  are  quite  common; 
while  business  and  commercial  colleges  and 
schools  have  b me  very  numerous.  (See  Bu- 
siness Colleges.)  These  institutions  aim  to 
give  a  training  which  will  tit  their  pupils   to  till 


honor  and  integrity 

as  will 

ive  them  true  man- 

liness and  Christia 

ly.     Some  of  these 

institutions  are  opt 

11    to    gn 

Is  as  well  ;  but  just 

as  there  are  semim 

colleges  which  are 

for  female,  exclusi> 

ire   are  likewise  in- 

stitutions especially 

levoted 

to  the  education  of 

boys.  —  See    Mn,io\ 

.  0/  a 

lucaiion  ;  Schwarz, 

Erzieh is    ' 

eipsic, 

1 829 1  :     Bousse  iu 

Emii.k.  i /: . 

a :  1 

.  1.  Schmidt,  His- 

tory  of  Ea 

v  y 

1842);    IIui.vun. 

History  of  P  dago. 

v  it  line 

mati.  1-74.1 

BRAIDWOOD, 

Thorns 

is,  a  noted  teacher 

of  deaf-mutes,  was 

born  in 

Scotland  in   1715, 

and  died  at  Hackne 

r,  near  I 

union,  in  1806.  He 

kept   an   establishn 

•lit     at 

Dumbiedikes,   near 

f.'.r  deaf-mutes  in  G 

as    the 

inson  pi 

ir.-i    regular  school 
ain.      It    is  this  in- 
aised  so  highly,  and 

in  which,  as  recorded  by  Boswcll,  he  gavi f 

his  sesquipedalia  verba,  to  test  the  skill  of  the 
pupils  in  articulation.  (See  Boswell's  Life  of 
Johnson.)      Subsequently,    Braidwood    kept    a 

school  at  Hackney,  near  London,  in  which  he 
continued  till  his  death,  and  which  was  after- 
ward maintained  by  his  widow  and  grand-chil- 
dren till  1816.  He  kept  his  methods  of  instruc- 
tion secret  as  far  as  possible:  but  the  chief  fea- 
ture of  his  system  was  articulation  and  reading 


all 


from  the  lip.  The  n 
wise  employed.  An  : 
school  was  published 
ton,  the  father  of  one 
a  work  entitled  Vox 
1783). 

BRAILLE,  Louis,  the  inventor  of  a  tan- 
gible point  system  for  the  instruction  of  the 
blind,  was  born  near  Paris  in  1809,  and  died  in 
1852.     He  lost  his  sight  at  a  very  early  age,  and 


like- 
linburgh 

.  (,-,  .,,  oi    B. 
w- i  s  pupils,  in 

///>/, ■(•/<!  (London, 


100 


Bli-AIX 


was  instructed  in  the  institute  for  the  blind  at 
Paris.  He  was  highly  distinguished  for  his  in- 
telligence, and  the  rapidity  with  which  he  ac- 
coin|,li.,liri|  himself  in  various  branches  of  knowl- 
edge, particularly  music;  and  besides  being  a 
skillful  player  upon  several  other  instruments, 
was  reckoned  among  the  best  organists  of  his 
time.  At  the  age  of  eighteen,  he  bi  sune  a  pro- 
fessor in  the  Royal   Institute:  and  while  in  that 

positi about  1839),  devised   his   method   of 

writing, based  on  the  point  system  of  M.  <  'harles 
Barbier,  which  he  also  applied  to  musical  nota- 
tion. L'-  systeme  Braille  w,is  introduced  in  most 
of  the  continental  schools.  A  new  system  of 
tangible  point  writing  and  printing  has,  quite 
recently,  been  devised  by  William  I!.  Wait, 
superintendent  of  the  Xew  York  institution  for 
the  blind,  in  which  the  letters  which  occur 
oftenest,  such  as  e,  a,  and  /.  are  represented  by 
the  smallest  number  of  points.  — See  Wait's 
New  York  System  of  Tangible  Musical  Notation 
and  Point  Writing  and  Printing  (Xew  York, 
1873). 

BRAIN,  the  principal  organ  of  the  nervous 
system,  and  the  fountain  of  nervous  energy 
to  the  whole  body.  It  is  the  seat  of  conscious- 
ness, feeling,  and  intellect,  and  also  the  recipient 
of  all  impressions  made  on  any  part  of  the  nerv- 
ous system.  The  brain  being  the  organ  espe- 
cially concerned  in  education,  its  hygiene  is  an 
important  subject  for  the  attention  of  the 
teacher.  The  development  of  this  organ  is  very 
rapid.  The  average  weight  of  the  brain  in 
adults  is  about  48  ounces,  and  this  limit  is  gener- 
ally attained  at  the  age  of  thirteen  years.  Xo 
organ  is.  from  the  time  of  birth,  so  regularly  .'in. 1 
so  incessantly  exercised  as  the  brain.  During 
the  period  of  infancy, nature  herself  superintends 
this  process:  and  unless  her  care  is  interfered 
with  through  the  ignorance,  folly,  or  neglect  of 
the  mother  or  nurse,  it  results  in  a  healthy 
growth  and  development.  When  the  age  of  in- 
fancy is  passed,  and  the  child  is  surrendered  to 
the  educator,  intelligence  and  skill  may  accom- 
plish much  benefit  in  regulating  the  cerebral  de- 
velopment; or  a  want  of  skill  and  intelligence 
may  do,  and  often  does,  very  great  injury.  Ex- 
ercise is  the  natural  instrument  by  which  all  the 
bodily  organs  are  brought  to  a  maturity  of 
growth  and  strength,  and  by  which  they  are 
kept  in  a  condition  of  health.  In  applying  this 
principle,  the  teacher  should  see  that  the  exercise 
be  proper,  (1 )  as  to  its  kind,  (2)  as  to  its  degree, 
(3)  as  to  its  direction ;  and  in  all  these  respects, 
that  it  is  adapted  to  the  age  and  peculiar  phys- 
ical condition  of  the  cluld  to  be  educated.  The 
same  process  will  not  answer  for  all.  The  teacher 
who  wishes  to  do  good,  whose  aim  is  really  to 
educate,  will  study  the  external  indications  of 
temperament,  of  bodily  health  and  disease,  and 
also  of  cerebral  structure;  and  will,  as  far  as 
possible,  regulate  his  operations  accordingly.  The 
brain  is  exercised  both  by  thought  and  feeling ; 
being  the  seat  of  various'  faculties,  both  mental 
and  moral,  its  activities  arc  aroused  by  whatever 
is  addressed  to  the  intellect,  the  conscience,  the 


emotions,  or  the  propensities.  "  The  first  step," 
says  Combe. -towards  establishing  the  regular 
exercise  of  the  brain,  is  to  educate  and  train  the 
mental  faculties  in  youth  ;  and  the  second  is  to 
place  the  individual  habitually  in  circumstances 
demanding  the  discharge  of  useful  and  impor- 
tant duties."  The  healthy  development  of  the 
brain  maybe  prevented  (1)  by  wrong  exercise. 
(2)  by  being  overtasked,  (3)  by  bad  physical  con- 
ditions, (4)  by  bad  moral  conditions.  Over- 
strained or  too  long  continued  attention,  excess- 
ive tasks  from  books,  committed  to  memory 
under  the  pressure  of  fear,  long  confinement  in 
close  rooms,  and  hence  the  want  of  properly 
oxygenated  air,  will  impair  the  functions  of  the 
brain,  and  lay  the  foundation,  not  only  of  future 
disease,  but  perhaps  of  future  imbecility.  So. 
too.  when  subjected  to  harsh  discipline,  to  un- 
kind treatment,  to  a  moral  atmosphere  vitiated 
by  the  irritability,  ill-humor,  and  moroseness  of 
the  parent  or  teacher,  the  brain  of  the  child 
loses  even  its  natural  or  normal  physical  condi- 
tion ;  and  its  growth  is  necessarily  morbid.  (See 
Physical  Education.) 

BRAZIL,  an  empire  of  South  America, 
having  an  area  of  3,288,100  sq.m.,  and  a  popula- 
tion,according  to  thecensusof  1872,  of  9,700,187. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  important  states  of  the 
world,  being  exceeded,  in  extent,  only  by  the 
Russian,  British,  and  Chinese  empire's,  and  by 
the  United  States:  while,  in  regard  to  popula- 
tion, it  ranks  as  the  Kith  state.  The  established 
religion  of  the  empire  is  the  Roman  Catholic; 
but  according  to  Art.  5.  of  the  constitution,  all 
other  religions  arc  tolerated,  '  with  their  domestic 
or  private  forms  of  worship,  in  buildings  erected 
for  this  purpose,  but  without  the  exterior  form 
of  temples."  Xo  person  can  be  persecuted  for 
religious  acts  or  motives.  The  number  of  Prot- 
estants is  estimated  at  about  30,000.  The  ma- 
jority of  them  arc  Germans,  who  have  about 
I'll  chin,  hes  and  are  united  in  a  synod.  Besides 
the  German  Protestants,  there  are  English  and 
French  Protestant  churches;  and  the  Presbyteri- 
ans of  the  United  States  have  established  a  small 
number  of  congregations  among  the  native 
Brazilian  population.  The  national  language  is 
the  Portuguese.  The  number  of  German  and 
Swiss  colonies  was,  in  1869,  about  50,  with 
about  40,000  (ierman-speaking  settlers.  The 
whites  number  probably  one  third  of  the  popula- 
tion, the  remaining  two-thirds  being  made  up  of 
mixed  races,  civilized  and  savage  Indians,  and 
Africans,  which  last  form  the  most  numerous 
unmixed  race  in  the  empire.  The  number  of 
savage  Indians  is  estimated  at  from  250,000  to 
500,000.  They  are  divided  into  a  large  number 
of  different  tribes  and  speak  many  different 
dialects,  though  all  understand  the  tingoa  geral, 
which  was  formed  by  the  priests,  traders,  and 
slave-hunters,  on  the  basis  of  the  Tiijn-Guaraid 
(language  of  the  native  tribes  Tupiimd  Ouarani.) 
The  Indians  being  found  unprofitable  as  slaves, 
recourse  was  had  to  the  importation  of  negroes 
from  Africa.  These  were  treated,  until  1850 
with  almost  unparalleled  cruelty,  though  eman- 


eipation  was  always  encouraged,  and  no  man  was 
debarred  by  bis  color  from  reaching  any  position 
in  church  or  state.  A  law,  passed  Sept.  28.,  1*71. 

'"  Ih'.'ml  was  ,usc"',ve,v!l  anil  \]Zu  y^Z'Lu  ,,< 

for  the  king  of  Portugal,  in  15  lO.and  from  thai 


ZIL  101 

intention   to   introduce  compulsorj    instruction 

and  to  establish  two  national  normal  scl Is,  of 

which  there  is  as  yet  a  great   want,  as  the  few 
institutions  of  the  kind  existing  in  the  piw  inces 

ran  he  regarded  as  (inly  a  small  beginning  of  real 
normal  instruct  ion. 


■'■ 


cording  to  the  constitution  of  1824,  public  ele- 
>  mentary  instruction  is  gratuitous,  and  placed 
under  the  control  of  tin1  state.  Private  schools, 
like  all  others,  are  subject  to  the  superintendence 
of  the  state  government.  Public  instruction  is 
graded,  as  in  other  countries,  into  primary, 
secondary,  and  superior  or  scientific  instruction. 
Public  instruction,  like  ecclesiastical  affairs,  be- 
longs to  the  department  of  the  minister  of  the 
interior.  Secondary  and  primary  instruction, 
are,  however,  chiefly  regulated  by  the  provincial 
assemblies,  and  placed  under  the  administra- 
tion of  the  presidents  of  the  provinces.  As  the 
Brazilian  provinces  enjoy  a  nigh  degree  of  self- 
government,  there  is  but  little  uniformity  in  the 
organization,  but  generally  the  provinces  have 
modeled  their  schools  after  those  of  the  capital. 
As  long  as  Brazil  was  a  Portuguese  colony. 
little  was  done  for  public  instruction;  but  Dom 
Pedro  I.,  as  soon  as  he  had  ascended  the  throne, 
showed  great  interest  in  the  promotion  of 
public  education,  and  established  a  number  of 
new  schools.  Still  more  was  done  by  his  son  and 
successor,  Pedro  II.  (since  1831)  :  but  the  provi- 
sions of  the  constitution  of  lsi'4  were  never 
fully  carried  out  until  1851,  when  the  two  cham- 
bers passed  a  law  authorizing'  the  government 
to  reorganize  the  systems  of  higher  instruction 
throughout  the  empire,  and  those  of  secondary 
and  primary  instruction  in  the  capital.  In  ac- 
cordance with  this  law.  the  minister  of  the  inte- 
rior,   IViltviro   de     I 'onto    Fcrraz,   promulgated, 

Feb.  1  I..  1854,  the  organic  provisions  which  had 
been  drafted  by  De  Almeida  Roza,  and  which 
have  remained  the  basis  of  everything  that  has 
since  been  accomplished  in  I'.razil  for  the  promo- 
tion of  public  instruction. 

Brazil  litis,  like  Portugal,  public  schools  of 
v  the  first  and  second  (higher)  grade.  The  course 
of  instruction  in  the  former  embraces  religion, 
ethics,  reading  and  writing,  the  elements  of  the 
Portuguese  grammar  and  of  arithmetic,  with 
legal  weights  and  measures.  In  the  female  schools. 
instruction  is  also  given  in  embroidery  and  other 
kinds  of  needle-work.  In  the  schools  of  the  Bee 
ond  grade,  the  gospels  are  read  and  explained. 
and  instruction  is  given  in  biblical  and  universal 
history,  geography,  especially  that  of  Brazil, 
.arithmetic,  the  elements  of  geometry  and  en- 
gineering, drawing,  music  and  gymnastics.  The 
number  of  schools  is  as  yet  entirely  insufficient, 
and  as  the  salaries  paid  are  generally  very  small, 
there  is  a  great  want  of  competent  teachers. 
The  country  owes  many  important  reforms  to 
the  zealous  minister  of  the  interior,  Correa  de 
Oliveira  (1871—1875),  who  has  announced  his 


cilors.     Thei 


he  general 
ors  of  the 
tive  coun- 


11  belong  to  the  city  ot  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Pupils 
are  admitted  into  the  public  schools  from  the  5th 
to  the  15th  year  of  age.  The  school  hours  are 
mostly  from  8  to  11  A.  M.,  and  3  to  5i  P.  M. 
The  school-books,  which  must  be  approved  by 
the  inspector  general,  are  to  a  great  extent  trans- 
lations from  the  French  and  the  English;  among 
them  is  a  translation  of  Peter  Parley's  Universal 
History.    The  school  is  ope I  everyday  with 


person  appointed  by  the  inspector  general.  The 
five  most  successful   scholars    receive    rewards, 

consisting  of  books.  The  president  of  the  com- 
mittee makesa  report  on  the  examination  to  the 
ins]  lector  general. 

According  to  the  report  of  the  minister  of 
public  instruction  to  the  legislature  for  L872,the 
number  of  public  primary  schools  in  the  capital 
was  111.  with  i'i.I  19  scholars,  namely  3,900  boys 
and  2,249  girls.    The  number  of  public  primary 


1  I  18 


ad 


The  model  secondary  school  of  Brazil  is  the 
Collegia  de  Pedro  II.  at  Bio.  which  was  organ- 
ized in  1  Sfi4.  It  consists  of  2  separate  institu- 
tions, one  of  which  is  a  boarding  and  the  other  a 
day  school,  each  with  its  own  rector.  The  num- 
ber of  students  was  351;  of  whom  221  were  day 
scholars  and  130  boarders.     Besides  this  college, 


in  these  institutions  varies  somewhat,  but  m 
most  of  them  the  following  subjects  are  taught  : 
Portuguese,  Latin.  French,  English,  natural  phi- 
losophy, arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  history, 
geography,  rhetoric,  and  poetry.  The  number 
of  public  secondary  institutions  in  the  provinces 
was  107,  with  'J.'.MH  scholars,  namely  2,916boys, 
and  78  girls.  The  number  of  private  institutions 
was  12.'!,  with  an  attendance  of  .~>.ii-:i  scholars. — 
3,852  boys    and    1,237   girls.      The   secondary 


Ill- 


BRIDGMAN 


institutions  in  the  province  are  under  the  control 
of  the  provincial  administration,  and  there  is  on 
that  account  a  great  lack  of  uniformity  in  their 
courses  of  instruction  and  their  entire  admin- 
istration. The  government  of  Brazil  intends, 
however,  to  establish,  as  soon  as  practicable, state 
colleges  on  a  uniform  plan.  For  the  German 
colonies  in  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo  a  "Ger- 
man lyceum"  has  been  established ;  most  of  the 
secondary  schools  resemble,  however,  the  French 
lyceums. 

Brazil  has  as  yet  no  university  ;  but  only  two 
law  faculties  at  Recife  (Pemambuco)  and  Sao 
Paulo,  with  an  aggregate  number  of  542  students, 
and  two  medical  faculties  at  Kin  de  .Janeiro  and 
Bahia,  with  an  aggregate  number  of  868  students. 
The  establishment  of  a  complete  university  at 
Rio  de  Janeiro  is  projected,  and  is  urgently 
recommended  by  the  minister  of  public  instruc- 
tion in  his  annual  reports  to  the  legislature. 

Theological  faculties  are  connected  with  nearly 
all  the  episcopal  seminaries.  Of  other  special 
schools,  there  are  at  the  capital  a  business  college 
(with  36 students  in  1872),  an  institution  for  the 
blind  (with  111  pupilsi.  an  institution  for  deaf- 
mutes  (with  l'.i  pupils);  the  Central  School  (sci- 
entific school),  with  which  a  military  school  is 
connected,  a  naval  school  and  a  naval  artillery 
school,  an  academy  of  fine  arts  (with  187  stu- 
dents), a  conservatory  of  music  (with  139  stu- 
dents), and  an  imperial  lyceum  of  arts  and  in- 
dustry, belonging  to  the  society  for  promoting 
fine  arts,  a  sort  of  polytechnic  school  (with 
1. 233  Btudents).  In  the  provinces,  there  are 
several  agricultural  and  industrial  schools. 

See  Le  Roy,  in  Schmid's  Realencyclopadie, 
vol.  ix.,  pp.  869 — 920;  Kiddeis  and  Fletcher, 
Brazil  and  the  Brazilians  (8th  edit.,  Boston 
1866);  Agassiz,  A  Journey  in  Brazil  (1868), 
Wacceis,  I)hs  Kiiix-rnich  Bnisilien  (Leipsic, 
1871);  Annualreports  of  the  minister  of  public 
instruction  if  Brazil  to  the  legislature. 

BRIDGMAN,  Laura,  a  remarkable  blind 
deaf-mute,  born  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  in  L 829,  is 
particularly  noted  as  the  subject  of  a  very  suc- 
cessful course  of  training  and  instruction,  by 
means  of  which  she  was  taught  to  read,  write, 
and  converse  with  others,  and  enabled  to  acquire 
a  knowledge  of  many  useful  branches  of  learn- 
ing, besides  becoming  highly  accomplished  in 
music.  She  lost  her  sight  and  hearing  at  the 
age  of  two  years;  and  when  about  eight  years 
old,  became  an  inmate  of  the  Perkins  in -lit  in  ion 
for  the  blind  in  Boston,  then  under  the  care  of  Dr. 
Samuel  G.  Howe,  so  noted  for  his  benevolence  and 
devoted  philanthropy.  Finding  that  she  possessed 
a  high  degree  of  intelligence,  lie  resolved,  despite 

the  many  discouragements  of  the  case,  to  attempt 

her  education.  Through  the  sense  of  touch,  he 
first  associated,  by  constant  repetition,  objects 
with  their  names  in  relief  letters,  and  when  a 
few  of  these  were  learned  and  the  relation  thor- 
oughly established,  he  taught  her  to  recognize 
the  separate  letters  com]  losing  each  word,  and 
then  to  construct  the  words  herself  from  the  let- 
ters.    She  was  then  taught  the  manual  alphabet. 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA 

and  its  use  in  naming  objects ;  after  wdiich, 
through  these  channels  of  communication,  she 
learned  the  qualities,  uses,  and  relations  of  ob- 
jects, as  well  as  their  names.  Subsequently,  she 
learned  to  write  and  to  play  upon  the  piano,  in 
which  she  became  very  .skillful,  and  acquired  also 
a  dexterity  in  needle-work  and  in  the  perform- 
ance of  many  household  duties.  Her  moral  and 
religious  education  was  more  difficult;  but  this 
also  was  successfully  accomplished,  so  that,  in 
1873,  Dr.  Howe  could  say  of  her:  "  She  enjoys 
life  quite  as  much  as  most  persons  do.  She 
reads  whatever  books  she  finds  in  raised  print,  but 
especially  the  Bible.  She  makes  much  of  her 
own  clothing ;  and  can  run  a  sewing-machine. 
She  seems  happiest  when  she  can  find  some  per- 
son who  knows  the  linger  alphabet,  and  can  sit 
and  gossip  with  her  about  acquaintances,  the 
news,  and  general  matters.  Her  moral  sense  is 
well  developed."  This  case  possesses  peculiar 
value  in  showing  what  can  be  accomplished  by 
a  devoted  teacher  despite  the  greatest  natural 
obstacles  to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge;  and  is 
a  most  encouraging  example  of  the  result  of 
patience  and  address  on  the  part  of  the  educator. 
—  See  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation, vol.  xi.  s.  v.    Samuel  Q.  Howe. 

BRITISH  COLUMBIA,  a  province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  having  an  area  of  about 
233,000  sq.  m..  and  a  population,  in  1871,  of 
8,576  whites,  462  negroes,  and  1548  Chinese; 
total,  10,586,  exclusive  of  Indians,  estimated  at 
35,000  to  40,000.  It  was  created  a  distinct 
colonial  government  by  an  act  of  parliament 
passed  -Vug.  2.,  L858.  In  1806,  Vancouver 
Island  was  united  with  British  Columbia  under 
one  government ;  and.  in  1871, British  Columbia 
was  admitted  into  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

Although  a  common  school  ordinance  was 
passed  in  L869  and  amended  in  1870,  the  real 
foundation  of  the  educational  system  in  this  prov- 
ince was  the  public  school  act  of  1872.  This 
law  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Ontario  act,  and  its 
enactment  was  advised  by  the  superintendent, 
himself  a  teacher  trained  in  the  Toronto  normal 
school.  Amendments  were  made  to  the  first  act 
in  1873,  and  a  further  act  was  passed  in  1874 
The  act  provides  for  an  annual  grant  of  $40,000 
as  a  public  school  fund,  and  for  the  appointment 
by  the  government  of  six  persons,  to  hold  office 
during  its  pleasure,  as  a  board  of  education;  also 
of  an  experienced  person  to  be  superintendent  of 
education,  who  shall  be  ex  officio  chairman  of  the 
board.  School  districts  are  established  and 
altered  by  the  government,  which  also  makes 
grants  for  teachers'  salaries,  the  erection  and  fur- 
nishing of  school-houses,  and  current  expenses, 
and  establishes  other  schools,  without  a  district, 
\\  here  needed.  The  board  of  education  prescribes 
a  uniform  scries  of  text-books  to  be  used,  and 
provides  for  their  supplj  to  the  schools,  makes 
general  regulations,  examines  teachers  and  grants 
certificates,  appoints  teachers  and  fixes  their 
salaries,  purchases  and  distributes  school  ap- 
paratus, and  may  establish  high  schools.  The 
superintendent  visits  each  school  once  a  year, 


gives  instruction,  enforces  the  law,  suspend 
necessary,  a  teacher's   li.-ense   lill   the   meetil 


,YN  103 

Is  of    their  schools  were    burdened   with  a 

"'lion  of    tl ost  of  instruction;  w  Idle,  in  the 

utch  colonies,  tuition  was  entirely  free.    'I'l.e 
rsl  school  tax   levied  in  Brooklyn  [Breuckeleii] 


ing,  ami  no 
teacher.    Tl 

eall  the  aim: 


ol-master,  to  take  charg 
a  '-  i  i  as  court-met 
e-digger,  ami  precentor  i 
ols  were  established   wi 


boarding-scl Is.     Such  schools  are  mi 

three  trustees,  who  are  appointed  by 
ernor  and  hold  office  during  his  pleas 
these  officers  appoint  the  teachers.    Thi 

uniler  the  board  an-  pai  1  on  the  follow 
For  an  average  attendance  of   fro,,, 


and  a    half,   the  schools 

scl Is  appears  to  hav 

a  fourth  scl 1  was 

scl 1  wasestablisl 

In  all  these  schools 
English  and   Dutcl 
Bush-wick  and  Goth 
the  schools  in    Bn 

led   SI 
.oUn 

11(1    for   the  next  (VI 

w.-i-e  supported  on] 
lition  to  the  nun, 1» 


choolNo.4.  Anothe 


Teachers  whose  schools  arc  far  inland  receivt 
§10  a  month  more. 

The  estimated  number  of  children  of  schoo! 
age  wa.,  in  1st  I,  aboui  2,240, of  whom  L.245  a1 
tended  school  some  portion  of  the  vear;  this  was 


acts,    Brookly 

when    the    tl'l 


pop 


one  such  school  was,  in  1875,  in  successful  oper- 
ation. The  compulsory  clause  of  the  act  did 
not  work  successfully,  its  enforcement  being  op- 
tional with  the  local  authorities.  The  total  ex- 
penditure for  the  public  schools  for  the  vear  was 
$35,287,  of  which  822,219  was  paid  for  teachers' 
.salaries.  An  additional  sum  of  $6,657  was  ex- 
pended by  the  superintendent  in  supplying  books 
and  apparatus.  There  were  36  teachers  in  the 
service.  The  establishment  of  high  schools  at 
Victoria  and  New  Westminster  was  advocated 
by  Superintendent  John  Jessop  in  1875.  Th  ■ 
risinecita  of   V m. line,  has  a  school  of  a  hkher 


school  was  conducted  up 
monitorial  system.  Trior 
of  the  scl Is  inBrooklyi 


lid  form  tin 
irooklyn. 


•hool  districts.  Who  to; 
1  of   education  of  thi 


Episcopal  church.  It  was  originally  established 
in  1862,  but  was  closed  in  1870,  and  re-opened 
September  1874.  —  See  Maui. inc.  f'unada  Edu- 
cational Directory  and  Yearbook  for  1876 
(Toronto,  1876.) 

BROOKLYN",  capital  of  Kings  county.  New- 
Fork,  the  third  city,  in  population,  in  the  [Jnited 
.States.  It  is  claimed  for  Brooklyn  that,  in 
common  with  New  York,  it  has  the  honor  of 
being  the  seat  of  the  first  free  public  schools 
within  the  present  territory  of  the  United  States,  i 
Education  received  an  early  attention  in  the 
Puritan  colonies  of  New  England  :  but  the  pu-  I 


and  giving  their  exclusive  election  to  the  com 

tin  the  consolidation  of  the  cities  of  Brooklyn 
and  Williamsburg,  by  an  act  of  the  legislature 
passed  April   IT..   1854,  the  composition  of  the 

hoard  was  again  changed.  The  law  required  the 
common  council  to  appoint  such  additional  mem- 
bers as  the  proportional  increase  of  the  inhabi- 
tants might  demand.  In  pursuance  of  this 
provision,  the  number  of  members  constituting 


104 


BROOKLYN 


the  board  was  fixed  at  15,  of  whom  13  should 
reside  in  the  Eastern  District  (Williamsburgh). 
This  number  was  sanctioned  by  a  direct  legis- 
lative enactment  in  1862.  By  a  subsequent 
enactment,  in  1868,  the  members  were  divided 
into  three  classes,  huh  ling  office  for  one.  two.  and 
three  years,  respectively  ;  and  the  mayor  is  now 
required  to  nominate  to  the  common  council  15 
members  each  year.  and.  if  the  same  shall  not  be 
confirmed  within  twenty  days,  lie  may  appoint 
absolutely.  In  1853,  S.  S.  Randall  was  elected 
city  superintendent  :  bul  he  served  only  a  short 
time,  being  succeeded  the  same  year  by  J.  W. 
Bulkley,  who  continued  to  hold' the  office  till 
1873,  when,  in  pursuance  of  a  law  passed  that 
year,  lie  was  made  associate  superintendent,  with 
Thomas  W.  Field,  who  was  elected  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction. 

School  Statistics. — The  growth  of  the  system, 
since  1854,  has  been  steady  and  rapid.  In  1855, 
the  number  of  schools  was  30,  with  HI 2  teachers 
and  an  average  attendance  of  pupils  of  13,380. 
Ten  years  afterward,  the  number  of  schools  was 
38,  the  number  of  teachers  545,  and  the  average 
attendance  22,610;  in  1874,  the  number  of  schools 
increased  to  49,  the  number  of  teachers  to  L,099, 
and  the  average  attendance  to  10,193.  The 
following  items  are  reported  for  the  year  1875  : 


,121 


Ki 


till-   Mil. 


N  were  open 

r-'  salaries $i;?l  ,ln-.l- 

l.nililiiiL'* ;iTii,'.'L'.s..v.i 

aii.l  -t.itioiieiv     .  i;,i;l. ;.i,l 

I  schools.... 11,164.78 

sxpenses 434,221.42 


Total  expenditure  $1,493,339.58 

School  System.  -The  system  consists  of  aboard 
of  education  of  45  members,  a  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  an,  I  an  associate  superintendent. 
The  city  is  divided  into  31  districts,  containing 
'■'•  I  ".raiimiar  and  intermediate  school  lniil, lines. 
11  separate  primary  schools  and  tflolored  schools; 

making  the  total  uumberof  thedistrict   scl Is 

49;  besides  which  there  are  16  evening  schools, 
(2  for  colored  pupils),  1  evening  high  school,  and 
'.)  corporate,  or  orphan  asylum,  scho  ils.  Most  of 
the  grammar  departments  of  the  schools  are  for 
both  sexes.  The  school  age  is  from  5  to  2]  The 
members  of  the  board  of  education  are  appoint- 
ed for  three  years  by  the  common  council,  on 
the  nomination  of  the  mayor,  one-third  of  the 
board  retiring  each  year.    The  board  elects  the  SU- 


1 ks  to  l,e  used  therein,  and  makes  all  ne 

regulations  for  the  management  of  the  same 
has  the  power  to  purchase  site-,  and  erect  sc 
houses  with  til. iseli!  I  it'  t  he  common  COUm 

purchase  text-books  for  use  in  the  schools,  at 

sell  or  donate  them  to  the  pupils.  Each  St 
is  under  the  particular  charge  of  a  local  con 
tee  of  the  board  of  education. 


The  curse  of  ins/ruction  includes  six  grades 
for  the  primary  departments  and  six  for  the 
grammar  departments.  The  studies  prescribed 
for  the  former  arc  reading,  spelling,  arithmetic 
as  far  as  long  division,  elementary  geography, 
and  writing;  in  the  latter,  in  addition  to  these 
studies.  English  grammar  and  composition, 
higher  geography  and  arithmetic,  etymology, 
the  history  of  the  L'nited  States. astronomy,  pen- 
manship, drawing,  and  buck-keeping,  together 
with  natural  philosophy  and  algebra  as  optional 
studies.      ruder   the  direction  of  the   local  com- 


This  grade  is,  in  fact,  an  academic  course  in  all 
respects  except  the  study  of  Latin.  Vocal  music 
is  taught  in  all  the  grades.  Each  grade  of  study 
occupies  one  half  of   the  school  year,  or  about 

■"'ii ths.     There  is  no  high  school  or  college 

connected  with  the  system;  but  the  board  of 
education  has  at  its  disposal  99  free  scholarships 
in  colleges  and  seminaries  for  the  benefit  of  pub- 
lic-school pupils,  the  average  value  of  each  of 
which  is  about  $100. 

Examination  and  Qualification  of  Teachers. 
—  The  grade  of  scholarship  of  each  teacher  is 

fixed  by  the  superintendent,  after  examination 
in  one  of  the  classes  designated   A.  B,  and  C. 


As  most  of  the 


■  made  from  the 


supplementary  classes,  the  certificates  graded  B 
or  ('.  are  those  usually  granted  at  first.  Those 
of  grade  C  license  to  teach  any  primary  grade  ; 
those  of  B.  any  below  the  fourth  grammar  grade. 
Certificates  of  the  highest  grade  (A)  are  con- 
ferred upon  those  only  who  have  presented  evi- 
dence of  superior  efficiency  as   well  as   superior 


No  provision  exists  for  the  instruction  of 
teachers  other  than  that  afforded  by  the  supple- 
mentary classes  of  the  grammar  schools. 

Private  s,  minaries  and  Schools.  —  The  pri- 
\ate  educational  institutions  of  Brooklyn  are 
very  numerous,  and  many  of  them  quite  cele- 
brated for  their  efficiency  and  high  grade  of 
scholarship.  The  Packer  Collegiate  Institute, 
incorporated  in  1853,  is  a  female  seminary  of 
high  reputation.  It  was  named  after  William 
S.  Packer,  from  whose  widow  the  institution 
received  a  large  endowment.  It  has  a  corps  of 
about  40  instructors,  between  700  and  800  stu- 
dents, and  a  library  of  nearly  5,000  volumes.  It 
has  also  a  large  number  of  free  and  endowed 
scholarships,  The  Brooklyn  Collegiate  and 
Polytechnic  Institute,  for  males,  was  founded  in 
1854,  with  a  capital  stock  subsequently  in- 
creased to  $100,000.  It  is  under  the  manage- 
ment of  a  board  of  17  trustees.  In  1*74.  it  had 
a  corps  ,.f  .'ill  instructors,  and  605  Btudents,  of 
whom  136  were  in  the  collegiate  department. 
The  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  and  appa- 
ratus was  estimated  at  $164,000, and  its  receipts 
from  tuition  fees  amounted  to  about  $63,000. 
The  Adelphi  Academy, incorporated  in  1869,is 
also  an  institution  of  a  high  grade  of  efficiency. 
In  1874,  its  corps  of  instructors  numbered  29,. 
and  the  whole  number  of  students  was  546.  The 


nnilTKL  ('OLI.KiiK 


value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  etc.  was  SI  CO.IHIO.  win 
and  its  annua]  income  from  tuition  fees  was  about  Rev 
$40,000.    'I'll'1  institution   is  non-sectarian.    For    L87! 


.  and  was  succeeded  by  the 
D.  I>..  1. 1..  I>.  In  January, 
d  bythe  present  incumbent, 


Ih.  ( 

/./.,/'  Broo&lun 

3  vols 

\.Y 

l-hl 

BROWN,    Goold, 

an  ei 

linen 

A  met 

rian,  was  born 

in  l'i 

ividei 

ce,  R.  I 

'Jl.a 

id  died  at  Lynn 

Mass 

in  LI 

57.    Hi 

teach 

r  for  more  than 

twent 

•  Will 

sin  the 

Nei 

v    York.        II  is 

Insti 

of.    Em 

r,  nun 

or  (X.  V..  L82 

1),   an 

1    /•'/, 

st  Line. 

English  Grammar  (N.  Y.1823)  lime  beel re 

extensively  used  in  the  schools  of  this  country 
than  any  other  grammatical  text-books.  The 
edition  of  these  works  with  Kiddle's  Analysis 
of  Sentences  has  still  a  very  wide  circulation. 
Goold    Brown's   Grammar  of  English  Gram- 

sive  and  complete  treatise  on  the  subject  ever 
published.  This  work  contains  a  very  valuable 
catalogue  of  works  on  English  (irannnar.  See 
Kith  edition  with  index,  by  Sami  ex  W.  Berrun 
(N.  Y..  1871). 

BROWN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Providence. 
R.I.  formerly  called  Rhode  Island  College,  was 
founded  in  1  Tilt,  through  the  instrumentality  of 
the  association  of  Baptist  churches  at  Philadel- 
phia, and  by  the  aid  of  certain  prominent  Bap- 


tists of  Newport. 
1764,  one  of  the  pr< 
into  this  liberal  an 
never  be  admitted 
the  contrary,  all  tin 


liberty  ot 

ing  shall, 
that  the  i 
not  make 
struction.' 
fellows,  hs 
including 


ination  in  the  colony  at  the  time  of  the  cl 

ter.     The   first  president  of  the  college  was 
Rev.  James    Manning,    I).  !>.,   who  served 


being  occupied  by  the  state  militia,  and  by  the 
troops  of  Roehanilieiiu.  The  Rev.  Jonathan 
Maxcv.  1>.  I>.,  was  the  second  president,  who 
served  from  1791  to  L802,  when  he  resigned.and 
was  succeeded  by  the  Key.  Asa  Messer,  D.  I' .. 
who  held  the  position  till  1826.  During  his  in- 
cumbency, in  L804,  the  name  of  the  institution 
wiis  changed  to  Brown  University,  in  honor  of 
Nicholas  Brown,  from  whom  it  had  received  the 
most  munificent  donations.  Dr.  Messer  wassuc- 
ceeded  in  L827  by  the  Rev.  Francis  Waylimd, 
D.  I).,  LL.D.,  who  resigned  in  1855,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  the   Rev.  Barnas  Sears,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 


i  L6  acres.  The  value  oi  its  grounds, 
ind  apparatus  is  estimated  al 
the  amount  of  its  productive  funds, 
cholarships,  is  stilted  (1876)  as 
l'lie  average  amount   of  scholarship 

hi    to   the    classical    and    scientific 


]  .1  IS,  ■!  | 

for  tin 

AlTIII, 


ie  last 

il   and 

I  iv  the 
■proof 

aturai 

fi  issi  irs 
i  her  of 


N  the 


llieco-t  of  tuition  is  ST.'i  per  annum.  Among 
the  various  forms  of  aid  offend  to  students,  there 
are  about  LOO  scholarships.  There  are  58  si  holar 
ships  of  $1000  each,  the  income  of  which  is 
given,  under  the  direction  of  a  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  corporation,  to  meritorious  stu- 
dents needing  pecuniary  aid. 

BUCHTEL  COLLEGE,  at  Akron.  Ohio, 
was  founded,  in  L872,  by  the  FJnivi  i  ali  I  in 
order  to  afford  to  Btudents  of  Loth  sexes  equal 
opportunities  for  a  thorough  practical  and  liberal 
education.    The  full  curriculum  embraces  a  eoin- 

plet liege    course   of    four    years,  a   thorough 

philosophical  course  of  two  veal's,  a  I  ion  mil  course. 


Re\  S.  II.  McCollester,  A.  M.,  is  (1876)  the 
president  of  the  institution.  The  annual  tuition 
fee  is  $30. 


106 


BUFFALO 


BUFFALO,  a  large  and  flourishing  city  in  | 
western  .New  York,  having  a  population,  ae-  i 
cording  to  the  state  census  of  1875,  ol  L34.573. 

Educatin,,-,/  IIki '■„-,/.  'I'k- first  school-district 
embraced  the  village  of  Buffalo,  in  which  the 
first  school-house  was  built  in  L806.     The  first 

for  the  purpose,  probably,  of  rebuilding  the 
school-hous  i,  burne  I,  w  ith  the  rest  of  the  village, 
in  1st;:.  hi  L822,  .Millard  Fillmore  taught  the 
village  school.  At  the  time  of  the  incorporation 
of  the  city  (1832),  there  were  6  districts,  each 
having  one  small  school-house  and  one  teacher. 
In  1836 — 7.  a  law  was  passed  authorizing  the 
appointment  by  the  common  council  of  a  super- 
intendent; from  which  event  dates  the  beginning 
of  the  school  system.  In  1838,  the  7  school-dis- 
tricts were  divide  1  into  L5,  and  a  resolution  was 
adopted  to  establish  a  common  school  in  each, 
with  departments  according  to  its  needs  and 
numbers,  and  a  "Central  School,  where  all  the 
higher  branches  necessary  to  a  complete  English 
education  could  be  pursued  ;"  and.  in  all  these 
schools,  education  was  to  b  i  entirely  free.  In  1839, 
five  new  and  commodious  school-houses  were 
built.  In  ls.Vi-f,  important  changes  were  made 
in  the  city  charter,  by  which,  and  the  ordinances 

61  the  citj  i cil  in  pursuan f  the  same,  the 

system  received  its  present  organization.  In 
1873.  Superintendent  Lamed  "endeavored  to 
secure  the  passage  of  a  law  creating  a  hoard  of 
education,  to  have  the  management  of  the 
schools;  hut  the  measure  met  "with  but  little 
popular  favor,  and  did  not  prevail.  -The  city 
superintendents  have  been  as  follows:  Under 
election  for  one  year  by  the  common  council. 
■  \V.  Haskins,  X.  P.  Sprague,  and  0.  G.  Steele 


ment  of  education  ;  and  his  duties  are,  to  recom- 
mend courses  of  study,  to  hire  teachers,  who  are 
subject  to  his  directions;  under  direction  of  the 
city  council,  to  contract  for  ■•  lots,  houses,  and 
supplies,"  and  to  carry  into  effect  all  provisions 
relating  to  education. — The  course  of  study  is 
divided  into  ten  grades,  and  embraces,  besides 
the   common   branches,    drawing,   composition, 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school-districts  is  35;  of  schools  with  one  de- 
partment.-14  :  with  two  departments.  11  ;  with 
three.  17;  of  night  .schools.  7.  The  principal 
items  of  school  statistics  for  the  year  ending 
Dec.  31.,  1876,  are  as  follows  : 

Whole  number  of  children  enrolled  (estimated)  40,000 

Xo.  "I  pupils  registered   in  .lay  schools 23,000 

No.  of  pupils  registered  in  nighl  schools 1,121 

No.  of  teachers  employed 420 

Receipts  from  school  fund...     S77,.'i.">2.27 
by  tax 237,597.73 


Of  the  42  principals  employed,  33  are  males, 
with  salaries  ranging  from  $550  to  $1,450  ;  and 
9  are  females,  with  salaries  ranging  from  $550 
to  $800  Hie  salaries  of  assistants  range  from 
$400  to  $650.  The  amount  paid  for  salaries  is 
$275,000. 

In  the  Central  Scliool,  the  courses  of  study  are 
a  shorter   English    course,  requiring  two   years, 


uccessively,  during  L837;  Oliver  G.  Steele,  L838 
39,     15,  and     51  ;    Daniel    Bowen,  1840,  -46, 


veil, 


girls;  and  the  number  of  teachers  was  14,  the 
amount  of  whose  salaries  was $15,750.  The  state 
normal  school  at  Buffalo  was  opened  in  1871. 
The    common    council    appropriated    $45,000, 


■  52  and  53  :  under  the  new  law,  electing  for 
two  years,  Ephraim  F.  Cook,  1854— 5  and  1856 
—7:  Joseph  Warren,  1858—9;  Sandford  B. 
Hunt.  L860— 61  ;  John  B.  Sackett,  L862  3; 
Henry  D.  Garvin,  L864  -5;  John  S.  Posdick, 
1866  7;  Samuel  Slade,  L868— 9;  Thomas  Loth- 
lop,  is (ii_7l  ;  Josephus  X.  Lamed,  1872—3; 
William  S.  Rice.  Is,  fc — 5,  and  re-elected  for  the 
term  which  expires  Dec.  31.,  1877. 

School  System.— By  the  charter  of  1853—4, 
the  schools  are  under  the  control  of  the  com- 
mon council,  and  are  free  to  all  persons  between 
the  ages  of  5  and  20  years.  Colored  children 
are  admitted  to  any  of  the  schools,  but  one 
colored  school  mu-t  be  maintained.     The  cost  of 


property  of  school  -districts;  bul   all  oth 

pen-.es  ar  ■  paid  out  oi  the  general  fund 
tax.  The  Central  High  School  is  entil 
share  in  all  appropriations  to  academies 
the  districts  DarticiDatB  in  the  annnrtfnnm 


public  seuoois. —  i  ne  supermienaeni  oj  eaucation 

elected  on  general  city  ticket  for' two  years. 

He  is  the  chief  executive  officer  of  the  depart- 


tor  me  erection  oi  a  building,  on  a  site  com- 
prising 5  acres,  given  for  the  purpose  by  Jesse 
Ketchuin.  for  the  nominal  sum  of  $4,500.  Pupils 
are  admitted,  at  16  years  of  age.  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  local  school  officers,  and  after 
passing  an  examination  in  the  common  English 
branches. 

Parochial  Schools. — There  are  15  parochial 
schools  for  instruction  in  common  branches,  in 
connection  with  the  Roman  Catholic  church,  2 
colleges,  and  several  convenf  and  Sisters'  schools. 

In  the  first,  during   the  year  ending   I 31., 

1S7II.  there  were  i.976  pupils,  taught  l>\  9s  teacli- 
Canisius   College   is  conducted   by  Jesuit 

"  by  lay  teachers:  in  1  876,  it  had 
St.  Joseph's  College  is  under  the 
-nan  Brothers,  with  3ti(>  pupils. 
■  -  The  Buffalo  Female  Acad- 
emy was  organized  in  1851.  It  is  under  the  con- 
trol ,,|  a  board  ol  trustees,  and  has  a  collegiate  de- 
partment, academic  departments,  and  a  primary 
department.  Other  school.-,  are,  the  lleathcote 
school  for  hoys,  and  the  Buffalo  Classical  School, 
the  latter  a  school  of  long  standing.     Besides 

these,  there  are  numerous  other  schools.  Catholic 
and  Protestant,  both  for  boys  and  for  girls. 


BUGENHAGEN 

BUGENHAGEN,  Johann,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  German  reformation  in  the  six- 
teenth century,  was  born  in  I -is.">,  atWollinin 
Pomerania,  and  died  in  L558.  Next  to  Melanch- 
thon,  he  was  them  si  prominent  educator  among 
the  fathers  of  German  Protestantism.  When 
only  Is  years  of  a  ■•■.  he  was  plac   I  .-it  the  head 

of  the  school  of    L'reptow,   which  s i   became 

si>  famous  thai  it  attracted  scholars  from  various 
countries  of  northern  Europe.  In  1517,  he  was 
called  by  the  abbot  of  Belouek  to  assume  the 
office  of  teacher  of  theology  to  his  convent. 
After  joining  the  reformation,  lie  was  for  some 
years  professor  at  the  university  of  Wittenberg  : 
butfrom  1536  until  his  death,  histime  waschiefly 
devoted  to  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  various  countries.  In  connection  with 
every  Protestant  church,  he  endeavored  to  estab- 
lish a  Protestant  school,  and  he  is  believed  to 
have  thus  done  more  for  the  spread  of  education 
in  Protestant  Germany  than  even  Luther  him- 
self. The  church  established  by  him  in  the 
duchy  of  Brunswick  served  as  a  model  fora  large 
number  of  others.  The  church  constitution  of 
this  duchy,  drawn  up  by  him  in  L528,  provides 
for  the  establishment  of  two  Latin  schools  for 
boys,  each  with  three  teachers,  of  two  German 
schools  for  boys,  and  four  girls'  schools.  The  in- 
struction given  in  these  schools  consisted  chiefly 
in  teaching  th  ■  catechism  and  singing;  but  in  the 

branch.  The  poor  were  to  be  aided  as  much  as 
possible  to  obtain  admission  into  these  schools, 
and  the  heads  of  the  parish  were  to  exercise  a 
careful  supervision  over  the  education  of  all  the 
children.  In  the  villages  and  towns,  the  sexton 
was  expected  to  give  instruction  to  the  lowest 
To  aid   this  work  of  teaching,    [itigen- 


classes, 

ha: 


lati 


fed   the   Bible  into   Low  Germ: 

illowing  the  High  German  tra 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION,  National, 
an  office  in  the  Department  of  the  Interior  of  the 
government  of  the   United   States,  organized  in 

pursuance  of  an  act  of  congress  approved  March 
2.,  1867.  This  office  had  its  rise  in  the  need, 
long  felt  by  leading  educators,  of  some  central 
agency  by  which  the  general  educational  statistics 
of  the  country  could  be  collected,  preserved,  con- 
densed, and  properly  arranged  for  distribution. 
In  February.  ls(i(i,  a  m  iiMii.il  was  presented  to 
the  House' of  Representatives,  asking  for  the 
establishment  of  a  national  bureau  of  e  lucation. 
This  memorial  emanated  from  he  National  \ 
sociation  of  State  and  City  School-Superintend- 
ents, and  enumerated  the  following  as  the  means 
by  which  the  propose  I  bureau  c  iuI  I  promote  the 
interests  of  education  :  "(1)  By  securing  greater 
uniformity  and  accuracy  in  school  statistics,  and 
so   interpreting    them    that    they   may   be   more 


!.il 


suits  of  school-systems  in  different  communities, 
states,  and  countries,  and  determining  their  com- 
parative value  ;  (3)  By  collecting  the  results  of 
all  important  experiments  in  new  and  special 


BUREAU  OP  EDUCATION        107 

methods  of  school  instruction  and  management, 
and  making  them  the  common  property  of  school- 


ading  schools,  improved  plans  of  school-houses, 
gether  with  modes  of  heating  and  ventilation, 

a.,  information  now  obtained  only  by  a  few 
raons  and  at  great  expense,  but  which  is  of  the 
ghest  value  to  all  intrusted  with  th,'  manage- 
cnt  ,,f  schools;  (5)  By  aiding  communities 
.1  states  in  the  organization  oi  school-systems 
which  mischievous  .■nor.-  shall  be  avoided,and 

eluded  ;  (6)  By  the  general  diffusion  of  correct 
■as  respecting  the  value  of  education  asaquick- 
er  oi  intellectual  actw  ities,  as  a  moral  renova 


illiberty."     Tl 


has  ace plished  a  vast  amount  of  work.  Be- 
sides the  five  annua]  reports,  from  1870  to  1874, 
it  hasissued  twenty-seven  circulars  of  informa- 
tion, containing  important  summaries  of  intelli- 
ince  i  lating  to  the  condition  of  education  in 
foreign  countries,  or  upon  other  interesting  e  lu 

The  relation  of  the  Bureau  to  the  educational 
authorities  of  the  country,  which  are  exclusively 
under  state  control,  is  entirely  ancillary  .  [ts  office 
is  to  aid  by  dispensing  information,  not  to  direct. 
It  has  no  power  to  demand  information  :  1ml  is  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  the  courtesy  of  the  state 
and  city  authorities  and  officials  in  affording  proper 
replies  to  its  interrogatories.  The  extent  of  its 
operations  in  gathering  information  will  be  ap- 
parent from  the  following  statement   extracted 


BURGHER  SCHOOL 

to  inquiries  on  school  matters  addressed  to  the 
commissioner.  The  amount  of  intelligence  con- 
veyed.  liy  these  means,  with  respeet  to  educational 
systems,  school  laws,  and  important  institutions, 
such  as  has  never  previously  been  made  gener- 


108        BUREAU  OP  EDUCATION 

from  a  recent   "  Statement."  issued  under  the 
authority  of  the  Bureau  itself  : — 

"  The  field  for  exploration  it  presents  end . races 
the  thirty-seven  states  and  eleven  territories.  To 
make  the  exploration  thorough,  the  bureau  must 

examine  every  school  law.  and  mark  whatever  ally  accessible  in  the  I  i 
change  or  amendment  maybe  made,  including  certainly,  as  no  single  state,  much  less  any  single 
the  charters  of  city  boards  of  education,  with  individual  or  private  association,  could  have 
their  rules  and  ordinances.  It  must  sift,  for  obtained,  without  an  expenditure  which  it  would 
things  deserving  general  attention,  the  reports  of  ,  have  probably  been  either  unable  or  unwilling  to 
every  state-,  county-,  and  city-superintendent  of   incur. 

the  public  schools  that  may  be  sent  to  it,     It        While  there  is  a  very  emphatic  and  general 
must  get  at  the  work  not  only  of  the  public  high  '  opposition  in  the  United  States  to  the  establish 


schools,  but  also  of  the  private  acade 
special  preparatory  schools.  It  must  look  through 
the  annual  catalogues  and  calendars  of  a  long  list 
of  colleges  and  universities;  schools  of  divinity, 
law.  medicine,  and  science;  reformatories,  and 
institutions  for  the  training  of  the  deaf  ami  dumb, 
the  blind,  and  the  feeble-minded — selecting  from 
each  what  is  worthy  to  be  noted  in  the  way  of 
either  improvement  or  defect.  And.  besides  all 
this,  it  must  keep  its  eyes  wide  open  to  ob- 
serve the  growth  of  libraries,  museums,  schools 
of  art  or  industry,  and  other  aids  to  the  proper 
training  of  the  people;  must  see  what  the  edu- 
cational journals  say  as  to  school-matters  in  their 
several  states  ;  must  note  what  may  be  worth  pre- 
serving in  the  utterances  at  teachers'  associations 
and  gatherings  of  scientific  men  ;  and  must  keep 
up.  with  reference  to  all  these  things,  an  incessant 
correspondence  witheverj  portion  of  the  country. 
In  fact,  its  correspondence  reaches,  more  or  less 
directly,  to  the  48  states  and  territories,  to  206 
cities.  132  normal  schools  or  departments,  Ml 
business  colleges.  51  kindergarten,  1,455  acad- 
emies, 103  schools  especially  engaged  in  prepar- 
ing pupils  for  the  colleges,  240  institutions  for 
the  higher  training  of  young  wome 
and  universities.  T.'i  schools  of  science,  ll.^of 
theology,  37  of  law,  and  98  of  medicine ;  with 
585  libraries,  26  art  museums.  53  museums  of 
natural  history,  41)  institutions  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  deaf-mutes.  2H  for  the  blind,  9  for  the 
feeble-minded.  400  for  orphans,  and  45  for  the 
reformation  of  misguided  vouth." 

The  diffusion  of  information  by  the  Bureau 
takes  a  wide  range,  embracing  not  only  full  and 
statistical  information  in  regard  to  the  progress 
and  condition  of  education  in  the  United  States. 
but  as  to  the  " ministries  of  instruction  in  the 
several  European  states,  as  to  the  useful  sugges- 
tions in  foreign  educational  reports  and  journals. 


t  ot  any  national  system  of  education,  or  to 

'■rring   upon   the    general    government   the 

to  interfere  in  any  way  with  the  state 

systems,  there  has  nevertheless   been  generally 


of  the  value  of 
s  now  constituted, 
upply  the  Commis- 


fested  a  ful 
the  Bureau  of    Edu 

and  a  cordial   disposi 
sioner  with  the  fulles 

information,  as  well  as  with  copies  of  all  edu- 
cational documents  issued  under  state  or  city 
authority.  In  bringing  about  this  very  desirable 
state  of  things,  of  course,  the  manner  in  which 
the  affairs  of  the  Bureau  have  been  administered 
has  had  much  to  do.  It  would  be  easy  by  an 
injudicious  course  to  bring  about  an  antagonism 
that  would  most  effectually  prevent  any  further 

An  educational  library  of  probably  unsur- 
passed richness  is  another  of  the  valuable  fruits 
of  the  work  of  the  Bureau.  This  is,  in  part, 
composed  of  choice  collections  bearing  on  the 
history  and  art  of  education  in  this  country  and 
abroad;  in  part,  of  the  accumulations  made  in 
the  process  of  annual  examination  into  the  con- 
dition of  public-school  instruction,  the  state  ..1 
colleges  academics  and  colleges,  ami  the  rise  and  work  of 
professional  and  special  schools.  This  Iibrary.it 
is  said,  for  purposes  of  practical  investigation,  is 
superior  to  any  other  educational  library  in  exist- 
ence, except,  perhaps,  the  one  at  Vienna.'  With  its 
vast  accumulations  from  year  to  year,  its  value 
as  a  librarv  of  reference  is  constantlv  imivasiii". 
-See  Reports  of  U.S.  Commissioner  qfEfar 
cation,    1870—  t:    also    Ncdi ,1    Bureau   of 


/■;/,- 


ll.sl, 


iler  the  direction  of  the  <  'ommissioner  of  Kdu- 
tion  i  Washington.  1875). 
BURGHER  SCHOOL  (tier.  Burgerschule), 
given  to  many  public  schools  of  a  higher 


ami  as  to  the  systems  of  training  in  the  universi-    grade  in  the  towns  of  (iermanv.  designed   to  e.l 
ties,  gymnasia,  real-schools,  schools  of  architec-  |  ueate  the  children  of  citizens  for  a  practical  busi 


this  intelligence  is,  (1)    Bj  d  reports,  each 

giving  abstracts  of  the  various  classes  of  instruc- 
tion (such  as  primary,  secondary,  superior,  pro- 
fessional and  special  .wnli  lists  and  statistics  of 
noticeable  institutions  and  estimates  of  progress 
or  retrogression  in  various  lines:  (2)  liy  occasional 
circulars  of information  [of  which  27  have  been 
issued  up  to  1870)  ;  and  (3)  By  written  answers 


3S  life.  Formerly,  the  course  of 
■  town  schools  embraced  the  ancic 
.1  the  study  of  Latin,  in  partici 
ently,  even  as  late  as  the  eightei 

;arded  as  the  mo^t  important  oar 


•nth   century, 
of  the  entile 


course.  In  the  last  quarter  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  a  radical  reform  began  gradually  to  be 
effected.  Teachers  and  school  authorities  invest] 
gated  the  comparative  usefulness  of  the  different 
branches  of  instruction  for  all  those  classes  of 
towns-people  who   did  not   follow   one  of    the 


BURLINGTON  UNIVERSITY 

learned  professions,  and  the  conclusion  generally 
reached   was,    that    natural    science,  geography, 

history,  and  similar  studies  are  of  verj  much 
higher  advantage  to  the  future  citizen,  than  a 
knowledge  of  Latin.  The  organization  of  the 
town  schools  was  gradually  changed,  in  accord- 
ance with  these  principles:  and.  on  .Ian....  ls'i|. 
the  first  B'wrgerselude  was  opened  at  Leipsie. 
Since  that  time,  a  large  number  of  flourishing 
schools  bearing  this  name  have  sprung  up  in  the 
large  cities.  In  the  further  development  of  the 
school  system  of  Germany,  the  term,  as  a  dis- 
tinctive name,  has  to  a  great  extent  been  dropped, 
.and  the  schools  formerly  thus  designated  consti- 
tute, under  various  names,  the  higher  division 
of  the  VbUcsscfadeii.  The  name  /where  Biir- 
gerschide   is  identical    with    the  more  common 

Realschule.   [See  Real  Sc l,  and  Germany.) 

BURLINGTON  UNIVERSITY,  it  Bur- 
lington, Iowa,  was  founded  by  the  Baptists,  in 

of  s  professors  and  other  instructors.  The  value 
of  its  grounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus  is  about 
$40,000;  its  endowment  fund,  about  $20,000. 
Prof.  L.  E.  Worcester  has  been  the  president  of 
the  institution  since  1872.  The  annual  tuition 
fee  is  842. 

BUSBY,  Richard,  D.  D.,  one  of  the  most 
noted  of  English  pedagogues,  was  bom  in  Lutton, 
Northamptonshire,  in  1606,  and  died  in  L695. 
II  wa.-  educated  in  the  Westminster  School 
and  Oxford  University;  and.  in  1640,  was  ap- 
pointed head-master  of  Westminster,  in  which 
position  he  continued  for  more  than  fifty  years. 
h  was  here  that  he  achieved  his  great  fame  a.s 
the  most  successful  school-master  of  his  age,  and 
the  most  imperious  one  too,  for  his  frequent  and 
excessive  use  of  the  rod  or  birch  has  made  his 
name  proverbial.  Within  his  school  he  was  the 
most  arbitrary  of  despots;  and  it  is  said  that 
when  the  king  entered  his  school-room,  he  would 
not  remove  his  hat.  being  unwilling  that  the  boys 
should  deem  any  one  his  superior.  When  taxed 
with  the  severity  of  his  punishments,  he  pointed 
to  the  many  illustrious  and  learned  men  whom 
he  had  educated  in  his  school,  among  whom  at 
one  time  he  could  number  no  less  than  sixteen 
bishops.  Dr.  South,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
his  pupils,  was  at  first  a  very  dull,  obstinate,  and 
intractable  scholar  ;  but  Dr.  Busby  discerned  his 
latent  genius,  and  used  his  utmost  efforts  to  bring 
it  forth,  in  the  doing  of  which  the  rod  was  by  no 
means  spared,  and  the  master  lived  to  enjoy  his 
pupil's  fame  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant  pulpit 
orators  of  his  time.  Dr.  Busby's  works  as  an 
author  were  confined  to  some  text-books,  which 
he  compiled  for  the  use  of  schools. 

BUSINESS  COLLEGES,  as  now  existing 
in  the  United  States,  are  the  product  of  individual 
effort  directed  to  the  supplying  of  a  public  want. 
As  distinct  institutions,  they  are  the  outgrowth 
of  the  past  thirty  years,  although  schools  and 
private  classes  for  instruction  in  the  commercial 
branches  —  particularly  book-keeping  and  pen- 
manship— have  been  in  vogue  for  a  much  longer 
time.  Thirty  years  ago,  most  of  this  kind  of  in- 


HCSIXKSS   COI.I.KUKS 


[09 


struetion  was  given  by  a  few  private  teachers  in 
the  large  cities  w  h<  i  ■_: . ■  i n-ral  1  v  united  the  duties 
of  teacher  with  thoseoi  public  accountant),  and 

by  itinerant  professors  who  traveled  h place  to 

place,  teaching  special  classes  for  a  limited  num- 
ber of  lessons  at   low   rates.      I  hi  -     teachers  or 


professo 

•e  otic 

i  authors 

.school    n 

ethoi 

-:   and 

bv  eontil 

the  worl 
edly  ;ie 

il'n',1 

hi.  li    t 

icn  excel! 

tin.  prat 

tic;,l 

self-pi 

Swasrea 

respect, 

hees 
need 

Sis, 

in  n Mire 

libra 

'l/;;/1; 

7i,/; 

"».'■'„'. , 

Mill 

iced    the. 

relations  to  the  future  business-man  as  those 
which  already  existed  between  the  medical,  law. 
and  theological  schools,  and  the  members  of  those 
various  professions. 

Among   the    pioneers   in   this  work,   may  be 

iiienii id    R.  M.   Bartlett  of  Cincinnati,  Peter 

Duff  of  Pittsburgh,  James  Arlington  Dennett 
of  New  York,  and  George  N.  Comer  of  Boston. 
As  there  was  no  unity  of  action  among  these 
teachers  and  no  means  of  measuring  their  indi- 
vidual efforts,  cither  absolutely  or  relatively,  it  is 
impossible  to  say  what  was  the  prescribed  course 
of  stud\  adopted,  or  to  what  extent  the  various 
schools  made  good  the  claim  to  their  chosen  title. 
But  the  respect  in  which  they  were  held  by  the 
community,  and  the  fact  that  they  supplied  in  a 
good    measure   preliminary  training   which   had 


heretofore     been    obtainable 


fly   in    counting- 
:hat  thev  deserved 


tutly  in 
to 'the 


capacity  of  the  student,  from  three  weeks  to  three 
months:  whereas,  the  reputable  business  colleges 
of  iii-il.n  do  not  pretend  to  graduate  their  stu- 
dents in  less  than  from  one  to  two  j  ears.  These 
facts  alone  must  be  accepted  as  evidence  of  a 
substantial  increase  in  the  body  of  learning  which 
makes  up  the  college  course.  Not  only  have 
I  the  main  studies,  —  book-keeping,  penmanship, 
and  arithmetic,  been  materially  enlarged  and 
intensified,  but  other  not  less  important  branches 
have  been  added,  the  purpose  and  effect  of  this 
being  to  give  form  and  symmetry  to  the  training, 
and  to  meet  the  increased  demand  for  broadly 
educated  accountants  and  clerks.  Among  the 
branches  which  have  been  added  are  political 
economy,  including  civil  government :  commercial 
law  :  correspondence,  embracing  the  elements  of 
English  composition  and  practical  grammar;  pho- 
nography and  modern  languages,  particularly 
German,  French,  and  Spanish.  Some  institutions 


have  also  made  a  prominent  feature  of  telegraphy. 
But  the  feature  which  attracts  must  attention, 
both  from  its  novelty  and  its  usefulness,  per- 
tains to  the  practical  methods  of  applying  in- 
struction under  the  guise  of  real  business  opera- 
tions. This  plan  .■mi. rare-,  the  organizing  of  the 
advanced  students  into  business  communities,  so 
adjusted   in  their  workings  as  to  represent   the 


vane.  I 
the  on 
establi 
brokei 
porter 
in  his 
all  tou 


iterests  and 


CALIFORNIA 

government.     The    American    business  schools. 

..n  the  other  hand,  having  no  public  recognition, 
except  as  the  result  of  individual  work— with  no 


is  little  doubt  that,  like 
s,  they  will  continue  to 
nand  for  faithful  work, 
as  much  a  part  of  our 


i  L26  of  which  there  were  .",77  instructors,   and 
5,892  students,  of  whom  2,86'  were  females. 
BUTTMANN,    Philipp  Karl,  a  German 
rofessor   of    classical    literature,    was    born    at 
rankfort  on  the  .Main,  in  1764 


died  in 
studies 
r  a  time 
:ame,  in 


are  carried  on.      .\swiii   tie  seen,  tnis  extended  ol  tne  royal  library 

correspondence  and   c cation  give  the   best  at    the  Joackimstka, 

opportunity  for  effective  criticism  an  I  discipline,  librarian  and  memb. 

and  may  be  made  as  completely  the  rehearsal  of  He  was  also,  IV 

the  future  business  man  for  his  life-work,  as  is  Spener'sche  Zeitung, 

the  clinical  practice  of  the  medical  college  or  the  of  three  '  Ireek  gram] 

moot-court  of  the  law  school.  !  for  the  gymnasia  (G 

The  business  colleges  of    America   differ   in  lin.   L792,  22d  edit., 

important  respects  from  those  of  European  eoun-  i/nwimnH/,;  Herlin. 

The    commercial    colleges    of    (icnnanv  had  for  many  years  : 


tiles 


and  le 


author 
repared 


govermn-nt  patroiiag  •  air  I  Olivet,,,,,,  an,  I  a;:,,  to 
supply  not  only  well-trained  clerks  tortile  civil 
service,  but  educated  sailors  and  scientific  ship- 
builders as  well.  The  course  of  study  covers 
three  years,  and  is  dclinitely  prescribed  by  the 


I i.-r  and   Hesriod     Berlin,  1-1-      L825,  Engl. 

transl.,  3d  ed.,  London.  IMC):  Myikologus,  a  col- 
lection of  essavs  on  the  legends  of  antiquity 
(Berlin,  1828—1829),  and  editions  of  several 
Greek  and  Latin  < 


CADET.  See  .Military  Schools,  and  Xaval 
Schools. 

CADETS'  COLLEGE,  the  name  of  a  de- 
partment of  the  Royal  Military  College  at  Sand- 


hurst . 


place  the 

Ml        . .II,     II 

If.  and  I! 


a  sound 
for  the 


ematics,  geography,  history  the  natural  an. 
perim  intal  sciences,  and  drawing  Alter  ,-\ 
nation,  the  candidates  are  reported  to  the 


who  have  the  highest  standing  are  admitted  as 
cadets  as  soon  as  vacancies  occur  in  the  college. 
When  admitted,  they  study  for  two  yearsagreat 
variety  of  subjects  connected  with  military  sci- 
ence and  practice ;  and  when  the  course  is  com- 
pleted, the  cadets  are  eligible  to  the  reception  of 
commissions  in  the  cavalry  and  infantry,  a  cer- 
tain number  of  which  are  placed  at  the  disposal 

CALIFORNIA  was  a  part  of  the  territory 
which  was  ceded  to  the  United  States  at  the 
.-lose  of  the  Mexican  war.  It  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a  state  Sept.  9.,  L850. 

Educati il  History.     The  Foundation  of  the. 

School     j  -I. m  ot  i he  stale  was  laid  b\   the  const  i- 


maiider  in  chief  in  the  order  of 


proceeds   to  be  derived  from  the 


of  the 


and  those     500,0011  acres  of  land,  granted  by  Congress  t 


states,  for  the  purpose  of  internal  tm 
This  measure  was  carried  after  a  shi 
and  by  one  rote.    The  constitution  a 


CALIFORNIA 


and  regulations  for  the  government  of  the 
.Is.      The  city   boards    of    education    are 


ligious  as  well  as  to  public  schools.  In  L852  '■',. 
Bon.  Frank  Soule  drafl  I  and  secured  the  pas- 
sage of  a  more  complete  school  law.  which  re- 
mained in  force  until  L855,  when  Hon.  I).  1!. 
Ashley  secured  the  passage  of  a  revised  law 
which  contained  stringent  provisions  against  the 
apportionment  of  public  moneys  for  the  support 
of  sectarian  schools.  This  law  was  not  materially 
changed  until  1864,  when  the  state  superintend- 
ent secured  the  passage  of  important  financial 
amendments  which  more  than  doubled  theschool 
revenue.  Among  these  provisions  was  the  levy- 
in-  Ml  a  state  tax  of  rive  cents  on  the  hundred 
dollars. 

A  state  normal  school  was  organized  in  1H62, 
and  was  located  in  San  Francisco.  In  1866,  "an 
act  to  provide  for  a  system  of  common  schools." 
drafted  by  the  state  superintendent,  was  passed 
under  the  title  of  the  Revised  School  Law. 
This  law  remains,  with  a  few  unimportant 
changes,  on  the  statul  !  boo!  3  at  the  present  day. 
In  L869,  the  state  university  was  established  at 
Berkeley,  uearOakland.  In  1874,  the  state  tax 
was  increase  I  so  as  to  yield  a  revenue  of  $7 
per  unit  of  the  school  census, — a  revenue  which, 
in  L875,  amounted  to  81,100,000. 

The  first  public  school  was  opened  in  San 
Francisco,  Dee.,  1849,  by  'John  C.  Pelton,  after- 
wards city  superintendent  of  San  Francisco.  In 
1866,  the  whole  state  attained  to  a,  free-school 
system,  rate-bills  being  abolished  bylaw,  Pre- 
vious to  this  time,  most  of  the  country  schools 
eked  out  their  limited  amount  of  school  moneys 
by  monthly  rates  of  tuition.  The  total  amount 
of  money  expended  for  public  school  purposes 


fro 


from  II 
from  Is 
to  L86E 


a  list 

Mar 


1872;  (6)  Henry  X.  Bolander,  from  1872  to 
1876;  (7)  Ezra  S.  Carr,  the  present  incumbent, 
who  entered  upon  his  duties  in  ls7(i. 

S/,,,'S,,>  „,.     The  schools   of   the  state  are 


spectively.  The  a  unty  boards  q)  examination 
are  com] iosed  of  the ntv  superintendent,  and 

from  3  to  5  professional  'teach,  i>.  he], ling  first 
grade  certificates,  appointed  bj  thi  countysuper- 
intendent,  for  the  term  of  two  years,  at  a  compen- 

sat I  $3  a  day.  and  traveling  expenses.  'I  hey 

are  authorized  to  hold  quarterly  county  examina- 
tions, and  to  issue  first,  second,  and  third  grade 
certificates,  valid  for  3  yi  irs  2  yean  and  I  year, 
respectively.  The  city  boards  of  examination 
are  composed  of  the  city  superintendent  and  four 
professional  teachers.  holdiii".  educational  diplo- 
mas, and  elected  by  the  city  board  of  education. 
Their  powers  are  similar  to  those  of  the  state 
and  county  boards.  All  boards  of  examination 
must    be   composed    exclusively  of    professional 


chools  must   be  kept 


colored  children  at  the  opti f  the  local  boards. 

The  daily  school  sessions  must  no:  exceed  six 
hours,  ami.  for  primary  children  under  -  years 
of  age,  must  not  exceed  I  boui  -  I  or  district 
school  libraries,  there  is  an  allowance  of  Sella 
year,  out  of  the  state  apportionment,  to  be  ex- 
pended by  the  trustees.  No  sectarian  or  deno- 
minational doctrines  can  be  taught  in  the  schools. 
There  is  a  compulsory  education  law,  but  no  pro- 
visions for  properly  enforcing  it. 

The  school  revenue  consists  of  the  annual  in- 
terest of  the  state  school  fund,  invested  in  fi  per 
centand  7  percent  bonds.  This  fund  amounts 
to  81,737,5110.  and  the  annual  interest  to  $97,560. 
There  is  a  state  tax  sufficient  to  raise  ST  for  each 
chilil  between  the  ages  of  5  and  17,  as  shown  by 
the  last  preceding  school  census,  amounting,  in 
lo75,  to  $1,100,000;  a  county  school  tax  a1  a 
rate  not  less  than  SM  oer  unit  of  the  sel 1  census: 


public  instruction,  county  superintendents,  and 
city  superinten  lents.  all  elected  by  popular  vote. 
The  state  board  of  education  is  composed  of  the 
governor,  the  state  superintendent,  and  six  county 
superintendents,   all    beii 


I""' 


members   ex  officii 

liloriu  series  of  text- 


books, to  issue  life  diplomas,  to  adopt  a  course  of 
studies  for  the  schools  of  the'  state,  and  to  make 


$1,115,000.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  district 
school  tax.  submitted  to  local  vote,  for  building 
purposes,  or  for  maintaining  schools,  not  to  ex- 
ceed, in  any  one  year.  SI  on  each  $100. 

There  is  no  supervision  by  school  inspectors. 
County  superintendents  are  required  to  visit  and 


112 


CALIFORNIA 


every  school  once  a  year,  but  this  is 
merely  nominal.  Each  school  district  has  a 
board  of  three  trustees;  and  incorporated  cities 
have  special  boards  of  education,  as  well  as  city 
superintendents. 

The  salaries  of  teachers  are  as  follows:  Aver- 
age monthly  salary  of  male  teachers  $84.93; 
of-  female  teachers.  $68.01. 

The  conrsi'  if  iusl.-'ft,,,,,  as  prescribed  bylaw 
for  the  public  schools,  must  include  the  follow- 
ing branches  of  study  :  reading,  writing,  spilling, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  the  hi-t  iry  of 
the  United  States,  physiology,  natural  history, 
drawing,  and  music.  There  is  a  course  of  study 
adopted  by  the  state  board  of  education ;  but  as 
there  is  no  way  to  enforce  it,  but  little  attention 
is  paid  to  it  in  the  country  districts.  Each  city 
has  its  own  special  course.  In  San  Francisco. 
German  and  French  are  taught  in  a  part  of  the 
primary  and  grammar  departments.  The  high 
.schools  have  the  usual  course  of  study  in  order 
to  prepare  pupils  for  admission  to  the  state  uni- 
versity. 

Educational  Condition. — The  total  number  of 
school  districts  in  the  state  is  I  579.  The  number 
of  schools  in  each  of  the  three  grades  is  a.s 
follows:  state  university,  1  :  high  schools,  14: 
first-grade  (grammar  schools.  s7~> ;  second-grade 
'intermediate)  sel Is,  77(1  :  third-grade  (pri- 
mary) schools,  545 ;  total  number  of  schools, 
2,205. 

Besides  these,  there  are  public  evening  schools 
in  San  Francisco,  free  to  men  and  boys,andkept 
open  111  months  in  the  year.  These  schools  are 
graded,  with  special  classes  in  book-keeping  and 
drawing.  The  number  of  teachers,  in  L875,was 
25;  of  pupils,  1,100. 

The  following  are  the  principal  items  of  the 
school  statistics  for  1875  : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 130,9:10 

Average  daily  attendance 78,027 

Number  of  teachers,  males 1,033 

"      "        "         females 1,000 

Total  receipts $3,390,359. 

Total  expenditures $2,0.21  I. 

Normal  Instruction.  —  The  State  Normal 
School  was  organized  hi  L861,  at  San  Francisco, 
but  in  1870  was  removed  to  San  Jose.     The 

building  was  erected  at  a  cost  of  $250,000. 
This  school  is  open  to  both  sexes,  and  is  entirely 
free.  The  number  of  students  in  1875  was  240, 
.mostly  young  women;  the  number  of  instructors 
was  9.  The  annual  cost  of  the  school  is  about 
$20,000.  The  total  number  of  graduates,  from 
its  foundation  to  1876,  was  378. 

Secondary  Instruction. — There  are  14  high 
schools  in  the  state,  of  which  2  are  located  in 
San  Francisco,  one  for  girls,  and  one  for  boys. 
There  is  one  in  each  of  the  following  cities  :  Oak- 
land   -.I.  i. nto,  Stockton.  Los   Angeles.  San 

Jose.  Vallcjo.  Petaluma,  Grass  Valley,  Nevada, 
Marysville,  Santa  Clara,  and  Santa  Cruz.  These 
schools,  which  fit  students  for  admission  into  the 
state  university,  contain  1.500  pupils,  taught  by 
13  teachers.  Besides  the  high  schools,  there  is  a 
large  number  of  nourishing  private  schools,  of 


which  some  are  for  boys  exclusively,  others  for 
girls,  and  some  for  both  sexes. 

Denominational  Schools. — The  denominational 
schools  are  epiite  numerous  and  extensive.  In 
San  Francisco,  six  Roman  Catholic  schools  give 
instruction  to  Hon  boys  and  850  girls;  besides 
which,  the  Presentation  Convent  School,  for  girls, 
has  700  pupils  and  'J'',  teachers;  and  the  Sacred 
Heart  Presentation  Convent,  750  pupils  and  26 
teachers.  The  Acadt  my  of  Notre  Dame,  at  San 
.lo-.'\  has  550  pupils  and  30  teachers.  Other 
( 'atholie  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  state  give 
instruction  to  1.3s.".  pupils.  The  Protestant 
.rts  of  f 


schools  in  various  parts  of  the  state  give  instruc- 
tion to  about  1,500  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  California  State 
University  (q.  v.)  crowns  the  public  school  sys- 
tem, being  entirely  free  in  all  its  departments. 
( Ither  institutions  of  a  similar  grade  are  included 
in  the  following  list : 


Kame 

If 

Religious 
Deuomina- 

Location 

s..H1rT,l';!,,i..,r.iV-,'ir,';r.- 
St.  Mary's  College 
Santa  Clara  I    ill 
I'niv.  Moond  (    ill   i 
University  ol  1  a 
Univ.  oi  tin   Pa.  ifi. 

1  -  VI 

llil 

Vacaville 
Santa  Rosa 
Santa  Rosa 
San  Francisco 
-.in  Francisco 
Santa  Barbara 
San  Francisco 
Simla  Clara 
-  oi  Francisco 

Santa  Clara 

ipal  institu- 
te following  : 
it  and  Dumb 
shed  in  I860, 
Pacific  Theo- 


Special   Instruction—^ 

tions  for  special  instruct n 
The  I  lalifornia  Institute  fo 
and  the  Blind,  neai  Bei  b  I 
and  supported  by  the  sta 
logical  Seminary  (Congregational),  at  Oakland; 
the  Theological  Seminary,  at  San  Francisco;  the 
School  of  Design,  at  San  Francisco,  organized  in 
1S73;  besides  which,  there  is  the  medical  depart- 
ment nt  the  I'liivcisity  ,,f  California,  the  .Medical 
College  of  the  Pacific,  and  the  California  College 
of  Pharmacy. 

There  is  no  state  reform  school,  but  the  San 
Francisco  Industrial  School  serves  the  purpose  of 
one,  as  minors  from  other  counties  may  be  com- 
mitted to  its  care  on  the  payment  of  a  stipulated. 
sum.  The  school  connected  with  this  institution 
is  well  graded  and  equipped,  and  the  buildings 
for  the  accommodation  of  its  different  depart- 
ments are  large  and  spacious. 

Teachers' Associations.  The  first  state  teach- 
ers' convention  was  held  in  San  Francisco,  in 
Dec.,  1854;  the  first  teacher.-'  institute  met  in  San 
Francisco,  May.  1863,  under  the  direction  of 
State  Superintendent  Moulder.  The  third  state 
institute,  in  1863,  gave  a  marked  impulse  to 
educational  interests.  The  l  lalifornia  State  Edu- 
cational Society  was  organized  in  1863,  with 
John  Swett  as  president.  It  admitted  to  mem- 
bership only  holders  of  state  educational  di- 
plomas. This  society  for  five  years  controlled 
the  California  Teacher.  In  1875,  a  state  edu- 
cational association  was  organized  at  Sau  Jose. 


CALIFORNIA   COLLEGE 

Educational  Literature. — The  firs!  educational 
journal  was  the  California  Teacher,  commenced 
in  July  L863,  published  under  the  general  control 
of  the  State  Educational  Society  and.edited,  for 
the  tiivt  four  yearn    bj  John  Swetf  and  ^amuel 

nation  by  a  state  subscription.  In  is7.'i.  it 
was  taken  from  the  control  of  the  society,  and 
became  the  organ  of  the  state  superintendent. 
An  educational  newspaper,  called  the  School- 
master, com need  in  1874,  is  published  in   Los 

Angeles.      There   is   no  work   treating  of   the 

schools  of  the  state.     Thi ly  historical  sketch 

of  the  progress  of  public  education  is  to  be 
found  in  Superintended  Swett's  Biennial  Re- 
port for  1865—6;  containing  a  summary  of 
legislation,  and  of  the-  state  reports,  from  L849 
to  L866. 

CALIFORNIA  COLLEGE,  at  Vacaville, 
Cal.,  was  founded  in   L871,  by  the  Baptists.     It 


i!i,-..|. 


CALISTHENICS  113 

medical   colleges,  nominally  transferred   to   the 

uniM't-sitv.     the  total  number  of  students  in  De- 


tessor  I).  ('.Oilman  ..f  Yale  Colic 

CALISTHENICS   (Gr. 
r.i  ,  ,  .   strength),  a  system  of  phy 
tor  females,  designed    to   promote 
gracefulness  of  movement;    or,  by 
natural    and     harmonious    .level..] 


ts.  I,a 


i  limn 


I'lie  \  .due  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  etc  is  esti- 
mated at  !i?'2...0llii  :  and  its  lil.rarv  eontains  about 
2,500  volumes.  A.  S.  Worrell,  A.  M.,  is  (1876) 
the  president  of  the  institution.  The  cos!  of 
tuition  per  annum  is  about  $50. 

CALIFORNIA,  University  of,  at  Berke- 
ley. 4  miles  X.  of  ( lakland,  was  organized  in  L869, 
and  forms  a  pari  of  the  public  educational  system 

of  the  state.     It  is  under  th( ntrol  of  a  board  of 

22  regents,  of  which  the  governor,  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor, state  superintendent  .  .  public  iustru.-ti.ni. 
speaker  of  the  assembly,  president  of  the  state 
agricultural  society,  and  president  ..f  tlie  mediate 
ics'  institute  of  San  Francisco  are  <  .■  offi. ...  mem- 
bers. It  is  open  to  both  sexes,  young  women  be- 
ing admitted  on  the  same  terms  as  young  men. 
Its  endowment  fund  consists  of  the  150,000 
acres  of  land  granted  by  Congress  in  aid  of  agri- 
cultural schools,  and  the  72  sections,  comprising 
46,080  acres,  set  apart  for  a  "  seminary  fund " 
from  the  public  school  lands.  The  1 50,000  acres 
were  sold  at  an  average  price  of  St  per  acre, 
yielding  $600,000 ;  the  si  miliary  fund  amounted 

to  $35,000,  making  a  to1  Jol  $635, I.  Thestate 

appropriated  $300,000  for  the  erection  of  suit- 
able buildings ;  and  the  site  of  L60  acres  of  land. 
on  the  hills  at  Berkeley,  overlooking  San  Fran- 
cisco, was  given  by  the  College  of  California, 
which  was  merged  in  the  university.  The  state 
appropriates  for  current  expenses  $50,000  a 
year  in  addition  to  the  revenue  of  the  endow- 
ment fund.  In  L875,  .lames  Lick  endowed  the 
university  with  $700,000,  to  be  expended  in 
erecting  and  maintaining  an  observatory  on  Mt. 
Hamilton,  in  the  coast  range.  90  miles  south  of 
Berkeley.  The  departments,  or  colleges,  fully 
organized  are  the  college  of  letters,  or  the  classical 
department,  and  the  srimlific.  school.  Little  has 
been  done  as  yet,  towards  organizing  the  iit/ririi/t- 
ural  college,  or  the  eoltegps  nfm  iiim  or  mechanics.  I 
The  college  of  medicine  is  in  San  Francisco,  un- 
der a  separate  faculty.  It  consists  of  the  Toland  | 


girls;  and,  of  course,  the  exercises  employed  re- 
quire a  less  violent  muscular  action.  These 
exercises  maj  be  practiced  with  or  without  ap- 
paratus. The  latter,  which  should  be  employed 
first,  consist  in  such  movements  as  bring  into 
regular  and  systematic  operation  all  parts  of  the 

complicated,  being  in  fact  only  such  as  are  re- 
quired in  theordinar}  i  xercise  of  the  limbs.  Their 
advantage  over  those  required  in  the  common 
active  sports  of  girls  consists  in  their  systematic 
regulation  so  as  to  ensure  an  equal  and  regular 
action  of  the  muscles;  while  long  continued 
sports  of  any  particular  kind,  such  as  trundling 


Mild 


well  as  task  the  muscles,  or  they  will  lose  much 
of  their  beneficial  effect:  since  while  the  body 
is  exercised,  the  mind  must  be  interested.  The 
simplest  apparatus  used  consists  of  wands  or 
poles,  dumb-bells,  backboards,  elastic  bands  with 
handles,  ligh!  weights,  etc.  With  such  instru- 
ments, a  ureat  variety  of   beneficial,  graceful,  and 


lliarlv   li. 


whi 


i.iil\  after  the  age  of  L2  or  1  I  years 
they  should  rarely.it  ever.be  resi.rt- 
■rous  ailments  to  which  female-  are 
ile  are  due  n.  the  neglet  t  ..t  proper 
physical  training,  and  may  be  prevented  or  cured 
by  a  judicious  employment  of  calistl  enic  ei 
rises.  .Many  injurious  practices,  such  as  tight 
lacing,  are  necessarily  precluded  by  the  regular 
resort  to  such  exercises.  Ling,  the  celebrated 
Swedish  author  of  kinesipathy  or  the  movement- 


114 


CALISTHENICS 


cure,  has  written  very  enthusiastically  upon  the 
importance  of  free  gymnastic  exercises,  as  a 
means  of  promoting  health  as  well  as  of  curing 
disease.  (See  Die  aUgemeinen  Grunde  der  Gym- 
nastik,  published  at  Stockholm,  in  L840.)  He 
founded  the  Centra!  Institute  at  Stockholm, 
subsequently  conducted  by  Prof.  Branting. 
Many  excellent  manuals  giving  full  practical  di- 
rections to  teachers,  are  now  published.  In  social 
life,  dancing  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  and 
beneficial  of  calisthenic  exercises,  and  were  it  dis- 
sociated from  the  fashionable  dissipation  with 
which  it  is  too  often  allied,  would  meet  with  uni- 
versal favor.  Some  of  the  most  eminent  teachers 
of  females  have  regarded  this  species  of  exercise 
as  the  best  even  for  schools.  .Mrs.  Willard  says, 
"The  grace  of  motion  must  be  learned  chiefly 
from  instruction  in  dancing.  Other  advantages, 
besides  that  of  a  graceful  carriage,  might  be 
derived  from  such  instruction,  if  the  lessons  were 
judiciously  timed.  Exercise  is  needful  to  the 
health,  and  recreation  to  the  cheerfulness  and 
contentment  of  youth.  Female  youth  should 
not  be  allowed  to  range  unrestrained,  to  seek 
amusement  for  themselves.  If  it  were  entirely 
prohibited,  they  would  be  driven  to  seek  it  by 
stealth ;  which  would  lead  them  to  many  im- 
proprieties of  conduct,  and  would  have  a  perni- 
cious effect  upon  their  general  character,  by  in- 
ducing a  habit  of  treading  forbidden  patios.  The 
alternative  that  remains  is  to  provide  them  with 
proper  recreation,  which,  after  the  confinement 
of  the  day,  they  might  enjoy  under  the  eye  of 
their  instructors.  Dancing  is  exactly  suited  to 
this  purpose,  as  also  to  that  of  exercise  ;  for  per- 
haps in  no  way  can  so  much  healthy  exercise  be 
taken  in  so  short  a  time."  Miss  0.  E.  Beecher, 
in  Educational  Reminiscences,  remarks,  "  When 
physical  education  takes  the  proper  place  in  our 
schools,  young  girls  will  be  trained  in  the  class- 
rooms to  move  heads,  hands,  and  arms  gracefully; 
to  sit,  to  stand,  and  to  walk  properly,  and  to  pur- 
sue calisthenic  exercises  for  physical  development 
as  a  regular  school  duty  as  much  as  their  studies. 
And  these  exercises,  set  to  music,  will  be  sought 
as  the  most  agreeable  of  school  duties." 

In  all  such  exercises,  certain  general  rides  and 
directions  arc  to  be  kept  steadily  in  view.  They 
should  never  be  practiced  immediately  after 
meals,  nor  very  near  the  time  of  eating,  as  diges- 
tion cannot  be  properly  performed  when  the 
system  is  in  an  exhausted  condition.  The  best 
time  for  exercise  is  early  in  the  morning  or  to- 
wards evening.  Tn  school,  these  exercises,  being 
of  a  moderate  character,  may  come  after  the 
mind  is  wearied  witli  protracted  intellectual 
work,  for  then  they  will  prove  a  relief  ;  but  in- 
tellectual efforts  cannot  effectively  be  put  forth 
after  the  physical  system  has  become  jaded  and 
fatigued  by  protracted  exercise.  <  lalisthenic 
exercises  should  always  be  commenced  and  fin- 
ished gently  :  indeed,  all  abrupt  transitions  from 
gentle  to  violent  exertions,  or  the  contrary, 
should  be  avoided.  It  is  by  moderate  and  pro- 
longed or  repeated  exercise  that  the  physical 
organs  are  to  be  developed  or  improved,  not  by 


CAMBRIDGE 

violent  and  fitful  efforts.  The  weaker  organs 
should  receive  the  most  attention,  so  that  the 
whole  system  may  receive  a  harmonious  develop- 
ment. The  dress  should  be  light  and  easy  ;  aud 
the  department  in  which  the  exercises  are  taken 
should  be  spacious,  cool,  and  well-ventilated.  All 
such  exercises  require  to  be  practiced  with  many 
precautions,  and  with  a  due  regard  to  the  con- 
dition of  the  individual.  Teachers  may  be  the 
means  of  doing  much  injury  by  indiscriminately 
requiring  all  their  pupils  to  go  through  the  same 
amount  of  exercise.  The  effect  upon  every  pupil 
should  be  carefully  watched  ;  and,  in  some  cases, 
flic  advice  of  a  careful  physician  should  not  be 
dispensed  with.  See  Catharine  E.  Beecher, 
Physiology  and  Calisthenics  (NT.  Y„  1856);  and 
EducaiionalReminiscences(N.Y.,1814:);  Kings- 
let,  Health  ,u<, I  /•;,/„<■„/;„„  (I.ond.  andN.Y., 
1ST!)  ;  Watson,  Manualqf  Calisthenics  (M.T., 
isc,  i)  ;  Tram,,  '/'//.•  Illustrated  Family  Gym- 
nasium (X.Y.,  1857);  Dio  Lewis,  New  Gym- 
nastics (Boston.  1  st;2) ;  Barxkt, The  Gymnasium 
at  Home  (N.  T.,  In71).     (See  Gymnastics,  and 

CALISTHENIUM,  a  newly  coined  term, 
applied  to  an  apartment  or  hall  in  which  calis- 
thenic exercises  are  practiced  ;  formed  after  the 
analogy  of  gymnasium. 

CALLIGRAPHY.     See  Penmanship. 

CAMBRIDGE,  University  of,  one  of  the 
oldest  and  most  famous  institutions  of  learning 
in  England.  A  school  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  at  Cambridge,  by  a  party  of  monks,  as 
early  as  1109;  and,  twenty  years  later.  Alfred 
of  Beverley,  the  historian,  lodged  in  the  town, 
and  studied.  The  records  of  the  university  are 
preserved  in  the  Tower,  and  show  the  university 
to  have  been  in  full  operation  in  1229.  EdwardL, 
in  1291,  granted  it  the  first  formal  charter  of 
privilegesT  which  was  amplified  by  succeeding 
sovereigns.  Edward  II.  obtained  the  first  papal 
recognition  of  the  university.  Henry  VI.  founded 
King's  ( 'ollege  :  and  his  consort  founded  Queens', 
which  obtained  a  second  patroness  in  the  con- 
sort of  Edward  IV.  Henry  VIII.  consolidated 
and  enriched  earlier  foundations  to  form  Trinity 
( 'ollcgc  ;  but,  from  1257,  the  date  of  the  found- 
ing of  St.  Peter's  College,  private  munificence 
was,  and  still  is,  yet  more  active  in  endowing 
the  various  foundations.  A  new  era  began  with 
Queen  Elizabeth,  in  the  13th  year  of  whose 
reign,  on  the  basis  of  existing  charters,  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge  was  incorporated,  under 
the  title  of  "the  Chancellor.  Masters,  and  Schol- 
ars of  the  University  of  Cambridge."  The  uni- 
versity is  a  federal' republic  of  17  colleges  (or, 
with  Cavendish  College.  18),  maintained  solely 
by  the  endowments  of  founders  and  benefactors. 
Each  college  is  a  lesser  republic,  with  its  own 
statutes,  but  is  subject  to  university  law.  The 
present  statutes  were  confirmed,  in  1858,  by 
Queen  Victoria.  The  legislative  and  executive 
bodies  are  composed  of  members  of  the  colleges. 
All  masters  of  arts  and  doctors  in  divinity,  law, 
and  physic,  whose  names  are  on  the  university- 
register,  have  the  right  to  vote  in  the  senate. 


CAMUKIDUK 


115 


The  electoral  roll  is  a  smaller  body,  consisting 
of  all  who  have  resided,  during  the  preceding 
year,  at  the  university,  together  with  heads, 
officers,  and  examiners  ;  and  by  it  many  of  the 
university  officers  are  elected.  The  senate,  in 
1876,  numbered  5,816;  the  electoral  roll,  318. 
Meetings  of  the  senate  [congregations)  are  held 
fortnightly  during  terms,  for  conferring  degrees 
and  transacting  business.  The  council  of  the 
senate  consists  of  the  chancellor,  and  vice-chan- 
cellor, ex  officio,  and  16  other  members  of  the 
senate  on  the  electoral  roll,  chosen  by  the  latter 
body.  All  resolutions  for  conferring  degrees,  etc. 
(graces),  must  be  sanctioned  by  the  council  be- 
fore they  are  submitted  to  the  senate.  The  ex- 
ecutive consists  of  the  chancellor,  who  is  the  head 
of  the  university  and  non-resident  (usually  a 
prince  or  a  nobleman);  the  vice-chancellor,  always 
the  head  of  a  college,  wielding  the  full  powers  of 
the  chancellor. ami,  /ircj  //-/».,  a  magistrate  for  the 
university,  the  town,  and  the  county  ;  the  high 
steward,  the  commissary,  the  *"<•  riri.  the  as- 
sessor, all  exercising  judicial  functions  ;  the  pub- 
lic orator,  who  is  the  mouth-piece  of  the  senate  ; 
the  librarian;  the  registrary,forthe  registration  of 
graces  and  the  custody  of  records;  two  proctors 
and  two  pro-proctors,  who  maintain  discipline  and 
attend  congregations  to  read  graces  and  register 
votes ;  the  university  marshals  (constables)  :  the 
esquire  bedells;  and  the  university  counsel,  solic- 
itor, moderators,  and  syndics,  the  last  being 
members  of  special  committees  for  specific  duties. 
The  university  sends  two  members  to  parliament, 
elected  by  the  senate, — a  privilege  first  granted 
by  James  I. — There  are  33  professors:  of  divinity, 
four;  of  law,  three;  of  physic,  medicine,  anatomy, 
comparative  anatomy,  Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew, 
Sanskrit,  one  each;  of  Arabic,  mathematics, 
astronomy,  two  each ;  of  natural  experimental 
philosophy,  experimental  physics,  botany,  geol- 
ogy, mineralogy,  chemistry,  moral  theology  or 
casuistry,  modern  history,  political  economy, 
music,  archaeology,  fine  arts,  one  each.  The 
oldest,  the  Margaret  professorship  of  divinity, 
dates  from  1502.  There  are  five  regim  profess- 
orships :  divinity,  civil  law,  physic,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew.  Erasmus  was  the  first  professor  of  Greek, 
and  the  third  Margaret  professor.  The  stipends 
are  from  endowments,  the  university  chest,  and 
fees.  A  few  are  richly  endowed.  There  are  three 
terms:  (1)  Michaelmas,  or  October  term  (Oct.  1. 
to  Dec.  16);  (2)  Lent,  or  January  term  (Jan.  13. 
to  Friday  before  Palm-Sunday  ;  (3)  Easter,  or 
Midsummer  term  (Friday  after  Easter  to  Friday 
after  Commencement  day.  which  is  the  last  Tues- 
day but  one  in  June).  An  under -graduate  must 
reside  in  the  university  two-thirds  of  each  term, 
i.  e.,  about  six  months  during  the  year. — Mem- 
bers of  colleges  are  classed  as  follows:  (1)  Heads 
of  colleges,  styled  Master  (at  King's,  Provost;  at 
Queens',  President):  (2)  Fellows  of  colleges. 
elected  by  the  Society  from  distinguished  grad- 
uates— in  one  or  two  colleges,  after  examination 
— numbering  in  all  about  400  ;  (3)  Xoblemen 
graduates,  doctors  in  the  several  faculties,  bach- 
elors in  divinity,  masters  of  arts,  and  of  law ; 


(4)  Bachelors  of  Arts,  Law.  and  Physic;  (5)  Fel- 
low commoners,  usually  younger  sons  ol  the 
oobilitj .  or  young  men  ol  foi  tune  ;  (6)  Scholars, 
generally  elected  by  competition  and   placed  on 

the  foundation  :  (Ti  Pens ers       i     boarders), 

who  form  the  great  body  of  the  students;  and 
(8)  Sizars,  who  are  students  of  limited  means. 
and  enjoy  certain  emoluments  and  immunities. 
Degrees  are  conferred  in  arts.  law.  medicine, 
divinity,  and  music.  The  first  degree  is  that 
of  Bachelor  (B.A.).for  which  there  are  three 
requisites  :  (1)  a  period  of  residence,  (2)  to  be  a 
member  of  a  college,  or  a  non-collegiati  student, 
and  (3)  to  pass  examinations/1  he  honor  examina- 
tion,, (triposes)  nine  in  number,  are  held  only 
once  a  year.  Those  who  pass  in  these  are  ar- 
ranged in  three  classes  according  to  merit,  and, 
in  the  mathematical  liij^<-  s.  arc  sty  I.  d,  respect- 
ively, wranglers,  senior  oplimes,  and  junior  op- 
times,  the  sniitir  in;, „>/■'■  ,■  h,  ndmg  the  list. 
The  subjects  of  this  tripos  (35  are  named  in  the 
schedule)  embrace  the  whole  range  of  pure 
mathematics,  and  mathematics  applied  to  nat- 
ural philosophy.  The  examination  lasts  nine 
days :  and  the  publication  of  the  list  in  the 
senate  house,  is  the  great  excitement  of  the  year. 
This  tripos  is  the  most  ancient  (the  printed  lists 
in  the  Calendar  begin  with  1747 — 8),  and  has 
given  Cambridge  its  peculiar  renown.  The  clas- 
sical tripos  ranks  next  in  fame,  age  (first  held  in 
1824),  and  numbers.  It  lasts  eight  days.  The 
moral  sciences  tripos,  lasting  I)  days,  embraces 
moral,  political,  and  mental  philosophy,  logic, 
and  political  economy.  The  natural  sciences 
tripos  includes  (1 )  chemistry,  and  other  branches 
of  physics,  (2)  botany.  (3)  geology  and  palaeon- 
tology, (4)  mineralogy,  and  (5j  comparative  ana- 
tomy, physii  >1«  >gv.  and  z<  16I1  igy.  1  lesii  les  these,  there 
are  the //'////..v.  ,s  of  law.  of  history,  and  of  tlieol- 
ogj  ,  A  pass  in  any  of  these  triposes  entitles  to 
P..  A.,  the  holder  of  which  may  become  M.A. 
after  three  years.  The  university,  in  1858,  in- 
stituted heal  i    am (lions, conducted  at  various 

places.  (&  Examinations.) — The  university 
is  a  body  which  holds  public  examinations,  and 
confers  degrees;  the  professors  lecture,  but  hardly 
can  be  said  to  teach  ;  the  colleges  train,  lodge, 
and  board  the  under-graduates.  The  most  effect- 
ive teaching  is  done  by  private  tutors  (coaches). 
The  names  of  the  colleges,  with  the  date  of  the 
foundation  of  each,  are  as  follows:  St.  Peters, 
1257;  Clare,  1326;  Pembroke,  1347;  Gonville 
and  Caius,  1348;  Trinity  Ball,  1350;  Corpus 
Christi,  1352  ;  Kings,  1441  ;  Queens',  1448  ; 
St.  Catharine's.  1473;  Jesus.  1496;  Christ's, 
1505;  St.  John's,  loll;  Magdalene.  I.M!>: 
Trinity,  L546 ;  Emmanuel,  1584;  Sidney  Sus- 
sex. 1598;  Downing.  1800;  Cavendish  L876 
The  whole  number  of  under-graduates.  in  1876. 
was  2.175.  the  largest  number  1 5 3. 3 1  being  in 
Trinity,  and  the  next  (359)  in  St.  John's.  There 
were  also  74  non-collegiate  students.  ( 'avendish 
(  ollege  aims  to  give  a  less  expensive  education 
to  students,  and  at  an  earlier  age  than  the  others. 
—  The  university  buildings  are  numi  fchi 

senate    house,   adjoining  which  is   the   library, 


116 


CAMPE 


rich  in  4.000  manuscripts  and  containing  half  a 
million  of  volumes;  the  geological  museum  :  the 
observatory,  in  charge  of  Professor  Adams:  Ad- 
denbrooke's  hospital,  the  Pitt  Press,  the  botanic 
garden,  the  Fitzwilliam  Museum,  etc.  There  arc 
various  societies  in  the  university  for  promoting 
research:  the  Antiquarian,  Philological,  and 
Philosophical  societies.  The  Union  combines  a 
reading-room,  library,  and  debating  club.  It  has 
a  handsome  and  spacious  building.-  -Sec  Fii.i.kk, 
History  of  Cambridge  from  1066  /.-  L634;  Cak- 
TKii,  ilisiloni  of  ('mii/irii/i/r  (London,  1753)  : 
Dyer,  History  of  Cambridge;  Cooper,  Annals  of 

Unive  ■  d  n "  Report  L852  3  Cam- 
bridge Ut       -••■  ■'  Col 'ar  .i,  m  al   ;  S    d  »fe' 

Guide  to  ihr  University  of  Cambridge  (1874); 
Bristed,  Three  Years  in  an  English  University, 
3d  edit.  (NY  Y.,  1873)  ;  Everett,  On  the  Cam 
(London,  1866). 

CAMPE,  Joachim  Heinrich,  a  prominent 


rsityof  II 


in   1" 


elatioiis 
siyied 


of  councilor  of  education  (JB 
the  Philanthropic  and  becan 
place  of  Basedow,  who  had   i 

The  institution  made  marked  i 
under  his  direction  :  but  his 
to  Basedow  were  so  unpleasant 
altera  few  months.  lie  then  founded  an  edu- 
cational institution,  similar  to  the  f'hi/<inthrojii>i. 
at  Trittow,  near  Hamburg,  where  he  r<  mained. 
until  1787,  when  Puke  Charles  of  Brunswick 
called  him  to  his  capital,  in  order  to  reform,  con- 
jointly with  some  other  prominent  educators,  the 
school  system  of  the  duchy.  The  reformatory 
scheme  of  the  duke  could  not,  however,  be  car- 
ried out.  in  consequence  of  the  opposition  of  the 
consistory  and  the  diet.  Campe  was  the  most 
prominent  representative  of  the  principles  on 
■which  the  Philanthropin  was  founded.  He 
avoided  the  eccentricities  of  Basedow,  and  thus 
gained  for  the  principles  which  they  both  repre- 
sented.a  much  larger  number  of  friends.  Ilegave 
so  great  a  prominence  to  utilitarian  considera- 
tions that  he  declared  he  valued  more  highly  the 
merits  of  the  man  who  introduced  the  use  of  the 
potato, or  invented  the  spinning-wheel,  than  those 
of  the  author  of  the  Iliad.  The  educational  ideas 
of  Campewere  set  forth  in  two  periodicals,  the 
Braunschweigisches  Journal  (4  vols.,  1788—91), 
and  A  ■    Revision  des  gesammten  Schul- 

und  />  iehungswesens  (16  'sols..  L785-  91). 
In  the  ninth  volume  of  the  latter  was  published 
a  translation  of  Locke's  Thm/i/hls  on  Eilnnition; 
and  in  volumes  xn.  to  xv„  Rousseau's  Emile, 
both  with  copious  notes.  The  works  of  I  lampe 
are  very  numerous,  including  many  popular 
juvenile  books. 

CANADA,  The  Dominion  of,  a  federal 
union  of  provinces  and  territories,  comprising, 
in  1876,  all  the  British  possessions  in  North 
America,  except  the  island  of  Newfoundland. 


CARLETON  COLLEGE 

Its  area  is  estimated  at  3.513,325  sq.  miles;  and 
its  population,  according  to  the  census  of  1871, 
was  3,718,7  17.  The  imperial  act  under  which,  in 
1867,  the  Dominion  was  established,  imposed 
upon  the  several  provincial  legislatures  the  duty 
of  providing  for  public  education  within   their 

olderpi  tvinci  hav<  revised  their  legislation  upon 
this  subject  ;  while  the  younger  members  of  the 
confederation  have  laid  the  foundation  of  new 
systems  of  public  instruction.  A  full  account  of 
the  school  systems  of  the  several  provinces,  which 
differ  in  essential  points,  will  lie  found,  in  this 
work,  under  their  respective  titles.  See  ( ',i„,„hi 
Educational  Directory  and  Year-Book,  by 
Alexander  Marling  (Toronto,  1876). 

CANE  HILL  COLLEGE,  at  Cane  Hill, 
near  Boonsboro.  Washington  county.  Arkansas. 
was  i  bartered  ill  1*52,  and  reorganized  ill  1868. 
It  is  under  the  control  of  the  Cumberland  Pres- 
byterian Church.  The  institution  has  prepara- 
tory and  collegiate  departments.  In  1873—4 
there  were  .'1  instructors,  and  68  preparatory  and 
Is  collegiate  students.  The  Rev.  F.  R.  Earle, 
A.M.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

CAPITAL  UNIVERSITY,  at  Columbus. 
Ohio,  was  organized  in  ls.50  by  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  synod  of  Ohio  mid  the  adjacent  stales. 
which,  iii  1*76.  formed  a  part  of  the  Synodical 
Conference.  It  includes  a  preparatory  or  gram- 
mar school,  and  collegiate  and  theological  de- 
partments. It  has  a  library  of  2.500  volumes. 
a  Faculty  of  6  professors.  2  of  whom  teach 
both  in  the  collegiate  and  the  theological  de- 
partment, and  01  students,  including  those  of 
theology.  Much  attention  is  given  to  the  study 
of  <  ierman,  which  extends  through  all  the  classes 
of  the  three  departments,  and  is  partly  used  as 
a  means  of  instruction.  The  annual  tuition  fee 
in  the  grammar  school  is  §25  ;  in  the  college. 
S40.  In  the  theological  department,  which, with 
a  few  brief  intermissions,  has  been  in  successful 
operation  since  1 830.  no  charge  is  made  for  tui- 
tiontand  indigent  young  men. possessing  the  nec- 
essary qualifications  for  the  ministry,  arc  sup- 
ported   by  the     ' 


ynodical    Education    Society. 

niann  is  (1876)  the 


CARLETON  COLLEGE,  at  Northfield, 
Minn.,  was  organized  in  1866,  by  the  Oongrega- 
tionalists.  It  has  a  preparatory,  a  collegiate, and 
an  Knelish  department,  the  latter  embracing 
those  pupils  wdiose  time  or  means  will  not  allow 
them  to  secure  a  thorough  classical  education. 
The  college  department  was  not  organized  until 
Sept.,  1870.  Roth  sexes  are  instructed  in  the 
same  classes,  and  may  take  the  same  degrees. 
There  were,  ill  L875,  2*16  students,  of  whom  13 
belonged  to  the  collegiate,  82  to  the  preparatory, 
and  111  to  the  Knglish  department,  'the  corps 
of  instructors  numbered  10.  The  first  board  of 
trustees  was  elected  by  the  state  conference  of 
Evangelical  churches,  which  now  annually  ap- 
points a  visiting  committee.  The  board  of 
trustees  is  self-perpetuating,  but  a  majority  of  its 
members,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  or- 


CARTHAGE  COLLEGE 

ganic  act.  must  be  Congregationalists.    In  1871. 

the  college  received  $50,000  in  cash  fi Wm. 

Carleton,  of  Charlestown,  Mass..  ami  the  board 
of  trustees  voted  to  give  liis  name  to  the  institu- 
tion, and  to  hold  his  gift  as  an  endowment.  In 
1875,  the  endowment  fund  had  increased  to 
about  $80,000.  The  library,  in  L875,  numbered 
2,000  volumes.  The  Wm.  H.  Dunning  Cabinet, 
donated  to  the  college  in  L875,  is  a  valuable  col- 
lection of  geological  specimens.  A  museum  of 
natural  history  has  been  commenced.  The  col- 
lege has  three  buildings  and  a  beautiful  site  of 
about  twenty-five  acres.  The  tuition  fee  in  the 
colle-iate  department  is  Ss  per  term  of  I  '■'•  weeks. 
The  president  of  the  institution  is  (187G)  Rev. 
.lames  Woodward  Strong,  D.D. 

CARTHAGE  COLLEGE,  at  <  !arthage,  111., 
was  founded  in  1870,  by  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 

classical  school',  and  the  college  department  'was 
not  organized  until  L873.      Ii  comprises  two  de- 


CATECHISM 


117 


partiiieiits,  the  collegiate  ami  the  academic,  the 
former  embracing  three  different  e,  mr.-sof  studv. 

the  classical,  the  scientific,  and  the  philosophical. 
The  institution  had,  in  1875,  9  instructors  and 

203  students,  of  whom  53  were  females.  It  is 
supported  partly  from  endowments,  and  partly 
by   tuition   fees.     The  endowments,  amounted, 

iu  1875,  to  about  S-10. The  annual  tuition 

fee  is  from  $24  to  $28.      The  college   libi  a  -. 

number.  ■  I  about  3.0011  volumes,  an  1  the  two 
III        :n       '■■!  'lies  of    the  college,  the    (ialil     I      md 

the  i  iicero  have  also  each  c  imn '  th    foi  n  i 

tion  of  a  library.  I..  I'.  M.  East  i  lav  was  the 
principal  of  the  institution  while  it  was  a  clas- 
sical school  (1870  to  1873)  ;  and  the  Rev.  D.  L. 
Tressler  was  subsequently  elected  president  of 
the  college. 

CATECHETICAL  METHOD,  the  method 
of  instruction  by  question  and  answer,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  pupils  are  required  to  answer 
the  questions  of  the  teacher,  so  as  to  show  what 

explanations  they  particularly  n 1  in  order  to 

obtain  a  correct  knowledge  of  the  subjed  oi 
sometimes  they  commit  to  memory  and  recite 
answers  to  set  questions  from  a  text-book.  This 
was  the  metho  I  employed  in  teaching  the  truths 
of  Christianity  in  the  early  churches,  each  re- 
sponse to  the  question  being  the  formal  state- 
ment or  definition  of  a  dogmatic  truth;  and  when 


to 


method  is  of  great  value,  'there  are  but  few 
subjects,  however,  which  can  be  properly  taught 
in  this  way;  since,  in  training  the   intellectual 

faculties,  the  sequence  of  farts,  thoughts,  or 
ideas,  is  more  important  than  their  clear  ap- 
prehensi r  expression  singly  and  disconnect- 
edly. On  this  principle  there  are  several  objec- 
tions to  the  catechetical  method  as  ,,n 
application  :  (1)  The  pupil  is  d  pi 
e    ■  i  he  expressive  faculties,  being 

required  only  to  repeat  what  has  been  enunciat- 
ed itL  the  language  oi  others:  ['_')  The  logical 
relations  of  the  facts  learned  are  apt  to  be  un- 


noticed by  the  pupils,  from  the  absence  of  those 
intermediate  connective  words  and  phrases  by 
which   ordinarily  those    relations  are   indicated" 

(3)    The  pupil,  by  learning  rely  the  answer 

to  a  question,  fails  to  obtain  a  full  idea  of  the 
truth,  a  part  of  which,  and  sometimes  the  most 

essential  part,  is  expressed  in  the  question  itself. 
Thus,  if  a  pupil  is  asked,  What  is  an  island? 
and  he  answers,  L<n,il  Surrounded  In/  water,  he 
does  not  entirely  express  the  fact,  but  only  a 
disjointed  fragment  of  it.  Many  text-books 
constructed  on  the  catechetical  plan  are  liable 
to  this  objection  ;  others,  however,  obviate  it  by 
'  '     ,   the   answer  a  complete  State- 


ment, the 


Thus,  the 
island?  w 
ed  by  watt 


gist 


repeated. 
,  What  is  an 
id  surround- 

eal  method  is 
employed  in  giving  oral  instruction,  the  teacher 
should  be  careful  to  keep  this  principle  in  view. 

A  skillful  use  of  this  method  will  always  be 
found  effective  in  opening  up  to  the  mind  of  the 
pupil  the  fundamental  ideas  and  principle*  of  a 
subject  previous  to  its  formal  study  by  the  pupil 
himself,  or.  when  difficulties  arise,  in  leading 
the  pupil's  mind,  by  an  adroit  scries  of  inter- 
rogatories, to  such  an  analysis  of  the  statement 
or  problem   in  question  as   will  enable  him  to 


turtle-raid.  This,  however,  is  not  so  much  an 
application  oi  the  catechetical  method  as  a  skill- 
iul  use  of  interrogation,  one  of  the  most  valuable 
and  indispensable  means  of  imparting  informa- 
tion. (See  l\ 1 1  i.-i.-oe  miox.i  The  Soeratic  method 

bring  conviction  to  the  learners  mind  by  obtain- 
in",-,  in  answer  to  the  questions  asked,  a  series  of 
admissions  leading  finally  to  his  assent  to  the 
truth  proposed 

The  catechetical  method  was  formerly  very 
popular  in  schools,  and  almost  universally  em- 
ployed; but,  in  proportion  as  mechanical  meth- 
ods of  recitation  and  rote-teaching  gavi  place 
to  such  as  appealed  directly  to  the  pupil's  intel- 
ligence and  powers  of  expression,  the  mere 
quesfinn-and-auswer  system  of  instruction  be- 
came discredited  and  was  abandoned.  In  its 
place,  the  /o/./c./'  ni./hml  is  now  in  quite  gen- 
era] use.     This  requires  that  the  pupil  shall  give 


to  a  question,  but    as   logically  expressing   the 
knowledge  wl i ii  1 1   he   h.-i-  ,i.-> p: i : ■■  I   in  regard  to 
the  topic  assigned  by  the  teacher. 
CATECHETICAL  SCHOOL.     See  Ai.t.x- 

CATECHISM  [('iV.Karij\jn„n,,\v. 
an  elementary  work  containing  a  summary  of 
principles,  especially  of  religious  doctrine,  re- 
duced to  the  form  of  questions  and  answers.  The 
name  ra'oeln-m  lor  r.  limou-  worl  -■  of  this  kind 
was  probably  lir-t  pr.,po-,-d  by  Luther,  whose 
i  w  o  i  1 1 1 c  .i  i  -  red  in  1  ~>29.     Sum- 

maries  ,,f    (  hristian    doctrines,     in   tl  oi 

questions  and    answers,  undc  r  o  in 

however,   of    much    earlier   origin,    and    can   be 


1 18  CATECHISM 

traced  to  the  eighth  century.  Among  the  early- 
works  of  this  class,  those  by  Kero,  a  monk  of  St. 
Gall,  and  one  probably  written  by  Otfried  of 
AVeissenburg,  were  the  most  famous.  Subse 
quently,  we  find  similar  bunks  in  use  among  the 
Waldenses  and  Bohemian  Brethren.  These 
works  contained  mostly  the  Apostles'  Creed, 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  and,  since  the  fourteenth 
century,  the  Ten  Commandments.  Luther,  who 
devoted  special  attention  to  the  religious  in- 
struction of  children,  published  his  first  ele- 
mentary work  on  this  subject  in  1520.  A  few 
years  later,  Justus  Jonas  and  Johaun  Agricola 
were  commissioned  to  prepare  a  catechism  em- 
bracing the  entire  creed  of  the  Reformation,  but 
subsequently  Luther  undertook  the  work  him- 
self. Both  of  his  catechisms  were  received  by  the 
Lutheran  ( 'hureh  among  the  symbolical  books. 
The  most  celebrated  among  the  catechisms  which 
originated  in  the  Reformed  Church  were  the 
Geneva  catechisms,  compiled  in  the  French  lan- 
guage by  ( lalvin  (the  smaller  in  1 536,  the  larger  in 
1541),  the  Zurich  catechism,  which,  in  1039,  was 
received  as  a  symbolical  book,  and  especially  the 
Heidelberg  catechism,  compiled  in  1563  by 
order  of  the  elector  of  the  Palatinate,  and  gener- 
ally adopted  by  the  German  and  Dutch  lie- 
formed  I 'hutches.  In  the  Anglican  Church,  the 
Church  Catechism,  which,  in  1552,  was  com- 
piled by  John  Poynet,  sanctioned  by  Kdward  VI., 
and  published  in  155:!,  obtained  a  great  author- 
ity. The  Presbyterian  ('hureh  lias  generally 
adopted  the  shorter  Assembly  Catechism,  which 
was  compiled  by  committees  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly,  presented  to  the  I  louse  of  Commons 
in  1647  and  L648,  and  in  the  latter  year  by 
resolution  of  Sept.  15.,  1G-18,  ordered  to  be 
printed  "by  authority,"  for  public  use.  This 
catechism  is  also  extensively  used  among  the 
Independents  and  Congregationalists  in  Great 
Britain  and  America.  In  the  Wesleyan  Church 
of  England,  the  cathecliisms  in  use  have  been  ar- 
ranged by  the  Rev.  Richard  Watson.  For  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  <  'hureh  of  the  United  States, 
a  series  of  three  catechisms,  prepared  by  Rev. 
Br.  Kidder,  was  adopted  by  the  General  Con- 
ference of  L852.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
the  Tridentine  Council  ordered  the  compilation 
of  a  catechism  "  tor  the  use  of  pastors."  It  was 
published  in  Rome,  in  L566,  under  the  title  of 
CatecMsmus  Romanus.  It  was,  originally,  not 
in  the  shape  of  questions  and  answers,  though  it 
has  this  form  in  later  editions.  Among  the 
numerous  catechisms  prepared  for  the  use  of 
children,  those  by  Canisius  (1551  and  L566), 
BeJlarmin  (1603),  and  Bossuet  (1687)  have  had 
the  largest  circulation.  The  Vatican  Council,  in 
L870,  decreed  the  preparation  of  a  common 
catechism  for  the  whole  church,  which  is  to  be 
essentially  that  of  Bellarmin.  In  the  Creek 
Church,  the  catechism  prepared  by  Mogilas, 
metropolitan  of  Kiev  (1642),  was  recognized  as 
a  standard,  in  1672,  by  a  synod  at  Jerusalem. 
Many  other  religious  denominations,  besides  those 
mentioned,  have  also  their  denominational  cat- 
echisms; and  it  may.  therefore,  be  said  that  the  iin- 


CATIIEP/RAL  SCHOOLS 

mense  majority  of  the  children  of  Christian 
patents  receive  their  first  instruction  in  the  tenets 
of  ( 'hristianity  by  means  of  catechisms.  The  ob- 
ject of  a  catechism  is,  more  or  less,  not  only  to 
present  to  children,  in  the  most  lucid  form, "the 
tenets  of  the  religious  communion  of  which  they 
are  expected  to  become  active  members  in  after 
life,   but    to    impress    these    doctrines    indelibly 


(Gr 


//fC'ir,     m- 

1  given,  in 
t  who  was 


structed  by  wot 
the  early  Christi 

receiving  catechetical  instruction  preparatory  to 
baptism.  The  catechumens  were  divided  into  dif- 
ferent grades  or  classes  according  to  the  degree 
of  their  proficiency,  only  those  of  the  lughest 
grade,  who  had  been  pronounced  fit  for  baptism, 
being  permitted  to  be  present  at  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Lord's  Supper.  This  appellation 
was  afterwards  given  to  the  younger  members 
of  any  Christian  church  who  were  undergoing 
instruction  to  prepare  them  for  the  rite  of  cou- 
th,, term  is  still  used.     (See  Catechism.) 

CATHEDRAL  AND  COLLEGIATE 
SCHOOLS  (Cer.  /),„„-  <n„l  Klift*svh„lm),  a 
kind  of  schools  founded  in  the  middle  ages  in 
connection  with  cathedral  and  collegiate  churches. 
They  are  of  considerable  importance  in  the  history 
of  education,  because  they  shared  with  the  con- 
vent schools  the  honor  of  being,  for  a  long  time, 
almost  exclusively  the  nurseries  of  instruction 
and  education  in  Christian  countries.  They 
were  originally  intended  chiefly  for  educat- 
ing the  candidates  for  the  priesthood,  but  af- 
forded also  to  others  who  regarded  a  good  edu- 
cation necessary  for  their  social  position,  an  op- 
portunity to  acquire  the  knowledge  needed.  A 
few  schools  in  connection  with  cathedral  churches 
appear  to  have  existed  even  before  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Benedictine  order;  and  the  towns  of 
Aries,  Reims,  and  Orleans  are,  in  particular, 
mentioned  as  having  possessed  schools  of  this 
kind.  In  England,  the  episcopal  school  at  York 
enjoyed  a  high  reputation.  The  systematic  or- 
ganization of  these  institutions  as  a  special  class 
of  schools,  in  distinct  ion  from  the  convent  schools, 
was  due  to  Bishop  Chrodegang  of  Metz  (died 
766).  lie  united  the  clergymen  of  his  cathedral 
church  for  a  common  lite  on  the  basis  of  a  modi- 
fied rule  of  the  Benedictine  order,  and  thus  be- 
came the  founder  of  a  class  of  religious  orders 
known  in  church  history  as  the  <  anons  Regular. 
These  orders,  subsequently  divided  into  a  large 
number  of  different  branches,  regarded  it  as  one 
of  their  foremost  duties  to  establish  schools  sim- 
ilar in  organization  to  those  of  the  Benedictines. 
In  the  management  of  these  schools,  greater  at- 
tention was  paid  to  strict  discipline  than  to 
excellence  of  instruction.  One  brother  [/rater), 
of    unblamable   character,   was  charged,  in  each 

esiablisl nt   of  these  orders,  with   the  duty  of 

superintending  the  scholars,  and  of  enforcing 
strict  discipline,  in  order  that  they  might  become 
able  "  to  rise  to  the  dignities  of  the  church,  fitted 
out  with  ecclesiastical  erudition  and  spiritual 


CECII1AN  COLLEGE 

weapons."  The  number  of  these  schools  rapidly 
increased,  and  they  made  the  towns  which  con- 
tained them  thecentersof  learning.  The  subjects 
of  instruction  embraced,  besides  theology,  the 
reading  of  Latin  and  Greek  classics,  as  Homer, 
Yirgil,  Sallust,  Statins.  Terence,  Cicero,  and 
Seneca,  the  malting  of  Latin  and  Greek  verses, 
instruction  in  painting,  calligraphy,  church  sing- 
ing, and  arithmetic.  In  the  celebrated  cathedral 
school  of  Paderborn,  instruction  was  given  in 
mathematics,  physics,  music,  rhetoric,  and  dia- 
lectics. Special  interest  in  the  success  of  these 
schools  was  taken  by  Charlemagne  (see  Charle- 
magne), who,  iu  very  emphatic  rescripts,  urged 
all  the  bishops  to  establish  schools  of  this  kind. 
Ihuing  the  reign  of  his  son.  Louis  le  De- 
bonnaire,  the  synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  816, 
made  the  adoption  of  the  rule  of  Chrodegang. 
involving  the  establishment  of  a  school,  com- 
pulsory for  all  cathedral  (episcopal)  churches. 
Many  other  synods  urged  the  carrying  out  of 
this  law,  and  demanded  the  establishment  of 
schools,  not  tor  the  episcopal  churches  alone,  but 
likewise  for  other  large  churches.  The  rapid 
spread  of  the  Canons  Regular,  who  no  longer 
confined  their  religious  communities  to  the 
capital  of  the  diocese,  but  established  numerous 
•'  collegiate  "  churches  in  smaller  towns,  greatly 
aided  in  the  steady  increase  of  scl Is.  The  col- 
legiate schools  of  the  smaller  towns  resembled 

the  town  schools  which  arose  during  and  after 
tin-  crusades.      They  provided  only  for  the  tcach- 


CENTRAL  AMERICA 

>r  public  exhibitions,  large 

enough  to  seat  over  two  thousand  persons.    The 

ege  possesses  a   valuable  set  of  philosophical, 


lid  the   IMC ,. 

The  coll, i, 

■s:  those  oi  tin 


18' 


legiate  students,  and  203  alumni.     The  Rev. 
C.  G.  Andrews,  A.  M..  is  (1876)  the  president. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA  is  a  narrow  and 
irregular  strip  of  hind  which  forms  the  southern 
part  of  North  America.  It  comprises  the  five 
republics,  Guatemala,  Honduras,  San  Salvador, 

175,000  sq.  m..  and  its  population,  according  to 

the  census   of   lSC.'i,  L'.IIO.MIOO.     (  )(    ihese   l.'ll.OOO 

are  whites;   1,000,000  are  mestizos,  or  the  off- 
spring  of   whites   and    Indians;     1,500,000  arc 

nixed.      The   count i  \    was 


bv 


ormed  themselvi 
lasted  until  18 
solved.    There 


«hcl 


taugnr.  ami  tnc  audition  oi  the  surra  /ini/inn  de- 
veloped the  episcopal  seminaries.  With  the  de- 
cline of  the  ( lanons  Regular,  this  class  of  schools 
also  lost  their  reputation.  The  lower  studies  be- 
gan to  be  pursued  at  the  parish  schools  :  and  for 
the  higher  branches  the  universities  made  much 
more  ample  provision  than  had  ever  been  made 
by   the  cathedral    and   collegiate   schools.      -  See 

Launoii  Descholis  celebrioribus  s.  a  Garolo  M.  s. 
post  eundem  in  Occidente  instauraiis  (Paris, 
1672);  Ozanam,  La  Civilisation  Chretiennechei 
les  Francs  (Paris,  1849). 

CECILIAN  COLLEGE,  situated  near  Eliz- 
abethtown,  Hardin  county,  Kentucky,  was  found- 
ed by  Charles  (  Veil  and  sons,  in  1860.  Though 
a  private  institution,  it  was  chartered  in  1807. 
and  confers  degrees.  It  is  under  Roman  ( 'ath- 
olic  influence.  It  comprises  a  commercial  and 
a  classical  course. 

CENSUS,  School.     See  School  Census. 

CENTENARY    COLLEGE,    at   Jackson, 

and  taken  under  the  patronage  of  the  Methodist 

Episcopal  Church.  South,  in  L845.    It  c prises 

a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department,  the 
latter  having  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course. 
The  buildings  are  healthfully  situated  in  a  grove 
of  pine,  magnolia,  oak.  and  beech.  They  consist 
of  a  commodious  steward's  hall,  two  brick  dormi- 
tories, each  containing  twenty-four  rooms,  and 
a  magnificent  center  building,  which  has  been 
erected  at  an  expense  of    over  $60,000.      It  \ 


a  long  time,  each  of  the  republic  s  ha. 
its  own  way  in  polities  and  also  i 
— a  way  which  thus  far  has  led  onlj 


In  Guah  mala  public  instruction  is  still  in  the 

hands   of   the    clergy,  wh n    account    both   of 

these  repeated  plunderings  and  of  the  severe 
laws  against  them,  are  incapable  of  doing  much. 
There  are  26  primary  schools  in  the  capital  (10 
for  boys  and  16  for  girls)  and  several  private  in- 
stitutions. These  are  supported  mainly  by  volun- 
tary offering's.  For  the  higher  education,  there  is 
a  college  in  old  Guatemala,  which  formerly  hada 

fair  reputation.     New  I  oiatcinala  ha-  1 1  ,■ 

de  la   Trinidad,   th eqio  IHdentino,  and  a 


■patrttl nAmica,  founded  in  1795,  also  sup 

port-  a  -  I  !•  el  t"i  drawing,  sculpture,  and  mat  he- 
matics, and  publishes  a  journal. 

Honduras  possesses  two  institutions  called 
universities,  but  they  are  such  only  in  name.  The 
public  schools  are  scarcely  worth  mentioning, 
and  education  is  at  the  lowest  possible  point.  In 
1874,  the  number  of  public  schools  was  197, 
which  were  attended,  on  an  average,  by  '_'.">  pupils 
each,  showing  about  one  pupil  for  60  inhabitants. 


120 


CENTRAL  COLLEtiE 


San  Salvador  also  possesses  a  university  which 
has  the  reputation  of  being  the  second  hi  Central 
America.  Primary  schools  arc  few  in  number  ; 
n.i  ling  and  reckoning  are  taught  in  them  more 
or  less  indifferently;  writing  is  a  luxury  in  all 
these  republics  which  everybody  cannot  afford. 

XiairtK/ii'i  ha.-  a  more  demoralized  popula- 
tion even  than  the  other  republics,  owing  to  the 
former  filibustering  expeditions  from  abroad,  and 
also  to  the  many  political  revolutions  and  parti- 
san dissensions  which  have  occurred.  There  are 
two  universities  in  name,  one  in  Leon  and  one  in 
Granada.     The   first    r  a  small  library  of 

1500  volumes:  the  other  has  none.  In  1873,  the 
whole  number  of  schools  for  males  was  92,  with 
an  attendance  of  3,871;  and  for  females,  9,  with 
an  attendance  of  532.  The  whole  number  of 
children  of  school  age  (7  to  15)  was  30,000— 
males,  12,000,  and  females,  18.000. 

In  Costa  Rica  the  schools  are  somewhat  better 
attended,  but  both  the  amount  and  the  manner 
of  instruction  given  are  pitiable  A  very  short 
time  suffices  to  forget  what  little  has  been  learned. 
Moritz  Wagner  gives  a  rather  gloomy  picture 
of  these  schools.  He  leads  us  into  dark,  damp 
rooms,  in  which  teachers  of  unexampled  igno- 
instruction  in  reading,  writing,  and 
reckoning  to  some  dozen  of  barefooti 
who  are  crowded  closely  together  and  full  of  im- 
patience lo  escape.  There  is  a  university  as  well 
as  a  lyceum  in  San  .lose,  and  anoth  r  lyceum  in 
( 'artago.  The  univei  ;ii  \  has  six  chairs,  and  the 
professors  receive  a  salary  of  S  1011  a  -  '■ 

prudence  and  theology  are  the  chief  studies. 
Mathematics  and  a  little  Latin  are  taught,  but 
no  Gre  ik.  There  are  about  100  student's.  The 
lyceums  ■"''  ""  better.  See  Le  Roy  in  Schmid, 
/',;/,,■  <  '■  i  '■■  yclopadie,  vol.  x..  art.  Sud- 
ameri  e;  Sqi  ii.k.  The  States  of  Central  America 
IN.  jr.,  1857). 

CENTRAL  COLLEGE,  at  Fayette.  Mis- 
souri, undeT  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  South,  of  that  sta'e,  was  chart  ired 

in    is:,:..      It    , iprises   a    preparatorj    an  I    a 

collogiate  d  'part  mem  .  'I'1  '  I  •'  •  n;  .a  ■  ■  <'\< 
schools:  namely,  pure  and  appl  I  mathematics, 
moral  philosophy,  En  d  'i  ]■>_■.'■■.■  and  lit  ra- 
it language,-  and  literature,  and  phys- 
ical science.  Each  student  is  i,  ,pii>,l  in  attend 
at  least  three  schools.  The  degrees  conferred  by 
Central    College   are   (1)    ( ivaduate  in  a    School, 

I".']     liaH.elor   'of     Philosophy.       C!)      liaehelor     of 

Arts,  (4)  Master  of  Arts.  The  degi  e  of  grad- 
uate ina  school  is  given  upon  passing  an  ex- 
amination on  the  subj  'its  i  a  tight  in  that  school. 
The  degree  of  bachelor  of  philosophy  is  con- 
ferred upon  graduates  in  the  schools  of  English 
literature,  moral  philosophy,  and  physical  science 
i.ations  in  ill,,  -u, lias 
of  the  junior  and  interine  liale  r!:i-r-  ,,!'  i    nthe- 

matics.    To  obtain  the  degree  ol 

arts,  the  student   inii-i   c  pa  In.  te  i  i   the  -  oools 

of   moral    philosophy,    pin  -i.-.i '    .-    '  eic  ■       ad    I  Q- 

eient    languages,  except    the  tired.,   and  Roman 

and  pass  examinations   in    the   studies 

of  the  junior  class  in  the  school  of  English  liter- 


CBNTRE  COLLEGE 

attire,  and  in  part  of  the  studies  of  the  school 
of  mathematics.  To  obtain  the  degree  of  master 
of  arts,  the  student  must  graduate  in  the  schools 
of  English.  Latin,  (beck,  moral  philosophy,  nat- 
ural philosophy,  and  chemistry;  also  in  two  mod- 
ern languages,  and  pass  an  approved  examination 
in  all  the  studies  of  the  school  of  mathematics. 
The  college  property  is  valued  at  $40,000,  and 
the  productive  funds  amount  to  $60,000.  In 
1873 — 4  there  were   7  instructors,  and  33  pre- 

r-atory,  and  111  collegiate  students.  The  Rev. 
C.Wills,  D.  1>„  is  (1876)  the  president 

CENTRAL  TENNESSEE  COLLEGE, 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  was  organized  in  L866.  It 
is  under  the  patronage  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal ( Ihurch,  and  is  supported  almost  entirely 
by  the  Freedmen's  Aid  Society  of  that  church. 
Through  the  Methodist  Missionary  Society  and 
the  Eivdiiidi's  bureau,  the  buildings  now  occu- 
pied, valued  at  $45,000,  were  secured  in  1869. 
'J  he  coll  ge  is  designed  mainly  for  the  education 
of  colored  youth  of  both  sexes.  It  embraces  an 
academic  department,  for  English  education ;  a 
normal  department,  for  training  teachers;  a 
preparatory  school,  a  ,  la-.-ioal  collegiate  course, 
and  a  th  tologica)  department.  In  1873 — 4.  there 
were  14  instructors.  2'V1  students  in  the  prepara- 
tory and  lower  departments  (139  males  and  L23 
females),  and  '^1  in  the  theological  department. 
The  Rev.  J.  Braden,  I).  P.,  is  (1870)  the  presi- 
dent. 

CENTRAL  UNIVERSITY,  at  Richmond, 
Kentucky,  was  chartered  in  1873,  and  is  under 
the  control  of  the  Southern  Presbyterians.  It 
has  property  valued  at  $70,000,  and  productive 

inn, Is  to  the  a nut  of  $150,000.    It  was  opened 

in  1874  with   75  prepan >  students,  of  whom 

tO  wi  re  preparing  for  the  classical,  and  35  for 
the  .-<  i  mtific  m  arse.  The  Eev.  R.  L.  Breck, 
P.P..  is  [ls7i;>  the  chancellor. 

CENTRE  COLLEGE,  at  Danville,  Ken- 
dal v.  was  first  chartered  in  lSP.I.  and  received 
an  amended  charter  in  1  S'J4.  It  was  originally 
a  state  institution,  but  was  purchased  by  the 
!  'p  -la  '     ;.  n  svnod  of   Kentuckv.  win,  h obtained 

complet, ntrol  in  1830.     Upon  the  division  of 

thesynod  in  1866,  the  college  was  held  by  that 
part  adhering  t,,  the  General  Assembly  (North). 
It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of 
the  endowment,    which  amounts  to  $180,000. 

The  other  property  isval 1  at  $75,000.  Tuition 

in    the  eolleg-'  is   alia  year:  but  to  the  sons  of 


clergymen   and 

stitution  coinpri: 
department.     S] 


of  limited 
free.  The  in- 
and  a  collegiate 
is  given  to  the 
there  were  s  in- 
structor, pj.i  collegiate  and  "il>  preparatory  stu- 
dent- and  about  T.aOII  volumes  in  the  libraries. 
Thenumberof  alumni  in  L872  was  754.  The 
successive  pi  sidents  have  been  as  follows:  the 
I:  r.  Jai  ies  Mi  I  bord,  '  320,  who  dud  before 
en  eri  a  upon  the  duties  of  his  office;  the  Rev. 
-  on  I  I  inley,  oro  t  n.,  L822;  the  Rev. 
,  lianiberhiin.  P.P..  from  IM"_'  to  IS'JC; 
the  Rev.  P.  0.  Proctor.  P.  P..  pro  tern.,  1826 


CERTIFICATE 

tin-  Rev.  Gideon  Blackburn,  D.  D.,  from  1*27  to 
1830;  the  Rev.JohnC.  1  oung,  !>.!>..  from  1830 
to  1857;  the  Rev.  Lewis  W.  Green,  D.D.,  from 
is;,;  i,,  1>i,:;;  tli.'  U.'v.  W.  I..  Hreokinridge. 
from  L863fol868;  and  OrmondBeatty,  LL.D., 
appointed  in  1872  and  still  (1876)  in  office. 

CERTIFICATE.  See  License,  and  Incen- 
tives, School. 

CHAPSAL,  Charles  Pierre,  a  French 
grammarian,  was  burn  in  I'aris  in  L787,anddied 
in  L858.  Be  is  chiefly  Doted  for  the  grammar  of 
which  he  was  the  joint  author  with  Francis 
Joseph  Noel.  This  work,  entitled  Nbuvelli 
grammaire  franpaise,  avec  •  zeroises,  was  verj 
|io]iulai'.  passim;  tliron-li  ;h  inanj  as  40  editions 
between  1823  and  L858,  and  is  -till  in  use, 
although   to  a   L'lviit  ex'. 'in   —■!«».-«  —  ■  1. -.  1   l.v  in..,-,' 


successful.  His  powers  must  becultivated  under 
the  influence  of  ambition  :  n proarh  will  sting 
him  to  the  uiiick  :    In  nun-  will  incite  him  :   .iim  I  in 


When  children  .'Mv,,|n,-.,,..,|  .,: 
teachers,  and,  indeed,  always  in 
cation  which  belongs  to  the  fami 
there  is  a  w ide  scope  for  sucl 
1ml  when  large  masses  of  i  In 
together,  as  in  ]inl>lic  schools. 


CHARACTER,  Discernment  of.  The 


(•option  of  the 

Ill'tlT    by    its     ,'\ 

an  essentia]  pi 

pecul 

cious  educatioi 

diversity  in  the 
nf  children  .  a 

d,  tl„ 

tiun  can  clain 
cognize  this  fai 
and    rules  that 

to  b 
t.  and 

tion  of  such  sel Is.   the   classificati 

children  should  not    be  based   upon  othe 
of   individual  char-    siderations    than    merely   their  apparent 


ixcept 

.-till. 

f   the 

profi- 

ly.   If 


ili-e.'i'iiin-j ■  these   inliviilu.il  peculiarities,  and  i'-'i 

the  practical  methods  of   treat nt  best  adapted 

to  eaeh.  <  ieiier.illv.  however,  education  is  ear 
rieil  on  with  but  little  or  no  such  discrimina 
tions  ;  pupils,  whatever  may  be  their  tempera- 
ment, physical  condition,  state  of  health,  mental 
capacities,  or  moral  proclivities,  are  treated 
according  to  the  same  system  or  plan.  It  is 
true,  there  is  in  every  mind  a  kind  of  instinctive 
]ieree|itinn  of  the  pri  nliarities  of  character,  either 
the  result  of  an  inexplicable  impression  or  prej- 
udice, formed  with  little  observation,  or  a 
positive  judgment  derived  almost  unconsciously 
from  an  attention,  more  or  I  as  superficial,  t" 
the  person's  appearance,  actions,  and  words  on 
different  occasions.  A  systematic  study  of  the 
external  indications  of  character  In- nut.  how- 
ever, been    generally.    Ill'  11-1 

th  ■  te  icher  as  a  preparati 
training  and  instruction.  N 
distinguished  educators  have  fully  red, 
principle.  "  Let  him  that  isskilled  in 
says  Quintilian,  "ascertain  first  of  all  when  a 
boy  is  entrusted  to  him,  his  ability  and  disposi- 
tion . .  .When  a  tutor  has  observed  these  indi 
catiiins  nf  disposition  and  .ability,  let  him  next 
consider  how  the  mind  of  his  pupil  is  to  be  man- 
aged. Some  buys  are  indolent,  unless  you  stimu- 
late them;  same  are  indignant  at  being  com- 
manded ;  fear  restrains  some,  and  unnerves 
others;  continued  labor  forms  some ;  but  with 
others  hasty  efforts  succeed  better.  Let  the 
boy  be  given  to  me,  whom  praise  stimulates. 
whom  honor  delights,  who  weeps  when  he  is  un- 


joi I    upon 

the  work  of 
iss,  the  most 
cognized  the 


requires  80  a ite  ana  careiiu 

a,  the    proper  iiii-tlu'ds  "I   •■.uidui"..  eiintiiilling. 
and  trainnij    the  di-|  "-it  i"ii-  nt    eml.lt,  n 

In  the  discernment  of  the  character  of  chil- 
dren, a  careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
temperaments:  in, Iced,  a  knowledge  of  n  mpi  ra 
menial  distinctions  is  oneof  the  most  important 
of  the  teacher's  : nplishments. 

pel'il 


of 


eilcllleat. 

ild.    I    km 


If  I  kl 


nervous,  sanguine,  lymphatic  and  bilious  are 
strongly  marked  and  easily  discerned.  In  the 
Scientijic   Hums  of  Education   by  .him  Hecker 


122 


CHARACTER 


(N.  Y,  1868),  they  are  thus  described:  "The 
peculiarities  of  the  nervous  temperament  spring 
from  the  fact,  that  in  such  a  physical  organiza- 
tion, the  brain  and  nervous  system  predominate, 
and  their  indications  take  precedence  in  the 
make-up  of  tin-  individual,  both  as  to  proportional 
size  and  activity.  The  functions  of  mental  life 
are  stronger  than  others  in  the  system.  The 
sanguine  temperament,  in  like  manner,  indicates 
the  predominance  of  the  lungs  and  arterial 
system,  as  compared  with  the  other  physiological 
functions.  The  lymphatic  temperament  is  ac- 
companied by  a  similar  predominance  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  stomach  and  digestive  apparatus, 
and  of  the  glandular  and  lacteal  system;  and 
the  bilious  temperament,  by  a  similar  predomi- 
nance of  the  functions  of  the  liver,  —  the  great 
secreting  organ  of  the  body."  The  same  writer 
enumerates  with  much  minuteness  the  peculiari- 
ties of  disposition  attendant  upon  these  distinc- 
tions of  temperament.  "Up  to  the  age  of  pu- 
berty." he  remarks,  "growth  being  tin'  leading 
necessity  of  life,  the  lymphatic  conditions,  as  a 
general  rule  predominate."  Children  of  a  nervous 
temperament  when  the  brain  is  well  developed, 
"are  eager  to  learn,  and  learn  easily  and  fast, 
being  readily  impressed  through  the  mental  fac- 
ulties." They  are.  however,  less  retentive  of 
what  they  learn,  than  those  of  the  bilious 
temperament,  have  less  warmth  of  disposition 
than  thoseof  tin' sanguine  temperament,  and  are 
less  susceptible  to  the  ordinary  methods  of  train- 
ing than  those  of  the  lymphatic  temperament. 
Children  of  the  sanguine  temperament  are  said  to 
be  volatile,  more  swayed  by  the  pleasures  of  the 
senses  and  less  interested  in  merely  intellectual 
employment;  but  they  are  characterized  by  a 
great  degree  of  active  energy,  and  hence  desire 
ami  need  more  physical  exercise.  Children  of 
the  lymphatic  temperament  receive  impressions, 
as  distinguished  from  ideas,  readily,  but  do  not 
retain  them  as  permanently,  as  those  of  the  bil- 
ious temperament;  they  lack  also  the  physical 
activity  of  the  sanguine  temperament.  The  bil- 
ious temperament  is  said  to  give  permanence 
to  all  impressions,  though  their  reception  is  com- 
paratively slow  and  difficult.  "  When  we  con- 
sider," says  Mr.  Becker,  "that  children  in  a 
school  are  collected,  not  as  operatives  in  a  fac- 
tory, for  what  they  can  do,  but  for  what  can  be 
done  to  them  —  what  they  can  receive  —  it  is 


evident  that  differences  of  temperament 


which 
involve  such  important  variations  in  the  proper 
mode  of  training,  cannot  be  ignored  in  classifica- 
tion, without  severely  affect  big  the  results  of  edu- 
cation." This  writer,  however,  who  has  made  to 
a  very  great  extent  the  phrenological  discrimina- 
tions of  brain  structure  the  "scientific  basis  of 
education,"  remarks  in  this  connection,  "  It  is 
not  to  be  supposed  that  the  mental  disposition  of 
the  child  resides  in  the  temperament.  This  depends 

directly  u] the  organization  of  the  brain  ;  but 

the  temperamental  conditions  exert  a  marked 
influence  upon  the  activity  of  the  brain,  and, 
both  directly  by  growth  and  indirectly  by  the 
senses,  modify  the  mental  disposition." 


CHARLEMAGNE 

To  what  extent  the  principles  of  phrenology 
may  be  applied  to  education,  by  affording  a 
means  of  scientific  discrimination,  has  been  con- 
siderably discussed.  The  only  question  to  de- 
cide is,  whether  phrenology  affords  a  reliable 
means  of  discerning  the  mental  peculiarities  of 
different  individuals,  or  how  far  such  peculiarities 
are  manifested  in  cerebral  structure  ;  since,  if  they 
are  unerringly  thus  indicated,  a  means  is  in  this 
way  afforded,  in  connection  with  the  tempera- 
ments, of  ascertaining  the  capacities  and  capa- 
bilities of  children,  which  educators  cannot  prop- 
erly ignore. 

In  whatever  way,  however,  the  educator  may 
obtain  his  knowledge  of  the  peculiar  dispositions 
and  talents  of  his  pupils,  it  is  essential  that  this 
knowledge  should  be  acquired,  and  that  it  should 
modify  his  treatment  of  his  pupils,  physical, 
moral,  and  mental.  —  See  Sim  uzhkim.  Princi- 
ples of  Education,  with  Appendix  by  S.  R. 
Wells  (X.  Y.,  1847) :  Hecker,  Scientific  Basis 
of  Education  (N.  Y.,  1868) ;  Bain,  The  Study 
of  CJiaracter  (London,  1861). 

CHARLEMAGNE,  Charles  the  Great, 
or  Charles  I.,  king  of  the  Franks  and  emperor 
of  the  West,  was  born  in  74'J,  and  died  in  Aix- 
la-Chapelle,  in  81  1.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest 
monarchs  that  ever  reigned,  and  no  less  distin- 
guished in  the  history  of  education  than  in  po- 
litical history.  Though,  from  his  earliest  youth, 
a  great  and  impetuous  warrior,  he  tally  recognized 
the  importance  of  the  educational  interests  of  his 
empire,  and  patronized  them  with  a  devotion 
such  as  has  been  shown  but  by  few  princes.  It 
was  his  clearly  conceived  plan  to  elevate  the 
Franks  and  the  Germans  to  an  educational 
level  with  the  countries  which  at  that  time  ex- 
celled iii  the  world  of  letters,— chiefly  Italy  and 
Ireland.  Amidst  all  his  wars  of  conquest  and 
the  cares  of  avast  and  steadily  extending  empire. 
he  ne\ei  cea-ed  to  labor  to  supply  the  deficiencies 
of  his  early  education.  His  thirst  for  knowledge 
extended  to  all  the  different  branches  of  science. 
The  letters -which  he  addressed  to  Alcuinabound 
in  grammatical,  arithmetical,  astronomical,  and 
theological  questions.  He  completely  mastered 
the  Latin;  and  he  studied  Creek  ill  order  to  be 
able  to  compare  the  Latin  translation  of  the 
gospels  with  the  original.  He  personally  dis- 
cussed with  the  bishop  the  most  subtle  theolog- 
ical questions,  and  was  indefatigable  in  searching 
for  all  the  information  necessary  to  a  thorough 
understanding  of  all  controverted  points.  He 
appreciated  profound  learning,  and  was  anxious 
to  attract  to  his  court  as  many  scholars  as  pos- 
sible. His  chief  advi.ier  was  Alcuin,  with  whom 
he  became  acquainted  in  781,  and  whom  he  ap- 
pointed instructor  of  his  court  school  (palat- 
inate school ).  Though  he  succeeded  in  gathering 
at  his  court  a  brilliant  galaxy  of  men  of  genius, 
he  was  himself  never  satisfied,  incessantly  aiming 
at  still  higher  results.  1  lis  desire  to  have  twelve 
teachers  like  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Jerome 
drew  from  the  astonished  Alcuin  the  reply,  that 
the  <  'reator  himself  had  only  had  two  such  men. 
Alcuin,  conjointly  with  Hhabanus  Maurus,  Egin- 


CHARLESTON 

hard,  and  others, instituted  at  the  court  of  Charle- 
magne a  kind  of  literary  academy,  in  which  the 
emperor  himself  and  several  members  of  his 
family  took  an  active  part.  Though  this  may 
not  have  been  an  academy  of  science  in  the 
modern  sense  of  the  word,  there  was  probably 
some  established  association  of  the  literary  men 
living  at  the  court. 

Charlemagne  being  convinced  that   the  clergy 
were   the  only  class  who  could    furnish  the   large 

number  of  instructors  whom  he  needed  for  his 

subjects,  adopted  measures  for  the  thorough  edu- 


CIIEEVER 


1211 


call 


to  the  abbot  Uangnlf  at  1'ulda  inwhich  heurged 
the  most  thorough  instruction  of  all  candidates 
for  the  priesthood,  in  order  that  they  might  be 
enabled  to  understand  more  fully  the  Sacred 
Scriptures,  and  to  communicate  their  knowledge 
more  effectively  to  others.  He  also  enjoined  that 
schools  should  be  established  in  connection  with 
all  the  cathedrals  and  convents.  In  78!),  it  was 
ordered  that  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, and  singing  should  be  taught  in  these  schools. 
Attributing  very  great  importance  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  language  of  the  people,  ill  794, 
he  issued  an  edict  requiring  that  the  faithful 
should  be  taught  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the 
Apostles'  freed  in  German,  and  that  no  one 
should  teach  that  God  could  oidy  be  worshiped 
in  the  Latin,  Greek,  or  Hebrew  tongues.  In  802, 
he  enjoined  upon  all  priests,  parents,  and  god- 
fathers to  provi  1c  for  the  instruction  of  children 
committed  to  their  care,  in  the  tenets  of  the 
Christian  faith  and  in  the  Lord's  Prayer ;  and, 
in  804,  lie  ordered  that  all  those  who  did  not 
know  the  Lords  Prayer  and  the  Creed  should  be 
scourged,  and  required  to  fast  until  they  had 
learned  both.  These  efforts  were  zealously  sup- 
ported by  the  bishops  ;  and  the  councils  held  at 
Mayence,  Reims,  and  Tours  declared  in  favor 
of  using  the  native  tongues  spoken  in  the  em- 
pire, for  the  instruction  of  the  people,  in  place 
of  the  Latin.  Even  the  idea  of  organizing  a. 
system  of  public  instruction  began  to  be  con- 
ceived at  that  time,  as  appeal's  from  a  rescript 
addressed  by  bishop  Theodulf  of  Orleans  to  the 
priests  of  his  diocese,  admonishing  them  to  keep 
school  every-where  (per  villas  et  vicos),  and  to 
ask  no  pay,  but  only  to  receive  gratuitous  offer- 
ings in  return  for  the  service  rendered.  —  See 
Gaillaud.  Hisloire  de  Charlemagne  (4  vols.,  2d 
edit.,  Paris,  lsill)  ;  LoiiENz,  Karl  des  Grossen 
Privnt-  und  Hofleben,  in  Raumer's  ffisfor. 
Tasckenbuch,  1832);  Heppe,  Dos  Schulwesen 
des  MUteWers  (Marburg.  1860);  Hallam,  Eu- 
rope during  the  middle  ages;  Schmidt,  (resch. 
der  Padagoqik,  voL  11. 

CHARLESTON,  College  of,  tit  ( 'harleston, 
South  Carolina,  was  founded  in  I  785.  It  is  non- 
sectarian.  The  patronage  1ms  been  almost  entirely 
confined  to  the  city,  one  great  object  being  to 
prevent  the  youth  of  Charleston  from  losing 
their  acclimation  by  absence  from  the  city  during 
a  critical  period   of   their    lives.      There  being 


I  has  a  valuable  museum  of  natural  history,  a 
library  of  10,000  volumes,  productive  fund's  to 
the  amount  of  $200,000,  and  scholarship  funds 
to  the  amount  of  $33,000.  The  value  of  the 
college  property  is  $50,000.  In  1875  6,  there 
were  5  instructors  and  .'!.">  students.  The  pres- 
idents have  been  as  follows  :  the  Kt.  Re\ .  Roberl 
Smith,  the  Rt.  Rev.  X.  Bowen,  the  lion.  Mit- 
chell King,  the  Rev.  Jasper  Adams 
Dr.  Brantley,  Win.  P.  Finley,  and  V 

jffice). 

\pT7jQ,  I  at.  charta,  a  leaf  of 
generally  of   pasteboard. 


l,!.'v; 

CHART   (Gr 
paper),  a  large 


Middle 


dormitories,   the   students 


ire 


the  advan- 


tage   of    domestic    influences.      The    institution 


containing  a  synoptical  exhibit  of  letters,  words, 
colore,  plants,  etc..  to  be  used  in  giving  instruction. 
particularly  to  classes.  This  is  a  very  useful 
piece  of  school  apparatus,  since  by  means  of  it 
the  eye  is  addressed,  and  large  numbers  of  pupils 

may  be  taught  simultai usly  ;  while  the  teacher 

is  relieved  from  the  trouble  of  writing  out  or  draw- 
ing on  the  blackboard  what  is  to  be  presented. 
In  teaching  co/ar  by  object  lessons  a  chart  is  in- 
dispensable, as  it  exhibits,  in  a  methodical  way, 
the  objects  themselves.  Several  excellent  chart 
for  this  purpose  have  been  constructed.  Charts 
are  also  very  useful  in  teaching  phonics.  In 
higher  instruction,  there  are  many  subjects  in 
which  the  use  of  charts  affords  an  important 
means  of  illustration ;  and,  hence,  we  rind  in 
school-rooms  charts  of  botany,  physiology, 
chemistry,  astronomy,  etc.  While  the  rapid 
sketching  of  an  illustration  on  the  blackboard 
has  many  advantages  for  certain  kinds  of  illus- 
tration and  teaching,  the  more  accurate  delinea- 
tion of  objects  by  charts  is  often  to  be  preferred, 
and,  therefore,  no  school-room  can  be  completely 
furnished  without  sets  of  these  artiel,  s. 

CHEEVER,  Ezekiel,  one  of  the  earliest 
and  most  celebrated  teachers  of  New  England, 
illustrious  not  only  for  the  extraordinary  length 
of  his  service,  which  lasted  seventy  years,  but 
for  his  scholarship  and  classical  attainments.  He 
was  born  in  London,  England,  in  1614,  where 
he  received  an  excellent  education.  At  the  age 
of  2.'i,  be  emigrated  to  America,  landing  at 
Boston.  He  did  not  remain  there,  however,  but 
took  part  with  Theophilus  Eaton,  Rev.  John 
Davenport,  and  others  in  planting  the  colony  of 
New  Haven;  and  held  the  office  of  deacon,  from 
1(144  to  1650,  in  the  first  church  established  tit 
that  place.  He  commenced  his  career  as  a 
school-master  in  1638,  teaching  the  first  free 
school  of  New  Haven  till  Kill,  when  betook 
charge  of  a  grammar  school  of  a  higher  grade. 
These  schools,  like  the  New  Kiigland  schools  111 
general,  were  not  common  or  public  schools, 
open  to  all  without  expense,  but  were  partly 
supported  by  endowments  and  partly  by  tuition 
fees.  The  principal  studies  pursued  were  Latin 
and  Greek.  Until  1650,  Cheever  continued  to 
take  charge  of  this  school,  and  as  is  remarked  by 
one  of  his  biographers,  "devoted  to  the  work  a 
scholarship  and  personal  character  which  left 
their  mark  forever  on  the  educational  policy  of 
New  Haven."  At  the  date  mentioned,  he  re- 
moved to  Ipswich,  in   .Massachusetts,  where  he 


124 


CHEEVER 


lllll 


took  charge  of  the  grammar  school  of  that  town, 
and  made  it  famous  by  his  faithfulness,  scholar- 
ship, ami  skill.  From  1661  to  1070,  he  taught 
the  Town  Free  School  in  Charlestown,  in  the 
latter  year  removing  to  Boston,  which  became 
the  scene  of  his  labors  for  :!S  years  thereafter. 
Here  he  was  appointed  head -master  of  the 
"  Free  Schoole,"  known  since  1790  as  the  "  I^tin 
School."  being  engage  I  by  the  governor  and 
select  men  at  a  salary  of  "sixtie  pounds  p.  an.", 
and  allowed  the  "possestion  and  use  of  ye  i 
house."  This  sele,,l.  ,„„ler  his  long  and  f 
service,  became  the  chief  classical  scho 
only  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  but  of  all  the  1 
colonies  in  America.  Some  of  the  most  ei 
men  of  the  period  were  educated  under 
Oheever;   and   in   the    autobiographies 

sonic  of  them  have  written,  they  have  let 
sincere  testimonials  of  respect  and  affect 
their  old  and  venerable  teacher,  as  well  as 
interesting  pictures  of  school  life  in  thus 
days.  Among  these  pupils  the  liev.  I  >r. 
.Mather  became  the  most  celebrated;  bt 
haps  the  most  interesting  sketch  of  Mr.  <  'li 
school  is  contained  in  the  .1  '■  iograph 
Rev.  John  Barnard,  drama  up  in  1  it>il 
85th  year  of  the  v  rit  ■  e  ■  "i  I  t i i--t  ) 
in  the  Collections  of  tin  Mass  ■  hus  its  Hit 
Snricti/.  ■■  1  remember  once."  says  liarnai 
making  a  piece  of  Latin,  my  master 
fault   with  the  syntax  of  one   word.   whi. 

-nosed  bviMcl.vlle-lv.l.Utd.-.iu'ned! 


ule  to  him. 

'hen  he  smilingly  said,  "  Thou  art 

brave  boy  ;    1 

had  forgot  it."    And  no  w ler; 

ir  he  was  th 

■n  above  eighty  years  old."     1  fe 

vasa  strict   di 

seiplinarian,  and  corporal   punish- 

n  resorted  to,  and  not  sparingly 

pplied.in  hiss 

diool ;  but  severity  was  ti   apei    1 

one  of  his  pupils.     He  died  in  1 
year  of  his  age  :  and   we  are  told 


CHEKE 

successful,  venerable,  and  beloved  teacher,"  but 
took  occasion  to  deliver  a  lecture  upon  the  duty 
of  towns  and  parents  to  provide  for  the  education 
of  children.  This  sermon  was  printed  under  the 
quaint  title  of  "  Corderius  Americanus,  an  Es- 
say upon  the  Good  Education  of  Children,  and 
w)  U  may  Hopefully  '•■    .1"  mpted  foriheHope 

r  die  Flock;  Funeral  Sermon    uj Mr. 

Ezekiel  CuKi:vK!:.//,e  Ancietd  and  Honourable 


l/n 


I'he 


a  Latin  accidence,  entitled  .1  short  introduction 
to  the  Latin  Tongue,  which,  for  more  than  a 
century,  was  the  hand-book  of  most  of  the  Latin 
scholars  of  New  England,  and  very  highly  com- 
mended. An  edition  of  this  celebrated  work 
was  published  in  1838,  with  testimonials  from 
the  most  distinguished  Bcholars,  asserting  its 
merits,  and  commending  its  restoration  to  use  in 
the  schools.  President  Quincj  oi  Harvard  Col- 
lege said.  "It  is  distin-uiVhed  for  simplicity. 
comprehensiveness,  and  exactness:  and,  as  a 
primer  or  first  elementary  book.  I  do  no1  believe 
it  is  exceeded  by  any  other  work,  in  respect  to 
those  important  qualities."—  See  \'.\ir  \i:n.  /■.'■/»- 
Cilliinml  Bhynipliii  (X.  V..  lSf.l  |. 

CHEKEJ  Sir  John,  an  eminent  English 
scholar  and  teacher,  was  born  at  Cambridge,  in 
1514,  and  died  in  1557.  lie  was  educated  in 
the  university  of   <  'ambridgc.  and  was  appointed 


540,  professor  of  Greek  in  that  institution. 
In  1544,  he  became  tutor  to  prince  Edward; 
and  on  the  accession  of  his  pupil  to  the  throne, 
he  was  rewarded  with  an  annuity  anil  a  grant  of 
land.  In  1551,  he  was  knighted,  and  soon  after 
rose  to  the  office  of  secretary  of  state.  On  the 
accession  of  Mary,  he  was  compelled  to  leave 
England,  as  he  had  favored  the  cause  of  Lady 
Jane  t.'ivv    and    \v   supported    himself   for  some 


confined  in    the  Tower,  when,  in  order  to  save 

his  life,  he   abjured  his  religion,  and    became  a 
member  of  the  Catholic   Church.     Repentance 


"that  "he  held  his  abilities  in  an  unusual  degree 

among 

Inch  may  be  ie 

I  :  mi    1. 

to  th"  last,  his  intellectual    fore    bane  a,   little 

n.  a/i, 

Bucer   an  1    ." 

I        '■    ;i  - 

abated  as  his  natural."      Says  one  of   lug   biogra 

tones      Basel, 

pliers,  ■•  It  was  his  singular  good  fortune  in  have 
lived  tis  an  equal  among  the  very  founders  of 

published  by 

him  wa 

a  pamphlet  eiri 

led    \% 

New  England,  w  ith  them  of   Boston,  and  Salem. 

tii hi.  In 

Is  In  a    ' 

'■ommonwealih 

and  New  Haven, — to  have  taughl  their  children. 

(1549). 

Among    his  ut 

publishe, 

manuscripts, 

and  1  !i    r  children's  children,  unto  the  third  .and 

w  as  a  translation  of  the 

lospeloi 

St.  Matthew, 

fourth  generation— and  to  have  lingered  in  the 

in  word 

3  derived  solely 

on  mots,  and 

recollections  of  his  pupils  and  ihci-  chil  !i  an  the 

a  plan 

to  change  the   1 

thography  by 

model  and  monument,  the  sum-  rand  e;e     tit 

ig    by  sound. 

alive  of  the   Puritan  and    Pilgrim  si  ick     down 

reck  language 

almost  to  the  beginning  of   the  present  ,■  ■ i  \ 

At  his  funeral,  which  took  place  from  thi  chool 
house,  there  w  ,-re    ,  ..  ,r.  ciui,  ;l 

oj  mini  ters,  justii  es,  and  gentlemen  ;  and  Dr. 
Mather  preache  I  ,1  hue  ral  -e n  on  the  occa- 
sion, in  which  he  not  only  eulogized  his  -faithful. 


Hon.      lie  was  dcscnedly  consider,    I  . 

most  learne  I  111,11  ot  hi.-  ae  ■'■'  Siuvi'K,  The 

Life  of  Sir  John  Cheke  (Lond.,  L705). 


ih  one  of  the  youngest 
ce  in  its  development, 
t.from  an  educational 
ition  may  be  so  readily 
points  of 


,.1  so 


and  it 


CHEMISTRY,  althc 
branches  of  physical  scii 
is  .nic. >f  the  most  importi 
point  of  view.  But  theatt 
arrested  by  its  many  easi 
contai  i  w ith  the  indivii 
numberless  applications 
shop,  (In'  farm,  etc.,  as  h i 
processes  on  a  grander  i 

be  overlooked,  even  by  te 
be  regarded  too  much,  simply  as  a  low  utilitarian 
element  in  an  educational  course,  however  valu- 
able it  may  be  admitted  to  lie.  It  is,  neverthe- 
less, true  that,  in  recent  years,  much  that  had 
contributed  a  peculiar  mi  1.1  ■■!  n  em -s  to  chemis- 
try as  a  branch  of  instruction,  seemed  inex- 
tricably involved  in  discussion.  The  perspicuity 
of  its  nomenclature,  the  precision  of  its  state- 
ments, the  simplicity  and  comparatively  limited 
number  of  the  laws  involved  in  its  most  com- 
plex phenomena,  were  all  apparently  affected. 
But  it  has  at  last  emerged  from  this  formative 
condition,  so  changed  to  be  sure,  that  many  well 
educated  in  chemistry  a  few  years  ago  may  be 
obliged  to  recast  their  know  ledge  in  new  moulds, 
but  with  a  system  of  philosophy  u  Inch  has  much 
clearer  and  more  comprehensive  generalizations. 
It  has.  moreover,  Lost  nothing  of  its  peculiar! 
character  as  perhaps  the  most  sharply  defined 
branch  of  physical  science.  The  changes  have 
not  been  so  much  those  of  abandonment  of  views 
formerly  held,  as  of  their  expansion,  to  provide 
for  the  wonderful  accumulation  of  facts  sine, 
the  science  first  took  form  about  the  beginning  of 
the  century.  The  old  nomenclature  survives  only 
hi  a  few  general  principles.  The  names,  being 
out  of  accord  with  established  and  accepted  facts. 
were  too  precise,  and  expressed  too  much. 

It  may  be  felt  that  the  New  Gliemislry  is 
too  elaborate  and  complex  to  permit  of  profitable 
introduction;  but  a  closer  examination  will  show 
that  it  still  possesses  its  former  peculiar  sim- 
plicity and  directness  of  statement,  that  its  no- 
tation is  as  expressive  as  ever,  that  it  requires 
no  application  of  mathematical  analysis  in  wink- 
ing out  or  stating  its  generalizations,  that  these 
are  as  easily  reached  from  tacts  within  the  com- 
prehension of  the  pupil,  as  ever,  and  that  they 
are  just  as  susceptible  of  reproduction,  for  and 
by  the  pupil,  with  comparatively  little  and  in- 
expensive apparatus.  No  doubt,  more  depends 
now  upon  the  faithfulness  with  which  "it  is 
taught.  There  is  more  of  a  philosophy,  as  well  as 
a  larger  body  of  facts,  and  the  mind  of  the  pupil 
must  be  led  to  discern  the  principles  that  under- 
lie the  facts.  A  necessity  for  the  conception 
of  a  threefold  division  of  matter  arises  in  the 
modern  explanation  of  chemical  phenomena.  The 
indivisible,  indestructible,  insensible  atoms  of  the 
old  chemistry  are  accepted ;  but  the  interpola- 
tion is  required  of  equally  insensible  <jrt,njix  of 
atoms,  called  molecvies,  between  the  atoms  and 
the  sensible  aggregations  of  matter  called  masses. 
The  word  mo/sci'/i'  henceforth  ceases  to  be  used 
interchangeably  with   atom.      Forces  may  act 


12f) 


upon  or  within  these  molecules  and  when  they 
act  within,  a  chemical  change  is  said  to  occur. 
Thus,  ice    composed  of    molecule,  is  converted 

into  water  by  releasing  these  molecul,  s.  in  a  .jrent 

ioiii  cohesive  attraction  .  ,,.,    ;,,■    .  c.w 

ing  them  perfect  freedom  of  motional  ,,,   g  tliem- 


ass.leh  heme  Uliatieetcd.  The  elect  riea  I  current, 
whatever  that  maybe,  invades  these  molecules: 
dissects  off  atom  from  atom:  demonstrates  the 
molecules  to  be  groups  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
atoms,  held  together  by  a  force  named  clniuical 
ujjiiiiti/  or  vhcmiriil  iitlrnctioi).  or  belter  still 
chemism.  However  chemical  phenomena  may  be 
influenced  by  physical  conditions,  tin  \  iu\ol\e. 
essentially,  only  this  play  of  the  atomic  force, 
between  atoms,  within  molecules.  This  appar- 
ently restricted  and  sharply  defined  character  of 
the  held  of  chemistry  is  calculated  to  render  it 
more  easy  of  comprehension,  as  a  whole  bj  the 
pupil,  than  most  other  branches  of  physical  sci- 
ence: whilst  it  still  retains,  in  a  high  di 
advantages  conceded  to  such  I, ranches  as  in- 
iite,  i  tsfoi  the  culture  of  the  faculty  of  abstrae- 

icii.ie. '..:       :  .■  m.  and  for  fostering  a  ha  hit  of 

■  ireful,  do hietive  reasoning,  in  connection 

w  ith  that  of  cautious,  patient  observation, — habits 
that  have  so  much  to  do  with  the  formation  of 
correel  judgments  in  the  affairs  of  everyday  life. 
Although  a  fuller  consideration  of  the  purely 
disciplinary  qualities  of  chemical  studies  might 
exhibit  them  ill  favorable  comparison  with  soinu 
of  the  usual  branches  taught,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  very  properly  holds  its  place  Inf.  Iv 
by  reason  of  the  character  of  the  information  it 
imparts.  It  may  be  regarded,  therefore,  as  the 
chief  aim  of  the  teacher  of  chemistry,  to  make 
the  pupil  acquainted  with  the  chemical  proper- 
ties of  matter,  and  with  the  leading  processes  by 
which  comparatively  worthless  material  has  high 
value  imparted  to  it.  And  yet  the  manner  in 
which  this  information  is  acquired,  to  whatever 
extent  the  science  may  be  taught,  has  far  more 
to  do  with  the  subsequent  practical  value  of  the 
study  than  the  amount;  and  a  proper  mode  of  im 
parting  the  facts  will  also  prove  of  high  educa- 
tional value  in  other  respects.  It  is  only  facts  so 
connected,  and  so  lodged  in  the  mind  that  they 

readilj    ugg  -t  tl selves  when  an  occasion  tnaj 

demand  them,  that  are  fruitful.     But  cl strj 

has  such  a  body  of  minute  facts,  that  the  text- 
books are  necessarily  constructed  largely  on  a 
cyclopaedic  plan:  masses  of  facts  are  eln-ilnd 
as  well  as  they  can  be.  and  are  pigeon  holed 
away  for  reference  rather  than  for  a  connected 
inductive  study.  Nothing  is  more  natural  for 
the  pupil  than  to  run  into  the  vicious  habit  of 
simply  memorizing.  There  is  no  tendency  more 
decided  in  pupils  with  memories  well  trained  by 
early  studies.  It  will  require  very  little  encour- 
agement on  the  part  of  a  teacher  to  have  the 
pupil  reproduce  the  numerical  statements  of 
a  lesson,  the  specific  gravitie 
imal,  the  equivalents  of  elements,  the  melting 


126 


CHEMISTRY 


points,  etc.  Tet  these  form  the  very  class  of  facts 
which  scarcely  survive  the  day  of  recitation,  and 
for  which  the  chemist  would  rely  upon  his  ref- 
erence-book in  case  of  need.  This  is  also  true  of 
a  large  number  of  other  facts  of  subordinate  im- 
portance. Again,  facts  of  the  highest  importance, 
assigned  by  a  proper  classification  to  one  place, 
may  find  most  forcible  re-statement,  in  many 
other  places,  and  in  other  connections.  It  rests 
with  the  teacher  to  direct  the  pupil  continually 
in  Ins  study,  by  calling  his  attention  to  the  most 
important  facts,  and  by  holding  them  up  to 
view  in  all  their  relations,  particularly  in  their 
practical  bearing  upon  each  other.  A  compar- 
atively few  facts,  thus  exhaustively  studied,  will 
form  a  nucleus  around  which  further  chemical 
knowledge  may  accumulate,  whilst  the  mind  will 
be  impressed  with  the  interdependence  of  chem- 
ical processes.  It  is  also  apparent  that  the 
process  by  which  these  facts  are  accumulated  is 
an  educating  process  of  the  highest  order.  The 
pupil  soon  falls  into  the  habit  of  considering  all 
facts  in  their  relations,  and  refuses  to  be  satisfied 
with  uncorrelated  facts;  and  he  carries  this  habit 
into  the  consideration  of  all  matters,  and  seeks  a 
wider  view  of  every  subject. 

In  teaching  chemistry,  three  methods  readily 
suggest  themselves:  (1)  By  text-books ;  (2)  By 
lectures,  accompanied  by  experiments ;  and 
(3)  By  experiments  or  investigations  performed 
by  the  pupil.  These  methods  are  so  different  in 
themselves  and  in  the  end  to  be  accomplished, 
that  they  cannot  be  compared  as  to  effectiveness; 
but  they  so  fully  supplement  each  other,  that 
they  should  as  far  as  possible  accompany  each 
other.  The  tendency,  at  the  present  time,  is  to 
undervalue  the  text-lmok.  Whilst  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that,  by  itself,  it  yields  the  least  return  for 

thi   i attention,  and  drudgery  of  both  teacher 

and  pupil,  as  an  adjunct  to  either  of  the  other 
methods,  it  not  only  imparts  fullness  to  the 
knowledge,  but  also  renders  it  more  precise.  An- 
other incidental  advantage  of  the  highest  charac- 

tei usists   in   a   certain   facility  for  reference, 

which  its  study  imparts :  and.  in  many  cases,  an 
ability  to  make  use  of  the  literature  of  the 
science,  and.  by  means  of  it,  to  study  up  a 
subject,  or  investigate  a  particular  case,  may  be 
of  far  more  value  than  a  memory  thoroughly 
crammed  with  facts. 

Lectures  accompanied  by  illustrative  experi- 
ments are  generally  conceded  to  be  valuable,  and 
to  some  extent  indispensable,  aids  in  teaching 
physical  science.  Text-book  study,  however 
faithful  and  earnest,  must  be  supplemented  by 
them.  The  facts  formulated  in  words  must  be 
vitalized,  and  re-enforced  by  their  objective  re- 
production. Presented  thus  directly  to  the  senses. 
they  not  only  become  more  intelligible,  but  pos- 
sess a  peculiar  charm,  that  impresses  them  upon 
the  memory,  and  renders  the  whole  study  more 
profitable,  as  well  as  im  ,iv  attractive.  But  lectures 
are  more  particularly  adapted  to  teach  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  the  science,  and  to  develop,  to 
its  fullest  extent,  the  disciplinary  value  of  the 
mode  of  reasomng  employed  in  the  investigation 


of  the  truths  of  nature,  and  also  to  cultivate  the 
faculty  of  observation.  They  are,  however, 
in  no  wise  adapted  to  displace  the  text-book. 
They  are  feeble  in  teaching  details.  Simple 
statement  and  re-statement,  and  illustration  com- 
bined, will  not  impress  these  upon  the  memory. 
If  the  pupil  be  required  to  take  full  notes,  or  in- 
deed be  allowed  to  take  any  notes  at  all.  it  will 
be  ,-,t  the  ln.-s  of  much  that  is  peculiarly  valuable 
in  such  lectures  With  the  faculty  of  observation 
in  the  pupil  generally  untrained,  any  division  of 
attention  between  writing,  and  listening,  and  ob- 
serving will  greatly  reduce  the  proper  effect  of 
the  lecture.  Great  pains  should  be  taken  to  ar- 
range the  matter,  and  bring  it  before  the  pupil 
so  that  the  salient  points  may  impress  themselves 
upon  the  memory;  and  the  lecture  should  be  tilled 
in  from  memory  afterward,  or  it  may  be  a  still 
better  plan,  in  many  cases,  to  furnish,  on  the- 
blackboard,  a  very  brief  syllabus  of  the  lecture. 
But  much  of  the  effectiveness  of  a  lecture  is  lost 
in  attempting  even  incidentally  to  teach  numerous 
details  by  means  of  it.  It  cannot  be  expected, 
nor  is  it  at  all  necessary,  to  reproduce  all,  or  in- 
deed a  very  large  proportion,  of  the  facts  and 
processes  of  the  text-book,  in  order  that  it  may 
be  fully  comprehended.  There  are  many  facts 
and  processes  in  chemistry  that  possess  a  typical 
character,  aiding  directly  in  the  comprehension 
of  many  others,  and  these  are  the  ones  most 
likely  to  be  drawn  upon  by  the  lecturer.  There 
is  no  branch  of  physical  science  that  admits  of  a 
fuller  illustration  and  verification  of  its  facts 
with  comparatively  limited  and  inexpensive  ap- 
paratus, nor  any  in  which  the  want  of  thorough 
practical  knowledge  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
experimenter  is  productive  of  less  damage  to- 
the  apparatus  employed.  Up  to  a  very  recent 
date,  simple  entertainment  and  amusement  have- 
been  regarded,  almost  equally  with  instruction, 
as  the  objects  of  such  lectures.  The  most  sen- 
sational experiments  that  the  science  and  the 
means  at  command  could  afford,  were  impressed 
into  service:  and  these,  too.  often  loosely  con- 
nected, or  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  text-book. 
There  is  still  unfortunately  a  residuum  of  expec- 
tation of  something  of  this  kind.  The  apparatus 
and  experiments  with  it  are  apt  to  be  made  the 
display  features  of  the  instruction.  Whilst  simple 
entertainment,  or  even  amusement,  may  some- 
times legitimately  accompany  lectures  on  chem- 
istry, it  should  be  only  as  a  natural  incident;  and 
even  then,  should  not  occur  too  often,  since  it  is 
apt  to  create  an  expectation  of,  if  not  a  desire  for, 
such  features:  and  this  will  seriously  divert  the 
attention  of  the  pupils  from  the  line  of  thought 
which  should  always  connect  the  experiments. 
Every  experiment  should  come  upon  the  scene 
like  a  well-trained  servant,  just  at  the  right 
point  of  time  to  add  its  proper  effect  to  the 
total  effect  of  the  lecture ;  and,  in  no  case, 
should  it  control  the  lecturer.  An  experiment 
without  such  a  subordinate  relation  is  as  much 
out  of  place  as  a  word  without  proper  con- 
nection in  a  discourse.  As  the  text-book  is 
largely  a  compendium  of  details,  its  somewhat 


arbitrary  plan  of  arrangement,  and  its  formal, 
systematic,  didactic  treatment  must  give  way 
to  the  more  instructive,  as  well  as  more  attract- 
ive, Baconian  method  of  insinuating  knowledge 
into  the  mind  of  the  pupil  i:i  the  manner  111 
which  it  was  discovered.  Topics  should  be  taken 
up,  discussed,  and  illustrated.  The  most  familiar 
phenomena  should  be  noticed,  and  the  lecturer 
should  place  himself,  with  his  appliances,  in  the 
position  of  an  investigator, — an  interrogator  of 
nature,  and  an  interpreter  of  her  replies.  The 
point  of  attack,  and  the  line  of  investigation 
should  be  carefully  determined  upon  and  wrought 
out,  so  as  to  evoke  the  most  valuable  information, 
and  exhibit  the  logic  of  facts  inductively  em- 
ployed. The  pupil  will  readily  follow  the  in- 
vestigator in  his  alternate  inductions  and  deduc- 
tions, as  he  ■■guesses  and  cheeks  his  guesses." 
He  will  thus  not  only  learn  the  subject,  but  ac- 
quire, in  a  measure,  the  attitude  of  mind  by 
which  facts  are  discovered,  judged,  and  arranged, 
and  by  which  also  they  may  be  turned  to  prac- 
tical account.  To  take  a  very  simple  case :  car- 
bonic acid  being  selected  as  the  subject,  a  burn- 
ing candle  may  suffice  to  start  the  inquiry  which 
will  lead  up  to  it,  and  far  beyond  it.  Then,  out 
of  the  numerous  questions  that  suggest  them- 
selves, the  chemist  might  ask  whether,  as  the 
material  of  the  candle  evidently  undergoes  a 
radical  change,  the  air  surrounding  it  is  affected? 
It  is  placed  in  a  jar,  and  covered  ;  it  goes  out. 
Is  the  air  changed  ''■  Test  with  lime-water.  Yes. 
Will  a  splinter  change  it  in  the  same  way?  Try. 
Yes.  It  is  then  allowable  to  guess  that  all  burn- 
ing bodies  affect  the  air  in  the  same  way.  The 
guess  may  be  checked  by  employing  a  wax  taper; 
then  an  oil-lamp  ;  then  a  gas-jet.  The  inference 
then  becomes  the  very  plausible  hypothesis,  that 
burning  bodies  invariably  affect  the  air  surround- 
ing them  in  such  a  way,  that  it  will  render  lime- 
water  turbid.  All  would  be  satisfied  to  stop  at 
this  conclusion  ;  but  a  jet  of  burning  hydrogen 
is  at  hand,  ami  on  repeated  trials,  each  time 
with  greater  care,  it  fails  to  give  the  result  pre- 
dicted from  the  hypothesis.  The  many  facts  only 
led  up  to  that  degree  of  certainty;  the  one  dis- 
cordant fact  shakes  the  whole  fabric.  The  case 
is  now  looked  at  anew.  What  have  these  bodies 
in  common  so  as  to  produce  this  identical  result 
in  burning,  which  hydrogen  has  not?  Carbon. 
A  piece  of  charcoal  is  tried.  It  confirms  the 
conjecture  which  led  to  the  experiment  with  it. 
More  cautiously  than  before,  the  hypothesis  would 
then  be  modified  to  suit  the  new  fact,  —  bodies 
containing  carbon  in  burning  modify  the  atmos- 
phere in  a  certain  way.  From  this  point,  all  the 
leading  properties  of  carbonic  acid  could  be 
developed,  with  but  little  more  apparatus  than 
may  be  found  in  any  household :  its  specific 
gravity,  by  pouring  it  from  ordinary  pitchers,  or 
running  it  off  by  means  of  a  syphon,  by  weighing 
it  in  a  paper  bag  on  ordinary  scales,  etc.;  its  solu- 
bility in  water,  and  the  solvent  properties  it  im- 
parts to  the  water,  by  passing  it  through  lime- 
water,  until  the  precipitate  is  re-dissolved,  then 
re-precipitating  it  by  boiling  the  solution,  etc. 


The  other  constituents  of  the  atmosphere  arc. 
in  a  similar  way.  readily  brought  w  ithin  the  range 
of  inquiry.  Such  a  mode  of  treatment  lias  for 
the  pupils  all  the  freshness  of  an  original  inves- 
tigation. It  arouses  a  spirit  of  inquiry,  and 
quickens  observation;  since  they  will  be  far  more 

apt  to  observe  closely  when  they  are  to  discover 

I  what  is  to  be  seen,  than   if  required  simply  to 

pleasing  surprise  at  the  evolution  oi  clear  general 
principles  from  apparently  confused  inquiries. 
In  such  lectures,  a  sensational  experiment  with- 
out a  direct  bearing  upon  the  subject,  would  be 
entirely  out  of  place.  Humble  and  apparently 
trifling  experiments  are  frequently  found  to  pre- 
sent the  truth  in  its  simplest,  clearest,  most  in- 
telligible form.  In  all  eases  the  chemical  notation 

should  be  freely  employed.      All  reactions  should 

lie  expressed  by  symbols  upon  the  blackboard. 
due  fact,  however,  should  be  continually  kept  in 
mind  in  arranging  such  a  lecture,  mid  bringing 
the  phenomena  before  the  pupils;  namely,  that 
in  pupils  of  all  ages,  without  any  previous  train- 
ing in  this  direction,  the  power  of  observation  is 
generally  exceedingly  feeble,  and  that  they  can 
follow  the  lecturer  but  slowly.  They  are  very  apt 
to  overlook  or  mistake  the  feature  to  be  observed, 
or  to  be  misled  by  some  unavoidably  prominent 
accessory.  An  examination  upon  a  lecture  of 
the  simplest  character  will  reveal  this  fact.  The 
most  salient  points,  even,  will  often  be  found  to 
be  wanting.  A  great  part  of  the  value  of  the 
illustrations  of  scientific  lectures  in  our  higher 
institutions,  and  of  the  highly  elaborated  popular 
lectures  is  lost  for  the  same  reason.  This  dif- 
ficulty may  be  remedied  in  a  great  measure  by 
adding  the  other  method  of  teaching  suggested; 
that  is. by  allowing  the  pupil,  under  the  direction 
of  the  teacher,  to  perform  the  experiments  and 
conduct  the  investigation,  requiring  liim  to  keep 
accurate  notes,  and,  in  some  cases,  to  reproduce 
the  results  in  the  form  of  a  lecture.  <  Jhemistry 
is  peculiarly  adapted  to  this  mode  of  instruction. 
A  few  test-tubes,  flasks,  corks,  etc..  and  very  little 
material  will  put  it  into  the  power  of  the  pupil 
to  reproduce  the  explanation  of  many  facts.  He 
will  learn  more  by  a  few  failures  than  by  a  whole 
series  of  experiments  successfully  exhibited  in  a, 
lecture,  and  will  realize  how  much  of  care  and 
painstaking  accuracy  must  be  expended  in  the 
preparation  of  every  successful  experiment.  He 
will  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  most 
trifling  essential  condition,  and  will  find  that 
here  no  oversights,  no  mistakes,  no  negligence 
can  be  condoned;  but  that  failure  follows  them 
as  inexorably  as  effect  follows  cause.  He  will  be 
surprised  to  find  how  apparently  trifling  an  over- 
sight often  lay  between  him  and  success,  and  will 

learn  to  estiinat nditions  by  other  standards 

than  their  apparent  magnitude  or  importance.  He 
will  thus  form  the  habit  of  observing  closely,  and 
of  noticing  every  thing  exhibited  in  the  course 
of  lectures,  and  will  carry  this  habit  into  all  the 
affairs  of  life.— Sec  I)  \r  hkn ;v  (Prof.  Charles  G.B.), 
On  the  Sluilif  of  < 'hemislrii  as  n  lirmieh  if  Edu- 
cation, in  Lectures  on  Education  (Loud.,  1855). 


128  CHK 

CHICAGO,  the  principal  city  of  Illinois,  the 
commercial  metropolis  of  the  North-western 
section  of  the  Union,  and  the  fifth  in  population 

of  the  cities  of  the  Tinted  States.  Its  population, 
according  to  the  national  census  of  1*711.  was 
2!ls.!l77;  but.  according  to  the  special  census 
of  1  ST  I.  was  395,408.  This  city  was  incor- 
porated March  4..  1837;  and  the  first  census 
was  taken  in  July  of  that  year,  when  it  was 
found  to  contain  a  population  of  4,170.  Its 
rapid  growth  is  probably  without  a  parallel  in 
history.  During  the  I'll  years  preceding  the  cen- 
sus of  1*74,  its  increase  was  nearly  fi7!i  pel  cent. 
The  public  schools  of  ( 'hicago  were  lirsl  classified 
and  graded  by  John  I '.  Dorr,  the  first  superin- 
teiiilent,  who  served  from  May,  1*54.  to  March, 
1856,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  William  II. 
\\  ells,  who  continued  in  office  till  August,  1864, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Josiah  L.  Pickard,  the 
present  incumbent.  The  first  public  school 
building  was  erected  in  1*44.  but  there  was  uo 
published  school  report  till  I*.">4. 

Srhimi  Statistics.  -For  the  year  ending  August 
31.,  1875,  the  following  statistics  were  reported  : 

Number  of  schools tl 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled tn.l'Jl 

Average  daih   a tt.-miiiliei.'    .     ..    :;'J,'.n:i 

Number  ef  teachers 7IWI 

Nuiiiber  of  months  schools  were  epen        1(1 

Amount  received  from  school  tax  fund..  ..  .JTifi .in'.s.'JI 

do  do         from  state  fund        10:1,1144.40 

do  do        from  rents,  interest,  etc        i 

Total  receipts S966.697.19 

Amount  paid  for  teachers'  salaries $.13.1,7(li:.7n 

do  do   for  school  buildings 155,564.26 

do  do   for  school  sites 9,769.98 

do  do    for  fuel  and  supplies 75,729.22 

do  do   for  other  expenses 38,068.24 

Total  expenditure $814,838.49 

The  school  age  is  from  6  to  21  :  and  the  num- 
ber of  children  in  the  city  between  those  ages 
was  reported,  in  special  census  of  Oct.  1.,  1874, 
as  102,555,  out  of  a  total  population  of  395,408  ; 
of  these  15.947  were  reported  as  at  work,  and 
33,547  as  neither  at  work  nor  in  school.  The 
whole  number  of  children  reported  as  enrolled  in 
the  public  schools  was.  at  this  date,  only  36,416  ; 
and  the  number  in  private  schools,  lii.ii  1.7. 

School  System.  —  The  system  consists  of  a 
board  of  education  of  fifteen  members,  appointed 
by  the  mayor  of  the  city,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  common  council.  I  high  school,  .'{  division 

high   -cl is.  1  normal  school,  21  district  schools 

with  grammar  and  primary  departments,  and  15 
independent  primary  schools.  The  term  of  office 
of  the  members  of  the  board  is  three  year  .  five 
members  being  appointed  each  year  ;  and  at  least 
five  years' previous  reside is  requisite  for  eli- 
gibility to  appointment.  By  the  "act  to  estab- 
lish and  maintain  a  system  of  free  schools",  which 
went  into  operation  July  1 .,  1*71'.  the  hoard  of 
education  has  power,  "with  the  concurrence  of 
the  city  council",  (1)  To  erect  or  purchase  build- 
ings suitable  for  school  houses,  and  keep  the 
same  in  repair;  (2)  To  buy  or  lease  sins  for 
school-houses  with  the  necessary  grounds;  (3)  To 


issue  bonds  for  the  purpose  of  building,  fur- 
nishing, and  repairing  school-houses,  for  purchas- 

or  the  same,  and  to  provide  for  the 
payment  of  said  bonds:  and  to  borrow  money  for 
school  purposes  upon  the  credit  of  the  city.  It 
is  also  empowered.  (1)  To  furnish  schools  with 
the  necessary  fixtures,  furniture,  and  apparatus  ; 
(2)  To  maintain,  support,  and  establish  schools, 
and  supply  the  inadequacy  of  the  school  fund  for 
the  salaries  of  teachers  from  school  taxes;  (3) 
To  hire  buildings  or  rooms  for  the  use  of  the 
schools  or  the  board:  (4)  To  appoint  teachers 
and  fix  the  amount  of  their  compensation;  (5) 
To  prescribe  the  school-books  to  be  used,  and 
the  studies  to  be  pursued  in  the  schools ;  (6)  To 
divide  the  city  into  school  districts,  and,  from 
time  to  time,  to  alter  the  same,  and  create  new 
ones  as  circumstances  may  require ;  and  (7)  To 
enact  such  ordinances  as  may  be  necessary  or  ex- 
pedient for  the  proper  management  of  the 
schools.  The  board  of  education  is  not  per- 
mitted to  increase  the  expenditures  beyond   the 

amount  received  from  the  state  con i  school 

fund,  the  rental  of  school  lands,  and  the  amount 
annually  appropriated  for  such  purposes;  nor 
can  it  levy  or  collect  taxes,  or  demand  that  the 
city  council   shall   levy  any  tax  for  school   pur- 

pi  on  its  concurrence,  The  ollieers  of 
the  board  are  a  president,  vice-president,  secre- 
tary, clerk,   assistant    clerk,   school    agent,   and 

messenger;  also  a  superintendent  of  scl Is  and 

an  assistant  superintendent    of  schools,  to  the 

latter  of  whom  is  entrusted  the  more  i ediate 

supervision  of  the  work  of  instruction  and  dis- 
cipline in  the  schools.  There  is  also  a  building 
and  supply  agent,  who  has  the  immediate  super- 
vision of  all  the  buildings  and  grounds  used  for 
school  purposes,  and  who  attends  to  all  repairs, 
and  to  the  purchase  of  needed  supplies. 

The  com-se  of  study,  below  the  high  school, 
comprises  eight  grades,  four  of  which  are  known 
as  grammar  grades,  and  four  as  primary  grades; 
the  grammar  schools,  however,  embrace  all  the 
eight  grades,  instruction  in  the  four  lower  grades 
being  given  in  the  primary  departments.  The 
high  school  course  is  arranged  for  four  years, 
and  affords  instruction  in  the  higher  English 
branches  and  in  the  modern  languages,  preparing 
for  college  such  of  its  pupils  as  desire  it.  The 
division  high  schools  are  organized  with  a  course 
of  study  for  two  years,  excluding  all  foreign  lan- 
guages, except  German,  which  is  an  optional 
study. 

The  studies  prescribed  for  the  primary 
schools  are  reading,  the  rudiments  of  arithmetic, 
spelling,  elementary  geography,  and  writing;  to 
these,  in  the  grammar  schools,  are  added  higher 
geography.  Knglish  grammar  and  composition, 
and  the  history  of  the  United  States.  Music  and 
drawing  are  systematically  taught  throughout 
the  course.  To  each  grade  some  topics  are  as- 
signed for  which  no  text-books  are  provided. 
These  topics  constitute  the  oral  course,  which 
includes  various  branches  of  science  presented  in 
a  familiar  way.  and  designed  to  develop  the  in- 
telligence of  the  pupils,  as  well  as  to  impart 


CHICAGO  UNIVERSITY 


l'J'.i 


useful  information.  German  is 
schools,  besides  the  high  schools, 
vised  by  a  special  superintenden 
division  high  school  in  each  divisi 
and  the  studies  taught  are  oatui 
guage,  mathematics,  history,  and 
men).  German,  music,  and  dra 
tional.  The  establishment  of  thes 
their  brief  and  practical  course 
dictated  by  the  fact  that  more  ilia 
of  those  who  annually  cuter  the 
leave  before  the  completion  of  ill 
Examination,  Licensing,  and 
of  Teachers.  Candidates'  for  tei 
cates  are  examined  by  a  committe 
of  education,  consisting  of  four  me 

tion  receive,  ai  first .  p  irtiat  ■  iifi 
to  their  moral  character  and  inte] 
incuts.  After  trial,  and  upon  thi 
mendation  of  the  committee  on  th 
of  teachers  and  the  committee  i 
in  which  the  teacher  is  employed 
e  lucation  grants  a  full  a  HificaU 
the  competency  of  the  holder  in 

mailers  of  instruci  ion  and  dis  ■iolii 


taught 
and   is 

.  I'llCl 


earl, 


eighteen  years  of  age.  Teachers  an 
annually  by  the  hoard  of  e  lucation.: 
times  by  a  committee  of  the  board,  \ 
cies  occur.  These  latter  appointme 
ject  to  confirmation  by  the  board.  E 
in  the  four  higher  grades,  is  resp  his 
instruction  and  discipline  of  48  pu 
the  lower  grade-,  for  62.  About  hal 
ers  in  the  high  and  normal  schools  are  males: 

but  in  the  other  scl Is  there  are  very  few  males. 

—only  21  out  of  a  corps  of  671. 

Salaries  of  Teachers. — Male  teachers  receive 
from  $1,11(10  to  S.'l.oon  per  annum,  according  to 
position  and  experience.  Female  teachers  re- 
ceive from  $550  to  $2,000.  ( 'crtain  salaries  are 
attached  to  particular  positions,  and  no  distinc- 
tion as  to  sex  is  recognized  in  (his  regard. 

The  private  schools  in  Chicago  are  quite  nu- 
merous, and  nianv  of  a  hcli  derive  ot  ellieieu.y. 
The  census  of  1874  enumerated  1  14such  schools, 
including  the  various  classes  of  parochial  and 
denominational  schools,  female  seminaries,  select 
schools,  kindergartens,  etc.    The  iber  of  pu 

]iils  in  these  schools  was  reported  as  2s,2"il. — 
14,113  males,  and  14,138  females.  The  whole 
number  of  teachers  employed  was  697,  of  whom 
239  were  males,  and  158  females. 

CHICAGO,    University    of,    in    Chicago. 
1857   and  opened  in 


Illino 


1858.  The  building,  a  magnificent  structure, 
costing  over  $]  I  7,000,  is  situated  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  city,  in  a  beautiful  grove  of  oaks. 
This  site  was  donated  by  Stephen  A.  Douglas. 
The  charter  provides  that  the  majority  of  trust- 
ees and  the  president  of  the  university  shall  be 
Baptists,  but  otherwise  no  religious  test  or  par- 
ticular religious  profession  is  required  for  admis- 
sion to  any  department  of  the  university,  or  for 
•election  to  any  professorship  or  other  place  of 


honor  or  einoli Mil  in  it.     The  institution  em- 
braces a  preparatory   department,  a  collegiate 


lollegiate  department  comprisesa  classical  course 

if  tour  years;  a  scientific  course  of  four  years: 

course  in   astroi iy  of  two   years:    and  a 


.1  course.   Youm 


to  furnish  insti 

uctiol 

in  astronomy,  but  also  ti. 

make  original  i 
in  its  applicatii 

lies  in  that  science,  and  aid 

n  to  g 

sography.     This  observato- 

ry  contains  a  ti 

le  eqi 

atorial  refracting  telescope. 

Of  23  feet    focal 

lellet 

h.  and  18J  inches  aperture, 

constructed   bj 
meridian  circle 

Alv 

if  th 

n    Clark    in    1864,  and  a 

3  first  class  constructed  in 

Hamburg,   wit 

i   all 

the    necessary  appliances. 

It   is  under  th 

:  din 

Safford.    The  i 

rice  i 

t  tuition  in  the  university 

is  $70  per  anm 

m  : 

versify  proper!  \ 

is  va 

ued  at  $700,000,  and  there 

are  scholarship 

iiiids 

to  the  amount  of  $48,000. 

The  law  depart 

ncul 

vas  organized  in  1858.  It  is 

the  Qnion  Colli 

Illinois),   and  is  known  as 

Law  of  the  University  oi 

Chicago  and  thi 

Nor 

hwestern  University.  'The 

Me, 


ll   ,1, 


of  the    university.      This   college    was  chartered 

in  1843,  and  organized  in  1844;  it  became  con- 
nected with  the  university  in  1874.  The  new 
college  building  is  near  the  new  county  hos- 
pital. In  1874—5,  there  were,  in  the  prepar- 
atory and  collegiate  departments,  8  professors  and 
7  other  instructors;  in  the  law  department,  5 
professors  and  2  lecturer's ;  and  in  the  medical 
department,  11  professors.  The  number  of  stu- 
dents was  611;  namely,  medical.  203;  law.  103; 
Wayland  institute,  96  ;  preparatory,  100  ;  col- 
legiate. 109,  of  whom  (allowing  repetitions) 
3  were  resident  graduates,  3  in  astronomy,  7  in 
practical  chemistry,  '.'-'  in  partial  courses,  and  71) 
in  the  regular  classes.  The  Rev.  John  0.  Bur- 
roughs, LL.I)..  was  elected  president  in  1858 
and  remained  in  office  15  years,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  the  present  incumbent,  the  Rev. 
Lemuel  Moss,  D.  D. 


130  CHILDHOOD 

CHILDHOOD.     See  Age. 

CHILI,  a  republic  of  South  A  nniiia.  havintr 
an  area  of  126,034  sq.  in.,  and  a  population,  in 
I  stl\  according  to  official  ■aliul.u  i.  in.  <  .t  •J.nii::.:;tii. 
exclusive  of  70,400  independenl  Lraucanians. 
This  is  one  of  the  few  flourishing  states  oi  South 
America.  It  has  been  almost  entirely  free  from 
civil  wars,  and  its  progress  in  education,  litera- 
ture, commerce,  and  general  prosperity  exceeds 
that  of  almost  any  other  South  American  Mate 
The  government  favors  immigration  from  Ku- 
rope;  and,  in  1865,  the  number  of  foreign  born 

persons  was   23,220,   among  \\1 i   there  were 

3.876  Germans,  .'i.dil'J  Kngli-h.  ami  L'.t-.'!  French. 
According  to  art.  5  of  the  constitution,  the  <  !ath- 

olii    religion  was  permitted  to  the  exclusi if 

all  others;  but,  in  1856,  a  treaty  with  England 
guaranteed  full  religions  liberty  to  all  l.ugh-h 
subjects;  and.  in  1865,  an  A.ct  of  Toleration  was 
adopted  as  an   amendment  to  the  constitut 


CHILI 

three  questions  :  (1)  What  influence  has  public 
instruction  on  manners,  public  morality,  in- 
dustry, and  the  development  of  public  wealth? 
(2)  What  educational  organization  is  the  most 
appropriate  in  view  of  the  national  peculiarities 
of  the  country  and  of  its  inhabitants?  (3) 
What  is  the  best  way  to  provide  for  the  support 
of  public  instruction?  The  prize  was  awarded, 
in  1855,  to  Miguel  Luis  and  ( i regorio  Victor 
Aiiiunategui:  and  the  views  of  the  successful 
treatise  were  the  basis  on  which  the  organization 
of  public  instruction  was  begun.  According  to  this 
treatise,  there  were,  in  1855,  :t'.U  public  primary 


man  immigrants  and  their  descendants.  <  Inly  a 
few  Protestant  congregations  have  been  estab- 
lished among  the  natives  by  missionaries  from 
the  I'liitcd  States.  The  national  language  is  the 
Spanish. 

The  Spanish  conquest  of  the  country  began 
about  15:i."i :  and.  during  the  Spanish  rule.  Chili 
formed  a  viceroyalty  under  the  name  of  Estre- 
madura.  The  war  of  independence  began  in  L810, 
and  was  virtually  terminated  in  1818.  The  in- 
dependence of  the  country,  however,  was  not 
recognized  by  Spain  until  L844. 

Public  instruction  in  <  'liili  is  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  minister  of  justice  and  ecclesiastical 
and  educational  affairs.  It  is  his  duty  to  inspect 
all  the  schools  and  colleges  supported  by  the 
national  treasury,  to  appoint  all  the  teachers  and 

employes,  to  apply  to  congress  for  the «ssary 

sums  for  their  support,  and  to  present  every 
year  a  report  on  the  condition  and  progress  of 
education.  The  university  of  Chili  regulates 
the  studies  and  examinations  which  candidates 
for  the  different  scientific  courses  are  required  to 
pass,  examines  and  prescribes  the  text-books. 
makes  out  the  programmes  of  examination,  etc. 
The  primary  schools  are.  moreover,  under  the 
immediate  direction  of  a  general  visitor  of  schools, 
who  has  deputies  in  all  the  provinces,  and  whose 
central  office  is  at  Santiago.     It  is  his  duty  to 

visit  the  schools  constantly,  and  ton ive  detailed 

information  regarding  the  number  of  pupils  and 
the  conduct  of  the  teachers,  as  well  as  the  finan- 
cial condition.  The  municipalities  of  each  prov- 
ince exercise  a  vigilant  inspection,  and  .aid.  tic- 
cording  to  the  extent  of  their  local  treasuries,  in 
supporting  the  educational  institutions. 


Hull 


ol    |iriniarv  instruction    in  Chili    was  due   to  the 

zeal  of  President  Montt,  who  regarded  public 
schools  as  the  firmest  support  of  republican  in- 
stitutions. He  offered  in  L853,  a  reward  of  L000 

pesos  for   the    best   treatise  on    the   foil g 


private).  Of  the  \'.>~,  new  schools  which  had 
been  opened,  150  were  female  schools;  of  the  in- 
crease of  20.895  new  pupils.  11,027  were  girls. 

The  scl 1  population,  embracing  the  children 

from  the  7th  to  the  lath  year  oi  age,  numbered 
in  1863,  167,409  boys  and  167,838  girls ;  which 
slio«s  that,  notwithstanding  the  great  progress 
that  had  been  made,  nearly  six-sevenths  of  all 
the  children  of  school  age  were  growing  up 
without  any  instruction.  In  bringing  these  facts 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  country,  the  minister  of 
public  instruction  slated,  that,  to  carrv  out  the 
law  of  1860,  which  prescribed  the  establishment 
of  a  primary  school   for  every  2,000  inhabitants 


vided  for  in  the  budget:  also,  to  cany  out  the  law 
of  1860    it  would  be  necessary  to  establish  1  C.70 

elementary  and  Hill  higher  scl Is.  besides  those 

previously  established.  As  the  government  did 
not  deem  it  advisable  to  raise  the  cost  of  public 
instruction  to  the  amount  thus  demanded,  it 
encouraged  the  formation  of  ]  irivate  associations 
for  the  promotion  of  public  instruction,  and  also 
authorized  the  "Brothers  of  Christian  Schools" 
to  establish  schools;  but  though  much  has  been 
achieved  in  this  way.  the  number  of  schools  is  still 
insufficient,  and  the  number  of  children  attend- 
ing school  in  proportion  to  the  total  population, 
was.  in  1 872,  only  1  to  25.  The  number  of  public 
schools,  in  the  same  year,  was  451  ;  of  private 
schools  706;  the  aggregate  number  of  children 
at  ten,  ling  school  (public  and  private)  was  54,821. 
and  the  annual  expense  for  each  scholar  averaged 
8.98  //csos.  —  The  number  of  schools  for  adults, 
which  are  designed  to  afford  the  advantages  of 
education  to  those  who  have  grown  up  illiterate, 
was,  in  1855,  10  :  and  in  L863,  30,  of  which  24 
were  supported  by  the  state.  Two  normal  schools, 
one  for  male  and  one  for  female  teachers,  were 
established  by  President   Montt,  in   1863.     The 


cent,  but 
lall,  teach 

Mailla.) 
Europe 

I  hi.'  con- 


:,irv  s,  ho. .],-. 


in,!/. 


CHILI 

candidates  for  admission  are  required  to  be  IS 
years  of  age,  and  to  furnish  certificates  of  good 
behavior  and  good  health.  They  are  educated  at 
the  expense  of  the  state,  but  engage  10  ;i«-< ■■  -| «t 
the  position  of  teacher  at  the  place  assigned  to 
them  by  the  government.  The  smallest  salary 
paid  to  a  teacher  is  300 

instruction  in  T I .. -  normal    r 

The  public  primary  scl Is 

state,  by  municip  tlit  ii  • 
tions.  Elementary  instruct 
writing,  the  elem  at  ol  pi 
legal  weights  and  mea  sures 
of  a  higher  iiradc  which  are 
lished  in  the  capital  of  . 
the  number  of  which  is  as 
also  Spanish  grammar,  big 
ing.  an  outline  nt  the  histi 
stitution  of  Chili,  and  I I 

Secondarylw  • 
of  the  republic  embraced 
lyceums  with  2,537  pupils, 
supported  bj  th<  si  ■■  u 
garded  as  state  iu-tit  uti.ni- 
with  210  students,  and  5  I 
2868  students.  The  stu  lj 
guages  lias  of  late,  s »  ii 

Superior  Instruction. 
tion  of  the  country  is  tl 
comprising  the  university  . 
college,  and  a  school  of  tin 
which  embraces  five  facu 
philology,   law  an. I    poh".  , 

ence  and  mathematics,  not 

is  entirely] leled  after  the  best  institutions"  of 

the  kind  n.  Europe.and  a  large  numberof  the 
professors  are  distinguished  scholarsol  Germany 
and  Prance.  The  university  is  richbj  endowed, 
and  possesses  excellent  collections,  it  has  pub- 
lished a  year-book,  called  Anales  de  la  Uni- 
versidad  de  Chile,  by  means  of  which  it  keeps 
11)1  a  communication  with  similar  institutions 
in  Europe  and  America.  Among  the  institu- 
tions connected  with  the  university,  are  an  ob- 
servatory, a  national  museum,  and  a  national 
library. 

Special  Instruction.  —  Of  special  schools. 
there  are,  at  Santiago,  a  national  school  of  art  and 
industry,  a  military  academy,  a  school  of  agri- 
culture and  veterinary  science,  with  a  model 
farm  :  a  school  of  midwifery,  an  institution  for 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  a  conservatory  of  music. 
The  most  important  schools  in  the  provinces  are 
a  school  of  mining  at  <  lopiapo,  a  nautical  school 
at  Valparaiso,  a  mariners' school  at  Ancud,  a 
school  of  fine  arts  and  industry  at  Talca ;  and 
commercial  colleges  at  Valparaiso  and  Quillota. 

In  accordance  with  the  recommendations  of 
the  prize  essay,  the  government  makes  an  annual 
appropriation  for  the  establishment  of  public 
libraries  in  connection  with  public  schools;  and  a 
large  number  have  already  been  establish. -.1. 
See  Le  Roy,  in  Schmid's  Realencyclopadie,  vol. 
ix,  pp.  848 — 857;  Anales  de  la  Universidad  de 
Chile;  Ami-nateoh.  !>•'  la  instruccion  primaria 
en  Chile  (Santiago,  1856). 


CHINA  Proper  is  a  country  of  eastern  Asia. 

vtemlin.f     from     Inn      QSO     I.'      ,,.     IMC      P       I 


about 

half    that    of   all 
iiilencies,  it  has  an 

sq.  miles.     The 


ilosophy  and 
b,  natural  sci- 
n.l  theology) 


the  ( 'hi 

spontai 
be  in  in 


pride  among  the  people,  which  is  not  altogether 
without  justification;  as  there  is  scarcely  a 
modern  invention  of  any  note,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  electricity  and  the  steam-engine,  which 
was  not  known  to  them  many  centuries  ago. 
The  mariners  compass,  gunpowder,  printing, 
porcelain,  and  paper  were  known  to  them  soon 
after  the  Christian  era.  The  chiet  religions 
arc  Confucianism.  I'uddhisin,  and  Taonism: 
and  the  lack  of  religious  elements  in  these 
systems  has  led  to  the  charge  that  the  Chinese 


and  devil  worship.  In  all  the  empire,  there  is 
but  one  temple  consecrated  to  the  worship  of 
the  Supreme   Deity,  and  but   one  worshiper  - 

i  he  emperor  who  celebrates  the  pageant  once  a 
year.  This,  however,  is  a  degradation  from  an 
earlier  and  purer  form  of  monotheism.  The 
works  of  the  ancient  sages,  and  even  the  earliei 
works  of  Confucius  abound  in  passages  showing 
a  higher  and  purer  concept  m  not  c.l  than  after- 
ward obtained.  (See  Life  and  teachings  of  Con- 
fucius,by  Dr.  Legge.)  The  language,  like  every 
thing  else  Chinese,  is  sui  generis.  It  is  neither 
Semitic,  nor  Aryan,  nor  Turanian.  It  is  not.  how- 
ever, a  monosyllabic  language,  as  is  commonly 
said,  this  error  being  due  to  the  form  of  the' 
printed  words,  in  which  the  syllables  are  sepa- 
rated, whereas  they  are  not  separated  in  meaning. 
The  alphabet  is  also  peculiar.  Instead  of  employ- 
ing letters  to  represent  sounds,  they  have  letters 
to  represent  things  ami  words.  Hence,  the  lan- 
guage contains  many  thousand  signs.  A  dic- 
tionary of  the  second  century  of  our  era  contains 
:i. .'!.').'{  signs.  The  imperial  dictionary  of  kang- 
he,  the  most  recent  work  of  the  class,  gives 
43,960.  This  makes  the  language  one  of  extra- 
ordinary difficulty.  The  written  language  is 
only  mastered  by  a  small  percentage  of  the  pop- 


132  CH 

ulation,  and  even  scholars  rlo  not  by  any  means 
master  the  whole  number  of  signs.  A  knowledge 
of  ten  or  twelve  thousand  is  sufficient  to  make 
.111  accomplished  graduate  :  and,  with  a  knowl- 
edge of  two  or  three  thousand,  one  may  make  a 
very  fair  start  as  a  literary  man.  The  literature 
is  said  tu  be  the  most  extensive  in  the  world. 
The  most  prominent  works  are  the  so-called 
Classics,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been 
super\  ised  by  I  lonfucius.  They  are  five  in  mini- 
lie!,  and  are  held  in  the  highest  reverence,  being 
looked  upon  as  a  standard  from  which  there  is 
no  appeal.  They  are  the  sacred  books  of  Con- 
fucianism, and  are  replete  with  rules  for  daily 
conduct,  public  and  private.  Apart  from  these 
Classics,  and  the  commentaries  upon  them,  which 
are  legion,  the  most  important  part  of  Chinese 
literature  consists  of  the  histories  of  the  several 
dynasties.  The  historian  of  the  western  Han, 
which  ended  A.  D.  84,  gives  a  catalogue  of  the 
works  in  the  imperial  library,  comprising  clas- 
sics, philosophy,  poetry,  military  tactics,  mathe- 
matics, and  medicine.  The  literature  probably 
suffered  somewhat  from  the  barbarism  of  Chi- 
hwang-te,  who  attempted  to  immortalize  himself, 
about  210  B.  C,  by  destroying  all  the  literature 
of  the  ages  that  preceded  him. 

Education  is  held  in  the  highest  honor.  No 
government  provision,  however,  is  made  for  pub- 
lic education.  The  government  fosters  it  only 
by  making  it  the  road  to  distinction,  and  by  sup- 
porting the  various  examinations.  Knowledge 
centers  in  a  mere  acquaintance  with  the  apho- 
risms of  tin.'  V/n.isirs.  A  scanty  knowledge  of 
reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  is  all  but  uni- 
versal; but,  owing  to  the  peculiar  structure  of 
the  language,  one  may  lie  able  to  read  a  little, 
without  having  any  knowledge  whatever  of  the 
rest.  Not  more  than  three  males  in  a  hundred 
can  read  the  classical  books  with  readiness,  and 
not  more  than  one  woman  in  a  thousand.  The 
only  course  of  instruction  necessary  to  obtain  a 
government  position,  is  a  classical  .and  histor- 
ical one.  The  consequence  is  a  disregard  for  all 
branches  of  study,  which  are  not  practical,  and 
hence  a  most  astonishin _'  nam  iwness  i  if  all  culture. 
The  rights  and  duties  of  the  government,  and  of 
the  individual  in  his  several  social  relation-,  form 
the  chief  subject  of  Chinese  books  and  instruc- 
tion. Confucius,  in  his  system,  adopts  the  prin- 
ciples of  dependence  ami  subordination,  ami  the 
instruction  of  the  schools  aims  to  impress  them 
carefully  upon  the  student.  The  great  end  of 
all  instruction  in  <  'hina  is  not  so  much  to  fill 
the  head  with  knowledge  as  to  make  quiet  and 
orderly  citizens.  Any  thing  like  general  culture 
is  entirely  unknown,  except  where  the  ( 'hinese 
have  been  forced  into  contact  with  European 
nations.  They  have  no  need  of  science,  for  the 
Classics  contain  all  that  is  worth  knowing, 
and  no  need  of  geographical  and  historical 
knowledge  beyond  that  of  their  own  people,  for 
they  are  "celestials,"  and  all  outside  are  "barba- 
rians". Female  education  is  almost  unknown. 
Girls  are  very  seldom  instructed  iu  anything  but 


is  held  in  honor.  It  is  not  thought  right  that 
parents  should  conduct  the  education  of  their 
own  children,  because  the  relation  of  parent  and 
chilil  is  a  holy  one  ami  would  be  disturbed  by 
the  necessary  severities  of  the  teacher.  Chil- 
dren  begin  their  studies  with  their  sixth  and 
seventh  year.  There  is  no  compulsory  educa- 
tion. School-teachers  are  not  appointed  by  the 
state  and  need  no  official  permission.  Parents 
choose  the  teachers,  who  receive  from  $45  to 
$90  a  year  with  board.  A  teacher  takes  from 
twenty  to  thirty  scholars.  Public  school-houses 
do  not  exist.  The  arrangement  of  the  schools  is 
very  simple;  a  teacher  has  a  table  and  arm- 
chair, and  every  scholar  has  to  provide  himself 
with  a  desk  and  a  chair.  There  is  in  every 
school-house  a  little  altar  dedicated  to  Oonfucius 
and  to  Wun-tschong-ya,  the  God  of  Science. 
Upon  entering  school,  the  boys  receive  their 
school  names  in  place  of  their  so-called  "  milk 
names."  The  firs!  school-book  is  the  Path  to 
ihr  regions  of  classical  and  historical  literature. 
It  begins  with  the  methods  of  instruction  and 
their  necessity,  the  importance  of  the  duties  of 
children  ami  brothers;  and  then  follows  an  over- 
sight of  the  different  branches  of  knowledge: 
the  great  powers,  heaven,  earth,  and  man  ;  the 
four  seasons  and  the  points  of  the  compass  ;  the 
five  elements,  "  metal,  wood,  water,  fire,  earth  ;" 
the  five  cardinal  virtues,  "  love,  justice,  wisdom, 
cleverness,  truth ;"  the  five  kinds  of  grain,  the 
six  domestic  animals,  the  seven  passions,  the 
eight  notes  of  music,  the  nine  grades  of  relation, 
the  ten  social  duties.  After  this,  follow  rules  for 
a  course  of  academical  study,  with  an  index  of 
the  books  to  be  used,  a  short  account  of  the 
universal  history  of  <  'hina.  together  with  a 
list  of  the  successive  dynasties  of  the  empire. 
The  idea  is.  to  take  .■chantage  of  I  he  receptivity 
of  the  memory  at  this  period,  to  store  it  with 
facts  to  be  afterward  digested.  The  method  of 
learning  to  read  is  as  follows  :  The  book  is  open 
and  the  teacher  begins  to  read ;  the  scholars 
have  each  a  book,  and  with  eyes  upon  the  book 
pronounce  word  for  word  after  the  teacher.  Only 
a  line  is  read  at  a  time,  and  this  is  repeated  until 
the  scholars  have  learned  the  pronunciation  of 
every  sign,  and  the  line  is  then  learned  by  heart. 
When  this  is  learned,  the  scholar  goes  to  the 
teacher,  lays  the  book  upon  the  table,  turns  his 
back  to  him,  and  recites  it.  Besides  reading, 
writing  is  taught  in  all  the  primary  schools, 
but  there  is  no  instruction  in  reckoning,  geog- 
raphy, universal  history,  natural  history,  foreign 
languages,  or  even  in  religion.  This  reading  and 
wining,  however,  for  the  most  part,  is  the  mere 
ability  to  pronounce  or  make  the  signs,  and  does 
not  imply  an  understanding  of  what  is  read  or 
written;  as  if  one  should  read  or  write  Latin  or 
Greek  words  without  any  comprehension  of 
their  meaning.  Those  who  wish  to  devote  them- 
selves to  study  receive  a  thorough  exposition  of 
the  Classics,  and  write  verses  and  essays.  The 
written  language  is  so  difficult,  that  more  time 
consumed  by  the  Chinese  student  in  mastering 


ordinary  house-work  ;  aud  yet  a  learned  woman    it  than  is  given  in  western  countries  to  the  ac- 


quirement  of  a  liberal  education  ;  and  the  cele-  nation,  and  Failure  is  never  looked  upon  as  a  dis- 

brated   literary  examinations  are  limited  to  the    grace.     The  licentiate  is  entitled   to  a   | i 

inquiry  whether  the  candidates  can   read  and  after  some  years,  and  has  the   right   In  hoist  a 

write  with  readiness  and  grace.    Thisstudyis  flag  before  his  house.    The  examination  for  the 

overseen  by  teachers  who  have  passed  an  exam-  degree  of  doctor  is  held  every    three  years  al 

ination.     When  one  has  acquired  some  reputa-  Peking,   and    only   licentiates   are   allowed    to 

gather  around  him   to  prepare   themselves  for  that  for  the  degree  of  licentiate,  except   that  the 

examination  under  his  instruction.  Such  private  examiners  are  ,.|  In- her  rank.    I  he  na  i  es  oi  the 

colleges  are  numerous  both  in  the  city  and  coun-    bui ssful  candidates  are  entered  ui the  ch  il 

upon  them  once  a  week  by  the  students.   It  isthe  the   imperial   academy  lakes  place  every  three 

custom  of  these  students  to  learn  a  large  num-  years   at    the   imperial    palace:    tliis   degree    is 

ber  of  standard  essays  by  heart,  in  order  to  ob-  equivalent  to  an  office,  since  the   members  of 

tain  a  finished  and  correct  style.    There  arc  four  the  academy  are  maintained  by  the  .-tale. 

literary  degrees:    The  lirsi   corresponds  to  our  Contact   with   European   nations 


tally 


in  I  hina  si 
three  cxanii 
is  held  by 


Midi 


1-     Ih'ld 


>se    1, 


The  third  e: 
the  chancelli 
years.  Who 
receives  the 
although  he  I 
man  above  tl 
his  studies,  hi 

be  present  at  the  examinations  up  tohissixti-  sen 
eth  year.  Thousands  of  men  of  this  degree  be-  he 
come  school-teachers,  doctors,  letter  writers,  ad-  he 
vocates,  etc.  The  examinations  for  the  second  $lf 
degree  are  held  every  three  years,  in  the  capital  the 
of  each  province,  by  two  imperial  examiners  tot 
from  Peking.  The  average  number  of  applicants  scii 
is  twenty  thousand,  of  whom  about  two  hundred  tail 
Besides  the  imperial  examiners  from  cry 
Bking,  about  sixty-five  literary  officers  and  a    ing 


s  to  pass  a  monthly 
tion  :  |  l  after  three  j 
nination  for  dismissal: 


\-x 


Hie    de 


lid 


which 


shut  up"in  cell's  of  about  L2  sq.  ft.,  and  high  astronomy  under  heavy  penalties.  He  viewed 
enough  to  admit  of  their  standing.  The  exami-  it /is  the  greatest  glory  of  the  dynasty  to  have 
nation  hall  contains  about  7  .."mi  I  of  these,  arrange  1  restore.  1  to  his  fatherland  the  mathematical  and 
around  open  courts:  these  are  paraded  by  sol-  astronomical  studies,  and  whatever  the  Europeans 
diers  to  prevent  any  communication  between  the  have  built  upon  them,  as  an  old  property  of  the 
candidates  or  with  the  outer  world.  The  exami-  nation.  In  this  way  he  justified  to  the  jealous 
nation  consists  chiefly  in  the  writing  of  themes.  Chinamen  the  introduction  of  foreign  teach  r  and 
and  is  intended  to  last  nine  days  ami  three  foreign  inventions.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
•  nights.  When  the  work  is  done,  it  is  examined  which  had.  in  L872,in  China  proper, 2  1  vica  te 
first  by  a  subordinate  commission,  to  see  if  the  apostolic,  and  3  prefectures  apostolic,  and,  in  the 
formalities  have  all  been  observed.  No  essay  Chinese  dependencies,  3  vicariates,  with  a  Cath- 
may  have  more  than  seven  hundred  signs,  nor  less  olic  population  of  about  400,000,  supports  a 
than  one  hundred  :  and  correction  is  in  no  case  large  number  of  schools,  some  of  which  are  of  a 
allowed.  The  work  is  afterward  laid  before  the  high  grade.  The  number  of  native  . 
imperial  examiners,  who  give  the  final  judgment,  considerable;  and  most  of  them  receives  Euro- 
It  is  considered  an  honor  to  attempt  this  exami-  :  pean  education  in  the  propaganda  at  Home,  and 


134 


CHRIST  CROSS  ROW 


in  a  Chinese  missionary  seminary  at  Naples. 
The  Protestants,  who  have  formed  native  con- 
gregations in  the  treaty  ports,  with  an  aggregate 
membership  (in  1869)  of  5,024,  have  also  some 
schools,  and  make  considerable  progress  in  cir- 
culating the  Bible.  In  1*71'.  the  Chinese  govern- 
ment sent  30  students  to  the  United  States,  and 
30  more  were  to  come  each  year  for  the  succeed- 
ing four  years;  in  all  150. — See  Schmidt,  Ge- 
schichteder  Padagogik;  Cot  bcy,  L'Empiredu 
Milieu  (Paris,  1867);  Davis,  Description  of 
Chin, i  and  its  Inhabitants  (2  vols.,  London, 
L857);   Gutzlaff.   Chi,m  Ojia,.;/  1 2  vols.,  Lon- 

il  \v-r\<  m.  /,' -Is,  for  tfie  Years 

1863  and  1864,  of  the  Chinese  Ver  tcular 
,SW,oo's  (Hongkong.  I-'-"":   II".  I:  Kw/.ir-  <  l,i- 

nois  (2  vols.,  4th  edit.,  Paris,  1862  ;  Williams, 
The  Middle  Kingdom  (N.  V..  1*4*). 

CHRIST  CROSS  ROW,  or  Criss  Cross 
Row,  a  familiar  designation  formerly  applied  to 
the  first  line,  or  row.  of  the  alphabet,  as  arranged 
in  the  old  horn-books,  or  primers.  In  these  books, 
h  liieli  consisted  of  only  a  single  page,  the  letters 
were  printed  in  the  following  manner  : 
4-  A  a  1)  c  d  e  f  g  h  i  j  k  1  in  n  o  p  q 
r  f  s  t  u  v  w  x  y  z  etc.  a  e  i  o  u 
A  BC  I'  E  F  G  II  1  .1  K  LMNO  P  Q 
R  ST   U   V  W  X  Y  Z. 

The  first  line  commencing  with  a  cross  was 
called  the  Christ  cross  row,  or  briefly  the  cross 
row.  The  term  was.  however,  frequently  ap- 
plied to  the  whole  alphabet.  Thus,  we  read  in 
How's  Polydoron  (1631  i.  "Of  all  th  i  letters  In 
the  cross  row  a  w  is  the  worst  "  ■■The  crosswas 
placed  at  tlie  beginning."  says  Johnson,  "to  show 
that  the  end  of  learning  is  piety." 

This  term  is  often  referred  to  by  the  old  writ- 
ers. In  Shakspeare's  Hiclfinl  III.,  allusion  is 
made  to  it  by  Clarence  when  he  says  of  the 
king : 

■■He-  hearkens  after  prophecies  an.]  dreams, 
Ami  from  the  cross  row  plucks  the  letter  G." 

Cotgrave  mentions  "La  croix  de  par  THeu,oi 
La  croix  de  Jesus,  the  Christ s-crosse-r owe,  ox 
horne-booke,  wherein  a  child  learns  it."  In  Spec- 
imens i>f  lies/  Country  Dialect,  we  find  the 
following  words,  used  by  one  who  is  teaching 
the  alphabet  : 

■•  StOD  still  there,  and  mind  what  I  da  z.i  to  ye,  and 
wham-  1  do  point.  Xou  ;  i  n-.-  i-ross.  gin  a,  iittle  a, 
h.  e,  d.      That's  right.    Hilly;    you'll  zoon    lorn    the 

In  the  autobiography  of  John  Rritton.bnm  in 

1771,in    Wiltshire,  Kngland.  the  following  pas- 

"  I   learnt  the  Christ -ero-s-row  from 

a  horn  I k.   on    which    were     the    alphabet   in 

large  .iiil  small  letters  and  the   nine    figure     in 

Roman  and  Arabic  numerals.     The  b-.i-n-l 1   i- 

now  a  rarity." — See  'I'm  i;s.  Sri, out  Ihii/s:  Bar- 
nard's Journal  of  Education,  vol.  xn,  art. 
A-B-C-Books  and  Primers.  (See  also  Horx- 
B c.and  Primer.) 

CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS,  College  of 
the,  at  St.  Louis,  Missouri,  was  established  by 
Roman  Catholics  in  1855.  It  comprises  a  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate  department,  and  hasa 
library  of  15.0110  volumes.   Its  buildings,  grounds. 


CHRISTIANS 

etc.,  are  valued  at  $150,000.  In  1873 — 4,  there 
were  30  instructors.  270  preparatory  and  3-1  col- 
legiate students.  The  Rev.  Brother  James  is 
(1876)  the  president, 

CHRISTIAN  BROTHERS'  COLLEGE, 
at  Memphis,  Tennessee,  was  opened  in  1871. 
It  is  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  having  a  col- 
legiate, a  scientific,  a  commercial,  and  a  prepar- 
atory department.  The  college  possesses  valuable 
philosophical  apparatus  and  a  library  of  about 
1,500  volumes.  The  value  of  the  college  prop- 
erty is  §40.000.  In  1874—5,  there  were  9  in- 
structors and  127  students,  of  whom  48  were  of 
a  collegiate  grade.  Brother  Maurelian  is  (187G) 
the  president. 

CHRISTIAN  COLLEGE,  at  Monmouth, 
Oregon,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Christians. 
It  was  formerly  known  as  Monmouth  University, 
but  was  chartered  under  its  present  name  in 
1*B5.  The  value  of  its  buildings  and  other  prop- 
erty is  estimated  at  $20,000;  the  amount  of  its 
productive  funds  is  about  the  same.  The  college 
has  two  separate  courses  of  study,  the  classical  and 
the  scientific;  and  there  is  also  a  preparatory 
course.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  A  student  may 
receive  a  certificate  of  graduation  in  any  of  the 
following  departments:  (1)  sacred  history, 
mental  and  moral  sciences;  (2)  natural  science; 
(3)  mathematics;  (4)  classics.  To  obtain  such 
certificate  it  is  required  that  the  candidate  should 
have  been  a  student  of  Christian  College  at  least 
one  year,  and  that  he  should  pass  a  satisfactory 
examination  in  all  the  prescribed  studies  of  the 
department.  In  1873 — 1.  there  were  !>  instruct- 
ors and  180  students.  T.  F.  Campbell,  A.M.,  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

CHRISTIAN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Canton, 
Missouri,  was  chartered  in  1853,  and  organized 
in  l*5(i.  It  was  founded  by  the  Christian  de- 
nomination for  the  education  of  both  sexes.  Its 
buildings,  grounds,  etc..  are  valued  at  #100.000. 
In  1 872—3  it  had  8  instructors  and  166  students. 
W.H.Hopon,  A.M.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

CHRISTIANS  (sometimes,  bul  improperly, 
pronounced  Christians),  Christiah  Denomina- 
tion, Christian  Connection,  and  Christian 
Church, are  names  chosen,  in  the  I'liited  States, 
by  organizations  of  Christians  who  "seek  to 
unite  the  followers  of  Christ  of  every  persuasion, 
by  the  breaking  down  of  party  walls,  party 
spirit,  and  sectarian  feeling  and  practice  and  by 
infusing  into  the  minds  and  hearts  cri  all  lovers 
of  tl mmon  Saviour  a  liberal  spirit,  thi  rebj  in- 
ducing liberal  practice."  (See  W  i  i  cons,  Annual 
of  the  ChrisH.iu  Church  fir  1*75.  Suffolk.  Ya.. 
1875.)  They  have  no  rule  of  faith  and  practice, 
ive  n  holy  scriptures,  and  the  only  test  of 
fellowship  agreed  upon  is  Christian  clmrariei- 
They  believe  that  the  right  of  private  judgment 
and  entire  liberty  of  conscience,  in  reference  to 

-e  | I-  of  doctrine  and  practice  not  con- 

idi  re  I  esse  tial  to  alvation,  should  be  accorded 
to,  and  enjoyed  by,  all ;  and  that,  therefore,  all 
who  believe  in.  and  love  and  serve,  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  ought  to  be  received  into  the  fel- 
lowship and  communion  of  the  Church.     They 


CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL 

are    generally   Antitrinitarians    and    Baptists;] 
they  cherish  prayer  meetings,  Sunday  schools, 


CHURCH  OF  GOD 


l:;: 


highest  class,  of  whom  eight  are  annually  sent  to 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  The  government  of 
the  institution  is  vested  in  the  lord-mayor  and 
aldermen  of  London,  and  those  who  have  con- 
tributed to  the  institution  the  sum  of  E400.  The 
total  income  of  the  hospital   is  aboul    £50,000. 


oi  Kev.J.  U  k 
County,  Va.,  A 
consisted  of  sec 
Church.  As, 
a  few  years  I;. 
Baptists,  in  th 
in  L804  in  Kei 
of   l'n  sbyteria 


genera     eonvciilioii.    wlneli    lu 

n,   1866,  and  the   fourth   in 
body  had,  in  L875,  II 97  orda 


Noi 

IV 


Southern  branch  had,  in  the  same  year,  6  confer- 
ences, 51  elders.  L2  licentiates,  and  about  10,000 
members 
The  main  branch,  according  to  the  almanac 


.1 1  -I  i 


■  ■  ,i  ■  ii. (Mr    in  num. m.  and  is  now 

a  classical  school.  Latin  and  Greek 
asisof  its  course  of  study,  but  all  the 

l.i.ui.  he,,  iii.-hi.lin^lrau'iiin.tlie  ima- 
ges, etc.,  are  also  taught.     In  L683,  a 

hospital  children  are  nursed  and  Mi- 
ll thej  are  old  enough  to  enter  the 
i  girls  remain  permanently  here.  Many 
names  are  found  in  the  list  of  it's 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned, 
the  historian.  Bishop  Stillingtlect. 
i,  the  novelist,  Coleridge,  Lamb,  and 


CHRONOLOGY.     See   Hi   niv 
CHURCH    OF    GOD,    a   denomination   of 
Baptists  in  the  United  States,  organized  in  1830 


I  lut chess 

was  for- 
md  was, 


Sullivan  County,  Indiana;  S 
at  Eddytown,  fates  County, 
Academy,  Andover,  \.  H.,  ai 
Biblical  Institute,  at  Stanfor 
County.  N.  V.  The  latter  ins 
merly  situated  at.  Bddytown, 
in  1872,  removed  to  Stanfordville,  wh  re  sixtj 

acres  of  land  had  been  boughl  for  it,  at  a I 

$18,000.  The  Institute  building  an  lastu 
home  had  been  erected  by  the  I  Ion.  1  '.i\  i  I  I  iai  k, 
of  Hartford,  Ct.,  at  a  cost  stated  to  have  been 
between  $20,000  and  $30,000,  and  were  present- 
ed to  the  convention  as  his  free  gift.  It  offers 
free  tuition  to  worthy  young  men  and  worn  "i  : 
also  the  free  use  of  class-1  looks  and  library,  a  I  to 
students  without  families  the  free  occupa  i  \  ol  . 
lodging  and  study-room  in  the  Stud.,  its'  1 1  i  ne. 
The  Siiutheru  branch  on  it rols  the  Suffolk  Col- 
legiate Institute,  at  Suffolk,  Va.,  and  the 
Graham  High  School,  at  Graham,  N.  C. 

CHRIST'S  HOSPITAL,  or  The  Blue-Coat 
School,  one  of  the  most  famous  charitable  in- 
stitutions of  London,   i : i .  i >i- 1 >■  'i . i . ■   1    1 
\  l.i.i  L553,  asa  hospital  for  orphan  land  foun  I 
lings.     It  derives  i  •   n  >a1    Si  hool, 

from  the  costume  of  the  boys,  wlii  h  has  con- 
tinue 1  from  its  fouinlatioii.  i  his  consists  of  a 
blui  wool  ii  g6wn  or  ci  a1  with  a  re  1  leathern 
girdle,  yellow  br hes  and  stockings,  and  a  black 


ical 


of  which  are  called  King's  boys.  The  age  of  ad- 
mission is  between  seven  and  fifteen,  except  for 
the  King's  boys  and  the  "<  Irecians,"  or  buys  < if  the 


tory  on  all  <  hrist 
this  denomination 
of  congreg si 


failed.  In  18 
ited  by  a  dele: 
oi  the  J  ree  W 


the   m  il   G     eral  I  Id  rshi]  .  in 

of  educati  m  were,  howe< 

thai  th  i  i  fforl  to  raise  an  end 
$10,000,  had  failed,  no  more  th 
been  obtaine  I.     In  accordam  e  \ 


corporated  society  to  take  charge  of  the  educa 
tional  interests  of  the  church,  and  sii 
ties  in  all  the  annual  elderships. 


136  CINCINNATI 

CINCINNATI,  the  metropolis  of  the  state    acrimony,  at  intervals,  ever  since.     The  Central 

of  Ohio,  having-  a  population,  in  1S70,  of  216,231).  I  High   School,  with  a  graded  course,  was  est ab- 

Ediioalicmal  History.— The  first  effort  made    listed  in  1847  ;  the  W Iward  High  School  and 


who.  in  L818, devised  $1,000 

able  up,,,,  the  "ground  rentst 
expended  for  the  education  o 

of  the  city.  Hi 
ing  defective.  1 

was  that  of  Th 
tract  of  land 
amounting  to  i 
same  purpose. 

passed  a  e.enera 


by  a  union  board.  In  1849,  colored  schools  were 
established  by  law.  and  the  study  of  the  German 

language  was  authorized  in  some  of  the  district 
schools.  The  organization  of  intermediate  schools 
was  begun  in  Is.VI,  the  object  being  the  consoli- 


law  applicable  to  tin 


making  no  special  provision  for  education  in  I 

cities.  Owing  to  inherent  defects,  however,  this    question  was  again  discussed,  and,   in  the  legal 


needed.     In   is..,,  the  first 

pened,  the  number  of  teaeh- 

at    that  time  being  300.  In  1869,  the  Bible 


law  became  inoperative;  and,  in  L830,  th 


n.'iti 


board  of  trustees  and  visitors, 
council  to  divide  the  city  hit 
each  of  which  they  were  req 
years,  to  purchase  a  lot  on  wh 
brick  or  stone,  two  stories  big 
two  school  rooms,  should  be  en 
which  was  to  be  defrayed  by 
opposition    was   encountered, 


ity's  struggle   which  resulted,   it    was  excluded  from 

ired  these! Is.    bi  May,  1873,  the  legit 

lent  an  act  for  the  re-organization  and 

tcin-  of  common  schools,  which   is   sub; 

of  a  present  law  of  the  city. — The  supei 

the  schools  was  tirst  provided    tor   in    I 


general  sup 
who  was  elt 


for  such  a  purpose  being  very  strong.  Want  of 
means,  and  the  unfriendliness  of  the  city  council, 
also,  produced  such  delay,  and  the  accommoda- 
tions provided  for  the  pupils  wen-  so  insufficient, 
that  the  sympathy  of  the  people  was  in  danger 
of  permanent  estrangement  from  the  cause  of  the 
schools.    At  this  juncture,  the  friends  of  education 

resolved  to  place  the  benefits  derived  from  the 
schools  before  the  pei 

of  the  pupils   were    l 


from  other  states,  were  invited;  a 
followed  by  imposing  street  parade 
children,  which  were  continued  foi 
The  result  was  a  hearty  endorsers 
lie  schools  by  the  people,  so  that,  ii 
school-house  was  I  milt.; and.  in  I  834t 
public-school  houses  were  erectei 
at  an  expense  of  $96,159,4  t.  \\  hich 
issue  of  city  bonds.  The  cause  was 
more  by  the  establishment,  about 
the  Western  <  lollege  of  Teachers, 
ing  of  the  Woodward  High  School 
to  receive  annually,  for  gratuitot 
ten  boys  to  be  selected  by  the  schi 
the  common  schools.  In  1837,  tl 
of  the  school  board  was  changed 


changed,  and  the  annual  appointment  of  a  super- 
intendent by  the  board  was  ordered,  A.  J.  Backoff 
being  the  tirst  incumbent  of  the  office  under  the 
new  law;  he  was  succeeded,  in  1866,  bj  John 
Hancock,  and,  m  L874,byJno.  I'..  I'easlee. 

School  System. — Thesystem,ai  present  (1876), 

comprises  26  district,  I  intermediate,  and  2  high 

schools,  for  whites;  and  4  district  schools,  one 

intermediate,  and  one  high  school,  for  colored 

pie  was  m  danger    persons;   in  addition  to  which,  there  are  inter- 

•oni  the  cause  of  the    mediate  departments  in  lOof  the  district  schools. 

friends  of  education     There  are,  also.  10  district  night  .-chools,  and  one 

derived    from   the     evening    high    school.      The    legal   school    age   is 

iriual  examinations  ■  from  6  to  LM  years.    Time  courses  of  study  have 

leld,  to  which  emi-  '  been  adopted  by  the  union  board  of  highschools, 

iress.   and  teachers  |  denominated  the  classical,  the  technological,  and 


iIm 


era!  years. 
f  the  pub- 
i.'t.a  model 
L835, eight 
the  whole 


ll.ose 


which  offered 
i  instruction, 
il  board  from 
!  constitution 
as  to  consist 


of  two  members,  instead  of  one,  from  each  ward. 
In  1839,  schools  were  established  in  orphan 
asylums;  in  L 840,  the  German  language  was  in- 
troduced into  the  common  schools;  and,  in  1842, 
night  schools  were  opened.  The  harmony  of  the 
schools  was  disturbed,  in  1842,  by  a  violent  dis- 
cussion in  regard  to  the  use  of  the  Bible  in  the 
schools,  which   has  been  carried  on  with  great 


from  a  special  three-mill  tax  on  property,  the  state 
tax.  the  income  of  the  Woodward  and  Hughes 
fund ...  tuition  fees  paid  by  non-residents,  etc. 
The  chief  items  of  school  statistics  are  : 

No.  of  children  of  srheol  age  7C.477 


ending  ] 

public  : 


;.r>4 


"         night  schools 3,'-7'.> 

No.  of  teachers  in  puldie  schools 545 

Receipts  (1876) $695,000 

Expenditures  (1876) {691,700 

Many  other  educational  institutions  exist  in 
Cincinnati.  The  Catholic  parochial  schools  edu- 
cate, it  is  estimated,  about  17,000  children  ;  and 
different  religious  orders,  male  and  female,  annu- 
ally educate  many  children  and  young  ladies  in 
denominational  and  conventual  schools.  The 
University  of  Cincinnati,  which  is  liberally  en- 
dowed, took  possession  of  its  new  building  in. 
1875,  and  is  now  in  active  operation. 


CINCINNATI,  UNIVERSITY  OP 

CINCINNATI,  University  of,  in  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio,  was  organized  under  the  act  passed 
by  the  general  assembly  of  Ohio,  April  If...  1870, 
"to  enable  eities  of  the  first  class  to  aid  and 
promote  education."  It  consists  of  three  depart- 
ments :  the  Academic,  or  Department  of  Litera- 
ture and  Science  ;  the  School  of  Design  ;  and  the 

funds  either  heretofore  or  hereafter  given  to  tin 
eity,  for  the  purpose  of  founding  or  aiding  an 
institution  for  promoting  five  education.  The 
statute  also  authorizes  any  persons  or  bodies 
corporate,  holding  any  estate  or  funds  intrust 

far  the  pro tion  of   education  or  any  of  the 

arts  or  sciences,  to  transfer  the  same  to  the  city 
as  a  trustee  for  such  purpose,  thus  affording  a 
means  of  consolidating  the  various  funds  now 
existing,  which  separately  arc  of  little  or  no 
avail  for  their  intended  purpose.  The  same 
statute,  furthermore,  authorizes  an   annual   tax. 


CLASS 


137 


(187G)  dean  of  the  faculty.  The  S  hoolof  H<  sign 
was  established  in  connection  with  the  Ohio 
Mechanics'  Institute   in    lsil.'!.  hut    they  are  now 

entirely  separate.  This  school  occupies  rooms  in 
the  Cincinnati  College  building:  and  there  are  ,  Inl- 
and evening  sessions.   It  is  designed  i-peeiallv  for 


by  the  eity,  of  o 
port  of  such  ins 
the  University  of 
of  the  estate  de 


.11,  for,] 


-up 


\le\l 


Mt.  Adams,  is  upon  the  condition  that  the  city 
shall  maintain  an  observatory  in  connection  with 
the  university,  and  was  accepted  by  the  city 
council  accordingly. 

The   institution   is   managed  by  a  board  of 
directors,  consisting  of  the  mayor  ex  officio  and 


by  th, 


illliell. 


mM- 


ing  purposes.  The  aca  lemic  department  was 
opened  in  1873.  Three  courses,  of  four  years 
each,  have  already  been  established  ;  namely,  (1) 
The  Classical  Course:  (2)  The  Scientific  Course; 
(3)  The  Course  in  Civil  Engineering.  Besides 
these  regular  courses,  provision  is  made  for  stu- 
dents desiring  to  pursue  particular  branches  ex- 
clusively. The  work  during  the  first  year  is  rig- 
idly prescribed  ;  but.  after  that,  a  large  amount 
of  option  is  allowed,  except  in  the  civil  engineer- 
ing course.  Candidates  for  the  degree  of  B.  A. 
or  P..  S.  must  choose  at  least  one  principal  study 
in  which  to  take  a  full  course  of  three  or  four 
years.  For  the  former,  tliis  may  be  either  an- 
cient languages,  modern  languages,  or  some  other 
literary  branch:  for  the  latter,  chemistry  and 
physics,  natural  history,  geology,  mathematics. 
astronomy,  or  some  other  science.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  elective  time  may  lie  devoted  to 
other  full  or  partial  courses.  Instruction  is  free 
to  all  who  are  bona  fide  residents  of  Cincinnati; 
but  tuition  fees  are  charged  to  non-residents.  The 
course  pursued  in  the  city  high  schools  constitutes 
the  requirements  for  admission. 

The  north  wing  of  the  university  building  was 
completed,  and  occupied  by  this  department,  in 
October,  1875.  In  1876,  there  were  ID  instructors 
and  51  students.    H.  T.  Eddy,  C.  E.,  I'h.  D.,  is 


design,  133  in  wood-carving, and  'J7  in  modeling. 
The  Obsi  rvatory  was  established  about  1844.  The 
new   ,-ite  is  on   Mi.  Lookout,  6  m.  from  the  city, 

one  of  the  highest  points  in  Hamilton  County. 
Besides  an  astronomical  library,  it  is  supplied  with 
first  class  instrument.-,  anion-  them  the  Mitchel 
refractor  of  12  inches  aperture.  It  is  (1876)  un- 
der the  direction  of  Ormoud  Stone.  A.  M. 

CIVIL  GOVERNMENT.  See  Si  ience  op 
Government. 

CLAFLIN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Orangeburg, 
South  Carolina,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  was  chartered  in  1st',!). 
and  opened  in  1870.  It  y\;is  established  prima- 
rily for  the  education  of  colored  youth  of  both 
sexes,  but  no  one  is  excluded  on  account  of  race, 
color,  or  religious  opinions.  The  buildings, 
grounds,  etc..  are  valued  at  §40,000.  In  1872, 
the  state  established  its  agricultural  college  and 
mechanics'  institute  in  connection  with  the  uni- 
versity. Three  departments  are  now  in  opera- 
tion, namely  :  a  common  English  department,  a 
classical  preparatory  and  higher  English  depart- 
ment, and  an  agricultural  and  scientific  depart- 
ment. In  1874—5,  there  were  5  instructors  and 
188  students,  of  whom  151  were  in  the  common 
English  department.  .'17  in  the  higher  English, 
and  li'i  in  the  scientific  and  agricultural  depart- 
ment. The  agricultural  college  and  mechanics' 
institute  has  a  productive  endowment  of 
$180,000.  The  Maker  Theological  Institute  is 
connected  with  the  university.  The  Ihv.  E,l 
ward  Cooke.  1).  I»„  is  (1S70)  the  president. 

CLASS  (Lit.  <-l'i±*is.  from  Or.  K/>aai(,  from 
Kotelv,  to  call,  because  applied  to  an  assembly  of 
the  people  when  called  together),  a  number  of 
pupils  or  students  in  a  school  or  college,  of  the 

same  evade  of  attainments,  receiving  the  ■; ■    h 

struction.  and  pursuing  the  same  studies.  When 
large  numbers  of  pupils  are  to  be  taught,  a  care- 
ful distribution  of  them  into  classes  becomes  requi- 
site; indeed,  nothing  is  so  important,  previous 
to  the  work  of  instruction,  as  an  accurate  classi- 
fication. Heterogeneous  masses  of  children  can- 
not be  instructed  simultaneously.  They  may  be 
made  to  perforin  mechanically  certain  school  ex- 
ercises,— may,  perhaps,  be  taught  to  read,  to 
spell,  to  write,  and  to  cipher  to  some  extent  :  but 
it  can  only  be  by  rote,  without  the  due  ,  sercise 
of  their  intelligence,  and.  hence,  without  proper 
mental  development.  A  poorly  classified  school 
can  never  be  really  efficient,  whatever  talent  in 
teaching  may  be  brought  to  bear  upon  it.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  individual  teaching  has  many 
advantages  over  the  teaching  of  classes;  since 
there  is  a  better  opportunity  to  observe  the  pu- 


CLASS 


pils'  peculiar  traits  of  character,  and  to  adapt  the 
instruction  to  them  ;  but  class  teaching  n|i|>n>\- 
imates  to  individual  teaching  in  proportion  as 
ication  is  so  accurate  as  to  bring  to- 
gether under  the  influence  of  the  teacher  pupils 
of  a  like  grade  of  attainments,  and  of  similar 
disposition,  temperament,  and  mental  constitu- 
tion. Of  i  ■'  i  lcd  id  rree  of  accuracy  in 
classification  is  ordinarily  impossible;  but  this 
is  the  ideal  standard  to  which  the  teacher  should 
always  endeavor  to  approximate  in  organizing 
the  classes  of  his  school. 

A  proper  limit  as  to  the  size  of  classes  should 
be  carefully  observed.  This  is  difficult  to  lix 
by  the  statement  of  any  particular  number,aince 
the  number  of  pupils  that  may  be  properly 
placed  under  the  instruction  of  a  single  teacher 
will  vary  with  the  age  and  character  of  the  pu- 
pils, the  evenness  of  the  grade,  and  the  skill  and 
experience  of  the  teacher  himself.  When  the 
number  is  between  .">(>  and  100,  or  over,  as  it 
sometimes  is  in  the  large  city  schools,  of  course 
no  proper  result  can  be  effected.  "  In  a  large 
class."  says  Reid  (Principles  of  Education), 
"each  of  whom  seldom,  and  at  best  only  for  a 
short  time,  receives  individually  any  attention 
from  the  teacher,  the  progress  is  slow,  the  facul- 
ties little  develop  ■  1. a.,  1  t he  e  lueal  ion  altogether 
very  imperfect."  The  danger  inseparably  con- 
nected with  the  indis  ri te  tre  itment  of  pu- 
pils o!  diff  n  it  chara  teri  itics  h  is  been  often 
referr,  I  to  by  experienced  educators.  Thus,  we 
find  in  a  work  d  sign  d  t  i  aid  practical  teachers 
the  following  imp  ntani  a  [munitions  :  "In  every 
class,  however  well  graded,  the  pupils  will  differ 
much  in  age,  health,  mental  capacity,  an  1  home 
advantages.  A.  correct  and  judicious  classifica- 
tion will  reduce  this  inequality  to  a  minimum; 
but  there  will  still  remain  a  wide  field  for  the 
evii-e  of  discrimination,  care,  f.nd  caution  on 
the  pari  of  the  class-teacher.  The  lessons  should, 
in  all  respects,  lie  adapted  to  the  average  ability 
of  the  pupils  of  the  class;  but,  even  beyond  this, 
some  allowance  will  often  have  to  be  made  m  th  • 
case   of   pupils  of  unite  inferior  mental  eat itv 


that  is  to  say  at  school,  it  is  the  mass  of  minds 
only,  or  some  few  general  classes,  tit  the  best,  that 

can  be  thought  of And  vet  even  this  undistin- 

guishing  mechanism,  which  is  proper  to  a  school, 
and  which  carries  all  before  il  with  a  sort  of 
blind  force,  is  in  itself,  in  some  respects,  a  good; 
and  if  some  are  the  victims  of  it.  to  others  it  may 
be  beneficial.  There  are  children  who  are  not 
to  be  advanced  tit  all,  except  by  the  means  of 
a  mechanical  momentum  ;  and  such  might  well 
be  sent  from  home  to  school,  on  this  sole  account. 
that  they  will  then  be  carried  round  on  the  ir- 
resistible wheel-work  of  school  order.... But  al- 
though in  a  large  school,  even  when  broken  up 
into  classes,  little  regard  can  equitably  be  paid 


ir    tas 


the  principle  which  is  characteristic  of  home  edu- 
cation, may  readily  lie  extended  to  schools  not 
much  exceeding  the  bounds  of  a  numerous  fam- 
ily. In  fact.it  is  only  the  personal  ability  of  the 
teacher,  his  tact,  his  intelligence,  and  his  assi- 
duity, that  can  fix  the  limits  within  which  the 
principle  of  adaptation  may  be  made  to  take  ef- 
fect." The  number  of  pupils  that  should  be 
placed  in  a  class  is.  therefore,  a  matter  requiring 
the  utmost  exercise  of  good  judgment,  taking 
cognizance  of  all  attending  circumstances. 

What  should  constitute  the  basis  of  classifica- 
tion is  also  a  matter  requiring  a  careful  consider- 
ation. The  several  grades  ot  the  course  of  study 
should,  of  course,  be  exactly  defined,  and  all  the 
subjects,  or  parts  of  subjects,  prescribed,  should 
be  carefullj  adjusted,  so  that  the  various  require- 
ments of  the  grade  may  be  accomplished  simul- 
t.-n isly,  and  a  due    proficiency  in    each  may 

.11  e\.n  reorganization  of  the  classes.  Still,  let 
the  adjustment  lie  as  nice  as  practicable,  some 
diversity  will  be  found  tit  the  end  of  each  period 
of  instruction.  One  pupil,  for  example,  will 
have  made  good  progress  in  arithmetic,  but  very 
little  in  reading,  writing,  grammar,  etc.  What, 
then,  is  to  be  done'.''  If  the  average  progress  is 
taken,  pupils  of  such  unequal  attainments  in 
particular  studies  may  be  brought  together,  that 


E  this  class  time  in  attending  to  each  separately.     This  dif- 

\ceeilingly  Acuity  is  often, measurably. obviated  by  selecting 

care  is  re-  some  one    brand i  of  instruction,  as  arithmetic, 

hemselves  and  basing  the  classification  upon  the  pupils'  at- 

nd  study."  tainments   in   this   subject,  working   constantly 

ompar-  thereafter  to  bring  the  pupils,  as  far  as  may  be 

home  (in-  necessary,  up  to  the  same  standard  in  other  sub- 

-    instruc-  jects. 

■  ■   Taylor's  Whether  a  school  is  best    taught    by  classes  or 
necessary  by  subjects,  is  a  question  that  has  n  ceived  much 

■  twosvs-  attention  from  educators:  that  is  to  .siv,  whether 


faculties,  tastes,  and    probable  destination  of  the 

pupils  singly,  and  may  be  accommodated  to  the 
individual  ability  of  each:  in  the  other  system. 


In'  taught  in  succession  by  several  teachers,  each 
one  taking  a  particular  subject  or  class  of  sub- 
jects.     The  diversity   of    attainments,    mental 


CLASSICAL  STUDIES  130 

tastes,  and  special  skill  among  teachers,  would  literatures.    The  word  classical  is  derived  from 

seem  to  dictate  the  subjecl   system  rather  than    the   Latin  word   classicus,   that  is.  reli a   to 

the  class  system ;  since,  were  certain  branches  as-  the  classes  of  the   Roman   people,  especially  to 

signed  as  a  specialty  to  each  teacher,  there  would  the  first  class.    The  best  authors  known  tothe 

be   more   time   for  the   careful    study    by   the    Romans,  both   Latin  and  Greek,  « das 

teacher,  not  only  of  the  branches  themselves,  but    classici,  that  is,  of  tl    •>■  o The 

of  the  proper  methods  of  teaching  them ;  and,  of    ex|.iv~i..n   is.- .-i,:-..  -   u    .1    o>  .ie-ignate  the 


The 

pit- 

with 


dwoiM. and  Mill  e, 


dd 


111    .•:..-ll 


d  li 


Some  edu-    out  of  a  mixture  of 


required  to  spend  nut  a  si 
class,  and  Ins  means  <>t  acq 
tributed  over  a  number  of 

caters,  however,  take  a  view  directlj  opposed  to  guages,  naturally   retained 

this.     "If  the  pupil,"  says  Wickershani,  "recite  I  exclusive   literary    language. 

always  to  the  same  teacher,  he  may  become  fa-  world,  a  knowledge  of  Lath 

miliar  with  certain  lines  of  thought,  but  he  will  pensable,  on   account  of  tin 

most  likely  be  confined  to  them,     lie  might  be  churches  with  the  see  of   1 

trained   by  a  more  unvaried  discipline,  but    n  scriptures,  and   the   ecclesii 

is  a  discipline  in  one  direction.     Ele  becomesim-  general,  were  only  accessibl 

bued   with   his  teacher's  peculiar  opinions,  ac-  aone  of  the  native  languag 

quires  Ins  manners,  and  is  apt  to  create  a  little  Latin  was  the  onlj  kej  to  i 


thiss 

Nevi 


lis  founded  by  him, 
ly  of  Latin,  but  also 
iwcvcr,    found  little 


parti 
large 


ind 


tutions  of  a  higher  grade,  as  high  schools,  col-    positii 

leges,  and   universities,  the  other  system   is  in-  |  est  in 

variably,  and  of  course  necessarily,  employed.       |  of  tht 

Instead  of  requiring  all  the  members  of  a  class     Byzan 


(llftel 

been 


,n 


requires  a 
working  of 
the  discipli 

says   Wicki 

classilie;,ti.. 


—See   \\  ells    Graded  ■ 

WlCKERSHAM,      School     K 

Isaac  Taylor,   Home    H 
N.  Y.,   1836);   la:    V  via 

Tendti,,,,  (Toronto.  1ST.. 


guished  representath 


CLASSICAL  STUDIES,   a  term  denoting  I  in  the  second  half   of   the  eighteenth  ceiituiy. 
the  study  of  the  Latin  and  Greek  languages  and  J  to   a  considerable   restriction  of    Latin,   in   all 


CLASSICAL  STUDIES 


schools  of  a  lower  grade,  and  to  a  fierce  controversy 
in  regard  to  the  propriety  of  classical  studies,  in 
general,  in  the  course  of  instruction  prescribed 
for  schools  of  a  higher  grade.  This  controversy 
is  not  yet  ended  ;  anil  the  relative  importance  of 
these  studies,  as  compared  with  other  subjects  of 
instruction,  is  still  greatly  disputed.  The  op- 
position to  the  prominence  which  was  formerly 
accorded  to  classical  studies  in  colleges,  gymna- 
siums, and  similar  schools,  has  been  so  far  suc- 
cessful, that  the  course  of  instruction  in  all  schools 
of  this  grade,  now  end  .races  subjects  formerly  ex- 
cluded ;  and,  moreover,  institutions  of  a  higher 
grade  have  been  organized,  in  which  classical 
studies  are  either  entirely  excluded,  or  reduced 
to  a  secondary  or  auxiliary  position.  A  large 
number  of  American  colleges  and  universities 
have  arranged,  in  addition  to  the  full  classical 
course,  a  scientific  course,  from  which  (i reek  is 
always  and    Latin  generally  excluded;  and  the 


dueemeni  lor  all  collets  to  yield  to  what  appears 
to  be  a  general  demand.  In  Germany,  a  sharp 
controversy  is  still  pending  on  the  question 
whether  the  state  government  should  confer 
upon  the  real-schools  in  which  either  Greek  or 

classical   studies,  in    g ral,  are  excluded,  the 

right  of  conferring  certificates  of  maturity  for 
the  university.  On  the  part  of  those  who  de 
maud  that  classical  studies  should  be  retained  as 
a  pr inent  and  essential  part  of  a  higher  edu- 
cation, it  is  argued  that  the  organic  structure  of 
the  Latm  and  Greek  languages  is  more  nearly 
perfect  than  that  of  any  otlier  language,  and  that, 
by  the  great  diversity  of  their  inflections,  they 
express  more  fully  and  exactly  all  the  various 
and  minute  modifications  of  thought.  The  fact 
that  they  arc  no  longer  living  languages,  is  urged 
as  an  advantage:  because,  being  complete  organ- 
isms, they  afford  a  better  means  of  mental  dis- 
cipline than  the  modern  languages,  which  are 
continually  undergoing  important  changes.  The 
mutual  relation  of  the  two  classical  languages  is 
represented  as  such  that  they  supplement  each 
other,  the  Latin  being  more  artistic,  rhetorical, 
and  pathetic  :  while  the  <  !reek  bears,  to  a  greater 
extent,  the  impress  of  naturalness,  refinement, 
and  freedom.  The  literatures  of  Koine  and  ( rreece 
are  regarded  as  no  less  indispensable  than  their 
languages.  Translations,  it  is  claimed,  will  never 
succeed  in  reproducing  all  the  excellencies  of  a 
literary  masterpiece:  and  the  standard  works 
of  classic  literature  are  models  of  such  perfection, 
that,  like  the  ancient  works  of  plastic  art. they  arc 
sure  to  remain  for  all  time  the  instrumentality 
for  teaching  those  who  aspire  to  a  higher  edu- 
cation. There  is  no  country,  in  cither  Europe 
or  America,  which,  for  its  intellectual  develop- 
ment, lias  not  leaned  on  the  pillars  of  the  Latin 
and  Creek  classics,  and  a  normal  and  continuous 
growth  of  our  modern  literatures  is  not  conceiv- 
able, without  an  uninterrupted  connection  with 
Mn  duet  sources  of  our  intellectual  life.  This 
connection  is  necessary  for  all  branches  of  science  ; 
for  some,  its  theology,  philosophy,  philology,  law. 


and  medicine,  it  will  obviously  appear  so  indis- 
pensable that  no  student  of  any  of  these  sciences 
will  ever  flunk  of  disputing  it. 

John  Stuart  Mill,  in  an  address  delivered  in 
the  university  of  St.  Andrews,  on  his  inaugura- 
tion as  rector,  strongly  expressed  his  preference 
for  classical  studies  as  compared  with  modern 
languages.  "  The  only  languages.'  he  says,  "and 
the  only  literature  to  which  I  would  allow  a 
place  in  the  regular  curriculum,  arc  those  of  the 
Greeks  and  the  Romans,  and  to  these  1  would 
preserve  the  position  in  it  which  they  at  present 
occupy.'"  The  superiority  of  the  Latin  and  Greek 
languages  over  any  other,  ancient  or  modern,  is 
thus  explained  by  Mr.  Mill :  "The  principles  and 
rules  of  grammar  are  the  means  by  which  the 
forms  of  language  are  made  to  correspond  with 
the  universal  forms  of  thought.  The  distinctions 
between  the  various  parts  of  speech,  between 
the  cases  of  nouns,  the  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs, 
the  functions  of  particles,  are  distinctions  in 
thought,  not  merely  in  words.    Single  nouns  and 

can  be  cognized  by  the  senses;  but  the des  of 

putting  nouns  and  verbs  together,  express  the 
idations  of  objects  and  events  which  can  be 
cognized  only  by  the  intellect :  and  each  different 
mode  corresponds  to  a  different  relation.  The 
structure  of  every  sentence  is  a  lesson  in  logic. 
I'ln •  various  rules  of  syntax  oblige  us  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  subject  and  predicate  of  a 
proposition,  between  the  agent,  the  action,  and 
the  thing  acted  upon  :  to  mark  when  an  idea  is 
intended  to  modify  or  qualify,  or  merely  to  unite 
with  some  other  idea;  what  assertions  are 
categorical,  what  only  conditional  :  whether  the 
intention  is  to  express  similarity  or  contrast,  to 
make  a  plurality  of  assertions  conjunctively  or 
disjunctively;  what  portions  of  a  sentence, 
though  grammatically  complete  with  them- 
selves, are  mere  members  or  subordinate  parts 
of  the  assertion  made  by  the  entire  sentence. 
Such  thing's  form  the  subject-matter  of  universal 
grammar ;  and  the  languages  which  teach  it  best 
are  those  which  have  the  most  definite  rules, and 
which  provide  distinct  forms  for  the  greatest 
number  of  distinctions  ill  thought — so  that  if  we 
fail  to  attend  precisely  and  accurately  to  any  of 
these,  we  cannot  avoid  committing  a  solecism  in 
language.  In  these  qualities,  the  classical  lan- 
guages have  an  incomparable  superiority  over 
every  modern  language,  and  over  all  languages, 
d  ai  or  living,  which  have  a  literature  worth  be- 
ing generally  studied."  Mr.  Mill  also  claims  that 
"the  pre-eminence  of  the  ancients  in  purely  liter- 
ary excellence— in  perfection  of  form— is  not 
disputed,  that  their  composition,  like  their  sculp- 
ture, lias  been  to  the  greatest  artists  an  example, 
to  be  looked  up  to  with  hopeless  admiration,  but 
of  an  inappreciable  value,  as  a  light  on  high. 
guiding  their  own  endeavor." 

'I'lie  lion.  William  K  (  dadstone.  who  as  a  clas- 
sical scholar  has  few,  if  any,  equals  among  the 
great  statesmen  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
strongly  maintains  the  hereditary  claims  of  clas- 
sical studies  to  a  prominent  position  in  a  modern 


CLASSICAL  STCIHKS 


curriculum  for  secondary  and  superior  schools. 
He  denies  the  right  of  natural  science,  modern 
languages,  modern  history,  or  other  studies,  to  a 
parallel  or  ciptal  position.  -Their  true  position,  ' 
he  says.  ••  is  aneillan  .and  a-  aneillaix   it  oughl  to 


pils  themselves  should,  as  soon  as  possible,  be 
made  to  understand  the  objects  and  advantages 


as  ; 


ligiou  for  the  spirit  of  man,  and  the  Greek  (and 
in  a  secondary  degree  the  Roman)  discipline  for 
his  mind  and  intellect.  St.  Paul  is  the  apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,  and  is.  in  his  own  person,  a  sym- 
bol of  this  great  wedding.  The  place,  for  ex- 
ample, of  Aristotle  and  Plato  in  Christian  edu- 
cation is  not  arbitrary,  nor  in  principle  mutable. 
The  materials  of  what  we  call  classical  training 

were  prepared  in  order  that  it  might  b me  not 

a  mere  adjunct, but  (in  mathematical  phrase)the 
complement  of  I  Ihristianity  in  its  application  to 
the  culture  of  the  human  being,  as  a  being 
formed  both  for  this  world  and  the  world  to 
come." 

In  the  conflict  between  the  advocates  of  clas- 
sical studies  in  our  higher  schools  and  their 
opponents,  the  former  generally  take  the  ground 
that  Latin  and  Creek,  both  the  languages  and 
the  literatures,  supplement  each  other.  '  Where 
a  comparison  between  the  two  is  made,  the  pref- 

because  the  knowledge  of    Latin   grammar  is 

supposed  to  be  of  superior  utility,  and  partly 
with  a  view  to  the  fact,  that  Latin  is  not  only 
the  key  to  an  understanding  of  the  Latin  clas 
sic,.  I  .in.  tor  a  long  pei  I,,  I  has  been  the  universal 

language  of  Christendom;  and  also  1 ause  the 

Latin   works,  since   the    restoration    of    letter-. 

are  in  themselves  of  siderable  value    for  the 

knowledge  of  every  kind  which  they  afford, even 
to  this  day.  many  valuable  works  being  published 
in  that  language.  The  Creek  language,  too,  is 
by  no  means  without  its  champions  :  and, though 
none  of  them  would  venture  to  disparage  the 
study  of  Latin,  they  regard  the  Greek  as  the 
superior  representative  of  classic  antiquity.  (See 
Latin,  and  Greek.) 

The  method  of  teaching  and  studying  the  clas- 
sical languages  and  literatures  must,  of  course, 
vary  according  to  the  object  or  purpose  for  which 
they  are  taught  or  studied.  In  some  schools,  the 
Study  of  these  languages  (particularly  Lai  in)  has 
been  adopted  for  the  sole  or  chief  purpose  of 
showing  their  relation  to  the  Knglish  language, 
and  of  giving  a  clear  insight  into  the  mean- 
ing of  English  words  derived  from  them.    Where 

this  is  the  exclusive  object. a  comparatively  small 
amount  of  time  will  be  found  sufficient  fortius 
study.  In  classical  schools,  colleges,  gymnasiums, 
etc.,  classical  studies  are  generally  pursued  for 
the  purpose  of  cultivating  and  developing  the 
mental  faculties,  and  introducing  the  student  to 
the  literary  treasures  of  which  they  are  the  keys. 
It  is  obviously  of  the  greatest  importance,  that 
the  teacher  should  be  fully  conscious  of  the  pre- 
cise aim  that  is  to  be  attained,  and  that  the  pu- 


ll  is  evident   that 
-t   skill   and   attain- 


which  can  only  spring  from  a   professor  ol   ripi 
scholarship,  cultivated  taste,  and  experience  u 

giving  instruction.     There  is  no  doubt  thai  clas 


the   perusal   of    the   sub- 
ancieiit   history,  oratory. 


proper  text-1 ks.  in  order  to  produce  the  best 

results  in  this  department  of  instruction.  The 
books  at  first  needed  by  every  pupil  are  a  gram 
mar.  a  dictionary,  and  books  for  translation. 
The  grammars  and  dictionaries  used  should  lie 
tho-e  specially  prepared  for  pupils;  for  the 
wants  of  pupils  are  different  from  those  of 
teachers  and  scholars.  As  regards  the  editions 
of  classic  authors,  some  teachers  prefer  texts  with 
notes,  others  those  without  notes.  In  the  former 
ease,  the  notes  should  be  exclusively  calculated 
to  promote  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  language 
and  a  clear  understanding  of  the  writer's  mean- 
ing. The  use  of  translations  is  generally  dis- 
couraged by  teachers;  though  all  know,  that 
pomes''  arc  great  favorites  with  students. 
There  are  some  educators  who  regard  a  judicious 
use  of  translations  as  not  only  not  hurtful,  but 
commendable.  When  a  knowledge  not  only..!' 
the  classic  language,  but  also  of  its  literature  i 
desired,  the  use  of  the  entire  work  of  an  author  is 
preferable  to  that  of  selection.-,  such  as  are  found 
in  reading-books.  An  introduction,  giving  the 
pupil  information  in  regard  to  the  authoi  ol  the 
work,  facilitates  a  correct  understanding  of  the 
work  itself,  and  increases  the  pupils  interest. 
Ceographical  and  historical  explanations  should 
be  given  wherever  they  are  needed.     The  trans- 


L42 


CLASSICS,  CHRISTIAN 


lations  should  be  at  first  literal,  but  should,  in- 
variably, be  converted  into  good  English,  and 
should  reproduce,  as  much  as  possible,  tin-  excel- 
lencies, as  well  as  interpret  the  meaning,  of  the 
original.  Of  course,  the  pupil  should  not  be  dis- 
couraged by  too  harsh  and  minute  a  criticism  of 
his  efforts.  Minor  faults  should,  a<  first,  be  passed 
over,  and  the  pupil's  mind  gradually  trained  to 

facility,  accuracy,  and  elegani t  expression. 

See'  II.  Barnard, Studies  and  Conduct  (Hart- 
ford, lKTo).  giving  the  views  of  Byron.  ( 'hatham, 
Donaldson.  He  (juineev,  Fronde,  Cladstone,  ller- 
schel,  Hodgson,  Locke,  Lowe,  Macaulay,  Marti- 
neau.  Mill,  Milton.  Niebuhr,  Southey,  Temple, 
Tvndall.  Vaughan.  and  Whewcll,  respecting  elas- 
sical  studies;  Hodgson.  .  WsvW  h^h-m-li,,,,:  Its 


Laas,G'///»«.<s/v/«  »-■//,'     :<■>,■  ■     I  :•  i  Im..  1  ~7.»  i. 

CLASSICS,  CHRISTIAN,   or  Christian 

Greek  and  Latin  Writers.  The  ideas  and  life 

of  pagan  tin _■  had  linn  expressed  and  beauti- 
fied, and  thi'  growth  of  pagan  genius  had  ceased 
in  ( J  recce  before  the  coming  of  Christ.  Tin-  ( Jreek 
language  remained  to  embody  the  new  ideas  of 
Christianity:  the  expression  of  them  by  Christ 
and  his  apostles  in  the  New  Testament  is  the 
earliest  Christian  Greek.  These  ideas  rapidly 
affected  all  serious  thought.  A  long  succession 
of  Christian  Greek  writers  followed,  many  of 
admirable  eloquence,  more  of  wonderful  subtlety 
and  learning, — apologists,  preachers,  commen- 
tators, historians,  philosophers,  and  poets.  The 
(Jreek  language,  meantime,  was  most  carefully 
studied  from  generation  to  generation,  and 
changed  very  slowly. 

The  center  of  controlling  thought  and  genius 
early  moved  westward.  There  had  been  an 
after-growth  of  pagan  literature  at  Rome;  but, 
in  the  second  century  of  our  era,  Africa  became 
the  nurse  of  genius,  and  Christianity  its  inspira- 
tion. Minutius  Felix,  Tertrdlian,  Cyprian,  Com- 
modian.  Arnobius,  Lactantius,  and  Augustine 
appeared  in  rapid  succession.  The  Latin  language 
expanded  and  strengthened,  to  express  the  new 
ideas  and  life.  An  original  Roman  poetry  for 
the  first  time  appeared,  new  in  its  form  and 
thought,  and  living  on  the  lips  of  the  people. 
A  new  mythology  of  the  saints  displaced  the 
heathen  deities.  History  was  rewritten,  phi- 
losophy drawn  to  new  and  higher  applications, 
Christianity  became  the  religion  of  the  state, 
and  the  services  of  the  church,  the  canon  law, 
and  the  proceedings  of  the  courts  were  in  Litin 
throughout  the  Western  world.  At  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  Roman  empire,  the  mingling  of 
barbarians  with  Romans  changed  the  spoken 
dialects  of  the  common  people  so  much  that  they 
are  called  new  languages.  Italian,  French,  Span- 
ish, and  the  like.  But  the  priests  and  lawyers 
and  scholars  continued  to  read,  write,  and  speak 


Latin  ;  and.  when  learning  revived,  the  book 
Initio  was  carefully  cultivated.  All  important 
works  in  science  or  learning  were  written  in  it, 
and  also  much  literature.  This  practice  continued 
till  recent  times.  Bacon,  Milton,  and  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  used  it.  and  critical  commentaries  on 
ancient  authors  are  still  often  written  in  Latin. 

The  earliest  Christian  Latin  differed  little 
from  the  heathen  Latin  ;  but,  after  it  ceased  to 
be  folk  speech,  the  free  use  of  the  living  idioms  of 
feeling  was  gradually  lost,  and  the  number  and 
precision  of  its  technical  terms  immensely  in- 
creased.    The   late   Latin   follows   the   general 


for  precision,  brevity,  and  perspicuity  in  dealing 
with  its  own  range  of  subjects. 

The  early  Christians  detested  and  feared  the 
pagan  religion  and  manners,  and  the  literature 
in   which   they  are   made  alluring.     The   pagan 

1 ks  were  often  destroyed,   ami  the  Christian 

authors  displaced  them  almost  entirely.  Through 
the  darkest  period  of  the  middle  ages,  the  works 
of  the  Christian  writers  were  almost  the  sole 
reading,  and  the  study  of  them  and  their  lan- 
guage, almost  the  sole  learning,  of  western  Eu- 
rope. At  the  pagan  renaissance,  the  admirers 
of  the  older  heathen  writers  claimed  for  them 
the  place  of  honor :  and  heated  contests  were 
waged  between  the  advocates  of  the  Christian 
and  the  heathen  Latin,  which  ended  in  a  victory 
for  the  heathen,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
pagan  authors  as  the  textbooks  for  the  study 
of  Latin  and  Greek  in  the  schools  of  Europe. 

The  great  ( Ihristian  writers  have  always  been 
the  delight  of  <  'hristian  scholars ;  and  no  long 
period  has  ever  passed  without  expressions  of 
regret  from  eminent  educators,  that  the  best  years 
of  youth  should  be  spent  in  mastering  the  de- 
tails of  heathen  life,  and  dwelling  on  the 
thoughts  of  heathen  heroes  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  Bible  and  Christian  heroes  :  audit  has  been 
yielded  to  by  many,  only  on  account  of  the  train- 
ing to  be  derived  fr<  mi  the  study  of  the  Latin  and 
Greek  languages,  which  were  thought  to  be  found 
only  in  the  heathen  books.  But  Christians  also 
have  written  Greek  and  Latin  well.  All  the 
grammatical  forms  are  preserved,  and  used  in 
their  works  according  to  the  rules  of  our  gram- 
mars. Whatever  is  to  be  gained  from  an  acquaint- 
ance with  a  synthetic  language,  and  from  strange 
modes  of  expression,  may  be  had  from  studying 
them;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  student  may 
imbibe  from  their  perusal  the  noblest  thoughts. 
The  modern  science  of  language  has  changed  the 
estimate  placed  on  classic  periods,  and  ii  now 
teaches  the  recognition  of  many  admirable  lan- 
guages, and  the  study  of  all  dialects  and  periods 
in  their  relation  to  thought  and  history:  audit 
has  been  said  that  no  other  thought  or  history  is 
so  interesting  or  so  important  as  that  embodied 
in  Christian  (Jreek  and  Latin,  and  that  these 
should,  therefore,  have  the  place  of  honor  in  the 
linguistic  studies  of  our  universities. 


CLASSICS.  CHRISTIAN 

The  knowledge  of  Christian  Latin  especially 
is  necessary  to  all  original  researches  into  the 
history  of  modem  civilization  and  of  modern 
philosophy,  since  the  early  history  of  the  Euro- 
pean nations,  their  laws,  charters, diplomas,  and 
treaties,  the  councils  of  the  church,  and  the 
works  of  the  founders  of  modern  science,  are  all 
written  in  it.  It  is  also  essential  to  original 
researches  into  the  history  of  the  modern  lan- 
guages; the  peculiarities  of  etymology,  syntax, 
and  orthography,  are  to  be  explained  from  the 
later  Latin,  for  the  most  part.  The  history  of 
modern  literature,  the  spirit  emerging  in  the 
works  of  the  early  masters,  like  <  'ledmon,  Dante. 
and  Milton,  is  to  be  understood  only  by  the 
study  of  the  Latin  fathers  From  considerations 
like  t hese.  the  fitness  of  th  •<"  writ  -rs  to  be  used  as 
text-books  in  our  schools  and  colleges,  has  lately 
been  strongly  urged,  and  attempts  are  making 
to  introduce  them  in  France  and  Austria.  In  the 
United  States,  there  has  always  been  a  consid- 
erable use  of  the  Hifdoria  Sacra,  as  a  Latin 
book  for  beginners.  Two  e  litioiis  are  now  pub- 
lished :  /•.>/,.//•  Ills' .->.p  Sa  rce,  L'Homond 
(Baltimore);  HistoriaSacra  |  Phila.).  A  consider- 
able part  of  it  is  also  included  in  Allen  and 
Greenough's  Latin  Primer  (Boston).  The  New 
Testament,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  is  used  in  several 
editions  prepared  for  schools;  also  the  Qreek 
Testament,  by  Spencer  i  Xcw  York;;  and  Qreek 
mi'l  L'ltiii.hy  LRt'sriEN-  (Phila.).  A  series  of  Chris- 
tian classics  in  Greek  and  Latin,  prepared  with 
notes,  like  the  common  text-books  for  our  schools 
and  colleges,  and  edited  by  F.  A.  M  irch,  is  also 
appearing  in  New  York  under  the  name  of  The 
Hour/lags  Scrips.  Mr.  Benjamin  I  loiiglass  having 
given  a  fund  to  promote  the  publication,  and  to 
establish  the  study  in  Lafayette  Colleoe.  The 
following  have  appeared:  La  In  Hymns,  E  - 
Mus,  Athen  ■ ,    -as,    /'  tn;  J   >tin    Martyr 

is  in  press,  .1  tgustineiv  preparation,  and  others 
are  to  follow.  Other  b  loks  which  may  be  use  1 
as  text-books,  are :  San  tori  aPa  ■umOpicscula 
spJpcta  ad  usum  pros  ■■'■  n  s  ■■  I  tsorum  theo- 
logies, H.  EEurter  (Innspruck  .  of  which  31 
volumes  had  appeared  in  IsTii.  Books  pre- 
pared for  the  French  schools:  Tertullien,  Au- 
gustine, IZrasme,  /'pi-px  de  rilglise  Latine,  Mor- 
ceaux  choisis  des  Peres  Gfrecs,  St.  Basile,  Gre- 
goire,  Ghrysostome,  each  a  few  pages  with  little 
or  no  apparatus,  but  with  a  translation  added. 
There  are  stereotyped  texts  of  the  Confessions 
i  if  si.  Avgustine,ot  the  De  Sacerdotio  of  Ghry- 
sostom,  by  Tai'ohnitz.  (Leipsic);  of  Eusebius  and 
Josephus  by  Teobner  i  Leipsic).  Accessible  trans- 
lations of  several  authors  are  in  The  I  i  icene 
Faihers, Edinburgh;  Bohn's  /.'  tiastica  Series, 
London;  Bosssler,  />'/'.•  •'.  ,  I  •  K  chenvaier 
in  rphpntPtzmi-rii    iLci'./ie;.   1776—86);    I'iiil- 

HOFER.  BihllotilPk   i/pr    h~,,:/>.  ,,  nil-  r.       AuSWaU 

der  Borzugttchsten  patristischen  Werke  in  dent- 
scher  Vebersetzung  (Kempten),  of  which,  up  to 
1870,  175  parts  have  appeared.  Great  Li- 
braries of  the  Fathers  are  those  edited  by  Gal- 
lani.i  (Venice,  1765—88),  and  by  J.  P.  Migne 
(Paris),  not  yet  complete.    Of  all  the  most  emi- 


CLEVELAND  143 

nent  authors  there  are  many  editions,  commen- 
taries, and  oilier  works  of  elucidation.  Students 
will  also  find  the   following  works  convenient: 

/,  :i  on   Man      eadScriptor      i        eel      t 

Latinit  i  i  ,  bj  W    II.  \l    D'As         Pari     L866 

by  B.  A.  So,. :les  (Boston]  L870). 

CLASSIFICATION.     See  I 

CLEVELAND,    an    important   city  in  Ohio 

being  the  see I  in  the  state   in    population. 

The  number  of  inhabitants  in  L870,  was  92,829  ; 
in  1876,  it  was  estimated  al  1  10,000. 

school  committees,  and  the  levying  of  a  tax  for 
school  purposes ;  and,  in  1825,  it  made  further 
provision  for  education  The  acl  oi  incoi  poration 
in  1836,  authorized  the  city  council  to  provide 
for  the  support  of  common  school-,  t..  Ie\  \  a 
tax  of  not  more   than  one  mill 


.I..I1,, 


.•has. 


in  each  of  the  three  wards  oi   the  i  n\    fi 


school  in  each  of  the  three  wards  of  the  city,  for 
a  term  of  not  less  than  six  mouths  in  the  year. 
The  administration  of  school  affairs  was  vested 
in    a   board,  entitled    the    Foard  of    Managers  of 


of    cducat 

on   was 

placed   in    th 

■    hands   of    the 

and  one  h 

dToTthe 

■being  elect,-, 
wards  electil 

in    each  ward, 

g  annually.  The 

city  couni 

I,  howcv 

t.  still  retain 

id   its  control  of 

the  finani 

es  :  but 

it    was  lcoiii 

ed   to  "provide 

and  suppi 

loh  -■  ha 

ade    Of    schools, 

all  the  children 
.port   two   high 

all  restraints  on  the  pari  of  the  city  council  from 
the  board  of  education,  except  that  the  purchase 
of  sites  and  the  erection  of  school-buildings  were 
made  dependent  upon  theconsen!  oi  the  council. 
In  1837—8,  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled  in 
the  schools  was  only  840  :  and  there  were  only  6 
schools.  In  1850 — 51,  there  were  .'!'_'  teachers 
employed;  the  average  attendance  in  all  the  schi  k  .Is 
was  L650  ;and  the  number  enrolled,  2,304  oui  oi 
a  school  population  of  6,742.  In  1860—61,  the 
school  population  was  L4,625;  enrollment,  5,081; 
average  daily  attendance,  3,962,  with  v.':  teachers. 
In  1870—71,  theschool  populationhad  increased 
to  34,544;  enrollment.  13,184;  average  daily  at- 
tendance, 8,174,  with  188  teachers.  In  1846,  a 
high  school  for  boys  was  opened  by  order  of  the  citj 
council ;  and,  in  the  I  oil,, wine  year,  a  department 

for  girls  was  established   in  the  same  scl 1.    For 

two  years,  the  new  institution  met  with  much  op 
position.it  being  "maintained  by  some  thai  il 
was  illegal,  by  others  that   it    was    inexpedi    i"  ', 

to  levy   taxes    for  the    support  of    schools  for 
higher   education.     The    people   hov 
their    support    to    the    policy,    and   the   follow- 
ing year,   a   law  was    passed    authorizing   and 


1 1 1 


CLEVELAND 


requiring  the  city  council  to  '-establish  and  ' 
maintain  a  high  school"  Since  that  time,  two 
other  high  schools  have  been  established  the 
West  High  School,  in  ls(U;  and  the  East  Bigh 
School,  iu  1812. — The  supervision  of  the  schools 
was.  in  is  11,  vested  in  an  acting  manager  of  the 
public  schools,  who  was  a  member  of  the  board, 
and  its  secretary.  The  office  of  superintendent 
of  schools  was  created  in  1853,  and  has  been 
filled  as  follows:  Andrew  Freese,  1853  61; 
Luther  M.  Oviatt,  1861—3;  Anson  Smyth.  1st;:: 
—7;  Andrew  J.  Hiekoff.  the  present  incumbent 
(1876),  from  1867.  This  officer  is  elected  by 
the  board  of  education  for  a  term  of  two 
years.  There  are,  besides,  three  associate  super- 
intendents, one  (a  female)  specially  for  primary 
schools. — The  chief  duties  of  the  .superintend- 
ent are  to  supervise  the  work  of  instruction 
in  all  the  schools  of  the  city,  visiting  the  schools 
as  often  as  possible,  noting  defects,  and  recom- 
mending measures  to  remove  them;  to  inspect 
the  sel I  buildings,  and  report  on  their  condi- 
tion ;  and  to  fix  the  time  and  mode  of  the 
examination  of  schools.  Candidates  for  teach- 
ers' licenses  are  examined  by  a  board  of  six 
examiners,  appointed  by  the  board  of  edu- 
cation. -The  School  System  consists  of  a  normal 
school,  4  high  schools,  1!)  grammar  schools, 
and  15  primary  schools,  making  a  total  of  39 
schools.  These  schools  receive  all  children  six 
years  of  age  and  upward,  without  regard  to 
color.  There  are  four  courses  of  study  prescribed 
for  the  high  schools:  an  English  curse,  of  .'! 
years;  a  ( Jerman-English  eour.se.  of  I  years;  a 
Latin- English  course,  of  I  years;   and   a  classical 

course,  of  4  years.  The  course  of  study  pre- 
scribed for  the  gramniarand  primary  schools  com- 
prises the  branches  usually  taught  in  common 
schools,  including  music,  drawing,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  natural  science.  German  is  taught  in 
most  of  the  schools  (introduced  in  1870).  All  the 
teachers  of  the  primary  aird  grammar  schools, 
both  principal-  and  assistants,  are  females. 

S-lmiil  S/i/i's/i.  a.  -The  following  items  are  re- 
ported for  the  year  1S76  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 46,990 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 20,771 

Average  daily  attendance U,069 

Number  of  teachers 32G 

Receipts  (1S75) $497,174.67 

Expenditures  ( L875) $356,095.2  t 

Besides  the  public  schools,  there  are  private 
schools  and  seminaries  in  considerable  number; 
also  German  and  English  schools,  and  de- 
nominational schools,  the  latter  including  several 
Roman  Catholic  institutions.  The  Cleveland 
Female  Seminary  is  an  institution  for  the  supe- 
rior instruction  of  women,  chartered  in    L853. 

St.  Mary's  Theological  Seminary, a  I! an  t'ath 

olic  institution,  was  founded  in  Is  I!).  The 
Ohio  State  and  Union  Law  College,  founded  in 
1856,  in  1874,  had!  professors,  and  a  library  of 
3,000  volumes.  The  ( leveland  Medical  ( lollege, 
founded  in  1843,  had,  the  same  year,  15  in- 
structors; and  92  students;  there  is  also  a  col- 
lege, connected  with  the  homoeopathic  hospital. 


CLINTON 

CLINIQTJE  (Gr.  Kliyr/,  a  couch  or  bed),  a 
French  word  used,  in  medical  schi « >ls,  to  denote  an 
examination  or  treatment  of  patients  by  medical 
or  surgical  professors  in  the  presence  of  their 
pupils,  for  the  purpose  of  giving  practical  in- 
struction; hence  the  term  clinical  instruction 
or  lectures,  because  originally  given  or  delivered 
at  the  bedside  of  the  sick.  (See  Medical 
Schools.) 

CLINTON,  De  Witt,  one  of  the  most  il- 
lustrious of  American  statesmen,  of  deserved 
celebrity,  not  only  on  account  of  his  brilliant 
talents,  high  culture,  and  comprehensive  views, 
but  for  his  earnest  philanthropy  and  his  zealous 
efforts  in  behalf  of  popular  education.  He  was 
born  at  Little  ISritain.  Orange  Co.,  X.T.,  March 
2.,  1769,  and  died  in  Albany,  Feb.  11.,  1828. 
After  graduating  at  Columbia  College,  New- 
York,  with  great  distinction,  in  1786,  he  studied 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1  788.  lie 
also  entered  the  field  of  politics,  sustaining  the 
interests  and  principles  of  the  republican  party, 
of  which  his  uncle,  George  Clinton,  was  then  the 
leader  in  the  state  of  New  York.  After  filling 
various  offices  under  the  latter  as  governor  of  the 
state,  he  was  elected  to  the  legislature,  serving 
successively  in  the  assembly  and  in 'the  senate,  and 
at  the  age  of  33  was  appointed  to  a  seat  in  the 
senate  of  the  United  States.  This  he  resigned 
to  assume  the  position  of  mayor  of  the  city  of 
New  York,  which  he  filled,  at  intervals,  for  ten 
years.  He  also  served  as  lieutenant  governor  of 
the  state  ;  and  his  advocacy  of  the  construction 
of  the  Erie  and  Champlain  canals  made  him  so 
popular,  that,  in  1816,  he  was  elected  governor 
of  the  state,  virtually  by  the  unanimous  voice  of 
the  people;  and  his  administration  was  contin- 
ued, with  the  exception  of  an  interval  of  two 
years,  during  a  period  of  twelve  years.  His  wise 
and  c prehensive  measures,  particularly  in  be- 
half of  internal  improvements  and  common- 
school  education  in  the  state,  gave  him  a  wide 
popularity  and  fame;  and,  in  1825,  he  partic- 
ipated in  a  grand  popular  celebration  ou  the 
occasion  of  the  completion  of  his  greatest  meas- 
ure,—  the  establishment  of  a  water  communi- 
cation between  Lake  Erie  and  the  J  iudson  River. 
As  he  was  borne  in  a  barge  along  that  magnifi- 
cent canal  (called  the  bhrand  Brie  Canal}  he 
was  every-where  saluted  with  the  ringing  of 
bells,  the  firing  of  camion,  and  other  joyous  dem- 
onstrations. 

It  is  not,  however,  intended  to  dwell  here  upon 
his  brilliant  career  as  a  statesman  and  politician, 
but  to  refer  to  his  connection  with  the  cause  of 
education,  and  the  mighty  impulse  which  was 
giveii  to  it  in  the  state  of  New  York  by  his 
genius  and  public-spirited  exertions.  The  foun- 
dation of  the  state  school  fund  had  already  been 
commenced ;  but  nothing  had  been  done  for 
public  education  in  the  city  of  New  York.  In 
1805,  Clinton,  then  mayor  of  the  city,  joined 
with  several  distinguished  citizens  in  obtaining 
an  act  of  incorporation  for  the  Society  for  Estab- 
lishing ,i  Free  School  hi  the  city  of  New  York, 
for  ike  ed "cation  of  such  poor  children  <is  donot 


CO-EDUCATION 


145 


belong  to,  or  ore  not  /irorii/ci/  for  bi/.  am/ re- 
ligious society;  and  for  a  period  of  21  years, 
from  1805  to  1826,  he  was  the  presidenl  of  the 
society.     Tin-   society  was  at     rward    known    is 

the  Public  Stf       Sue        and  its        ra  i fill 

a  large  space  in  tin:  t ■■  ln.-.-i t  j.  »i i.i J  .mi  a  is  oi  I  he  citj . 
In  1809,  on  the  occasion  of  the  iuautruration  of 
its  first  large  school  (for  it  conimeuced  with  a 
few  poor  cl'iiMivu,  in  a  single  room].  Clinton 
delivered  an  interesting  address,  in  which  he 
referred  to  the  previous  work  of  the  society  in 
connection  with  the  Lancasterian  system,  in  the 
following  won  Is  :  -When  I  perceive  that  many 
boys  in  our  school  have  been  taught  to  read  and 
write  in  two  months,  who  did  not  before  know 
the  alphabet,  and  that  even  one  has  accomplished 
it  in  three  weeks — when  I  view  all  th  bearings 
and  tendencies  of  this  system —when  [contem- 
plate the  habits  of  order  which  it  tonus,  the 
spirit  of  emulation  which  it  excites, — when  I 
behold  the  extraordinary  union  of  celerity  in  in- 
struction and  economy  of  expense,— and  when  [ 
perceive  a  great  assembly  of  a  thousand  children 
under  the  eye  of  a  single  teacher,  marching  with 
unexampled  rapidity  and  with  perfect  discipline 
to  the  goal  of  knowledge.  I  confess  that  1  rec- 
ognize in  Lancaster  the  benefactor  of  the  human 
race — I  consider  his  system  as  creating  a  new 
era  in  education,  as  a 'blessing  sent  down  from 
heaven  to  redeem  the  poor  and  distressed  of  this 
world  from  the  power  am  1  <  lominion  of  ignorance.'' 
The  merits  of  the  mutual  system  of  instruction 
as  a  means — and  then  the  only  means — of  diffus- 
ing the  benefits  of  education  among  all  classes  of 
the  people,  had  impressed  themselves  deeply 
upon  his  philanthropic  mind.  He  discerned 
clearly,  to  use  his  own  language,  that  "  the  first 
duty  of  a  state  is  to  renderits'citizens  virtuous 
by  intellectual  instruction  and  moral  discipline, 
by  enlightening  their  minds,  purifying  their 
hearts,  and  teaching  them  their  rights  and  their 
obligations."  He  took  an  active  part  in  enlarg- 
ing the  means  of  education  by  augmenting,  and 
rendering  more  available,  the  school  fund  of  the 
state.  In  18"2(i,  in  his  annual  message,  he  re- 
marked, "Our  common  schools  embrace  children 
from  5  to  10  years  old,  and  continue  to  increase 
and  prosper.  The  appropriation  for  the  school 
fund  for  the  hist  year  was  S8O.li70.and  an  equiv- 
alent sum  is  also  raised  by  taxation  in  the  several 
counties  and  towns,  and  is  also  applied  in  the 
same  way.  The  capital  fund  is  $1 ,333,000,  which 
will  be  in  a  state  of  rapid  augmentation  from 
sales  of  the  public  lands  and  other  sources  ;  and 
it  is  well  ascertained  that  more  than  420,000 
children  have  been  taught  in  our  common  schools 
during  the  last  year.  The  sum  distributed  is 
now  too  small,  and  the  general  fund  can  well 
warrant  an  augmentation  to  $120,000  annually." 
In  May,  1824,  the  Presbyterian  Society  for  'the 
Promotion  of  the  Education  ,f  Youth  elected 
De  Witt  Clinton  its  president,  and  he  continued 
to  occupy  this  position  till  his  death.  On  taking 
the  chair,  he  delivered  an  address,  in  the  course  i 
of  which  he  said,  "  Monitorial  education.  Sun- 
day  schools,  and  Bible  societies  are  the  great  I 


I  levers  which  must  raise  public  opinion  to  its 
proper  elevation."  He  also  took  an  active  inter- 
est in  the   Infant  School  S ty  of  Yew    Fork, 

founded  in  1827,  upon  the  pli i  similar  insti- 

u" s  '"  ' ''''''"    Britain       i  hi  -     ■  I Is  were 


prise  designed, 

in  any  n 

iv.  to  proi tb  ■    o  1 

of  mankind,  n 
part.     Among 

which  h 

■  did  not  takea  leading 

the    V  w    Ym 
Historical  Soc 

k    Hospi 
ety,  oi  tl 

r    and    the   New    Fork 

c  latter,,!  which  he  was 

the  president  t 

rem   1-1 

J  to  1820.      lb-  was  also 

a  member  of  i 

lost  of  t 

le  literary  and  scientific 

institutions  in 

he  I  "nit 

d  Mates,  and  of  several 

of  those  of  i  It 

at    Brita 

n    and   the  continent  of 

Europe.     It  u 

is  well  i 

•marked  by  Dr.  Samuel 

EL  Cox,  hi r 

his  distil 

guishi  d  contemporaries 

that  "he  was 

biuation  of  grt 

at   (|iialit 

ies,  and  the  happy  equi- 

librium  of  thei 

•  adjust  u 

■ut.    1  [e  was  unquestion- 

Fork.) 
private  tie 
sities),  \\  ho 
xaminations 


ably  a  man  of  genius,  a  scholar,  a  jurist,  a  states- 
man, an   enlightened   political  economist. 
and   practical  projector,   and  a    polished 
man." — See  Hosack,  Memoir ofDi    Witt  I 
(N.  Y.,  182!!):  S.  S.    Rand   ;       Histor 

CoilllW  C/-.S'  -llilul       Sl/<i,':tl         ■    •'  >         /■        ,, 

York  (N.  V..  1871).     (See  also  N 

COACH,  acant  term  applied  t 

tor  (particularly  in  the  English  un 

prepares  students  to  pass  the  publi 
I  hence  the  veil,  .■,„/,•//.  to  m've  mh  h  instruction) 
Such  tutors  are  graduates  from  the  university, 
and  are  prepared  for  the  special  function  which 
they  perform,  not  only  by  scholarship,  but  by  ex- 
perience in  the  particular  requisites  of  the  college 
examinations,  as  well  as  by  address  in  teaching. 
—See  Bristed,  Five  Years  in  an  English  Uni- 
versity (N.  Y..  1852). 

CO-EDUCATION  of  the  Sexes,  a  term 
used  to  denote  the  system  of  educating  males 
and  females  together,  that  is,  in  the  same  insti- 
tution, Behool,  or  class,  and  by  means  of  the  same 
studies,  and  methods,  pupils  of  each  sex  receiving 
the  same  school  training  and  culture.  This  sys- 
tem, in  the  lower  grades  of  schools,  has  been  al- 
ways prevalent  in  the  United  States,  as  being  the 
most  convenient  and  economical  for  small  com- 
munities. Where  only  one  small  district  school 
could  be  supported,  of  course,  the  separate  in- 
structionof  boys  and  girls  was  out  of  the  question. 
'Ilii-  practice.so  common,  appeared,  and  still  ap- 
pears, to  receive  not  only  the  tolerant  assent  of 
parents  as  a  necessity,  but,  in  most  cases,  an  un- 
qualified approval,  as  being  not  simply  expedient. 
but,  in  all  respects,  the  best  to  be  adopted.  In 
some  of  the  large  cities,  as  the  schools  grew 
large,  and  were  composed  of  children  gathered 
from  all  classes  of  society,  it  was  often  deemed 
best  to  organize  separate  buys'  and  girls'  schools; 
especially,  as  this  could  be  done  without  any  in- 
jury, but,  probably  with  a  benefit  to  the  clas- 


[46 


OO-KDUCATiON 


siflcation.  Private  seminaries,  however,  have 
generally  been  separate  schools,  except  those  for 
the  youngest  pupils.  Passing  from  the  grade  of 
primary  schools,  we  find  the  propriety  of  co-edu- 
cation to  be  a  question  among  educators  ;  while 
many  parents  prefer  that  even  the  youngest 
children  of  their  families  should  attend  schools 
exclusively  for  either  sex.  Those  who  oppose 
co-education  allege  as  reasons  for  their  views, 
( 1 )  That  there  is  need  of  a  better  adaptation  of 
instruction  and  discipline  to  the  peculiarities  of 
the  aexes  than  is  possible  in  mixed  schools;  (2) 
That  til'  manners  of  the  girls  are  unfavorably 
affected  liy  the  constant  example  of  the  rougher, 
coarser  conduct  of  the  boys,  the  latter  receiving 
but  little  or  no  benefit  from  the  presence  of  the 
girls;  and  (3)  That  the  moral  character  of  each  is 
liable  to  be  impaired  by  a  premature  develop- 
ment of  the  sexual  instincts,  caused  by  the 
constant  presence  of  the  other  sex.  With  but 
few  exceptions,  these  arguments  are  advanced  by 
those  who  have  only  theoretically  considered  the 
subject,  or  by  those  whose  practical  experience 
has  been  in  connection  with  mixed  schools  of 
which  the  discipline  and  management  were  im- 
perfect, thus  leading  to  abuses  which,  under 
proper  and  normal  circumstances,  would  have 
been  eliminated.  On  the  other  hand,  where 
there  has  been  a  thorough  and  proper  trial  of 
the  co-education  of  boys  and  girls,  the  testimony 
seems  to  be  strongly,  and  almost  exclusively, 
favorable  to  that  system.  In  many  of  the  large 
cities  of  the  Union,  this  is  the  prevalent  plan  of 
organization,  and  the  reports  of  superintendents 
are  quite  emphatic  in  its  approval.  The  alleged 
benefits  arising  from  it  are  chiefly  the  fol- 
lowing:  (1)  Improvement  in  discipline,  the  self- 
will,  viol. 'lice,  and  rudeness  of  the  boys  being 
restrained  by  the  presence  of  the  girls;  while 
the  girls' manners  are  rendered  more  easy  and 
self-possessed  by  daily  school  association  with 
the  other  sex;  (2)  Improvement  in  instruction 
and  study,  the  diversities  of  the  sexes  prevent- 
ing extreme  methods,  and  exclusive,  one-sided 
training  and  study.  Thus,  it  is  said,  that  the 
tastes  of  the  boys  for  severer  studies,  such  as 
mathematics,  are  corrected  by  the  inclination  of 
the  girls  for  the  lighter  am!  more  sentimental 
Studies,  general  literature,  poetry,  etc.;  (3)  A 
more  sound  and  healthy  development  of  both 
sexes:  in  support  of  which  it  is  asserted  that 
"schools  kept  exclusively  for  girls  or  boys,  re- 
quire a  much  more  strict  surveillance  on  the 
part  of  the  teachers.  The  girls  confined  by 
themselves,  develop  tin'  sexual  tension  much 
earlier,  their  imagination  being  the  reigning 
faculty,  and  not  bridled  by  intercourse  with 
society  in  its  normal  form.'  So  it  is  with  the 
boys,  on  the  other  hand.  Daily  association  in 
the  class  room  prevents  this  tension,  anil  supplies 

its  place  by  indifference.     Each  sex  testing  its 

strength  with  the  oilier,  on  an  intellectual  plane, 

n,  Hi-  presence  of  the  teacher— each  one  seeing 
the  weakness  and  strength  of  the  other,  learns 
to  esteem  what  is  essential  at  its  true  value.  .  .  . 
That  the  sexual  tension  be  developed  as  late  as 


possible,  and  that  all  early  love  affairs  be  avoided, 
is  the  desideratum ;  and  experience  has  shown, 
that  association  of  the  sexes  on  the  plane  of  in- 
tellectual contest  is  the  safest  course  to  secure 
this  end."  Thus,  the  theory  of  one  side  in  re- 
gard to  sexual  peculiarities  is  just  the  reverse  of 
that  of  the  other ;  but  it  is  claimed  that  prac- 
tical experience  confirms  the  latter,  while  the  for- 
mer is  only  a  theory ;  and  for  this  claim  there 
appears  to  be  a.  pretty  strong  foundation.  The 
citation  given  above  is  from  the  report  of  one  of 
the  most  experienced  school  superintendents  of 
the  United  States,  and  is  based  upon  an  obser- 
vation of  the  mixed  system  in  large  public 
schools  for  fifteen  years.'  (See  School  R,q,ort  of 
tit.  Louis,  1869—70.)  In  the  city  of  New  York, 
in  1874,  the  number  of  mixed  grammar  schools 
was  reported  as  13.  containing,  in  average  at- 
tendance, 2,400  pupils;  and  the  superintendent 
in  his  report  for  that  year  remarked:  "  Acareful 
examination  of  these  schools,  as  to  their  disci- 
pline and  progress  in  scholarship,  has  elicited 
nothing  to  discredit,  in  any  way,  this  mode  of  or- 
ganization, as  compared  with  that  of  the  other 
schools.  The  principals  commend  it  as  possess- 
ing many  advantages  over  the  plan  of  separating 
male  and  female  pupils  of  such  an  age  and  grade 
of  attainments,  and  parents  seem  to  approve  of 
it."  In  New  York,  however,  most  of  the  schools 
are  organized  on  the  extreme  separation  system. 
The  report  of  the  I'.  S.  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, for  1874.  states  that  there  are  in  the 
United  States  ."iid  schools  (secondary),  contain- 
ing 04,129  pupils,  male  and  female  (boys,  32,71 1; 
girls,  27.942  ;  of  others,  sex  not  reported);  while 
the  number  of  separate  schools  for  boys,  report- 
ing to  the  Bureau,  was  195,  with  13,592  pupils ; 
and  for  girls,  275,  with  20,458  pupils.  This 
would  seem  to  indicate,  as  might  naturally  have 
been  expected,  a  tendency  to  separate  schools  for 
girls;  but,  at  the  same  time,  shows  that,  in  sec- 
ondary education  in  the  United  States,  the  mixed 
system  prevails.  There  is,  unquestionably,  a 
natural  reluctance  on  the  part  of  many  parents 
to  send  their  daughters  to  schools  in  which  boys 
are  also  educated;  but  this  apprehension  of  danger 
seems  to  give  way  after  a  trial  of  co-education  ; 
and,  it  is  claimed  that  corrupt  influences  are 

re  liable  to  abound  in  schools  exclusively  for 

either  sex,  but  particularly  in  separate  schools 
for  girls.  -  To  insure  modesty,"  says  Kiehter, 
"  I  would  advise  the  education  of  the  sexes  to- 
gether ;  for  two  boys  will  preserve  twelve  girls, 
or  two  girls  twelve  boys,  innocent,  amidst  winks, 
jokes,  and  improprieties,  merely  by  that  instinct- 
ive sense  which  is  the  forerunner  of  natural  mod- 
esty. Hut  I  will  guarantee  nothing  in  a  school 
where  girls  are  alone  together,  and  still  less 
where  boys  are." 

All  the  facts  and  views  here  considered  have,  it 
must  be  observed,  reference  only  to  that  limited 
education  which  is  carried  on  in  schools,  where 
boys  and  girls  are  brought  together  for  a  brief 
period  to  receive  instruction  in  those  branches 
of  study  which  are  pursued  for  the  purpose  of 
intellectual  education.      The   question    whether 


DO-EDUCATION 


such  a  limited  co-education  is  expedient  and 
proper,  does  not  involve  a  consideration  of  the 
extent  to  which  the  distinction  of  sex  requires  a 
diversification  of  method  in  education  in  a  lar- 
ger sense,  as  comprehending  physical,  mural,  and 
mental  training.  Extreme  opinions,  however, 
prevail  on  this  point.  Dr.  Clarke  says,  in  Sex 
in  Education,  "  None  doubt  the  importance  of 

age,  acquire at,   idiosyncrasy,    and    probable 

career  in  life  as  factors  in  classification.  Sex 
goes  deeper  than  any  or  all  of  these."  Ou  the 
other  hand,  it  is  contended  that  sex  is  not  to  be 
considered:  and  this  is  the  position  of  most 
women  who  have  written  on  this  question. 
"Education,"  says  Caroline  H.  Dall,  "is  to  be 
adapted  neither  to  hoys  nor  to  girls,  but  to  indi- 
viduals. The  mother,  or  the  teacher,  has  learned 
little  who  attempts  to  train  any  two  children 
alike,  whether  as  regards  the  books  they  are  to 
study,  the  time  it  is  to  take,  the  attitudes  they 
are  to  assume,  or  the  amusements  they  are  to  be 
allowed.''  The  general  principle, without  doubt, 
is,  that  education  should  be  adapted  to  the  in- 
dividual ;  but  as  there  are  many  diversities  of 
character,  both  physical  and  mental,  which  arise 
from  the  difference  of  sex,  and.  consequently,  are 
common  to  all  of  the  same  sex,  boys  cannot,  in 
every  respect,  be  educated  as  girls,  'it  is  against 
this  ■■  identical  co-education,"  as  he  calls  it,  that 
Dr.  Clarke,  in  Sex  in  Education,  so  warmly  in- 
veighs. -Hoys,'  he  says,  "must  .study  and  work," 
"  in  a  boy's  way.  and  girls  in  a  girl's  way;"  which 
may  be  very  true,  an.  I  yet  by  no  means  invali- 
date tin'  propriety  of  school  co-education. 

In  respect  to  the  higher  education  of  women, 
this  question  takes  a  wider  range:  and,  since 
the  diversities  of  sex  are,  at  this  stage,  more  com- 
pletely developed,  the  argu ate  against  co-edu- 
cation become  more  emphatic  <  m  the  part  of  those 
who  view  the  subject  from  a  theoretical  stand- 

iint.  These  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  (1) 
culiarities  of  the  female  sex 


was  based  upon  certain   facts  which  came  under 
the  writer's  observation  as  a  physician  :   but  it  is 


sweeping  a  generalization;  and  that 
no  facts  of  the  kind  within  therangi 
experience  in  co-education  to  warrant 
tion.  Hence,  in  the  words  of  Miss 
Brackett,  "the  men.  generally,  and 
without  appreciation  of  its  logical  r 
prove  of  what  Dr.  Clarke  has  said;  t 
of  largest  experience  condemn, denying 
ises,  disproving  his  clinical  evidence 
other   facts,   and    protesting   against    1 


iere  are 
i  actual 
is  asser- 


ts prem- 
adding 
conclu- 


The  physioL 
render  it  impo 
undergo  the  s 


at  young  women  should 
tinuous  mental  labor  as 
-young  men,  without  the  sacrifice  of  their  health, 
and  without  impairing  the  functions  proper  to 
their  sex;  (2)  The  constitution  of  the  female 
mind  is  so  diverse  from  that  of  the  male  mind, 
that  it  requires  different  studies,  different  modes 
of  instruction,  and  different  regimen  in  every 
respect;  (3)  The  career  in  life  which  is  the 
destiny  of  woman  demands  a  preparation  diverse 
from  that  which  is  to  fit  a  young  man  for  the 
special  duties  of  his  sphere.  The  first  of  these 
positions  is,  of  course,  of  paramount  importance: 
although  it  is  not  simply  an  argument  against 
co-education,  but  against  affording  to  young 
women  the  same  facilities  for  a  higher  education 
as  are  afforded  to  young  men.  whether  they  are 
educated  together  or  not.  "  Appropriate  educa- 
tion of  the  two  sexes,"  says  Dr.  ( llarke,  "  carried 
as  far  as  possible,  is  a  consummation  most  de- 
voutly to  be  desired  ;  identical  education  of  the 
two  sexes  is  a  crime  before  God  and  humanity, 
that  physiology  protests  against,  and  that  ex- 
perience weeps  over."     Doubtless,  this  position 


Co-cducalion  in  the  higher  institutions  of 
learning  has,  during  the  last  few  years,  been 
thoroughly  tried  in  the  United  .States ;  and  the 
system  has  rapidly  advance'.,  stimulated  by  the 
success  which  appears  uniformly  t..  have  attended 
the  experiment.  But  a  few  years  ago.  there  was 
not  one  college  in  the  United  States,  which  af- 
forded equal  instruction  to  both  sexes:  in  1874, 
according  to  the  report  of  the  U.  S.  Commis- 
sioner of    Education,  there  were   'J 7  colleges  ami 

universities  in  which  the  co-educative  system 
prevailed.  <  »f  the  academies,  normal  schools,  and 
high  schools,  only  about  seventeen  per  cent  are 
for  boys  exclusively,  nineteen  percent  for  girls 
exclusively,  and  more  than  sixty  percent  for 
both  sexes.  The  testimony  of  those  experienced 
as  instructors  in  the  higher  institutions,  as  well 
as  of  the  alumnae  themselves,  appears  to  favor 
strongly  the  principle  and  practice  of  coeduca- 
tion, in  1853,  Horace  Mann  accepted  the  posi- 
tion of  president  of  Antioch  College,  which  had 
just  been  established:  and.  as  the  co-education 
of  the  sexes  in  such  an  institution  was  then  a 
novel  experiment,  he  had  many  misgivings  as  to 
the  result  Five  years  afterward,  however,  in  a 
letter  to  Mr.  Combe,  of  Edinburgh,  he  stated. 
"We  really  have  the  most  orderly.. sober. diligent, 
and  exemplary  institution  in  the  country.  We 
passed  through  the  last  term,  and  are  more  than 
half  through  the  present  ;  ami  I  have  not  had 
occasion  to  make  a  single  entry  of  any  misde- 
meanor in  our  record  book  —  not  a  case  for  any 
serious  discipline."  Mrs.  Mann,  in  the  Lift'  nf 
Horace  Mann  (  Boston,  18G5),  says:  "No  one 
conversant  with  the  daily  life  and  walk  of  Anti- 
och College  can  deny  that  the  purity  and  high 
tone  of  its  morals  and  manners,  in  both  depart- 
ments, were  uuequaled  by  those  of  any  other 
known  institution."  In  1868,  the  Westminster 
Review  said:  "Antioch  College  has  been  visited 
by  Emerson.  Theodore  Parker,  Oliver  Wendell 
liolmes,  Dr.  Bellows,  and  other  distinguished  men; 
and  the  testimonies  as  to  its  superior  character 
have  been  uniform."  The  writers  of  the  article 
referred  to  (The  Suppressed  Sex,  Westminster 
Review.  Oct.  lS(i.s),  stated,  that  he  had  resided  in 
the  vicinity  of  Antioch  College  under  circum- 
stances that  afforded  ample  "opportunities  for 
forming  an  acquaintance  with  its  plan,  professors. 


148 


00-EDUCATION 


and  students  ;  and,  although  quite  familiar  with 
the  University  of  Virginia.  Harvard,  and  to  .some 
extent  with  English  universities,  he  expressed 
his  "entire  conviction  that,  in  none  of  those  male 
institutions,  can  there  be  found  anything  com- 
parable to  the  moral  elevation,  the  refinement, 
or  the  intellectual  enthusiasm  which  characterize 
the  students  of  Antioch."  As  to  the  ability  of 
the  female  students  to  perform  the  intellectual 
tasks  assigned  to  those  of  the  other  sex,  the  testi- 
mony of  coll.-  presidents  and  professors  is  uni- 
formly and  stronglj  favorable.  President  Pair- 
child,  of  Oberiin  in  L874,  said.  "  1  hiring  my  ex- 
perience .is  professor—  twenty-seven  years  in  all — 
1  have  never  observed  any  difference  ill  the  sexes 
as  to  performance  in  recitation.  President 
Angell,  of  the  University  of  .Michigan,  said  (1874), 
••  We  have  not  had  the  slightest  embarrassment 
from  the  reception  of  women.  They  have  done 
their  work  admirably,  and,  apparently,  with  no 
peril  to  their  health.  "'  President  White, of  '  lornell 

"The  best  Greek  scholar  among  1,300  students 
of  the  University  of  Michigan  a  fe\i  years  since,  the 

best  mathematical  scholar  in  one  of  the  largest 
classes  of  the  institution  to-day,  and  several 
among  the  highest  in  natural  science  and  in  tin- 
general  courses  of  study,  are  young  women.' 
President  Magill,  of  Swarthinor.-  College,  in  an 
address  before  the  Pennsylvania  State  Teachers' 
Association,  August,  1*74,  said.  "  As  a  rule,  the 
more  faithful  and  conscientious  discharge  of  their 
duties,  which  characterizes  the  young  women, 
has  produced  a  slight  difference'  in  their  favor, 
in  the  matter  of  scholarship.  The  average  stand- 
ing of  the  oine  young  women,  for  the  four  years, 
w.i-  36.8;  that  of  the  four  young  men.  82.2." 
Professor  Orton,  of  Vassar  College,  in  an  ad- 
dress (entitled  Four  Years  in  Vassar  College) 
before  the  National  Educational  Association. 
August.  1*7  f.  said,  "Vassar  graduated  last  June 
42,  being   just  half  the  number  who  have  been 

com ted  with   the  class.     Amherst  graduated 

62  out  of  95, and  Cornell  65  out  of  261 — a  pain- 
ful example  of  'the  survival  of  the  fittest'.  Dur- 
ing the  past  year,  eleven  per  cent  of  the  under- 
graduates in  Vassar  have  been  kept  from  college 
duties  more  than  ten  days  on  account  of  illness: 
while  at  Amherst,  where  the  physical  education  of 
the-  young  men  is  more  carefully  attended  to  than 
at  any  other  college,  the  percentage  was  twenty- 
one."  Professor  Hosmer,  of  the  I  niversity  of 
Missouri,  in  a  paper  entitled  Co-Edit  oiionofihe 
Sexes  -  Um  ■  6s,n  id  before  the  National 
Education  I   \  sociation  in  1-71.  cited  many  in- 

education  of  young  men  and  women,  and  thus 
very  forcibly  illustrated  the  need  of  great  vigi- 
lance ami  caulioii  iii  the  management  of  institu- 
tions where  the  sexes  are  thus  educated.  Still  he 
sums  up  the  matter  in  the  following  words: 
"  The  co-education  of  the  sexes  in  universities  is 
possible ;  even  to  some  extent  desirable,  on  ac- 
count of  a  certain  good  influence  which  the  sexes 
may  exert  upon  each  other.  That  co-education 
is  a  matter  of  no  difficulty,  we  are  uot  to  believe; 


much  less  that  it  is  to  be  accepted  as  the  power 
which  is  to  produce  straightway  a  millennium  of 


ive,  and  seem  to  disprove  the  danger  which, some 
physicians  have  alleged,  is  attendant  ou  such  a 
system  of  co-education.  Of  the  620  women  grad- 
uated, up  to  1873,  at  Oberiin  College,  some,  she 
says,  have  been  "teachers  in  our  common  schools 
and  in  our  high  schools,  missionaries,  both  in  the 
home  and  foreign  field,  professors  in  female 
medical  colleges,  founders  of  asylums  and  homes 
of  refuge,  and  leaders  in  all  benevolent  enter- 
prises." The  number  of  deaths  among  the 
alumni  is  stated  to  have  amounted  to  a  little 
over  10  per  cent:  among  the  alumna,  to  9.67 
per  cent.  Twenty  cases  of  alumna  .  the  namesof 
whom  are  taken  in  alphabetic  order  from  the  roll, 
are  cited,  to  show  how  many,  seventeen  years  after 
their  graduation,  were  leading  lives  of  healthful 
vigor  and  activity;  and  the  facts  in  regard  to 
each  afford  additional  testimony   in   disproof  of 


sexes  in  the  higher  institutions  of  learning. 
The  recently  established  lioston  University 
has  been  organized  avowedly  on  the  principle, 
that  a  "universitj  should  exist  not  for  one  sex 
merely,  bu1  equal!}  for  the  two."  "  It  welcomes," 
says  the  Univi  rsi  y   Year  Hook,  vol.  in.  "woman 

not    IneleK     lo   the   bench  of   the  pupil,  ljllt  alSO  tO 

the  chair  of  the  professor  It  is  the  first  institu- 
tion in  the  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts  to 
admit  the  two  sexes  to  common  advantages  in 
classical  collegiate  studies ;  the  first  in  the  world 
to  open  the  entire  circle  of  post-graduate  profes- 
sional schools  to  men  and  women  alike." 

In  Europe,  co-education  is  generally  discour- 
aged ;  still,  the  principle  seems  to  be  gaining 
Btrength,  in  consequence  of  the  results  of  the  pro- 
visions made  for  the  higher  education  of  women. 
In  Switzerland,  women  have  been  admitted  to 
the  various  departments  of  the  universities  since 
1864.  In  the  university  of  Zurich,  many  young 
Russian  women  have  been  educated;  and  in  the 
university  of  Berne  there  were,  in  1 875, 32  female 
■students,  pursuing  their  studies  without  any  dis- 
crimination as  tosex.  Women  are  now  welcomed 
to  university  instruction  in  Vienna,  Paris, 
Rome,  Leipsic,  Gottingen,  Breslau,  and  some 
other  European  institutions.  Efforts  have  been 
made,  unsuccessful  as  yet,  under  the  leadership 
of  Miss  Jex  Blake,  to  open  to  female  students  the 
university  of  Edinburgh ;  and,  practically,  co- 
education is  sanctioned  in  connection  with  the 
"  university  examinations  for  women  "  in  Eng- 
land, since  the  lectures  supplied  by  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge,  for  the  purpose  of  afford- 
ing a  preparation   for   these   examinations,  are 


COLBY   UNIVERSITY 


140 


open  to  both  sexes.  (See  University  Examina- 
tions.) In  London.in  1*71.  a  college  was  opened 
under  the  name  of  College  for  Men  and 
Women,  which  recently  reported  about  500 
students.  In  ('ainhrid-v.  the  establishment  of 
Newnham  Hall  and  Girton  College  for  young 
women  shows  the  growth  of  public  sentiment  in 
favor  of  the  higher  education  of  women,  and  is  a 
step  toward  co-education  in  the  University 
Plenum.  Girton  College  holds  simultaneous 
examinations  with  those  of  the  university,  and 
uses  the  university  examination  questions  Ac- 
cording to  the  report  of  the  \. ,!,.,„.,  I  ,  i'.,,- 
Improving  the  Education  of  Won  1874 
more  than  two-thirds  of  all  the  professional 
lectures  of  the  University  ol  Cambridge  have 
been  thrown  open  to  women       Public  sentiment 


eatl 


already  commenced  to  advocate  it.  The 
iner  declares,  "  We  believe  the  separatio 
sexes  in  the  worlds  of  learning  and  thou- 
simply  evil.  To  allow  young  men  and 
women  to  meet  together  for  amusemt 
frivolity,  and  strictly  to  part  them  when 
with  any  serious  endeavor,  is  surely  fa 
See  E.  H.  Clarke,  M.  D.,   S  / 

(Boston.  L873)  :  and    The   S> I    i 

(Boston.  1874   :   Avn\  C  Br*  kett,  Th 
cation  of  American  Girls  (N.  Y.,  1874 
Doffey,  No  Sex  in    Education    Phila 
Westminst  r  /.'   i    w,  Oct  L868,  s.  v.    T 
press,  I  -    .  and  Oct  1873,  s.  v.     Th 
Hon  of  II  omen   in   America  ;     Boston 
sity  V.  tr  Book,  rols.  l  and  n.;  j).  Beai 
versity    Examinations    for    Women      I 
1875  .  R  f    h    P,         s 

for  1869  Th.  and  1872  3;  Revorl  oft 
missioner  of  Ed 


Wa-li: 


COLBURN,  Warren,  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent American  mathematicians  and  teachers, 
was  born  at  Dedham,  Mass.,  March  I..  1793,  and 
<lied  at  Lowell.  Sept.  15.,  1833.  His  parents 
were  poor;  and  Warren,  who  was  the  eldest  son 
of  a  large  family,  could  attend  the  district  school 
only  a  portion  of  the  year,  working  during  the 
remainder  on  his  father's  farm.  Subsequently, 
he  worked  in  the  factories,  till  having  turned 
his  attention  to  machinery,  he  followed,  tor  some 
time,  the  trade  of  a  machinist.  He  had,  how- 
ever, always  been  diligent  in  the  improvement 
of  his  mind,  manifesting  an  unusual  talent  for 
arithmetic;  and.  in  his  twenty-third  year,  he 
entered  Harvard  College,  at  which  he  graduated 
in  1820.  After  leaving  the  college,  he  taught  a 
private  school  in  Boston:  and  in  1821  published 
his  First  Lessons  in  Mental  Arithmetic,  the 
book  which  made  him  famous.  The  publication 
,-,of  this  work,  to  a  certain  extent,  revolutionized 
the  method  of  teaching  arithmi  tic  then  in  vogue, 
substituting  for  the  mechanical  working-out  of 
problems  by  rule,  exercises  in  intellectual  arith- 
metic, of  a  simple  and  progressive  character,  re- 
quiring not  only  calculation  but  analysis.  In 
his  address  on  Teaching  Arithmetic,  delivered  in 
1 830,  before  the  American  Institute  of  Instruc- 


tion, he  compares  what  he  called  the  old  and  the 

new  system,  thus  describing  the  latter  :  '•  By  the 

new  system,  the  learner  commences  w  ii  b  prai  tical 

examples,   in    which    the    numbers    .nv    so    small 
that  he  can  easily  reason   upon  them  ;  and  the 


a! 


lie  same 
than  he 
In  this 
lomplete 


the  k.  the  reason  ol  which  he 

■rstand.  the  scholar  makes  his  own 

is   rules  are  a  generalization  of   his 

g,and  in  a  way  agreeable  to  his  own 

'I  he  composition  , if  this  hook  was 

thods.  "The  pupils,-'  he  said. -while 
i,  made  his  arithmetic  for  him." 
Iiis  book  was  enormous,  not  only  in 
lates.  but  in  Great  Britain,  reach- 
in  the  former  100,000  copies,  and 
all.OINI  copies,  annually.  It  was 
id  into  most  of  the  languages  of 
11  as  into  some  others.  Its  plan  is 
vas    conceived   by   Pestalozzi,   but 


Lessons  is  the  only  faultless  school-book  that 
we  have.  It  has  made  a  great  change  in  the 
mode  of  teaching  arithmetic,  and  is  destined  to 
make  a  .still  greater.  It  should  be  made  the 
basis  of  all  instruction  in  this  department.''  ( 'ol- 
Imrns  career  as  a  practical  teacher  was  quite 
short,  continuing  only  three  years.  The  subse- 
quent part  of  his  life  was  spent  m  the  work  of 
Buperintending  a  large  manufacturing  company, 
first  at  Waltham.  afterwards  at  Lowell  :  but  he 
delivered  several  courses  of  lectures  on  natural 
history  ami  physics,  published  a  Sequel  to  ///« 
First  Lessons  i-'-'t  .  compiled  a  school  text- 
hook  on  algebra  and  also  a  series  of  reading- 
books,  on  an  original  plan.     It  was.  however,  his 


educator,  and  that  will  ever  associate  his  name 
with  the  subject  of  oral  or  intellectual  arithmetic. 
"There  are  few  men.''  it  has  been  remarked, 
"who,  in  so  short  and  quiet  a  life,  have  done  so 
much  good,  and  rendered  their  names  so  familiar 
as  Warren  Colburn." — See  Barnard,  Educa- 
tional Biography  iN.  Y„  1861  |. 

COLBY    UNIVERSITY,    at    Waterville, 

Maine,   under   tin ntrol   of  the    Bap 

founded  in  1820.  There  are  four  line  college 
buildings.  The  value  of  the  collo-e  property  is 
$150,000,  and  the  amount  of  productive  funds. 


150  COI 

8200,000.  Scholarships  to  the  number  of  60, 
yielding  from  ,S3(;  to  Still  per  annum  each,  have 
been  founded  for  the  benefit  of  students  needing 
aid.  The  charge  for  tuition,  room-rent,  and  use 
of  library  is  $41  per  annum.  The  institution 
has  a  gymnasium,  a  cabinet  of  natural  history, 
especially  rich  in  the  departments  of  conchology 
and  ornithology,  and  a  library  of  about  10,000 
volumes.  The  two  literary  societies  have  libra- 
ries of  about  3,000  volumes  each.  The  Water- 
ville  Classical  Institute  is  under  the  control  of 
the  trustees  of  the  university,  and  serves  as  a 
preparatory  department.  The  regular  university 
course  is  the  ordinary  four  years'  course  of 
American  colleges.  Persons  of  suitable  age  and 
attainments  are  allowed  to  pursue  a  partial 
course  for  any  length  of  time  not  less  than  one 
year,  selecting  such  studies  as  they  may  desire. 
On  leaving  the  institution,  they  are  entitled  to  a 
certificate  of  their  respective  acquirements  in 
the  studies  in  which  they  have  passed  an  exami- 
nation. The  courses  of  study  are  now  open  to 
young  women  on  the  same  terms  as  to  young 
men.  In  1873 — 4,  there  were  7  professors  and 
62  students,  of  whom  5  were  females;  namely, 
senior  class,  7;  junior.  L6  ;  sop] ore.  14;  fresh- 
man, 25.  The  Rev.  Henry  E.  Robins,  D.D.,  is 
(1876)  the  president 

COLLEGE  l  Lati 
ing  any  kind  of  assc 
large  classes  of  educational  inst 
in  the  United  States,  England 
academic  use  of  the  word  a 
the  beginning  of  the  13th  centi 
in  the"  following  manner.  '1 
flocked  to  the  university  town 
collision  with  the  citizens,  am 
resulted.  In  order  to  protect 
as  well  as  to  watch  over  the 
houses  were  provided  in  which 
under  the  charge  of  a  superi 
were  called  colleges;  and  this  na 
applied  to  any  academic  institution  of  a  certain 
grade,  whether  connected  with  a  university  or 
not.  Colleges  appear  to  have  first  been  estab- 
lished in  I'atis:  and  soon  afterward  in  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,  in  Bologna  and  Padua,  and 
in  Prague  and  Vienna.  They  were  richly  en- 
dowed by  popes  and  other  dignitaries  of  the 
church,  princes,  and  powerful  families  ;  and,  in 
some  of  the  university  towns  just  named, they 
became  so  numerous  in  the  15th  century,  that 
almost  every  student  of  the  university  was  a 
member  of  some  one  of  the  colleges. 

France.     In    Paris,   several    monastic   orders 


riil/tyiiint.  originally  incan- 
tation) is  a  name  given  to 
onal  institutions,  especially 


uts,  lodging- 
tudents  were 
1'liese  houses 

is  afterwards 


founde 

hers  an 
ophya 


to  their  yottnge 


French  Colleges  Were  the   <'.,".,.    ,.,■   ,s,..    'A/,,,,,,,,*. 

theDaniskCo  .  C  edesDix-l  tfl,  the  Co£ 
UgeQrec  (foundedin  L206),theCb%<  desBons 
En/ants  (1208),  thai  of  the  Premonstratensians 
(1252),  the  Sgrbonne,  founded  in    1253   for  L6 

poor  students  of  theology,  and  .subsequently  one 


of  the  most  famous  of  French  colleges,  the  Col- 
Itgr  ill-  In  Congregation  tie  <  'Ingng  (1269),  and 
the  College  de  Navarre,  founded  in  1304  by  the 
Queen  of  Navarre.  In  Prance,  these  colleges 
were  almost  exclusively  situated  in  Paris,  where 
their  number,  up  to  the  end  of  the  13th  century, 
rose  to  15,  and  subsequently  increased  to  about 
100  ;  many  of  these,  however,  were  of  little  im- 
portance. From  their  origin,  it  is  plain  that 
colleges  were  not  originally  designed  togivein- 
struction,  but  merely  to  look  after  the  students. 
ami  also  to  help  the  pooler  ones  in  their  course 
at  the  university.  The  teaching,  however,  be- 
longed entirely  to  the  university.  This  was 
gradually  changed,  and  the  colleges,  from  being 
merely  auxiliary  to  the  university,  became 
finally  the  centers  of  instruction.  By  limiting 
lectures  and  disputations  to  a  single  department, 
the  colleges  became  so  many  distinct  faculties  ; 
and  the  university  assumed  the  character  of  a 
union  of  colleges.  In  modern  times,  the  term 
college  is,  in  France,  the  distinctive  name  for 
schools  of  secondary  instruction,  corresponding 
to  the  gymnasiums  of  Germany  and  other  coun- 
tries. The  higher  class  of  these  schools  are 
called  lyceums  (see  Lyceum),  the  lower,  com- 
munal colleges  (colleges  communaux).  In  1873, 
there  were  78  lyceums  and  236  communal  col- 
leges ;  besides,  a  number  of  private  institutions 
of  a  similar  grade  were  called  colleges  libres. 
These  colleges  have  the  character  either  of  Latin 
schools  or  real-schools.  The  former  strive  to 
emulate  the  lyceums,  though  consisting  some- 
times of  only  a  few  of  the  lower  classes,  and 
frequently  giving  special  prominence  to  a  scien- 
tific course  of  instruction.  The  latter  class  of 
colleges  generally  exclude  Latin,  and  are  real- 
schools  for  pupil.-  of  the  middle  class,  who  intend 
to  devote  themselves  to  industry. commerce,  arts, 
and  agriculture.  Many  of  them  prepare  their 
pupils  to  enter  the  special  schools..  There  is  a 
great  variety  in  the  courses  of  instruction  of 
these  schools.  Among  the  best  schools  of  the 
kind  is  the  College  municipal  Chaptaloi  Paris. 
founded  in  1844  by  the  city.  It  consists  of  6 
classes.  The  subjects  of  instruction  in  the  first 
or  lower  class  are  (1)  Religion;  (2)  Arithmetic 
(decimal  and  common  fractions;  exercises  in  the 
metrical  system;  calculation  of  extension,  sur- 
face, and  solids);  (3)  French  and  General  Gram- 
mar ;  ili  German  and  English ;  (5)  Geography; 
(6)  General  Bistory ;  i7i  (oometiical  Drawing: 
(8)  Free-hand  Drawing;  (9)  Singing.  In  the  second 
class,  the  same  subjects  are  taught,  and,  in  ad- 
dition. I  he  elements  of  geometry  and  mathemat- 
ical geography.  Those  of  the  third  class,  besides 
the  studies  of  the  pre,  eding  i  lass  give  instruction 
in  algebra,  natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  stere- 
ometry, mineralogy, and  hook-keeping.  Those  of 
One  fourth  class  discontinue  arithmetic, and  take 

tiii   fcrigon etry,    Latin.     Italian    or    Spanish, 

mechanics,  botany,  and  zoology.  In  the  fi/tkclaBB, 
the  history  of  French  literature,  hygienics,  and 
technology  are  added.  In  the  sixth  or  highest 
class. are  taught  geology,  cosmography,  industrial 
and  political  economy, and  the  history  of  France. 


COLLEGE  151 

The  subjects  taught  in  all  the  six  classes  are  ]  Commoners,    Commoners,  or    Pensioners   (the 

religion.  French  (in  the  lower  classes  grammar,  terms   used  at  the   two   universities  not  quite 

in   the  higher  literature),  German    or  English,    agreeing).     The  undergraduate, interingcol- 

history,  drawing,  and  singing.     The   ''■".',■■  </•  I.  _;,    i-  a-igii.-d  to  a   "Tutor,"    who  is  to  mm  in 

grade   than    either   the   communal    colleges    m-  provides  for  his  instruction  in  tin-  different  st'ud- 

lyceums,    presenting    a    syste E    instruction  ies   by    the    college    lecturers    or   sub-le.    irers 

al ^  ;is  < ipri-ln-nsivf  as  that  i if  a  complete    The  iatter   instruct    those    students   wl the 

university,  [t  was  founded  by  Francis  I.,  in  1530,  lecturer  cannot   admit   to  his  classes  either  for 

and   its    professors  have  always  borne  the  name    the  want  of  r n.orfors other  reason.   The 

of  lecteurs  royaux.  It  lias  counted  among  its  tutor  may  be,  at  the  same  time,  a  college  lec- 
professors  some  of  thegreatest  Bcholarsof  France,  turer.  The  instruction  in  the  college  aims  almost 
and  has  at  present  28  professors  and  several  exclusively  at  preparing  the  student  for  the  ex- 
distinct  courses,  embracing  all  the  different  sei-  animations,  which  arc  partly  college  and  partly 
ences,  law,  medicine,  as  well  as  classic,  modern,  university  examinations.  The  college  examina- 
European,  and  oriental  literature.  tions  are  called  collections  and  take  place  at  the 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  — 'The  colleges  end  of  every  tern,  when  each  student  has  to 
f. mil, led  in  England  in  connection  with  the  uni-  answer  in  writing  several  questions  relative  to 
versities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  were  not  m-  all  the  .studies  pursued  by  him  (Fortheuni- 
tended  to  afford  instruction,  but  to  aid  students  versity  examinations,  see  University.)  Oxford 
in  passing  through  the  university.    The  rich  en-  University   contains  2]    colleges  and   5  halls: 

dowments  which  wcr lfenvd  upon  the  ml-  Cambridge.  1  7  colleges  or  halls     the  two  terms 

leges,  however,  soon  enabled    them  to  give  to  in  Cambridge  meaning  the  same).  Next  to  these 

their  inmates  instruction  as  well  as  aid,  and  so  most    important    institutions.   Trinity    College 

increased  their  reputation  and  importance,  that  Dublin,  holds  a   high  rank.  The  Queen's  Uni- 

the  university,  with  its  four  faculties,  gradually  versity  in  Ireland  consists  of  three  colleges  lo- 

lost  its  hold  of  the  students,  and  retained  little  eated  in  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Galway.  Until  about 

more  power  than  the  conferring  of  degrees  .and  1830,  dissenters' colleges  \\<  re  not  allowed  to  grant 

other  honors.    The  studies  designed  to  prepare  degrees  without  requTring  the  graduates  tosub- 

the  students    for    the  academic  degrees,   were  scribe  to  the  thirty-nint   articles.    This  caused 

chiefly  pursued  in  the  colleges, and  il  wasespe-  a  great  deal  .a  political  agitation,  wind,  resulted 

daily  the  lectures  0f  the  faculty  of  arts  which  in  granting  the  privilege  to  these  institutions,  and 

were  transferred  to  the  colleges.   "The  colleges,"  also  in  founding  the  I  niversitj  College,  King's 

said  one  of  the  speakers  during  the  discussions  College,  and  the  University  of  i  ondon,  in  which 

upon  the  Cambridge  bill,  in  the  House  of  Com-  the  thirty^n  m  arti    -  are  not   insisted  upon  as 

mons,  May  30.,  1856,  "have  overshadowed  and    a   cond i   admission.     These   institutions 

practically  almost   monopolized  the  teaching  of     have  also  served   to  pr te  the   study  of  the 

the  university."     Every  coUege  is  a  corporation  natural  sciences:  Oxford  and  Cambridge  being 

of  its  own.  having   its  own  statutes,  and  electing  still,  in  this  respect,  strongholds  of  conservatism. 

one  of  its  members  for  the  legislative  and  exec-  The  -great  public  schools.'  such  as  Eton  and 

utive  authorities  of  the  university.   T^hegenera]  Rugby,  are,  in  effect,  colleges.     Of  (her   there 

name  given  to  the  heads  of  th lieges  is  //,,,,/s  arc  IT.  some  of  which  have  also  the  name  college: 

of  Houses  ;  but  there  is  a  considerable  diversity  as   Eton  College,   Dulwich  College.    Wellington 

in  the  titles  which  the  Beads  ut    I  louses  have  in      (  ollege,  and  Winchester  Coll Home  of  the 

different   colleges.      |„   some,  the    head   is  called  school  classed   as  grammar  schools     see   Gram 

Master,*  title  which  prevails  in  <  ■;,n,l.iidgc  :   in  mm:    S  h,«,i.m    arc  also  stvled  colleges.      I  J, -si,  les 

others,  Provos    Presiden    Procurator,Warden,  these,  there  are  many  theological  colleges,  classi- 

Rector,Per}           /,'       •,  or  Dean.    Mostofthe  Bed  as  follows :    Established,  11 ;  Wesleyan,  7  ; 

Beads  of  Houses  are  Doctors  of  Divinity.    Next  Congregationalist,    11:    Roman    Catholic,    LI; 

to  the  I  leads  of  Bouses  are  the  Fellows,  a  num-  Baptist,  9  ;   Presbyterian,  3  j  Calvinist,  2;  Meth- 

ber  of  graduates  who   receive  an   in. e  from  odist,2;   Unitarian,  1  ;   Free  Religious  Thought, 

the    funds  of   the  college,  and  are    permitted   to  1.     There    were     also,    in      1875     (according    to 

retain  their  positions  for  life,  unless  they  inherit  Whittaker's  Almanack  for  1876),  five  -Ladies' 

estates  of  greater  income,  or  marry.     The  num-  Colleges." 

her  of  fellowships  in  Cambridge  is  130;  in  Ox-  United  States. — The  American  colleges  gram 

ford.  "an.     The  Heads  of  Houses  are  elected  for  degrees  in  the  arts,  and  give  the  ordinary  course 

life  by  the  Fellows.     A  portion  of  the  under-    of  undergraduate  instruction.  Someoftl Idei 

graduates  also  derive  an  income  fr the  funds  colleges,  as  Yale  and  Harvard,  add  instruction  in 

of  the  colleges,  and  are  called  /•'.„/,„/.///„„  M,  ,„-     theology,  law.  and  lieinc   and    thus  approach 

bers.    Members  not  on  tin  Fou    dation  constitute  to  the  rank  of  universities  in  the  European  sense 

a  large  number  of  graduates  who  continue  their  ot  the  word.     Most  of  the  so-called  universities, 

names  on  the  Lists  ot  th,  college  in  order  to  have  however,  furnish  only  collegiate  instruct!  in  ;  and 

the   right  to  take  part  in  the  sittings  of  the  sen-  there  is.  as  yet.  no  fixed  distinction  between   the 

ate,  and  of  independent  under-graduates,  who  ae-  terms  college  and  u/tirer.iiti/m  the  United  States. 

cording    to    their   rank    and    expenditures,    are  The  institutions  of   this  kind  considerably  differ 

called  Noblemen,  Gentlemen  Commoners,  Fellow  in  their  mode  of  organization.    On  the  one  hand. 


152  C0L1 

are  those  which, adhering  to  the  old  system, have 
fixed  standards  of  admission  and  a  curriculum 
strictly  prescribed ;  on  the  other,  those  which 
have  no  fixed  standard  of  admission  nor  pre- 
scribed curriculum,  their  course  of  studies  being 
arranged  in  schools,  among  which   the  student 

may  select  at  will.  Of  the  for r  (the  prevailing 

system)  Yale  may  be  taken  as  a  representative ; 
of  the  latter,  the  University  of  Virginia.  Be- 
tween these  two  extremes,  are  those  that  allow  a 
greater  or  less  freedom  of  choice  to  the  student 
Some,  like  Harvard  and  Yale,  have  distinct  scien- 
tific departments;  others,  like  Cornel]  Univer- 
sit\  have  parallel  courses  in  which  greater  atten- 
tion may  be  paid  to  science  or  to  modern  lan- 
guages than  in  the  classical  course.     With  some 

of  the  colleges,  prof essit 1  schools  are  connected. 

Of  about  350  institutions  in  the  United  States, 
styled  colleges  or  universities  and  possessing  the 
right  to  confer  degrees,  a  large  majority  have 
preparatory,  and  "some,  inferior  departments, 
which  often,  especially  in  the  West  and  South, 
comprise  the  greater  part  of  the  students,      I  hu- 


man year,  and  about  one  third  of  the  sophomore 
and  junior  years.  For  the  senior  year,  only  cer- 
tain written  exercises  are  prescribed.     The  re- 

the  choice  of  which  the  student  is  limited  only 
by  his  qualification  to  pursue  them,  '['he  clas- 
sics or  mathematics  may  be  pursued  through  the 
entire  four  years.  The  requirements  fur  admis- 
sion are  embraced  in  two  courses,  distinguished 
by  a  preponderance  of  the  classics  and  mathe- 
matics respectively.  The  first  course  embraces 
Latin  grammar  and  composition,  with  the  trans- 
lation of   Latin  prose  at  sight;  Caesar,  Be  Bella 


duate 


the, 


vard,  Yale,  and  a  few  others  hi 
courses  of  study.  The  pri 
red  are  as  follow-  :  and  • 
of  Arts,  of  Science,  of  Phi 
of  Letters;  postgraduate, 
of  Philosophy,  Doctor  of  S 
Civil  Engineer,  Mining  I 
Laws,  Bachelor  of  Divinity 
honorary.  — I 'oetor  of  Div 
The  degree  of  Master  of  .' 
lerreil.as  of  course,  upon 
three  years' standing:  but, 
implies  a  course  of  posl  -gn 
often  honorary.  Many  i 
course  of  study  will    lie  ". 

the  different  institution-,  a 

professii 

noticed 


degree  of  Bachelor  of   Arts  will  be  noti 1  here. 

and,  for  this  purpose,  Harvard  and  Vale  will  be 
taken  as  examples.  The  term  of  studyfor  this 
degree  is,  in  almost  every  institution,  four  years  ; 
the  method  of  instruction  is  ordinarily  a  combi- 
nation of  lectures,  recitations,  and  written  ex- 
aminations. 

In  Harvard,  the  course  of  stu.lv  includes 
Hebrew,  Sanskrit,  Greek  and  Latin  languageand 
literature,  including  ecclesiastical  Greek  and  the 
elements  of  Roman  law),  Anglo-Saxon,  English 
language  and  literature, German,  French.  Italian. 

Spanish,  Romai philology,  rhetoric,  political 

economy,  lo^ie,  metaphysics,  ethics,  history  in- 
cluding international  law),  mathematics  (includ- 

mechanics,  astr ly,  optics,  acoustics,  electric- 

ity,  etc.),  chemistry  (including  mineralogy  ,  nat- 
nral  hi  torj  including  physical  geography,  me- 
teorology, geology,  botanj  .zoologj  .  palse  mtology, 

and  the  fine  arts  In  many  of  these  'branches. 
several  parallel  courses  are  arranged.  The  pre- 
scribed studies  occupy   the  whole  of  the  fresh- 


Reader,  or  Xenophon's  A 

Homer's  Hind,  Books  [.- 

the  catalogue  of  ships  ;  a 
metric  system  of  weights 
rudiments  of  logarithms 
ratic  equations;  as  inur 
contained   in    the    first    1 

1 1 nei  iv  :  ancient  histo 

ern  and  physical  eeoera 


colics,  and  Mieid, 
reek  grammar  and 
d  Allen's  (Jreek 
sis,  Books  I.— IV., 
ook  of  Herodotus; 


I  In . 


era  ot  l'eirces 
sography :  mod- 
nglish  composi- 
tion :  the  translation  at  sight  of  either  easy 
French  prose  or  easy  German  prose;  and  either 
elementary  botany,  rudiments  of  physics  and 
of  chemistry,  or  rudiments  of  physics  and  of 
descriptive  astronomy.  The  second  course  em- 
braces Latin  grammar;  Csesar,  Be  Betto  GaUico, 
Books  I.  and  II.:  Cicero,  six  orations  and 
Cato  Major;  Virgil,  MneXd,  Books  1.— VI..  in- 
clusive ;  Greek  grammar;  Goodwin  and  Allen's 
Greek    Reader,  first    111    pages,  or  Xenophon's 

hud -     Books    L-    IV..  inclusive;     Homer's 

Iliad,  Books  Land  II..  omitting  the  catalogue  of 
■  hip,,  algebra, as  much  as  is  contained  in  the 
larger  treatises  of  Greenleaf ,  etc.;  solid  geometry. 
as  much  as  is  contained  in  Peirce's  Geometry ; 
plane  trigonometry  :  elementsof  plane  analytical 
geometry;  with  '  arithmetic,  plane  geometry, 
history,  geography,  English  composition,  French 
or  German,  and  physical  science  as  in  the  first 
course. 

In  Yale,  the  course  of  instruction  and  the  terms 
of  admission  are  similar  to  those  of  the  better 
class  of  colleges  throughout  the  country.  The 
course  of  instruction  includes  the  Greek  and 
'  Latin  languages  ami  literatures  (three  years), 
mathematics  ftwo  veal's. history. rhetoric,  French 
or  German  (two  terms,  junior  yean,  natural 
■philosophy,  logic,  astronomy,  physics,  mental 
philosophy,  political  .and  social  science,  chemistry, 
natural  tiieolo^v  and  evidences  of  Christianity, 
moral  philosophy,  geology,  anatomy  and  physi- 
ology, the   history   of   philosophy,  constitutional 

guage  and  the  study  of  language.  In  some  of 
these  subjects, the  instruction  is  imparted  simply 
by  lectures.  The  course  of  instruction  is  strictly 
1  prescribed,  except  that  the  differential  and  in- 
tegral  calculus   may  be  substituted   for  Greek 


or  Latin  during  the  first  two  terms  of  the 
junior  year. 

The  requirements  for  admission  are  Latin 
grammar;  Sallust,  Bellum  Jvgurthinum,  or  four 
books  of  Caesar;  Cicero,  seven  orations;   Virgil, 

Bucolics,  Georgics,  and   the  first  sis   I ks  of 

the  .Eu'T'l:  Arnold's  Latin  Prose  Composition, 
first  twelve  chapters;  Greek  grammar:  Xono- 
phon's  Anabasis,  four  books;  Homer's  Iliad, 
tliree  books;  Greek  history ;  higher  arithmetic-, 
including  the  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures;  algebra;  Euclid,  first  two  books; 
English  grammar  and  geography.  In  the  post- 
graduate course,  facilities  are  afforded  for  the 
study  of  Anglo-Saxon, the  American  Indian  lan- 
guages (especially  the  dialects  of  the  Algonquin 
family),  Sanskrit,  the  Chinese  and  Japanese 
languages,  Hebrew,  and  some  other  branches  not 
in  the  under-graduate  course. 

According  to  the  Report  of  the  IT.  S.  Com- 
missioner of  Education  for  1874,  there  were,  in 
the  I'nited  States,  343  universities  and  colleges, 
with  3, 7s:!  instructors  and  ."Hi. iVXl  students,  dis- 
tributed according  to  the  following  table  : 


s aggregate  statistics  from  the  same  re- 
port an-  given  in  the  following  table: 

No.  volumes  in  college  libraries 1  ,s,0.  i;,;, 

No.  Miliitues  in  society  libraries.  .  Ioc.141 

Aggregate    value   of    grounds,    I 
and  apparatus %  19,170,223 

Amount  of  productive  funds ■Js.iiso.:ai:i 

Vu'jToL'ate     OH II      thefel 1 1,801,890 

lieeeipts  fl  nil    tuition   tees 

Amount  of  seliolai>lii|.  tends   I.o'ei::;;, 

State  appropriation  tor  tl„.  |,r -ding  v.-ar        i.ll.r.Ti; 

The  denominational  character  of  the  colleges 
as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained  was,  in  1875,  as 
follows: 


i-day  Baptist 2 


opal  . 


TERRITORIES. 


Alabama    . 
Arkansas  .  . 
California..  . . 
Connecticut.. 
Delaware. . 
Georgia 


Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana. 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  York. 

North  Carolina . . 

Ohio 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  .    .  . 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina.  .  . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 


pal,  South 9 

'  Metliodi-tlYototalit I 

Moravian     | 

MoMllOll .    .  1 

l'ie-ln  tel  i. iii 24 

Protestant  Episi  opal   ! 

Reformed :: 

German  Reformed : 

Roman  Catholic ,,, 

State 12 


1.2s  I 


West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

District  of  Columbia 

Colorado 

Utah 

Washington 

In  the  foregoing  table,  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities arc  placed  together,  but  in  such  case 
only  the  collegiate  department  is  to  be  under- 
stood. When  there  is  a  medical,  law.  or  the- 
ological department,  the  statistics  of  the  same 
are  given  elsewhere  under  the  appropriate  title. 


A  few  colleges  are  not  contained  in  this  enu- 
meration, it  1  icing  uncertain  ti  i  what  denomination 
they  belong.  All  the  important  institutions, 
however,  are  included. 

Tie  presidents  of  nearly  all  the  leading  col- 
leges in  the  United  States' met  at  EJanover,  N. 
If.,  in  November  1874,  and  discussed,  among 
other  things,  college  athletics  (boating  etc. I.  the 
taxation  of    college    property,   optional   studies 

and  tin mparative   importance  of  classical  and 

scientific  studies,  and  the  college  and  university 
system.  It  was  resolved  not  to  interfere  in 
any  way  with  regattas  and  boating.     While  the 


amply  sufficient  to  compensate  for  any  such  un 
favorable  results.     Some  of  the  presidents  took 

strong  ground  against  the  taxation  of  college 
property.  President  Eliot  warmly  argued  in 
favor  of  optional  studies,  contending  that  the 
United  States  is  the  only  country  which  com- 
pels a  student  to  pursue  prescribed  branches 
after  the  age  of  19.  In  the  discussion  on  class- 
ical and  scientific  studies,  each  side  had  its 
advocates;  but  the  general  opinion  was.  that, 
the  lanoiiao,->  and  -oieinvs  should  be  studied  as 
means  of  mental  discipline  only,  during  the 
freshman  and  sophomore  years,  and  that  the 
succeeding  years— junior  and  senior — should  be 


154 


COLLKOIATK  SCHOOLS 


■devoted  to  philosophy,  literature,  and  special 
sciences,  leaving  the  languages  and  mathematics 
optional  during  the  junior  year.  — See  Noah 
Porter,  Tlie  American  Colleges  and  the  Amer- 
ican Public  (N '.  r.,1870);  Jbx-Blake,  .1  Visit 
/,,  some  American  Schools  and  Colleges  (Lond. 
and  \.  V.):  Oi.in.  College  Life;  Its  Theory  and 
Practice  (N.  V.,  L867);  P.  Arnold,  Oxford  and 
Cambridge;  their  Colleges  etc.  (London). 
COLLEGIATE    SCHOOLS.     See   Cathe- 

COLOMBIA,  United  States  of,  formerly 
New  Granada,  a  republic  in  the  northern  part  of 
South  America,  tunned  of  nine  federal  states, 
tlir  c bined  area  of  which  is  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  480,000  to  521,000  sq.m.,  and 
the  population  at  about  2,900,000,  composed  of 
whites,  negroes,  Indians,  and  mixed  races.  The 
whites  are  mainly  Spanish,  cither  I > v  birth  or 
by  descent;  they  speak  the  Spanish  language  ami 
generally  profess  the  Catholic  faith.  The 
country  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1536 
and  L537,  and  was  created  a  viceroyalty  of 
Spain,  under  the  title  of  New  Granada,  in  1718. 
After  various  insurrectionary  attempts,  the 
Spanish  rule  was  finally  thrown  off  in  L819,  and 
an    alliance    was    formed    with     Venezuela    and 

Quito,  under  the  name  of  the  Republic  of  Co- 
lombia. The  chronic  anarchy  which  has  always 
reigned  among  the  South  American  republic's, 
put  an  end  to  this  union  in  1829,  and  the  pres- 
ent republic  was  organized  in  1831. 

Under  the  Spanish  rule,  primary  instruction 
was  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Church;  and 
higher  instruction  was  confined  to  the  colleges. 
In  the  latter,  a,  very  superficial  instruction  was 
given  in  the  classics,  history,  geography,  and  the 
elements  of  natural  science;  a  smattering  of 
theology  was  also  included.  A  number  of  these 
colleges  still  exist,  but  are  of  little  importance. 
The  chief  ones  arc  the  Golegio  Nacional  de  San 

tagena,  I'npayan.  Mompox.  Tunja.  and  Cali. 

After  the  overthrow  of  the  Spanish  power, 
Bolivar  aimed  to  set  pu 
firm  footing.      As  a  preli 
property  was  sold,  and  all  cloisters 
than  eight  monks  were  suppressed.     The  con- 
stitution of  L821  limited  the  right  of  voting  to 

those  citizens  h tould  read  and  write;  it  also 

provided  thai  the  national  congress  should  con- 
trol public  education.  Very  considerable  ad- 
vance  lit  was  made  under  liolivar's  administra- 
tion towards  an  efficient  school  system  ;  but,  un- 
fortunately, his  dictatorial  proceedings,  together 
wilh  the  anarchical  spirit  of  I  he  people,  produced 

such  political  confusion,  that  nothing  resulted 
from  it.  Until  the  year  L863,  the  only  schools 
were  the  relies  of  the  old  church  and  cloister 
schools,  a  few  private  institutions,  and  some  local 
schools,  supported  by  the  municipalities.  Public 
instruction  was  first  placed  definitely  under  the 
directi f  the  national  government  by  the  con- 
stitution of  1863.  The  law  of  May  30.,  L868, 
determines  the  relation  of  the  national  govern- 
ment to  the  several   states  in  the  matter   of  edu- 


linary  step,  the 

which  had 


lurch 


COLOMBIA 

cation,  prescribing  the  following  as  its  duties : 
Besides  managing  the  national  university,  it  is 
required  to  maintain  normal  schools  for  both 
sexes  ;  also  to  establish  primary  schools,  which 
shall  serve  as  a  standard  for  the  establishment  of 
similar  schools  by  the  several  states.  The  found- 
ing of  agricultural  schools,  together  with  the  en- 
tire direction  of  what  school  books  and  apparatus 
shall  be  used,  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  gov- 


ernment. The  law  also  j 
normal  school  in  the  ca] 
This  law  remained  a  dead 
I .,  1*70,  when  a  decree  wa 


for  a  central 
the  republic, 
ltd  November 
upon  the  sub- 
ject, providing  for  a  national  school  board  in 
gota.and  a  state  school  board  for  each  of  thi 
states  to  which  a  national  school  officer  is  sent. 
The  public  schools  arc  either  primary  schools  or 
higher  schools,  arid  are  for  both  sexes.  The 
primary  school  gives  instruction  in  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic,  the  rudiments  of  the 
Spanish  language,  the  elements  of  physiology  and 
hygiene,  singing,  natural  history. anil  the  history 
of  the  nation.  The  higher  schools  add  to  these 
branches  the  elements  of  algebra  and  geometry, 
and  an  elementary  knowledge  of  natural  science 
ami  general  geography.     In  the  girls'  schools,  the 

tent:  and  various  feminine  accomplishments, 
such  as  house-keeping  etc.,  are  added.      The  cen- 

Bubjects  studied  are  grammar, Spanish  literature, 
the  blench  and  l-.iigb-h  languages,  universal 
history,  the  national  history,  algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  general  geography,  astronomy,  in- 
dustrial physics  and  chemistry,  mechanics  and 
mechanical  drawing. natural  history  and  agricul- 

voca'l  and  iiist'runi'cntal.'"'and  gymnastics.  The' 
law  further  provides  for  a  normal  school  in  the 
capital  of  each  state,  the  expense  of  which  is 
borne  by  that  state.  A  teachers'  association  is 
connected  with  each  of  these  normal  schools. 
Schools  are  also  provided  for  those  small  chil- 
dren whose'  parents  are  unable  to  provide  them 
with  the  first  rudiments  of  education.  Every 
public  school  must  have  its  own  building,  which 
includes  the  dwelling  of  the  principal;  it  also 
has  a  garden  for  the  practical  study  of  botany, 
gardening,  etc.  The  law  provides,  too,  that  pub- 
lic instruction  shall  aim  at  moral  culture,  but 
the  national  government  does  not  interfere  with 
religious  education.    The  course  of  instruction 


-tors,  or  sit 


iaus  must  cither  send 
bet  ween  the  ages  of  scv 
lie  schools,  or  provide  < 


d  wards, 
the  pub- 
instrue- 


although  there  is  a  strong  sentiment  in  favor  of 
compulsory  education.  Besides  these  schools, 
the  government  has  established  schools  in  the 
military  barracks,  for  the  instruction  of  the  sol- 
diers in  the  common  branches  of  learning. 


not  been  fiercely 

I  nit  it  has  finally 
quia.  A  further 
out  the  law,  was 
nent  called  many 


In  Colombia,  however,  as  elsewhere,  the  doc- 
trine of  state  rights  has  been  a  troublesome  ele- 
ment. No  act  of  the  national  congress  heroines 
a  law  in  the  several  states,  until  it  has  been 
adopted  by  their  respective  legislatures;  and 
there  is  not  a  single  provision  of  the  law  per- 
taining to  education  \\  1 
disputed  by  the  Beveral 
been  adopted  by  all  bi 
disturbing  element  in  c 
Ultramontanism.  Th.  . 
prominent  teachers  from  abroad,  and  especially 
from  Germany,  for  the  national  normal  schools, 
— a  measure  at  which  the  clerical  party  took  great 
offense.  The  exclusion  of  religious  instruction 
from  the  schools  also  caused  a  great  deal  of  op- 
position from  the  clergy;  nevertheless,  the  system 
■of  national  instruction  has  continually  grown  in 
favor  with  the  people,  and  now  seems  to  be  as 
well  established  as  the  restless  character  of  the 
people  admits.  A  number  of  educational  journals 
are  published,  of  which  the  following  arc  the 
principal:  La  Escuela  Normal,  El  Maestro  de 
JSscuela,  La  Escuela  Primaria,£H  Monitor,  and 
La  Revista. 

COLOR,  as  a  branch  of  object  instruction,  is 
of  great  interest  and  value;  since,  at  an  early 
age,  children  take  particular  noticeof  colors, and, 
hence,  lessons  upon  this  subject  furnish  an  excel- 
lent opportunity  for  training  them  to  distinguish 
resemblances  and  differences,  and  for  encouraging 
the  formation  of  those  habits  of  attention  and 
comparison  which  are  necessary  to  the  successful 
study  of  other  subjects.  From  the  fact  that 
many  persons  are  found  to  be  color-blind,  it  is  of 
great  importance  that  suitable  lessons  should  be 
given  children  to  enable  teachers  ami  parents  to 
ascertain  whether  this  defect  exists  in  any  under 
their  care,  before  they  become  old  enough  to  en- 
gage in  any  occupation  in  which  color-blindness 
would  be  an  insurmountable  defect.  Besides,  by 
the  early  training  of  children  to  observe  colors, 
much  of  the  inability  to  distinguish  them,  which 
is  commonly  not  discovered  until  later  in  life,  may 
be  overcome  by  education.  Furthermore,  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  colors,  and  of  their  relations  to 
each  other,  is  of  importance  in  nearly  every  avo- 
cation of  life.     This  becomes  especially  apparent 

furniture,  household  , lee, .ration's,  in  the  work  of 
artists,  and  in  various  other  kinds  of  employment 
Since  a  knowledge  of  color  can  be  gained  only 
through  the  sense  of  sight,  the  methods  for 
teaching  it  in  school  should  be  so  arranged  that 
the  pupils  may  have  abundant  exercise  of  this 
sense  in  distinguishing  colors.  For  the  first  les- 
sons, place  before  the  pupils  the  '..-*/  .,/,„-.<  that  can 
be  procured,  in  order  that  they  may  obtain  cor- 
rect conceptions  as  to  what  are  good  reds,yelr 
lows,  blues,  greens,  purples,  etc.  Commence 
with  showing  a  single  color,  as  red,  and  leading 
the  pupils  to  compare  red  cards,  paper,  silk, 
worsted,  etc.,  with  it,  and  thus  to  notice  resem- 
blances and  differences  between  the  true  red  and 
the  several  objects  compared  with  it.     Give  sim- 


ilar exercises,  with  each  of  the  primary  and  sec- 
ondary colors,  singly;  then  place  two  of   these 


■les 


pupils  at  the  same  time,  and  require  them  not 
"nl\  to  point  out  the  colors  as  named,  but  to  se- 
lect colored  articles  to  match  each. 

Frequent  changes  in  the  mode  of  giving  these 
exercises  on  color  will  increase  the  interest  of  the 
children  in  the  subject,  and  add  to  their  knowl- 
edge of  it.  especially  when  each  one  has  some- 
thing tn  tin  in  the  exercise.  After  the  pupils 
have  learned  to  know  each  of  the  six  colors  used 
in  the  previous  lesson,  fresh  interest  may  be 
given  to  the  subject  by  supplying  each  child  with 
a  piece  of  colored  paper,  taking  care  that  those 
who  sit  side  by  side  shall,  as  far  as  possible,  hold 
different  colors.  When  the  papers  have  been 
distributed,  the  teacher  may  say,  "  Now,  look  at 
your  paper,  see  what  color  you  have,  then  fold 
your  arms  so  as  to  hide  your  paper.  Now,  look 
at  the  color  which  1  show  you  ;  all  who  know 
that  they  have  a  like  color  may  hold  it  up. — 
Right.—' Now,  look  at  this  color,  all  who  have 
one  like  it.  hold  it  up."  Proceed  in  the  same 
manner  with  each  color; — to  close  the  lesson, re- 
quest one  pupil  to  collect  all  the  red  papers, 
another  all  the  blues,  another  the  greens,  etc. 
Similar  lessons  may  be  given  for  the  purpose  of 
teaching  children  to  distinguish  shades  of  colors, 
as  dark  and  light  reds.  blue-,  greens,  etc. 

If  it  be  desired  to  continue  these  lessons,  and 
teach  that  the  six  colors  previously  shown  may 
be  divided  into  two  groups  primary  and  sec- 
ondary procure  artists'  paints:  red  (carmine), 
yellow  (chrome),  blue  i  ultramarine);  also  a  small 
palette,  and  a  palette  knife.  Place  a  little  yel- 
low and  blue  on  the  palette,  side  by  side,  re- 
questing  the  pupils  to  notice  what  colors  are 
used.  Then,  with  the  knife  mix  these  two 
colors  together  until  green  appears  in  place  of 
the  yellow  and  blue.  Then  ask  the  pupils  what 
color  has  been  produced  by  mixing  the  yellow 
and  blue.  Proceed  in  a  similar  manner  to  mix 
red  and  blue,  to  produce  purple  ;  red  and  yellow. 
to  produce  orange.  The  teacher  may  now  write 
on  the  blackboard  for  the  pupils  to  learn  :  Mix- 
ing ueUow  and  blue  will  produce  green.  Mixing 
red  and  blue  wW,  produce  purple.  Mixing  red 
and  yellow  will  produce  orange.  Then  pupils 
may  select  the1  two  primary  colors  that  will  pro- 
duce given  secondaries,  also  the  secondary  that 
may  be  made  from  two  given  primaries.  Show 
the  pupils  also  that  light  and  dark  colors  maybe 
formed  by  mixing  white  or  black  with  other 
colors.  Provide  exercises  by  which  the  pupils 
may  do  something  to  indicate  that  they  know 
each  fact  taught. 

In  order  that  children  may  understand  har- 
moiii/  if  colnrs.  they  must  be  led  to  observe  that 
to  produce  harmony,  the  three  primary  colors 
must  be  grouped  together;  that  if  two  of  them 
exist  in  a  given  secondary,  the  other  primary 
will  harmonize  with  that  secondary.     To  acconi- 


156  COLO. 

plish  this  result  by  teaching,  arrange  colored  ' 
paper,  or  other  material,  so  that  red  and  green, 
yellow  and  purple,  blue  and  orange,  pale  green 
and  violet,  may  be  compared,  and  the  sensation 
noticed.  Request  the  pupils  to  tell  what  colore 
are  compared  in  each  instance ;  also  whether 
the  three  primaries  exist  in  each  group;  as  well 
as  to  observe  that  the  colors  of  these  groups  ' 
harmonize.  Next,  compare  red  and  orange,  blue  j 
and  given,  yellow  and  green,  requiring  the 
pupils  to  observe  the  effect  on  the  sense  of 
sight;  also  to  state  which  primaries  exist  in  each 
gnaip.  and  to  notice  that  the  colors  of  these 
groups  do  not  harmonize.  These  lessons  will 
be  more  or  less  useful  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of   exercise   which   the  pupils  have  in 


and 


N. 


kins,  Primary  Object  Lessons,  15th  ed.  (N.Y., 
L871);  Burton,  T%  Culture  of  Ike  Observing 
Faculties  (X.  T.,1865);  Ci  i:i:ik.  Principles  and 
Practice  of  Early  and  Infant  School-Education 
(Bdin.,  1857).     (See  also  Senses.) 

COLORADO  was  organized  as  a  territory 
Feb.  28.,  1861,  from  parts  of  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
Xew  Mexico,  and  Utah.  The  part  which  is 
situated  north  of  the  Arkansas  river  and  east  of 
the  Rocky  mountains,  was  included  in  Louisiana, 

purchased  fr Prance  in   L803;  the  remainder 

formed   part  of  the  territory  ceded  by   Mexico 

of  Colorado  was  reported  as  Int. .Mm  sq.  in.,  and 
its  population  as  39,864,  which  included  456  col- 
ored persons,  7  Chinese,  and  180  Indians.  The 
settlement  of  the  territory,  it  may  be  said,  was 
begun  in  .Time,  1858.  by  a  party  of  gold-seekers 
from  Georgia,  consisting  of  nine  persons,  under 
the  leadership  of  W.  Q.  Russel.  The  region  se- 
lected by  these  for  settlement  was  near  the  pres- 
ent city  of  Denver,  then  within  the  limits  of 
Kansas.  Previous  to  this  time,  however,  there 
were  a  few  Mexicans  in  the  southern  portion  of 
the  territory,  engaged  in  stock-raising. 

Educational  History. — Among  the  acts  passed 
by  the  firsi  legislative  assembly,  which  met  Sept. 
'/.,  1861,  was  one  that  provided  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  system  of  public  schools,  to  be  under 
the  supervision  of  a  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, county  superintendents,  and  district 
directors.  At  this  time,  the  school  population 
of  the  territory  was  very  small ;  hence,  the  law, 
although  comprehensive  and  liberal,  was  of  little 
practical  use.  At  a  subsequent  session  of  the 
legislature,  the  office  of  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  was  practically  abolished  by  making 
the  territorial  treasurer  superintendent  exqfficio, 
with  a  salary  of  ."JUKI  per  annum.  Unlike  most 
of  the  recently  settled  states  anil  territories,  Col- 
orado had  for  her  pioneers  not  families,  but  indi- 
viduals, not  women  and  children,  but  gold-hunt- 


main  for  a  longer  time  than  was  required  to 
gather  a  fortune.  Hence  but  little  interest  u.ts 
manifested  in  schools  (indeed,  at  that   period, 


there  was  scarcely  any  necessity  for  their  estab- 
lishment), until  about  the  year  18(ifl,  by  which 
time  the  natural  resources  of  the  territory — agri- 
cultural, mineral,  and  climatical — had  been  made 
manifest  to  such  an  extent,  that  railroads  were 
projected,  colonies  were  organized  in  the  east, 
and  those  who  had  been  here  during  the  preced- 
ing years  felt  no  desire  to  emigrate.  The  num- 
ber of  school  children  increased  rapidly,  and  the 
necessity  for  a  permanent  and  liberal  school  sys- 
tem not  only  became  apparent,  but  was  demanded 
by  the  ] pie.  In  L870,  the  school  law  was  re- 
vised; the  office  of  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction was  again  created;  and  Wilbur  C. 
I/ithrop  was  appointed  to  fill  the  office  for  two 
years,  and  re-appointed,  in  L872,  for  a  second 
term.  Before  the  expiration  of  his  second  term, 
however,  Mr.  Lothrop  resigned,  and  Horace  M. 
Sale  was  appointed  to  till  the  vacancy,  and  re- 
appointed for  the  full  term  ending  iii  Febru- 
ary, L876. 

' Svlnuil  Si/atnn. — The  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  is  appointed  by  the  governor  and 
confirmed  by  the  legislative  council,  holds  the 
office  for  two  years,  and  receives  an  annual  salary 
of  $1200.  He  has  a  general  supervision  of  the 
county  superintendents  and  of  the  public  schools, 
and  is  required  to  report  biennially  to  tin- gov- 
ernor. 'I  he  county  superintendents  (25  in  num- 
ber) are  elected  at  'hi'  regular  county  election 
for  two  years;  they  receive  five  dollars  for  each 
day's  service,  are  required  to  examine  teachers, 
to  grant  certificates  (valid  for  a  period  not  ex- 
ceeding one  year),  to  apportion  the  county  fund, 
to  visit  the  schools  twice  each  term,  and  to  make  a 
report  each  year  to  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction.  '  The  district  directors,  consisting  of 
a  president..!  treasurer. and  a  secretary,  arc  elected 
on  the  first  Monday  of  May  in  each' year  by  the 
tax-paying  voters  of  each  district  The  directors 
employ  teachers,  make  all  contracts  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  schools,  and  perform  such  special 
duties  as  may  be  delegated  to  them  by  the  citi- 
zens at  the  time  of  their  election,  such  as  fixing 
the  course  of  study,  designating  the  kind  of  text- 
books to  be  used,  specifying  the  time  during 
which  the  schools  shall  be  in  session,  levying  spe- 
cial taxes  for  building  and  other  purposes,  etc. 
School  districts  are  bodies  corporate,  formed 
from  time  to  time  by  the  county  superintendent. 
They  may.  tit  a  special  election  called  for  the 
purpose,  vote  to  issue  the  bonds  of  the  district 
for  the  purpose  of  building  school-houses.  Many 
of  the  incorporated  towns  have  special  school 
laws  differing  somewhat  from  the  general  school 
law.  The  school  fund  is  obtained  from  a  county 
tax  (not  less  than  two  mills  on  the  dollar),  from 
the  proceeds  of  fines  collected  in  the  several 
counties  for  breaches  of  the  penal  laws,  from 
all    i cvs   arisins  from  the  sale  of   waifs   and 


licl 


quarterly  to  the  several  districts,  according  to 
the  number  of  persons  in  each  between  i  he  ages 
of  5  and  21  years.     There  is  no  state  school  tax. 


COLORADO  COLLEGE 

It  is  provided  that  the  Bible  shall  not  be  ex- 
cluded  from  the  schools,  but  that  no  pupil  shall 
be  required  to  read  it  contrary  to  the  wishes  of 
his  parents  or  guardian.  Teachers'  institutes  are 
held  in  the  several  counties  at  thecallof  the 
county  superintendents;  but  there  is  no  regularly 
organized  teachers'  association,  nor  state  normal 
school.    The  school  year  bi  gins  I  October  1st. 

Educational  Condition.  Prom  the  report  of 
Sept.  30.,  1875,  it  appeared  that  there  were  in 
the  territory  .'12'.i  school-districts,  280  public 
schools,  and  172  school-houses.  The  number  of 
children  of  school  age — from  5  to  "21  —  was 
23,274,  and  the  number  of  pupils  enrolled 
L0.185.  The  whole  number  of  teachers"  employed 
was  377,  of  whom  172  were  males,  and  205  fe- 
males: and  the  average  monthly  salary  paid  to 
the  male  teachers  was  $60,  and  to  the  female 
teachers.  $50.  The  whole  amount  of  money  ex- 
pended for  school  purposes  duringthe  preceding 
year,  was  $210,813.86;  and  the  total  value  of 
the  school  houses  and  furniture  was  $414,008. 
The  increase  during  the  preceding  year  was  as 
follows:  In  number  of  school-districts,  16  per 
cent;  in  schools.  18  percent;  in  school-houses, 
L6  per  cent  :  in  school  population,  16  per  cent  ; 
in  value  of  school  property,  23  per  cent. 

Secondary  and  other  Instruction.— The  High 

Scl lut   Denver  was  established  in   1873,  and 

will  graduate  its  first  class  in  1877.  There  are 
also  several  private  and  denominational  schools. 
including  a  school  of  mines,  in  Denver.  There 
is  also  a  school  for  deaf-mutes  at  Colorado 
Springs.  -V  proposed  state  university  has  been 
chat  i.i.  J  and  located  at  Boulder.  Forty  acres  of 
ground  have  been. set  apart  for  its  use.  and  S:  Id. (Kin 
are  now  (187<i)  in  the  hands  of  the  trustees  to  be 
appropriated  to  the  erection  of  buildings.  Col- 
orado College,  at  Colorado  Springs,  was  estab- 
lished in  1874  by  the  ('ongivgationalists  ;  and 
Evans  University,  at  Evans,  was  chartered  in  , 
1 874  by  the  Presbyterians.  A  school  of  mines 
has  also  been  commenced,  at  Golden,  as  the  fut- 
ure scientific  school  of  the  projected  state  uni- 
versity. 

COLORADO  COLLEGE,  at  Colorado 
Springs,  Colorado,  was  organized  in  1874.  It 
is  under  the  control  of  ( 'ongivgationalists.  Pre- 
paratory and  collegiate  departments  have  been 
established.  In  1873 — 4,  it  bad  5  instructors, 
and  2a  preparatory  and  15  collegiate  students. 
It  admits  both  sexes. 

COLORED  SCHOOLS,  a  class  of  schools 
designed  for  the  instruction  of  colored  children. 
Such  schools  are  quite  common  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States,  especially  in  the  South, 
where  the  negro  population  is  very  large.  Thus. 
in  South  Carolina,  in  1874,  the  whole  number 
of  children  of  school  age  (6  to  16.  inclusive) 
enumerated  was  230,102,  of  whom  84,975  were 
white,  and  14.5.127  colored  children;  and  of  a 
total  enrollment  of  100,719,  the  white  children 
numbered  44,470,  and  the  colored  children 
56,249.  In  all  the  old  slave  states,  and  in  many 
of  the  northern  states,  the  feeling  of  aversion  to. 
or  prejudice  against,  the  negro  race  is  so  strong, 


COLORED  SCHOOLS  157 

that  the  public  school  system  can  be  made  effect 
ive  only  by  the  establishment  of  separate  schools 


legislative   requ 
cording  to  the 
1873,  'has  prae 


without  regard  to  color, 
ml  larger  northern  states. 
parate  schools  for  white 
fast  passing  away.  Thus^  j 
874,  there  were  only  731 
Idren  out  of  an  aggregate]        t, 


sr . 


and  of  this  only  $66,126  was  expended  for  the 
support  of  colored  schools  in  the  state,  those  in 
the  towns  costing  only  $7,768,  and  those  in  the 


report 


ge  of  all  the  other  common  schools 
ii  1835,  the  whole  number  of  pupils 
these  schools  was  about  1608,  with 
ittendance  of  757  ;  and  the  annual 
city  superintendent  for  1875  shows 
an  enrollment  of  only  1958,  and  an  average  at- 
tendance of  872.  Although,  by  the  Civil  Bights 
liill.  passed  by  the  slate  legislature  in  1873.  all 
the  schools  weri'  practically  thrown  open  to 
colored  children,  few  have  taken  advantage  of 
this,  but  have  apparently  preferred  to  remain  in 
the  separate  schools  provided  for  them,  though 
their  attendance  is  often  at  considerable  incon- 
venience in  consequence  of  the  remoteness  of 
their  places  of  residence  from  the  schools. 

In  some  of  the  states,  the  prescribing  of  sep- 
arate schools  for  colored  children  is  a  great  hard- 
ship, since  their  numbers  are  not  sufficient  to 
warrant  the  establishment  of  good  schools,  if  an\ 
at  all.  Thus,  in  the  Ohio  state  report  for  1873, 
it  is  stated  that,  "in  many  districts,  colored  chil- 
dren are  practically  deprived  of  school  pri\  ileges 
ami  advantages,  especially  where  the  number  by 
enumeration  is  less  than  twenty:  and  the  separate 
schools  established  for  them  are  sometimes  con- 
tinued in  session  a  less  number  of  weeks  than 
the  schools  for  white  children  in  the  same  district. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that,  of  the  23,020  colored 


I.'.s 


COLORKII   SCHOOLS 


youth  of  school  age  in  the  state,  only  .5.950  are 
under  instruction."  It  has  been  claimed  by  some 
that  the  fourteenth  amendment  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States,  which  denies  the  right 
of  any  state  "  to  make  or  enforce  any  law  which 
shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of 
citizens  of  the  United  states,"  prohibits  the 
establishment  of   separate   schools   for    colored 

children;  but  decisions  of  the  supreim urts  in 

New  York  and  Ohio  have  settled  this  question 
in  favor  of  the  separate  schools,  provided  these 
schools  afford  their  pupils  advantages  equal  to 
those  provided  for  white  children.  Such  was 
also  the  decision  of  the  superior  court  of  Marion 
County,  Indiana,  in  1  ST 4,  which  held  that  "the 
classification  of  scholars  on  the  basis  of  race  or 
color,  and  their  education  in  separate  schools  in- 
volve questions  of  domestic  policy  which  are 
within  the  legislative  discretion  and  control,  and 
do  not  amount  t  i  an  exclusion  of  either  class." 
Hence,  the  state  law  of  May  13.,  1859  was  sus- 
tained as  constitutional ;  and  it  was  decided  that, 
while  it  remained  in  force,  colored  children  were 
"not  entitled  to  admission  into  the  common 
schools  provided  for  the  education  of  white 
children." 

The  feeling  in  regard  to  mixed  schools  for 
white  and  colored  children  is  very  diverse  in 
different  localities.  In  some  places,  there  is  a 
most  intense  opposition  to  such  schools  ;  while, 
in  others,  and  sometimes  in  the  same  state,  there 
is  a  complete  acquiescence  of  all  citizens  in  the 
arrangement.  In  1873,  the  school  superintendent 
of  Illinois  issued  a  circular  of  inquiry,  in  regard 
to  this  Bubject,  to  the  county  superintendents, 
asking  for  facts  and  results;  and  out  of  77 
counties  reporting,  there  were  in  lo.no  persons 

of  colortol lueated;  in  41,  colored  children 

attended  the  same  schools  as  white  children  ;  in 
10,  the  colored  children  were  in  separate  schools; 
in  16,  some  were  in  separate  schools,  while  others 
attended  the  same  as  whites;  in  30,  no  objections 

to  the -education  of  the  races  were  reported; 

but  in  'J7.  trouble,  of  a  more  or  less  serious  na- 
ture, was  stated  to  have  occurred.  Some  of  the 
superintendents  were  strongly  in  favor  of  co-edu- 
cation, while  others,  including  some  from  coun- 
ties where  the  schools  were  mixed,  expressed 
their  opposition  to  it  in  the  strongest  terms. 

The  opposition  to  the  co-education  of  the  races 
in  the  Southern  states  is,  as  might  be  expected, 
very  strong.  This  was  made  manifest  in  the 
public  expression  of  opinion  in  regard 
Civil  Rights  Bill  while  it  was  pending 
the  United    States   Senate,    in   1874. 

edueaki /  (       White  and  Colored  R 

Rev.  W.  H.  Rufiner,  state  superinteni 
schools  in  Virginia,  published  in  Sa 
Monthly  (May,  I  s7  1),  the  author  said.  "A 

Congress  requiring   the  ill  poles  of  i 

nets  to  attract  each  other,  would  uo1  b, 
more  absurd  than  one  requiring  educatii 
conducted  on  a  race  mixture  in  the  lal 
states."     "There  an 


COLUMBIA  COLLEGE 

and  he  expressed  the  opinion,  that  the  passage  of" 
any  law  enforcing  co-education  would  have  the 
effect  to  ruin  the  common  school  system  in  every 
one  of  those  states.  As  long  as  this  feeling  of 
aversion  to  the  co-education  of  whites  and  blacks 
exists,  whether  prejudice  or  not,  it  would  seem 
to  be  the  duty  of  legislators  to  respect  it;  and 
not  to  endeavor  to  force  upon  communities  a 
school  organization  which  they  abominate,  as 
lone  as  the  equal  rights  of  all  citizens  are  re- 
spected. \t  the  same  time,  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  experience  seems  to  show  that  these 
race  distinctions  disappear  in  time:  but  that 
this  time  maybe  prolonged  by  unwise  violence 
and  haste.  Probably,  not  in  the  present  genera- 
tion will  the  existence  of  colored  schools  cease, 
at  any  rate  in  the  Southern  states;  but  that  they 
will  finally  disappear.  ;is  a  feature  of  American 
common-school  systems,  there  are  many  that 
entertain  no  doubt. 

COLUMBIA  COLLEGE,  in  the  City  of 
New  York,  was  incorporated  by  royal  charter  in 
1754,  and  was  called  King's  College,  [t  was  sus- 
pended during  the  revolution,  and  reorganized, 
in    1787,   under   its    present    name,   Columbia 

College.  Th, Uege  "rounds  comprise  the  block 

bounded  by  Madison  and  Fourth  avenues,  and 
49th  and  50th  streets.  The  value  of  grounds, 
buildings,  and  apparatus  i«S7*7.700  :  tin' amount 

annual  income  is  S'-'(l.~>.IKI0.  These  tieiires  are 
exclusive  of  the  medical  school.  Certain  so- 
cieties and  coi] mrations.  including  each  reli- 
gious denomination   in  the  city   of   New  York, 

may  send  students  to  be  educated  fri f  charge. 

Fourteen  scholarships  have  recently  been  estab- 
lished, of  the  annual  value  of  §100  each,  and 
six  fellowships  (one  in  science  and  one  in  litera- 
ture) of  the  annual  value  of  S.">U(I  each.  The 
fellowships  are  offered  for  competition  to  the 
senior  class  upon  graduation,  and  are  tenable 
for  three  years.  The  fellows  are  required  to 
continue  their  studies  under  the  direction  of  the 
president  of  the  college,  but  they  may  choose  the 
place  of  study.  The  institution  comprises  the 
college  proper,  the  school  of  mines,  the  law 
school,  and  the  medical  school.  The  college 
proper  has  s  professorships  :  (1)1  ireek  language 
and  literature:  l'J)  (iciiuaii  language  and  litera- 
ture ;  (3)  chemistry;  (4)  mathematics;  (.">) 
mathematics  and  astronomy;  (6)  moral  and  in- 
tellectual philosophy,  and  English  literature;  (7) 
lage  and 


StoTOT 


ire  are  now."  he  said.  "  more  than 
a  million  and  a  half  of  children,  white  and  black, 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  fifteen  ex-slave  states;" 


of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  'I  he  college  has  an  astro- 
nomical observatory,  a  herbarium,  and  valuable 
chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  SI  (in  per  annum,  but  it  may  lie  remitted 
to  indigent  students.  The  school  of  mines  was 
established  in  1864.  It  has  8  professorships : 
ili  mineralogy  and  metallurgy;  (2)  civil  and 
mining  engineering ;  (3)  analytical  and  applied 
chemistry:  (4)  general  chemistry;  (5)  mechan- 
ics :  (6)  mathematics  ;  (7)  physics  ;  (8)  geologj  and 
palaeontology.  The  system  of  instruction  includes 


COLUMBIA 

five  parallel  courses  of  study;  namely,  (1)  civil 
engineering;  (2)  mining  engineering ;  (3)  metal- 
lurgy; (4)  geology  and  natural  history;  (5)  ana- 
lytical and  applied  chemistry.  The  course  of  in- 
struction occupies  three  years.  Those  w  ho  com- 
plete it  receive  the  degree  of  Engineer  of  Mines. 
Civil  Engineer,  or  Bachelor  of  Philosophy. 
There  is  an  advanced  course  for  graduates 
nt'  the  school  for  the  degn f  Doctorof  Phi- 
losophy. For  candidates  not  qualified  to  enter 
the  first  year,  there  is  a  preparatory  year. 
Collections  of  specimens  and  models,  illustrating 
all  the  subjects  taught  in  the  school,  are  access 
ible  to  the  students,  including  crystal  models, 
natural  crystals,  pseud) rphs,  ores  and  metal- 
lurgical products,  models  of  furnaces,  specimens 

illustrating  applied  chemistry,  fossils,  ecoi lie 

minerals,  rocks,  Olivier'.-  [els  ol    descriptive 

geometry,  models  of  mining  machines,  an  I  models 

of  mining  tools.     Tin -i  of  tuition   k  8200 

per  annum,  but  it  may  lie  remitted  to  indigent 
students.  The  law  school,  now  in  Great  Jones 
street,  was  opened  in  L858.  Under  the  direction 
of  Theodore  W.  Dwight,  LL.  D.,  it  has  attained 
a  high  reputation.  The  ( lollege  of  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  on  the  corner  of  23d  street  and 
Fourth  avenue,  became  the  medical  department 
of  Columbia  College  in  L860,but  the  connection 
is  little  more  than  nominal.  The  number  of  in- 
structors, students,  and  volumes  in  the  libraries, 
in  1875 — 6.  was  as  follows  : 

Departments.  Instructors.  Students.  Volumes. 

College  (proper)              13  172  17,500 

School  of  Mine-                23  220  6,000 

Law  School                        li  573  4.(1110 

Medical  School                 29  410  1,200 


COMENIUS 


ir.it 


not  a  large  endowment,  and  is  supported   prin- 
cipally by  tuition    fees.      The  value  of   its   real 

estate  is  about  S." ,000. 

The   regular   course  of  instruction    (I   years) 

in  the  college  department   is  c prised  in'seven 

schools,  as  follows:  (1)  School  of  English;  ('-') 
School   of   Greek  ;    (3)    School   of    Latin  ;    (4) 

Scl I  of   Modern    Languages;    (5)    School  of 

Mathematics;  (6)  School  of   Natural   Se,ene,.: 
(71   School   of    l'liilii-uiiliv.      Certificates  ,,f  mo- 


ot Bachelor  of  Arts  is  conf 
obtain  diplomas  in  any  si 
ceive  a  certificate  of  orotic 


juts  who 
who  re- 
esiduary 


Tota 


.37.-. 


According  to  the  triennial  catalogue  of  1870, 
the  total  number  of  graduates  of  all  the  schools 
was  3,834,  of  whom  2,721  were  living.  There 
were  2,109  graduates  in  arts,  868  in  medicine, 
4s7  in  law,37  in  mining,  and  333  honorary  grad- 
uates. The  presidents  have  been  as  follows : 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  1754 — 63;  Myles 
Cooper,  LL.1>.,  1763 — 7">  ;  Benjamin  Moore, 
A.M.,  pro  tern.,  1775— 6;  Win.  S.  Johnson, 
LL.D.,  17>7  -1800;  the  Rev.  Dr.  Charles  II. 
Wharton  (win.  probal.lv  did  not  act),  1801;  the 
Rev.  Benjamin  Moore.D  It..  1801— 11;  the  Rev. 
Wm.  Harris.  D  It..  1811—29;  Win.  A.  Duer, 
LL.  D.,  1829—42  :  Nathaniel  F.  Moore,  LL.D., 
1842— it  ;  Charles  King.  LL.  D.,  1849—64  ;  the 
Rev.  Frederick  A.  I'.  Barnard,  LL.D.,  the  present 
incumbent,  appointed  in  1864. 

COLUMBIA,    District  of.     See   District 

COLUMBIAN  UNIVERSITY,  nearWash- 

ington.  It.  C,  was  chartered  in  182]  as  the 
Columbian  College,  and  opened  in  1822.  [nl873, 
the  name  was  changed  U  ad  of  Congress  to  the 

Columbian  I  niv,  r.-itv.  \  majoHts  of  the  hoard 
ol    .:,-,.  -    and   ,.M.,-„r-   are'  I  cnni.-l.-.   but    the 


examination,  in  review  of  all  the  studies  pre- 
scribed for  this  degree.  The  cost  of  tuition  in 
the  college  is  ^60  a  year,  but  it  is  remitted  in 
favor  of  students  intended  for  the  ministry. 
The  medical  department,  known  as  the  National 

Medical    College,  is   in   the   city  of   Washington, 
ls'.'i'i)   is  also  in 


Washington.     The  coll' 


6,   had  11! 


instructors.  103  preparatory  and  48  collegiate 
students,  and  a  lilnan   of  5,750   volumes;  the 

law  scl I.  :>  professors  and    130  students:    and 

the  medical  college,  II  instructors  and  54 
students.  The  presidents  of  the  university  have 
been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Wm.  Staughton,  D.D., 
1821  —  1827;  the  Rev.  Stephen  ciiapin.lt.il.. 
1828—1841;  the  Rev.  Joel  S.  Bacon,  D.D.,  1843 
—1854;  the  Rev.  Joseph  G.  Benney,  lt.lt..  Is;.;, 
—1858;  the  Rev.  Ceo.  W.  Samson,  D.D.,  1859 
—1871;  James  ('.Welling,  LL.  D.,  the  present 
incumbent,  appointed  in  1871. 

COMENIUS,  John  Amos,  the  forerunner 
of  Basedow  and  Pestalozzi,  and  one  of  the  great- 
est educators  of  modern  times,  was  born  at 
Komna.  in  Moravia.  March  2s.,  1592,  and  died 
Nov.  15.,  1671.  From  his  birthplace,  he  re- 
ceived the  name  Komensky,  Latin  Comenius, 
by  which  his  family  name  was  so  fully  sup- 
irandson.   It.   K.  Jablon- 


plante 


that    evi 
kli 


sectarian.  It  comprises  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment, a  college  department,  a  law  department, 
and  a  medical  department.     The  institution  has 


I  le  studied  in  llerboin 
and  Heidelberg,  and  taught  for  a  time  a  school 
of  the  Bohemian  Brethren  in  Prerau  Moral  ia. 
He  afterward  became  a  preacherof  this  church 
at  Fulneck, likewise  in  Moravia,  assuming  at  the 
same  time  the  direction  of  the  school,  in  com- 
mon with  the   Protestants  of   Moravia  and  Bo- 


COMENITJS 


hernia  in  general,  he  suffered  great  hardships  at 
the  hands  of  the  Austrian  government  :  and  the 
Thirty  years'  war  also  entailed  upon  him  the 
most  serious  losses.  At  the  sack  of  Fulueck  by 
the  Spaniards,  he  lost  his  library  and  manu- 
scripts, and  the  greater  part  of  his  property.  In 
1624,  Protestant  preachers  were  driven  from  the 
country,  and  <  'omenius  was  compelled  to  conceal 
himself.  In  1628,  he  left  Bohemia,  and  settled 
atLissa.in  Poland.  Soon  afterward  heassumed 
tin'  direction  of  the  gymnasium  of  this  town, 
and.  while  in  this  position,  gained  a  Lnropean 
fame  by  the  publication  of  Ins  first  great  work 

an  extraordinary  Mieee.,.  heine.  translated  into 
twelve  European,  and  even  into  several  Asiatic 
languages.  \t  a  synod  held  in  Lissa,  in  1632, 
he  was  elected  bishop  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren. 
In  1638,  he  received  a  call  from  Sweden,  to  re- 
form the  educational  system  of  that  country, but 
he  did  not  accept  it.  He  sent,  however,  to  the 
Swedish  government  a  Latin  translation  of  the 
greatest  of  his  pedagogical  works,  the  IHdactica 


magna  seu 


doeendi    artifici 


which  he  had  planned  in  Lissa  as  early  as  1029, 
and  ha  I  now  completed  in  German.  An  extract 
from  this  work  having  been  print  c  1  by  some  of  his 
friends  in  Kngland  under  the  title  /'nn/riw/ns  . 
Pansqphia  (London.  1639),  he  received  an  invi- 
tation from  Lirjand  to  reform  public  instruction 
there.  In  compliance  with  this  invitation,  he 
went,  in  1641,  to  London,  but  political  troubles 

iu  Ireland  prevented  bis  ace plishing anything. 

In  1642,  he  was  invited  to  Sweden  to  consult 
with  Oxenstiern,  the  chancellor  of  the  kingdom, 
on  educational  matters.  Oxenstiern  had  read 
the  I'rixh-nimix.  and  recommended  ( 'omenius  to 
pursue  his  undertaking,  but  first  to  care  for  the 
needs  of  the  schools.  "The  Swedish  government 
established  Comenius  in  the  Prussian  town  of 
Blbing  to  compose  a  work  upon  his  method. 
After" laboring  four  years,  he  returned  in  L646 
to  Sweden.  Three  commissioners  examined  his 
work,  and  declared  it  proper  for  printing  when 
<  'one mils  should  have  finally  revised  it.  He  re- 
turned to  Blbing  to  do  this. 'and  thence,  in  1648, 
he  went  to  Lissa.  where,  in  the  same  year,  he 
brought  out  his  work,  the  Xorissinxi  liinjiiiirum 
,ur(/itn/ii.<.  which  substantially  brought  to  a  close 
his  literary  labors  in  behalf  of  a  reform  of  the 
methods  of  instruction.  In  the  same  year,  the 
Bohemian  Brethren  elected  him  Senior  Bishop 
mill  President  of  ike  Synod,  a  position  which  he 
retained  to  the  end  of  his  life.  In  1650,  upon  an 
invitation  from  Prince  Rakoczy,  he  went  to 
Hungary  and  Transylvania,  and  remained  there 
four  years,  during  which  time  he  organized  a 
school  at  I'aiak  (also  called  Sams  Patak).  Here 
(' -  wrote,  among  other  works,  his  cel- 
ebrated Orbis  Sensualium  Pictus,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1657  at  Nuremberg,  and,  in  various 
forms  has  continued  a  favorite  book  for  children 
down  to  the  present  time,  In  1 654,  Comenius  re- 
l  urned  to  Lissa,  where  he  remained  until  1056,  in 


which  year  the  Poles  burned  the  city.  He  lost  on 
this  occasion  his  house,  his  books,  and  Iris  manu- 
scripts, the  labor  of  many  years.  He  fled  into 
Silesia,  thence  successively  to  Braudenburg,  Stet- 
tin, andllamburg,  and  in  August.  1050.  to  Am- 
sterdam, w  here  he  remained  until  the  end  of  his 
life,  highly  honored  by  all  who  knew  him,  and 
liberally  supported  by  some  wealthy  merchants 
whose  children  he  instructed.  He  printed  his 
Opera  Didactica  (4  vols.), at  Amsterdam,  in  1057. 
at  the  expense  of  Lorenzo  de  Geer,  one  of  his 
patrons. 

Coniciiius's  position  in  the  history  of  pedagogy 
is  chiefly  that  of  a  reformer.     His  dissatisfaction 


until  his  sixteenth  year;  and  his  mind  was  al- 
ready sufficiently  developed  to  be  dissatisfied 

with'  the  artificial  and  worthless  instruction  there 
received.  At  that  time,  the.  study  of  the  Latin 
language  was  the  only  means  of  culture;  and  the 
ability  to  read  and  write  it,  was  regarded  as  all 
that  "was  valuable  in  education.  Comenius  in- 
sisted upon  a  study  of  the  mother-tongue  as 
,,i  greater  importance  than  that  of  the  Latin, 
and  declared,  moreover,  the  study  of  languages  to 

be  ; ans  of  knowledge,  not  an  end.     The  aim 

of  education,  he  asserted,  is  the  development  of 
complete  men,  and  the  pro founi lest  knowledge 
possible  of  the  world  without  and  within.  The 
ideal  order  of  instruction  in  things,  as  opposed 
to  instruction  in  language,  is:  (1)  A  Pan- 
sophia,  in  which  the  .sum'  of  human  knowledge 
should  be  treated  in  its  relations  to  Uod,  the 
world,  and  reason  ;  (2)  A  Panhisinria,  which 
should  be  divided  into  six  classes:  biblical  his- 
tory, natural  history,  history  of  inventions,  dis- 
tinguished examples  of  virtue,  history  of  dif- 
ferent religious  customs,  and  the  history  of  the 
world;  (3)  A  Universal  Dogmatic,  or  psychol- 
ogy. In  this  outline,  ( lomenius  adopted  a  great 
manv  of  the  principles  of  Bacon's  Instduratio 
Magna.  With  Bacon  he  insisted  strongly  upon 
a  study  of  nature  at  first  hand  and  unfettered  by 
traditional  prejudices.  He  insisted,  too,  upon 
the  equal  instruction  of  both  sexes.  Education 
aims  at  the  development  of  the  human  being,  and 
to  shut  any  one  out  from  it,  is  injustice.  The 
school  should  be  no  respecter  of  persons.  He 
strongly  insisted  upon  the  necessity  of  physical 
education,  and  called  the  attention  of  educators 
to  the  importance  of  providing  airy  school- 
rooms and  pleasant  play-grounds.  The  true 
order  of  instruction  must  be  learned  from  nat- 
ure. Art  can  do  nothing  except  by  imitation. 
Upon  this  point  Comenius  uses  many  fantastic 
analogies,  with  all  of  which,  however,  he  mingles 
a  great  deal  of  truth.  Many  studies  are,  at  the 
same  time  to  be  avoided,  as  dissipating  the  men- 
tal strength.  All  studies  must  be  so  ordered 
that  the  later  are  always  founded  on  the  earlier, 
and  the  earlier  supported  by  the  later.  Words 
must  be  learned  only  in  connection  with  tilings. 
In  the  study  of  science  the  scholar  must,  as 
far  as  possible,  have  the  objects  themselves  be- 


no  littl. urns  at   t 

Schools  he  divided 
r  school,  the  vernac 
md  the  university. 

i  every  house.    Hen 
le  senses  and  the  m 
ra  the  vernacular  scl 

if  catechism,  the  lh 
the  Latin  school,  Li 

3.  chronology,  ethics, 
universitv  should   1 

COMENIUS 

fore  him;  and.  when  this  is  impossible,  correct 
drawings  should  be  used.  His  Orbis  Pictus  is 
devoted  to  the  exposition  of  this  principle,  and 

ing."  In  the  stud}  oi  languagi  -  one's  mother- 
tongue  must  come  first.  Children  may  only  learn 
that  part  of  a  language  which  deals  with  the  no- 
tions of  childhood.  Every  language  is  to  be 
learned  more  through  practice  than  by  rule. 
Rules  must  he  grammatical,  ami  not  plulo-oph- 
ical.  They  must  give  the  ham.  and  not  the  ex- 
planation. Rules  are  necessary  only  where  the 
language  differs  from  the  mother-tongue.  These 
thoughts  may  seem  commonplace  enough  at 
present,  but  it  requir 
time  to  originate  then 
tour  classes  :  The  mol 
school,  the  Latin  schew 
mother  school  musl  1" 
child  learns  the  use  of 
language.  The  child  enters  tl 
in  its  sixth  year. and  lcar 
luetic,  singing,  hymns,  the 
universal  history, 
Creek.  Hebrew'.: 

led.  together  witl 

Biblical  theology 

place  for  universal  study.  In  all  tin.-,  intellectual 
culture  must  not  he  separated  from  morality  ami 
religion.  According  to  him,  all  learning  is  a 
means  for  the  moral  elevation  of  mankind.  The 
present  life  is  to  be  viewed  as  a  preparation  for 
the  life  eternal;  and  children  and  youth  must  be 
taught,  both  by  precept  and  example,  to  connect 
this  life  with  God  and  his  commandments.  The 
importance,  however,  of  <  lomenius  a- an  educator 

lies  less  in  what  he  did  than  in  the  reform  which 
he  inaugurated.  His  theory  that  education 
should  he  a  development  of  the  whole  man.  that 
educational  methods  should  follow  the  order  of 
nature,  that  nature  itself  should  lie  studied,  and 
that  education  should  aim  at  knowledge  this, 
though  imperfectly  understood  by  himself,  con- 
stitutes a  solid  foundation  for  an  enduring  fain.-. 
Coineliius  always  designated  dcrmany.  to  which 
country  he  principally  owed  his  education,  as 
his  native  country,  although  Slavic  (Czechic) 
blood  may  have  flowed  in  his  veins.  He  was 
master  of  both  the  languages  spoken  in  Mo- 
ravia, his  native  land,  the  German  and  tin' 
Czechic;  and  he  acknowledged  their  respective 
advantages,  but  he  expressed  his  regret  that 
there  wis  more  than  one  language. 

The  second  centennial  anniversary  of  Come- 
nius's  death  was  celebrated  in  L871,  with  ap- 
propriate solemnities,  not  only  in  Moravia,  but 
in  almost  all  the  countries  of  Kurope.  as  well  as 
in  the  1'nited  Stales:  and  the  Teachers'  Associa- 
tion in  Moravia  concluded  to  erect  a  monument 
to  his  memory.  A  fine  statue  of  the  great  edu- 
cator has  since  been  executed  in  Saxon  sand- 
stone with  much  genius  and  skill  by  the  cele- 
brated sculptor.  Professor  Seidan,  in  Prague; 
and,  since  August  23.,  1S75.  it  has  adorned  the 
square  before  the  castle  in  Prerau.  A  list  of 
the  educational  works  of  Comenius  is  given  in 


COMMENCEMENT  lfil 

Raumer's  Oeschichlc  dn-  /'<),/.,>, ..,,,/,  i translated 
in  Barnard's  German  Teachers  and Educators); 


hed 


.hi 


eational  as  well  as  others,  has  been  published 
by  Palackyin  the  Jakrbucher  des  Bshmisclien 
Museums,  1829.     German   translations  of  the 

pedagogieal  works  of  ( 'oniellius,  with  notes  and 
biography,  are  published   by    Dr.  Th.   Lion,  in 

/■'  /  ill  I /,/(/( x/ISi  In  I'        »'/./»,/,,■       I  I  ,|||._rli 

-al.a.  I-;.,    and  U  Beegei  and  Zoubek  in  Ru  h 

Ml-/',        ■■,-.-     :         II  ■  1,1,,-ie;     of     the 

translation  of  the  Dt'rffl  !ii  I  1A  :  I  in  this  col- 
lection the  3d  edition  appeared  in   L875).     See 

also  Lai  pb t,  Jol    An    -    C         ius'  Lehr- 

hoot    Leipsic,  I-:.:;.  Gwdely,  UeberdesJ.A. 

I  i, in-  in -i*      I.  "ml      II  irln-md,-  ,'      in     -I-  i- 

Fremd he  pi lings  oj  ih,   Vienna  Acad- 

emj  of  Science  \  ienna,  1855  ;  Qi  n  k,  Essays 
on  Educational  Reformers  (London  and  Cin- 
cinnati). 

COMMENCEMENT  denotes,  in  the  United 

form  I  I  iv  colleges  and  universities  upon  their 
graduates.  This  takes  place  in  June  or  duly, 
and  closes  the  scholastic  year,  so  that  the  name 
in  this  respect  appears  to  be  a  misnomer.  The 
exercises  connected  with  the  commencement 
sometimes  begin  on  Sunday  with  a  commence- 
ment sermon  to  the  graduating  class.     On  the 


nt-  h, 


ulties.  and  as 
occasion  may 
graduates   the 


,1   si 


particular 
I  reunion 

nual  meet- 
ent  of  the 
•s  the  liee- 
uing.  All 
neiit  day'  . 
itution,  in 
s,  the  fac- 
ors  as  the 
upon  the 
for  which 
!  have  pre- 


pleeeded    byoiatioii-  delivered    by  the  members 

of  the  graduating  class,  the "  valedictory"  and 
-salutatory''  addresses  being  assigned  to  the 
scholars  holding  the  highest  rank  in  the  class. 
The  Latin  language  is  frequently  used  by  the 
-salutatory"  speaker,  as  well  as  by  the  president 
in  conferring  the  degrees. 

For  the  students  of  colleges  and  universities, 
the  commencement  is  an  occasion  of  peculiar  in 
tcrest.  The  ambition  to  excel  at  that  time,  acts  as 
a  powerful  and  most  beneficial  incentive  to  as- 
siduous study.  The  reunion  of  former  graduates 
tends  to  nourish,  in  all  the  former  students  of 

these  institutions,  a  spirit  of  devoted  attach m 

to  their  Alma  Mater,  and  thus  secures  to  the 
cause  of  collegiate  education  a  large  and  influen- 


COMMERCIAL  COLLEGES 


162 


tial  number  of  zealous  friends  and  patrons.  The 
large  concourse  of  the  relatives  and  friends  of 
the  pupils,  as  well  as  of  the  friends  of  education, 
and,  in  .smaller  towns,  of  the  town  population 
in  general,  diffuses  among  the  people  at  large 
an  acquaintance  with  these  institutions  and  a 
care  for  their  success,  and  gives  them  a  pop- 
ularity which  no  other  feature  could  secure. 
A  glance  at  the  reports,  in  American  newspapers, 
of  the  commencement  exercises  during  the 
months  of  June  and  July,  reveals  a  national  in- 
terest in  collegiate  institutions,  which  is  hardly 
found  to  an  equal  extent  in  any  other  country; 
and,  if  the  wealthy  citizens  of  the  United  States 
have  acquired  a  world-wide  reputation  by  their 
liberal  donations  for  educational  purposes,  the 
popular  commencement  exercises  may  claim  to 
have  very  largely  contributed  to  this  result. 
Commencement  exercises  may,  therefore,  be  con- 
sidered a  very  potent  agent  in  stimulating  the 
zeal  of  the  students,  and  in  fostering  among  all 
classes  of  the  people  a  just  appreciation  of  the 
value  of  higher  education. 

COMMERCIAL  COLLEGES.     See  Bosi- 

COMMISSIONER     OF     EDUCATION. 

See   Bureau  of  Education. 

COMMON  SCHOOLS,  the  name  given  in 
the  United  States  to  schools  maintained  at  the 
public  expense,  and  open  to  all.  These  schools 
are  public  elementary  schools,  although  the  com- 
mon-school system  of  any  state  or  city  often  in- 
cludes schools  of  several  grades,  as  primary, 
grammar,  and  high  schools,  besides  normal 
schools  for  the  special   instruction   and  training 

of  teachers.  Common  sd Isintherural  districts 

are  called  district  schods,  being  under  the  super- 
vision and  control  of  the  officers  of  the  school 
district;  and  for  the  same  reason  those  situated  in 
the  wards  of  a  city  are  sometimes  called  ward 
schools.  Common  schools  are  established  by 
legislative  enactment,  and  are  supported  by  fun  Is 
derived  from  legislative  appropriation.  (See 
School  Fcnd.)  The  expensive  common-school 
systems  of  large  cities  are,  however,  chiefly,  if  not 
wholly,  supported  by  local  taxation  ;  thus,  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  the  amount  received  by 
apportionment  from  the  state  for  the  support  of 
the  common  schools  of  the  city  is  very  much 
less  than  the  amount  of  tax  paid  by  the  city  for 
the  support  of  the  common-school  system  of 
the  state.  There  is  no  uniform  common-school 
system  in  the  United  States  no  national  system 
of  public  instruction,  the  organization  and  con- 
trol of  the  common  schools  being  left  to  the  in- 
dividual states:  and, even  in  the  states,  the  tend- 
ency is  to  almost  exclusive  local  authority.  The 
history  and  description  of  the  common-school 
system  of  each  state  is  given,  in  this  work,  under 
the  name  of  the  state  ;  for  an  account  of  public 
or  popular  education  in  general,  see  Public 
Schools.  (See  also  National  Education,  and 
United  St  \tes.) 

COMPANIONSHIP,  as  one  of  the  neces- 
sary conditions  of  a  child's  life,  is  an  important 
element  in  education  ;  indeed,  the  influence  of  a 


COMPANIONSHIP 

\  child's  companions,  either  for  good  or  evil,  is 
often  far  greater  than  any  that  can  be  exerted 
by  parents  or  teachers.  The  social  nature  of  a 
child  is  stronger  than  that  of  an  adult ;  and, 
therefore,  to  educate  it  by  itself,  excluding  it 
from  all  intercourse  with  children  of  its  own 
age,  would  result  not  in  a  natural  or  normal 
development,  but  in  a  kind  of  monstrous  distor- 
tion. The  selfish  principles  of  its  nature  would 
attain  a  disproportionate  growth  and  strength  ; 
and  it  could  have  neither  sympathy  nor  self- 
control.  Hence,  companionship  is  necessary  for 
several  reasons:  (1)  To  develop  the  social  sym- 
pathies and  affections  of  the  child:  (2)  To 
cultivate  properly  its  moral  nature;  (3)  To  bring 
into  play  its  intellectual  activities,  and  to  accus- 
tom it  to  their  ready  exercise.     Besides,  without 

suitable  and  congenial  playmates,  it  would  not 
be  properly  or  sufficiently  stimulated  to  bodily 
exercise;  and  its  physical  growth  and  develop- 
ment would  be  incomplete.    "  How  many  young 

girls,"  says  Schwa  rz.  "have   becoi liscascd  in 

body  and  in  soul  by  reading!  How  many  have 
lost  their  health  by  close  application  to  orna- 
mental needle-work!  They  ought,  therefore,  to 
be  directed,  at  all  suitable  times  to  engage  in 
free  bodily  exercise,  and  even  in  some  of  the 
more  quiet  and  gentle  gymnastic  exercises  ;  they 
should  enjoy  frequent  opportunities  of  appropri- 
ate amusement  in  the  society  of  others  of  the 
same  age."  <  lompanionship,  therefore,  being  in- 
dispensable, it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that 
it  should  be  of  the  right  character.  It  is  partic- 
ularly true  of  children,  that  -evil  communications 

corrupt  g 1  manners;"  and  not  only  manners, 

but    al- :  indeed   the  society  of  the  debased 

will  inevitably  undermine  the  whole  character. 
leaving  it  but  an  example  of  incorrigible  deprav- 
ity. Nevertheless,  a  youth  must  gradually  be 
accustomed  to  the  exercise  of  considerable  free- 
dom in  selecting  his  or  her  associates  ;  since  the 
circumstances  of  after  life  will  necessitate  this 
independence  of  choice.  The  great  desideratum 
is.  that  the  child's  mind  should  be  so  impressed 
with  right  principles,  that  it  will  avoid  the  com- 
panionship of  those  whose  c luct  and  language 

it  perceives  to  be  vicious.  There  is,  however,  al- 
ways need  of  great  vigilance  in  order  to  prevent 
corrupting  companionship,  even  when  the  greatest 
care  has  been  exercised  in  the  previous  moral 
training  of  a  youth  ;  for  the  stronger  will  must 
always  control  the  weaker  will,  when  brought 
together,  and  children  learn  much  faster  from 
each  other  than  from  their  elders.  To  influence 
a  young  person,  so  as  to  form  Iris  character  in  a 
particular  direction,  or  fully  to  control  his  ac- 
tion-, ii  is  requisite  to  cultivate  a  certain  degree 
of  companionship  with  him.  Parents  who  pur- 
sue this  course,  —fathers  making  companions  of 
their  sons,  and  mothers,  of  their  daughters,  are 
the  most  successful  in  establishing  the  character 
of  their  children.  To  a  limited  extent  the  same 
principle  may  be  applied  in  school  education. 
The  austere  teacher  who  never  strives  to  culti- 
vate any  other  relation  between  himself  and  his 
pupil   than  that  of  authority,  will  never  exert 


COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATIONS 

any  considerable  influence  over  his  mural  charac- 
ter; while,  on  tlic  other  hand,  he  who  is  easy 
and  familiar,  who  cultivates  the  friendship, 
esteem,  and  confidence  of  his  pupil,  will  find  the 
latter  always  glad  to  be  his  companion,  and  will 
be  able  to  control  Ins  conduct  to  an  almost  un- 
limited extent. 

COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATIONS.  See 


COMPOSITION  163 

and  the  teacher  writes,   Glass   is   hard,  solid, 

hrtttle,  and  transparent.     Such  simple  exercises 


COMPOSITION,  as  the  formal  expression 
of  thought,  and  as  a  branch  of  school  exercise, 
has  usually  been  confined  to  that  which  is  writ- 
ten; but  by  some  the  signification  of  the  term 

has  b  en  so  extended  as  to  embrace  also  the  oral 
use  of  language  in  the  expression  of  a  logically 
connected  series  of  ideas.  Thus,  it  has  been 
said  that  "unit  composition  may  be  cultivated 
from  a  very  early  period,  indeed  from  the  be- 
ginning of  the  pupil's  school  education ;  and 
whatever  degree  of  facility  he  attains  in  it  will 
secure  his  more  rapid  advancement  when  he 
cutis  on  the  study  of  written  composition;" 
which  is  undoubtedly  true.  At  the  same  time. 
as  nothing  is  gained  by  extending  the  application 
of  a  term  beyond  the  limits  of  ordinary  usage, 
it  would  seem  best  to  restrict  the  word  compo- 
sition to  the  written  expression  of  thought;  mor  i 
especially  as  this  requires  a  somewhat  diverse 
training  from  that  wbii  h  is  3  eded  in  oral  dis- 
course. Of  course,  the  habit  of  using  language 
correctly  in  all  the  oral  school  exercises,  as  well 
as  in  ordinary  conversation,  is  not  only  useful 
but  essential  as  an  antecedent  preparation  for 
written  composition ;  and  in  view  of  this.it  is 
important  that  pupils  should  be  accustomed,  in 
all  their  recitations,  to  be  accurate  in  expression, 
and  not  only  to  use  the  proper  forms  of  words, 
but  to  construct  complete  sentences,  instead  of 
such  fragmentary  phrases  as  are  very  often  made 
use  of  in  answer  to  the  questions  of  the  teacher 
Moreover,  in  all  recitations  which  do  not  abso- 
lutely require  a  verbatim  repetition  of  the  lan- 
guage of  the  text-book,  the  pupil  should  be  ac- 
customed to  use  his  own  language  as  far  as  poe 
silile,  thus  drawing  upon  the  resources  of  his  own 
vocabulary,  and  his  constructive  power  in  expres- 
sion. But  all  this  is  only  auxiliary  to  written 
composition,  which  requires  special  and  peculiar 
exercise-.    Iie-innine  alino-t  a-  -o  m  a-   the  pupil 


ihe  teacher,  and 
tin-  substance  of 


in  the  t 

tences: 
(Dae, 

Pi 


i  leas  ; 


has  learned  to  write  simple  words  and  sentences; 
indeed,  rudimental  exercises  in  composition  may 

constitute  an  essentia]  pint  of  object  lessons,  the 
teacher  writing  on  the  blackboard  instead  of 
requiring  the  pupils  to  write  on  the  slate  or  on 
paper.     For  example,  in  the  description  of   an 


object,  the  pupils  observe  and  s1 

successively,  and  the  teacher  writes  eai 
Statement  on  the  blackboard,  ob-ervi 
the  rules  for  punctuation  and  the  nsei 
and  then  the  pupils  are  required  to  put 

into  a  connected  statement,  which  t 
also  writes  on  the  blackboard    Thus. si 


object  is  a  piece  of  t//uss.     The   pupils  say.  ami 
the  teacher  writes,  Glass  is  hard.  Glass  is  solid 

(i/ns.l    is    ln-ittle.       films    is    tniiisjhtre/it.      Then 

the  whole  is  formed  into  a  connected  statement ; 


ject  under  consideration,  —  ideas,  facts,  proposi- 
lioii.-.  opinions,  ,vc.  and  arrange  them  into  a 
symmetrical  whole.  To  do  this  well  requires 
not  only  maturity  of  mental  culture,  but  much 
practice  in  the  use  of  language,  filling  thememorj 
not  only  with  a  vocabularyof  words,  but  a  large 
accumulation  of  phrases,  and  other  forms  of  ex- 
pression,  associated  regularly  with  certain  re- 
current ideas.  The  difficulty  experienced  by  pu- 
pils in  writing  compositions  is  proverbial:  and 
to  a  considerable  extent,  it  is  to  be  hoped. 
obsolete;  since  modern  methods  of  instruction 
have  gone  far  towards  eradicating  many  of  the 
absurd  educational  practices  of  by-gone  times. 
one  of  which  was  to  require  young  pupils  to 
write  formal  compositions  upon  difficult  abstract 
themes  without  any.  or  with  wry  inadequate, 
preliminary  preparation  and  training.  The  ne- 
cessity of  such  training  is  now  prettj  generally 
recognized,  and  suitable  graded  exercises  are 
employed;  such  as  the  following :  il)  Conversa- 
tions upon  familiar  objects,  such  as  usually 
encage  the  attention  of  children;  (2)  Sentence- 
making,  in  various  tonus,  and  affording  practice 
in  the  application  of  grammatical  rules;  (3) 
Formal  descriptions  of  objects ;  (4)  Simple  narra- 
tives; (5)  Didactic  essays,  graduated  from  the 
simplest  composition  upon  such  subjects  as  a 
horse,  n  cow,  a  flower,  Ac.,  up  to  those  upon 
complex  abstract  themes;  Mb  Argumentative 
compositions,  in  which  the  principles  ami  rules 
of  logicand  rhetoric  may  hud  an  application  ami 
illustration.  Each  of  these  classified  forms  of 
exercise  i^<-'\^  much  continuous  pie 
the  pupil  should   not   be  required   to  win,    mi 

cell, .u-  compositions  until   he   ha-   been  sue 

cessively  trained  in  those  oi  I  h 
and   has  acquired  a    fair  degn 
each  stage  of   his  progress.     In  all    thi 
however,  ot    whatever  grade   or  kind,    it    is  very 
'essential  that  the  pupil  should,  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, be  induced  to  make  use  ot    his  .         experi 


n;i 


COM  POSITION 


euce  in  selecting  subjects  for  composition,  writ- 
ing of  what  he  has  himself  seen  and  heard,  and 
using  the  simplest  and  most  direct  language  he 
can  command. 

Mere  grammatical  exercises  are  of  little  use 
in  teaching  composition ;  perhaps,  they  are 
rather  a  hindrance,  since  the  exclusive  atten- 
tion to  the  construction  of  sentences  without 
regard  to  their-  meaning  or  logical  coherence, 
tends  to  the  formation  of  habits  that  are  directly 
opposed  to  success  in  actual  composition.  The 
great  point  is  to  accustom  the  pupils,  by  constant 
daily  practice,  to  the  tree  expression  of  their 
thoughts  in  writing.  Let  them  have  something 
to  say,  and  then  require  them  to  write  it  in  the 
most  natural  way.  employing  their  own  modes  of 
thinking  and  using  language,  and  thus,  in  the 
course  of  time,  developing  a  style  :  since  style  is 
only  the  peculiar  impress  of  a  writer's  individu- 
ality upon  his  forms  of  expression.  Paraphrases 
and  translations,  however,  afford  a  very  valuable 
kind  of  exercise  in  composition  :  but  should  not 
be  employed  except  in  the  more  advanced  stages 
of  the  instruction. 

In  the  correction  of  compositions,  the  teacher 
should  exercise  great  prudence,  so  as  to  impart 
the  kind  and  degree  of  instruction  adapted  to 
the  pupil's  progress  ;  and.  at  the  same  time,  not 
discourage  his  efforts  by  too  minute  criticism. 
If  a  class  is  under  instruction,  the  prevailing 
errors  of  the  pupils,  as  discerned  on  a  perusal  of 
the  compositions,  will  suggest  certain  topics  on 
which  instruction  is  needed  ;  and  tins  may  then 
be  illustrated  by  examples  culled  from  the  com- 
positions without  referring  to  them  individually. 
Especially  should  the  teacher  avoid  holding  lip 
any  of  the  pupils'  efforts  to  ridicule  or  severe  re- 
buke, unless  the  inaccuracies  are  such  as  result 
from  sheer  carelessness.  A  pupil's  whole  intellec- 
tual career  may  be  vitiated  by  an  imprudence  of 
this  kind;  since,  in  general,  there  is  nothing  in 
respect  to  which  persons,  whether  adults  or  chil- 
dren, are  so  sensitive  as  in  regard  to  their  efforts 
in  written  composition 

When  the  compositions  have  been  carefully 
read,  and  the  errors  pointed  out  by  suitable  marks. 
the  pupils  should  I"  recpiireil  to  transcribe  them, 
so  that  they  may  be  presented  for  further  revi- 
sion. The  study  of  grammar  and  composition 
should  be  pursued  together  in  the  early  stages, 
and  rhetoric  and  composition  in  the  latter.  A 
distinguished  writer  thus  sums  up  the  require- 
ments of  these  two  branches  of  study:  Rheto- 
ric, to  become  a  useful  branch  of  modem  educa- 
tion, should  embrace  a  gradually  progressive 
course  of  exercises,  embodying  successively  the 
facts  of  language,  in  the  use  of  words  and  the 
construction  of  sentences;  it  should  include  the 
practice  of  daily  writing,  for  successive  years ; 
frequent  exercises  in  the  logical  arranging  of 
thought  for  the  purposes  of  expression,  and  the 
adapting  of  the  forms  and  character  of  expres- 
sion to  thought ;  and  it  should  be  accompanied 
by  the  close  study  and  critical  analysis  of  the 
works  of  distinguished  writers,  with  the  view  to 
acquire  a  perfect   mastery  over  every  form  of 


COMPULSORY  EDUCATION 

style."  —  See  William  Russell,  Intellectual 
Education,  in  Barnard's  American  Pa Uu logy; 

Ci'rrie.  The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Com- 
mon- School  Eiluoitiim  (Edinburgh,  1872): 
Wic'kersham,  Method*  of  Instruction  (Phila.. 
L865). 

COMPULSORY  EDUCATION,  a  term 
commonly  used  to  designate  the  compulsion  of 
parents  by  state  law  to  provide  an  education  for 
their  children.  We  find  the  principle  that  the 
government  of  a  state  has  the  right,  and  that  it 
is  its  duty,  to  watch  over  the  education  of  all  the 
children  within  its  jurisdiction,  for  the  first  time 
expressed  in  the  legislation  of  Athens  and  Sparta. 
Solon  gave  a  law  enjoining  on  parents  to  have 
their  children  instructed  in  music  and  gymnastics, 
and  providing  further,  that  no  son  was  bound  to 
support  his  father  in  old  age,  if  the  latter  had 
neglected  to  have  him  instructed  in  some  profit- 
able trade.  In  Sparta,  according  to  the  legisla- 
tion of  Lycurgus.  the  state  eli.nv.ed  itself  with 
the  entire  education  of  all  male  children,  after 
they  had  attained  their  seventh  year.  In  Rome, 
the  state  did  not  interest  itself  at  all  in  the  edu- 
cation of  children,  it  being  left  to  the  care  of  the 
mothers.  During  the  period  which  followed  the 
downfall  of  the  Roman  empire,  little  provision 
was  made,  in  any  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  for 
the  education  of  children.  Only  the  candidates 
for  the  priesthood  and  the  children  of  noblemen 
and  persons  of  affluence  received  instruction  in 
the  cathedral,  collegiate,  convent,  or  parochial 
schools ;  but  the  mass  of  the  people  grew  up 
without  any  instruction.     (See  Cathedral  and 

Collegiati    Sci i-     Convem    Schools,  and 

Parochial  S<  hools.)  The  capitularies  of  Charle- 
magne imposed  upon  all  parents  the  obligation 
to  send  their  children  to  a  convent  or  parochial 
school,  to  obtain  the  necessary  instruction  in  re- 
ligion. These  schools  were  also  required  to  teach 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  and  sing- 
ing; but  no  compulsion  was  to  lie  imposed  in 
regard  to  any  of  these  subjects.  A  new  interest 
in  the  cause  of  universal  education  was  awakened 
by  the  revival  of  classical  studies,  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  More  than  one  of  the  educational  writ- 
ers of  that  time  demanded  that  the  state  govern- 
ment should  recognize  and  enforce  the  principle, 
that  parents  should  be  obliged  to  send  their 
children  to  school.  Luther  said,  that  he  regarded 
it  as  a  "  duty  of  the  state  authorities  to  compel 
their  subjects  to  send  their  children  to  school," 
in  order  that  the  community  might  have  well- 
educated  clergymen,  jurists,  physicians,  teachers, 
and  other  officers:  and  the  new  church  constitu- 
tion of  Saxony,  of  l.VJs.  which  was  chiefly  com- 
piled by  Melanchthon,  required  that  clergy- 
men should  admonish  the  people  to  send  their 
children  to  school,  "  in  order  that  persons  might 
be  educated  so  as  to  be  competent  to  teach  in  the 
church,  and  to  govern."  The  church  constitution 
of  Wurtemberg,  of  1559,  provided  that  the 
pastors  should  admonish  their  congregations  at 
least  twice  a  year,  to  send  their  children  regular- 
ly to  school.  Similar  provisions  were  made  in 
other  German  states,  without,  however,  adopting 


COMPULSORY   EDUCATION 


165 


tin-  principle  of  compulsion;   but,  in  regard  to    principle  of  compulsion,  and  M.  Duruy,  his  min- 
instruction  in  the  catechism,  which  was  given  in    ister  of  public  instruction  from    L863  to   L869, 


Hi  in.  the  Genera]  Synod  of  W 
nizi'il  the  duty  of  requiring  al 
school,  and  resolved  that  all 

lined.  whose  children   failed  t 


l\  di 


progress  in  all  the  German 
duced  it  in    I  732  ;    Bavai  i. 

the  latest,  in  1802.     i ' pi 

since  the  beginning  of  the 
been  the  general  rule  in  the 

conflicts  which  have  been  c: 
legislation,  no  party  ha-,  in 
position  to  the  principle,  thi 
ment  may  and  ought  tod 
should  provide  some  kind  ot 
children.  This  kind  of  leg 
began  in  the  eighteenth  cei 
vidang  that  magistrates  sh 
teachers,  twice  a  year,  lists  oi 
the  sixth  year  of  age,  and  thi 
return  monthly  h~ts.it  aba 
school  attendance  steadilv  ii 


id  lion  of  coin] ml 
•e  ly  discussed  in 
al     the  separate  S( 


1 


tened  to  introduce  a  new  educational  la 

to  that  of  Prussia,  providing  for  the  rig 

forcement  of  the  principle  of  cornpuJ 

cation.     In   some   provinces,   it   was  I 

fcremely  difficult  to  provide  for  a  suffic 

ber  of  teachers  and  schools,  and  to  a 

attendance  of  children.     The  statistics 

attendance  show,  however,  a  steady  inc 

then'  is  no  systematic  opposition  to  the 

which  is   now  being  rapidly  carried  n 

The  cantons  of  Sw  itzerland,  with  the  single  excep-    86   ii!li.-il.it;iiit.~.   ' 

tionof  Geneva,  and  the  Scandinavian  kingdom    a  law  providing  t 

have  enacted  laws  similar  to  those  of  Germany  ;    in  every    locality 

and  Denmark,  in  particular,  has  had  a  stringent     both  boys  and  gir 

law  on  compulsory  education   in  operation  since    of  any  kind  to  ex< 

L8U,  and   has   thus  effected  a  rcmarkal.lv  high     up  to   the   end    o 

average  education  of  its  entire  population.     In    communal  school.. 

Prance,  the  public-scl I  system  was,  for  the  first     1834,  on  the  Ge 

time,  regulated  by  th iueational  law  of  1833,    system  of  compu 

which  embodied  the  ideas  of  Guizot  and  Cousin,    article  of  the  law 

Neither  this  law.  however.  ■  the  subsequent    of  live  and  twelvi 

regulations  recognized  the  principle  oi  compul-    nuinal  school.     I 
sory  education  ;  ami  the  school  at 
cially  in  many  of  the  rural  distt 
to  be  very  small.     Louis  Napolei 


tes  of  compulsion  do  not 
I  its  ultimate  adoption. 
Oxford, and  many  other 
iws,  compelling  the  at- 
the  public  schools.  The 
L871,  adopted   a    new 


Nether- 
,'  law  to 
and,  in 
the  ap- 


st  educated  countries  of 
L875,  !  scholar  for  about 
.in  1  si;;».  promulgated 
e.-t.-il.li-hiuent  of  a  school 
requiring  all  children, 
ittend  it :  but  no  attempt 

the  law  had  been  made 
year   L875.     In   Greece, 

•  established  by  law,  in 
system,  that   is.  on  the 

education.     Bj    the   6th 

lildren   between  the  a<_'cs 

ml-  nuinal  school.  Parents  are  liable  to  a  line  for 
pe-  eaclihourth.it  the  child  is  absent  but  the  pen- 
icd  alty  has  fallen  into  disuse;  ami  it  was  found,  at 
the  |  the  census  of  L870,  that  but  33  per  cent  of  the 


COMPULSORY  EDUCATION 


grown-up  men,  and  but  7  per  cent  of  the  grown- 
up women,  were  able  to  read  and  write.  Spain 
and  Portugal  also  have  compulsory  education 
acts,  but  they  are  not  fully  enforced. 

In  America,  the  right  of  state  authorities  to 
require  the  attendance  of  all  children  at  school 
was  asserted  at  an  early  date  by  some  of  the 
English  colonies.  B.  G.  Northrop,  the  secretary 
of  the  Connecticut  state  board  of  education,  in 
his  annual  report  for  1871,  says,  that  Connecti- 
cut may  justly  claim  to  be  one  of  the  first  states 
in  the  world,  that  established  the  principle  of 
compulsory  education.  Its  code  of  laws,  adopted 
in  May  1650,  he  says,  contained  stringent  pro- 
visions for  compulsory  attendance ;  and  these 
provisions,  with  some  modifications  chiefly  de- 
signed to  give  them  greater  efficacy,  continued 

in  force  until  the-  revisi if  the  code,  in  L810. 

Public  opinion  so  heartily  indorsed  this  principle, 
or  rather  so  thoroughly  believed  in  the  necessity 
of  universal  education,  that  attendance  lost  its 
involuntary  character.  Outside  of  Connecticut, 
however,  little  appears  to  have  been  done  in  this 
direction;  and  even  in  Connecticut,  the  diffi- 
culty in  enforcing  the  law  was  clearly  shown 
when  the  influx  of  immigration,  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  gave  to  the  state  a  considerable  school 
population  of  foreign  birth.  In  L869,  a  new  law 
was,  therefore,  passed,  forbidding  manufacturers 
to  employ  minors  under  fourteen  years  of  age, 
who  have  not  attended  any  public  school,  for 
at  least  three  months  in  each  year.  The  school 
board  appointed  an  agent  to  supervise  the  en- 
forcement  of  the  compulsory  attendance  law, 
and  the  subsequent  considerable  increase  of 
school  attendance  is  partly  ascribed  to  its  en- 
forcement. This  law  makes  it  the  duty  of  school 
visitors  to  examine  into  the  condition  of  chil- 
dren employed  in  manufacturing  establishments, 
and  to  report  violations  of  the  law  to  the  grand 
jurors  of  the  town.  In  Massachusetts,  the 
first  educational  ordinance,  in  Hil2.  enjoined 
the  selectmen  of  every  town  to  see  "that 
their  brethren  and  neighbors  teach  their  chil- 
dren and  apprentices,  by  themselves  or  others, 
so  much  learning  as  may  enable  them  to  read 
the  English  tongue,  and  the  capital  laws,  upon 
penalty  of  twenty  shillings  for  each  neglect 
therein."  In  1834,  children  under  fifteen  years 
of  age  were  prohibited  from  working  in  factories, 
unless  they  had  attended  school  during  three 
months  of  the  preceding  year.  The  present 
school  law  compels  parents  and  guardians  to 
send  children  in  their  charge,  between  the  age  of 
eight  and  fourteen,  to  school  twenty  wei  ks  ei  cry 
year;  andno  person  can  be  excluded  from  the 
public  schools  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  re- 
ligion, Towns  and  cities  are  required  to  provide 
for  the  education  ol  orphans  and  the  children  of 
drunken  parents.  In  .Maine,  the  school  law  of 
the  state  authorizes  towns  to  make  by-laws  for 
the  enforcement  of  attendance  of  scholars  be- 
tween six  and  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  to 
annex  a  suitable  penalty,  not  exceeding  twenty 
dollars,  for  any  breach  thereof.  In  New  Hamp- 
shire, an  act  of  the   legislature,  approved  in  July 


1871,  provides  that  all  parents,  guardians,  or 
masters  of  a  child,  between  the  ages  of  8  and  14. 
residing  within  two  miles  of  a  public  school, 
shall  send  such  child  to  school  at  least  12  weeks 
each  year.  Similar  acts  were  passed  in  the  same 
year  by  the  legislatures  of  Michigan  and  Texas. 
Nevada  passed  a  law  in  February  L873,  which 
makes  it  obligatory  on  parents  and  guardians 
to  send  every  child  between  the  ages  of  8  and  14 
years  to  a  public  school  for  a  period  of  at  least 
sixteen  weeks  in  each  school-year,  at  least  eight 
of  which  must  be  consecutive,  unless  the  child 
is  being  otherwise  instructed,  or  is  excused 
from  attendance  by  the  board  of  trustees  for 
some  satisfactory  reason.  The  penalty,  for  non- 
compliance with  this  act  is  a  fine  of  not  less 
than  $50, nor  more  than  SI  III)  for  the  first  offense, 
and  not  less  than  §100  nor  more  than  $200  for 
each  subsequent  offense.  In  1874,  compulsory 
laws  were  passed  by  the  legislatures  of  Califor- 
nia, New  Jersey,  and  New  York.  The  general 
features  of  these  laws  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
state  laws  already  referred  to.  The  school  age 
during  which  every  cliild  is  to  be  instructed  is,  in 
New  Jersey,  from  8  to  13,  and  in  California  and 
New  York  from  8  to  II.  There  is  some  diversity 
in  the  time  of  school  attendance  each  year.  New 
Jersey  requires  12  weeks,  of  which  (j  must  be 
consecutive,  New  York  14  weeks  in  a  day  school, 
or  28  weeks  in  an  evening  school,  and  California, 
two-thirds  of  the  time  during  which  the  public- 
schools  are  kept,  at  least  1 2  weeks  of  which  must 
be  consecutive.  The  New  York  law  also  specifies 
the  subjects  in  which  the  cliild  is  to  be  instruct- 
ed; namely,  spelling,  reading,  writing,  English 
grammar,  geography,  and  arithmetic.  It  also 
provides  that  no  child  of  this  age  shall  be  em- 
ployed, unless  the  employer  has  a  certificate  that 
such  instruction  was  given  the  child  the  previous 
year,  the  penalty  for  violating  this  law  being  a 
tine  of  050.  In  many  other  states,  the  passage 
of  compulsory  laws  is  strongbj  urged.  In  Indi- 
ana. Illinois,  Kansas,  Minnesota.  Mississippi, 
Nebraska.  Pennsylvania,  and  Rhode  Island,  the 
state  superintendents,  in  their  annual  reports,  or 
the  governors  in  their  messages,  have  of  late 
taken  a  decided  stand  in  favor  of  such  laws. 

The  opinions  of  American  educators  and  legis- 
lators, on  the  subject  of  compulsory  education, 
continue,  however,  to  be  greatly  divided.  The 
Hon.  Edward  Searing,  state  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  in  Wisconsin,  in  his  annual 
report  for  1 874,  expresses  the  opinion,  that  "  the 
difficulties  lying  in  the  way  of  the  successful  work- 
ing of  a  general  compulsory  law  are  numerous 
and  nearly  insuperable  ;  so  that  there  is  an  over- 
whelming probability  of  the  failure  of  such  a 
law  to  attain  the  cuds  desired."  He  beheves 
that  there  is  in  such  a  law  "something  essentially 
opposed  to  the  genius  of  our  free  institutions, — 
something  essentially  un-American."  He  appre- 
hends no  peril  to  the  state  from  the  mere  fact, 
"that  a  small  fractional  part  of  its  children  do  not 
obtain  such  primary  instruction  as  the  common 
schools  afford  ;"  and  the  idea  that  "  crime  is  the 
direct  result  of   illiteracy  "  is  characterized  by 


COMPULSORY  EDUCATION 

him  as  a  "  fallacy  quite  commonly  accepted  as  a 
truth."  An  enthusiastic  defendant  of  compul- 
sory education,  the  Bon.  II.  I  >.  Met 'arty,  state 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  in  Kansas, 
in  his  annual  report  for  1-7;;.  thus  replies  to 
some  of  the  common  objeeti  ms  made  to  compul- 

a  new  crime.'  1  reply,  it  ought  to.  To  bring 
up  a  child  in  ignorance  is  a  crime,  and  should 
be  treated  as  such.  (2)  '  It  interferes  with  the 
liberty  of  parents.'  1  reply  again,  it  ought  to, 
when  they  arc  incapacitated  by  vice  or  other 
causes  for  the  performance  oi  essential  duties  as 
parents.  (3)  -It  arrogates  new  power  by  the 
government.'  So  do  all  the  quarantine  and 
hygienic  regulations  and  laws  for  the  abatement 
of  nuisances  in  time  of  pestilence.  Now,  igno- 
rance is  as  noxious  as  the  most  offensive  nuisance. 
and  more  destructive  than  bodily  contagions. 
•Self-protection  is  a  fundamental  law  of  society. 
(4)  'It  is  un-American  and  unadapted  to  our 
free  institutions.'  To  put  the  question  in  the 
most  offensive  form,  it  may  be  asked  :  '  Would 
you  have  a  policeman  drag  your  children  to 
school  ?'  1  answer,  yes.  if  it  will  prevent  his 
dragging  them  to  jail  a  few  years  hence.'' 

While,  thus,  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  exists 
in  regard  to  the  principle  of  compulsory  educa- 
tion, there  is  an  almost  entire  agreement  between 
friends  and  opponents,  as  to  the  character  of  the 
existing  laws.  They  are.  on  all  sides,  de.  lared  to 
be   deficient.      Many    laws    supply    no    means 

whatever  for   the  enforcement   of    tl ompul- 

sory  provisions;  and.  in  such  cases,  the  state 
superintendents  must,  of  course,  report,  that  the 
law  has  amounted  to  little  or  nothing.  Thus, 
the  state  law  of  New  York  was  pronounced  de- 
fective and  inefficient  by  the  state  association  of 
school  commissioners  and  superintendents,  at  a 
meeting  held  in  Dec,  1*71;  and  it  was  unani- 
mously resolved  to  ask  the  legislature  to  "so 
complete  and  perfect  the  act  ahead}  passed,  that 
it  may  better  secure  the  results  at  which  it 
aims."  The  American  laws  in  favor  of  compul- 
sory education  agree  with  those  of  Europe  in  de- 
signating a  certain  age,  during  which  the  state 
shall  enforce  the  education  of  exerv  child.  A  <  ier- 
man  writer,  ltumelin  (in  Zeitschrift  fur  die  ge- 
sammte  Staalswissensckafi,  vol.  sxrv.J,  contends, 
that  the  state  has  the  right  to  demand  and  to  see 
to  it.  that  each  of  its  members  receive  a  certain 
amount  of  instruction,  but  that  this  right  does 
not  give  to  it  the  power  of  depriving  parents,  for 
any  length  of  time  that  may  appear  necessary  to 
state  authorities,  of  the  right  of  disposing  of 
their  children,  but  only  justifies  the  state  in  de- 
manding a  certain  amount  of  knowledge  deemed 
necessary  for  the  discharge  of  the  duties  even- 
one  owes  to  society.  Every  child,  therefore,  he 
argues,  should  be  dismissed  from  the  public 
school,  without  any  regard  to  its  age.  as  soon  as 
it  has  acquired  the  knowledge  demanded  by  the 
state. 

From  the  stand-point  of  the  (  atholic  church, 
the  claim  of  state  governments  to  enforce  edu- 
cation has  sometimes  been  absolutely  denied,  on 


CONCEPTION 


167 


I  the  ground  that  only  the  church,  not  the  state, 
has  received   the  divine   commission    to   teach. 


defines  its  position  as  follows: 
of  Catholic  parents  in  Germany 


mcert  with  both,  if  it  mak 
•ligatory.  (2)  The  instr. 
ie  state  should  be  limited 
id  be  confined  to  readini 
mdameiital  rules  of  arithm 


■etion  by  state  authorities.     They   should 
concert  with  the  church  and  the  state. 
Annual  Reports  of  the   !'.  .V  Commis- 
f  Education  (1871—74);   V.  M.  Rice, 
Report  on   Compulsory  Educati tc. 


Compulsory  Education  [X.  V..  1874);  Frakcis 
Adams,  Th  Free  School  System  of  the  United 
States  (London,  1875);  .1./.;,...  8  .'..,./  Proceed- 
ings of  the  National  Educational  Association, 
August,   1*71  (N.  Y.  and  Wash.  1872);   Lukas, 


(Ratisbon,  1866). 
COMSTOCK,    John  Lee,  M.  D.,  a  noted 

'  American  author,  and  compiler  of  school  books, 
was  born  in  Lyme,  Ct.,  m  1789,  and  died  in 
Hartford.  Ct,  1858.  After  receiving  a  com 
mon-school  education,  he  studied  medicine  ;  and, 
during  the  war  of  1812,  served  in  the  army  as 
an  assistant  surgeon,  lie  afterwards  settled  in 
Hartford,  where  he  practiced  medicine,  and 
where  his  books  were  written,  lie  published 
Natural  History  (1829),  System  of  Natural 
Philosophy  (1831),  a  work  which  had  an  extra- 
ordinary success,  being  translated  into  several 
languages,    and     edited     for    use     in     Canada, 


Botai 
Book 


ohgy,  History  of  the  Greek  Revolution,  History 
of  the  Precious   Metals,  Readings  in    Zoology, 

etc.,  etc.  Though  mostly  compilations,  these 
books  possess  considerable  merit,  and  some  of 
them  have  had  a  very  wide  circulation. 

CONCEPTION,   or  Conceptive  Faculty, 
the  faculty  of  the  mind  which  retains  past  per- 


u;s 


COXCKITIOX 


ceptions,  and  forms  from  them  general  ideas,  or 
notions,  sometimes  called  <;,,, ,;■/,/>:.  In  this  man- 
ner, the  individual  impressions  nhtained  by  per- 
ception are  associated  in  the  mind,  according  to 
their  resemblances  and  analogies,  and  become 
the  materials  of  thought:  for  without  general 
ideas  thought  is  impossible.  Thus,  the  child 
perceives  a  horse,  but  the  concept  in  its  mind  as 
the  result  of  the  perception,  is  not  of  that  par- 
ticular horse,  which  it  will  remember  to  have 
seen  at  a  particular  time  and  place,  but  of  the 
horse  as  one  of  a  class  of  animals  resembling  tin- 
one  seen;  and  to  each  one  of  this  class  it  is  at 
once  prepared  to  apply  the  name  horse.  As,  if 
you  ask  a  child,  How  many  legs  has  a  horse? 
he  answers./o«r  ;  because  such  is  his  concept  or 
notion  of  a  horse,  formed  from  all  the  percep- 
tions which  he  has  had  of  this  animal.  "Nature" 
says  Isaac  Taylor,  "for  purposes  which  it  is  not 
very  difficult  to  divine,  has  allowed  an  absolute 
predominance  to  the  conceptive  faculty  during 
the  season  of  infancy,  and  has  granted  it  a  prin- 
cipal share  in  the   mental   econ y  during    the 


of  past  perceptions,  winch  it  is  to  employ  as  the 
material  for  the  exercise  <>t  the  other  faculties. — 
imagination,  judgment,  reason.  "A  rich  and 
ready  conception,"  says  Currie,  "is  the  soil  out 
of  which  grows  a  sound  judgment.    The  cause 

of  error   in   our    iudeiuent-   lies  as  fivqiientlv  in 


if  materials 


conception.  Hence,  the  value  of  object-teaching, 
the  best  results  of  which  are  the  effects  produced 
upon  the  conceptive  faculty.  In  training  the 
perception,  we  are,  indeed,  training  the  concep- 
tion ;  and  it  is  the  latter  process  that  is  espe- 
cially valuable,  not  the  former.  This  training  can 
oidy  be  carried  on  by  means  of  language.  No 
idea  can  be  fixed  in  the  mind  to  be  of  any  prac- 
tical value,  unless  there  is  linked  with  it  its 
proper  verbal  designation.  Words  as  well  as 
ideas  are  the  elements  of  thought.  A  large 
part  ot  elementary  teaching  consists  in  analyzing 
the  parts  and  properties  of  objects,  and,  after 

leading    the    mind    to    form    c ;epts    of    them 

through  sense-perception,  applying  to  them  the 
names  by  which  they  are  commonly  known.  As 
examples  of  lessons  of  this  kind,  the  following 
are  given  from  Curries  Early  School  Education  : 

TREE. 
Place— in  the  ground,  in  Holds,  gardens,  etc. 
Fukm— upright,  bending,  wide-spreading  above,  with 

waving  motion,  etc. 
I'ii;i-     Boot:  below  ground,  branching,  etc. 

Trunk:    round,  solid,  pillar-like,  firm,  dark, 
rough,  knotty,  etc. 

Leaves:     heart-shaped,    oval,    etc.;    soft, 
green,  yellow,  etc. 

Blossom  and  fruit  in  their  seasons. 
Siunii  (in  motion)— rustling,  gentle,  violent,  etc. 

GLASS. 
Color— light,    stained,    clear,  transparent,  1 

obscured,  etc.  I   ,,.  ,  . 

Form  (in   windows)—  square,  round,   oval,  f  "'f/ht- 

lozenge-shaped,  etc. 

Thin,    light,     hard,    brittle,    cold 
sharp,  etc. 


Timcli. 


his 


•aching  him  to 
is  most  active 
it,    that  is,  the 


on  the  want  of  pow 
quired."  lie  also 
great  mistake  to  ha: 
forms  of  judgmem 
with  the  materials 
der  the  impression 
think."  The  facultj 
m  relation  to  the 
perceptions  derived  from  thai  -. n-e  -ji\o  rise  to 
the  strongest  or  most  vivid  conceptions;  hence, 
indeed,  the  word  idea,  meaning  imagi  oi  , 
in  the  mind.  To  those  who  are  deprived  of  tin- 
sense  of  sight,  t lie  perceptions  produced  by  tin- 
equal  force  the  conceptive  faculty.  "The  furniture 
of  the  conceptive  faculty,  as  derived  from  the  ob- 
jects of  sight."  say8  Isaac  Taylor,  "constitutes 
the  principal  wealth  of  the  mind,  and  upon  tin- 
ready  command  of  these  treasures,    with  s e 

specific  end  in  view,  depends  in  great  measure 
its  power."  The  cultivation  of  this  faculty 
should  aim,  (1)  To  give  clear,  definite  ideas  of 


SEA. 
Tvstk— salt,  unpleasant,  cold,  etc.  Taste. 

Size — large,  broad,  deep,  etc.  1 

Color— green,  1. hi.-,  clear,  sandy,  etc.  I  ~.  ,  . 

Form— Surface  :    plain,  wavy,  sn th,  loam-  |  "'!/'"• 

ing,  etc. 
Sihnd    (iii   'imiliiw)—  dashing,    murmuring,  |  Sear- 
gentle,  violent,  etc.  |    ing. 
cool,  refreshing,  cold,  etc.  Touch. 
Such  lessons  admit  of  an  endless  variety,  and 
may  la-  cither  entirely  objective,  that  is,  given 
with    the    objects    placed    before    the   pupils,  or 
purely  conceptive :  such  as  those  above  on  the 
tree  and  the  sea.    Both  kinds,  however,  have  the 
same  primary  object  in  view, — to  train  the  con- 
ccpiivc    faculty  in   connection   with   expression. 
»  Ibservation  is  also  greatly  stimulated  and  guided 
by  such   lessons.     'I  litis,  to  take  so   familiar  an 
object   as  the  sky,  of  which  every  child  must 
necessarily   have  a    multitude   of    conceptions, 

although  perhaps  indefinite  and  al st  useless, 

because  not  associated  with  any  names.  How 
much  would  his  real  available  knowledge  be  in- 
creased by  an  exercise  enabling  him  to  enumerate 
the  various  appearances  of  the  sky  by  proper 
designations.  Thus: — Tut:  Sky  may  be  serene, 
stormy,    clear,    overcast,    misty,    hazy,  foggy. 


thej  are  derived.    Clearness  and  strength  of  per- 
ception   are    followed    by   the  same  qualities  in 


properties  of  a  great  variety  of  familiar  objects 
may  be  recalled  and  named,  and  in  this  way  the. 
attention  of  the  pupils  to   minute  characteristic- 


CONCERT  TEACHING 


may    lie  cultivated,  and  their  command  of  1 
guage  much  increased 


The  conceptions 
fluenced  by  its  feeli 

mental  m 1  will  e 

tii  m  of  any  deep  oi 


greatly  in-    menl  oi  ini 


or     collective    sympathy    is     established,     whirl, 
would    not    he    possible   by  I  he  lArlim  e,  ■m|,|,  ,y. 


cherished  and  imperishable  r 

hood,  often  as  bright  and  cli 
were  at  twenty,  are  those  I 
ceptive  faculty  which  have  b 
keeping  under  the  influence 

emotions."  There  is  no  \ 
teacher  should  more  earnest! 

prompting  as  it   dues  to  tin 


collections  of  child 
ar  at  eighty  as  the; 
easun  -  of  the  con 
■en  consigned  to  it 

.f  vivid   pleasiirahli 


Tl i  rcise  of  intelligence  is,  however,  i"  be 

msidered    the  rhii-f  instrument    of    education: 


Ho 


awaken  its  delight,  and  lend  a  cha 

lectual  acquirements      See  [saai 

Education;    Currie,    Principles  m   I  Practice 

of  Early  and  InfantS  h  o   Educat :  Russell, 

Pedagogy;  Porter.  The  Human  intellect :(N.Y., 
L869). 

CONCERT  TEACHING,  a  mode  of  in- 
struction in  which  the  pupils  memorize  what  is 
to  be  learned,  by  simultaneous  repetition.  It  is 
thus  a  kind  of  rote-teaching,  and  i-  subject  to  all 
the  disadvantages  and  liable  to  all  th  ■  objections 
incident  to  that  system.  In  large  schools,  in 
which  very  many  pupils  are  taught  together  in 
a  single  class, this  has  been  a  common  and  favor- 
ite practice  with  teachers;  because  it  has  been 
found  a  ready  way  to  fix  in  the  memory  of  chil- 
dren the  rudimentary  principles  of  reading,  spell- 
ing, arithmetic,  etc.,  and  to  impart  to  the  pupils 
the  ability  to  repeat,  in  answer  to  set  questions, 
what  has  been  thus  mechanically  learned.  The 
arbitrary  associations  established  in  tins  way  are 
very  strong  and  durable  ;  and,  as  some  things  are 
to  be  taught  arbitrarily,  and  others  to  be  asso- 
ciated in  the  mind  so  that  they  may  he  arbitrarily  I 
suggested,  that  is,  recalled  without  any  effort  of 
reasoning  or  other  mental  process,  the  method  of 
concert  repetition,  has  a  place  in  teaching  that 


teacher,  in  giving  simultaneous  ii 
endeavor  to  prevent  this.  The 
different  temperaments  and  diffi 
mental  power:  and,  consequen 
perform  the  same  work.  The 
addressed  to  the  whole  class,  will 


u    ili, 


who  raise  their  hands  those  who  a 
and.  at  the  same  time,  observing  i 
do  not  raise  their  hands.  Then. win- 
wishes  a  certain  answer  to  he  re  pi 
purpose  of  impressing  it  upon  the  | 
the  class  may  he  required  to  repeal 


is  useful  and  important 
tiplication  table  would 
were  so  learned,  that  th 
reason  out.  or  reckon  u 
quired  combination  :  tl 
such  a  character,  that  thought 


the  si 


d  skill  on 
nethod  of 


ones  of  the 


value  if  it 
1  require  to 
of  each  re- 
s  must  be  of 
unnecessary  to 


recall  them,  the  process  of  simple  suggestion  be- 
ing alone  required.  Heme,  in  memorizing  such 
firings  as  arithmetical  tables,  grammatical  de- 
clensions, conjugations,  etc.,  concert  teaching  is 
valuable,  on  the  principles.  1 1  that  all  repetition 
is  valuable  ill  order  to  impress  the  mind:  and  l'_»l 


voice  should  he  as  natural  as  possible.  Without 
great  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  concert 
exercises  are  very  apt  to  degenerate  into  a  sing- 
song monotonous  drawl,  which  undermines  or 
prevents  all  proper  habits  of  reading  and  speak- 
ing. The  pupils,  too.  are  very  apt  to  pitch  their 
voices  too  high,  or  to  use  a  kind  of  shouting 


with 


that.th, 


to.  the  mental  impressions  and  their  associations 
are  more  durable,  and  more  easily  recalled.  He- 
sides,  by  such  exercises,  the  young  pupils  are 
constantly  employed  ;  their  minds  are  kept  stead- 
ily upon  their  school  work,  and   a  strong  social 


are   to  be  brought  into  play.—  See  t.'i  / 

Principles  umi  Pnn-tiv  ,,/  Kirh/  and  Infant 
School-Education  (Edin  and  Lond.). 


170 


CONCORD  COLLEGE 


CONCORD  COLLEGE,  at  New  Liberty,  I 
Kentucky,  was  established  in  1845,  and  chartered 
in  I860.  It  is  under  the  control  of  Baptists. 
Both  sexes  are  admitted  on  the  same  terms.  The 
institution  comprises  a  classical  course,  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  a  scientific 
course,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  .Sci- 
ence. In  1873—4,  it  had  3  instructors  and  69  j 
students.  II.  J.  Greenwell  is  (1876)  the  pres- 
ident. 

CONCORDIA  COLLEGE,  at  Port  Wayne, 
Indiana,  was  organized  in  1839  and  chartered  in 
1848.  It  is  under  the  control  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church.  The  value  of  its  buildings, 
grounds,  etc.,  is  $150,000.  The  library  contains 
5,000  volumes.  To  students  whose  parents  are 
members  of  the  synod,  tuition  is  free  ;  others  are 
required  to  pay  S24  per  annum.  The  college  hasa 
preparatory  and  a  collegiate  course.  In  1873 — 4, 
there  were  15  instructors  and  255  preparatory 
and  I.'!:;  collegiate  students.  Br.  AY.  Sihicr  is 
(1876)  its  president. 

CONGREGATION ALISTS.  This  denom- 
ination takes  its  name  from  the  fact,  that  the 
church  government  is  lodged  with  each  local 
congregation  or  ecclesia.  And  yet,  in  this  re- 
spect, the  Congregationalists  do  not  differ  essen- 
tially from  the  Baptists,  the  Universalists,  and  the 
Unitarians.  The  Congregationalists  of  the  Tint- 


ed States  correspond,  in  general,  with  the  Inde- 
pendents of  England,  and  these  names  are  used 
somewhat  interchangeably  on  both  sides  of  the 
water.  The  difference  as  far  as  there  is  a  differ- 
ence, is  found  in  this,  that  the  word  Li*/,/,,, ,</,„? 
has  a  stronger  reference  to  the  absolute  and  final 
power  of  the  local  church,  while  the  word  Con- 
grega  ■'  suggests  more  the  comity, fellowship, 
'intereh.iiijy  1 1 -t  ween  churches  thai  are, neverthe- 
less, independent.  The  word  Congregational 
and  that  which  is  peculiarly  suggested  by  it.  is 
rather  growing  in  favor  in  England;  but  hither- 
to the  English  Independents  have  made  less  of 
councils,  conferences,  associations,  than  have  the 
American  Ooiigrcgat  ionalists.  The  general  name 
in  England  embracing  the  Independents,  is  "The 
( 'ongreg.it  loiial  Union." 

The  first  Congregational  church  in  America 
was  planted  at  Plymouth  in  1620;  and  the 
second  at  Salem  in  1629.  By  the  year  1700,  the 
number  of  churches  was  about  130.  The  Pres- 
byterians and  Congregationalists  had  been  kin- 
dred in  their  history  in  the  old  world,  and  they 
early  became  kindred  here.  Until  within  times 
quite  recent,  it  was  the  common  sentiment,  that 
a  man  who  was  a  Oongregationalist  in  New 
England,  would  be  a  Presbyterian  in  the  Middle 
States,  and  vice  versa.  When  the  great  wave 
of  population  began  to  set  westward  from  the 
Atlantic  shore,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century,  these  two  denominations  formed  a  "1  Man 
of  Union",  by  which  they  worked  togetherinthe 

founding  of  churches.  ~,-\ kaul  colleges  in  the 

Middle  ami  Western  States.  The  great  benevolent 
societies  like  the  American  Hoard,  the  American 
Home  Missionary  Society,  the  American  Edu- 
cation  Society,   were    union   societies   between 


CONGREG  ATION  ALISTS 

these  two  denominations,  until  within  a  few 
years. 

Because  of  this  prevailing  seiitinn  nt.  the  Con- 
gregationalists of  New  England  did  not,  until 
the  present  century  attempt  to  found  churches 
distinctly  Congregationa]  out  of  New  England, 
and  not  till  within  the  last  forty  years  was  any 
special  influence  put  forth  in  this  direction.  But 
now  the  denomination,  m  the  ^tate,-,  and  territo- 
ries, numbers  3,438  churches,  of  which  1,459  are 
in  New  Kiiglaiiil.an.l  1,979  out  of  New  England. 
There  are  but  57  <  Congregational  churches  in  the 
Southern  States.  The  number  of  ministers  be- 
longing to  the  denomination  is  3,300. 

The  system  of  common  schools  originated  with 
the  Congregationalists  of  New  England  in  the 
early  generations,  and  so  thoroughly  inwrought 
is  this  system  with  the  whole  history  and  habit 
of  the  denomination,  that  it  would  be  an  anomaly 
to  find  any  number  of  Congregationalists  any- 
where in  this  country,  without  public  schools. 

From  the  first  they  built  their  institutions 
upon  the  principle  of  an  educated  ministry,  and 
founded  their  colleges  to  this  end.  The  rule  has 
been  with  slight  exceptions,  from  1,620  until  now, 
that  a  Congregationa]  church  should  have  a 
minister,  with  a  collegiate  education.  In  Con- 
necticut, from  L635  1835,  there  were  not  far 
from  1,000  Congregational  ministers,  and  not 
more  than  30  of  them  were  without  an  English 
university  education,  or  a  collegiate  education  on 
these  shores.  What  was  true  in  that  state  will 
be  found  substantially  true  in  all  the  New  Eng- 
land states.  Quite  anumber  of  the  colleges  and 
iheolo^ical  schools  which  the  Congregationalists 
largely  helped  to  build,  under  the  Plan  of  LJmo-n, 
now  belong  to  the  Presbyterians.  But  aside 
from  these,  their  colleges  are  as  follows,  with  the 
date  of  the-  foundation:  Harvard.  Mass,  (1638), 
now  Unitarian;  Yale,  Ct:  (1100);  Dartmouth,  N. 
II.  (1769);  University  of  Vt.  (1791);  Williams, 
Mass.  (1793);  Middlebury,  Vt.(1800);  Bowdoin, 
Me.  (1802);  Amherst,  Mass.  (1821);  Illinois.  111. 
(1S30);  Oberliu,  O.  (1834);  Beloit,  Wis.  (1847); 
Iowa,  Io.  (1847);  Olivet,  Mich.  (1855);  Pacific 
University,  Oregon  (1*59);  Washburn,  Kan. 
(1865);  Wheaton,  111.  (I860);  Ripon,  AYis. 
(1863);  Fisk  University,  Term.  (1867),  Carleton, 
Minn.  (1867);  Tabor,  Iowa  (1866);  Berea,  Ey. 
(1858);  Drury,  Mo.  (1873);  Thayer,  Mo.  (1868); 
Doane,  Neb.  (1872);  Colorado.  Col.  (1874). 

The  Congregational  theological  seminaries  are, 
Andover,  Mass.  (1808) — the  oldest  theological 
school  in  the  country;  Bangor.  Me.  (1817);  New 
Haven,  Ct.  (lK22);l'fartford,Ot.  (Is34);0berlin, 
o.  (1835);  Chicago,  111.  (1858);  Pacific  Theo. 
Sen,.,  Cal.  (1869): 

Of  academies  and  female  schools  the  list  is 
too  long  to  be  enumerated.  Some  of  the  oldest 
and  best-known  academies  to  prepare  boys  for 

Andover,  Mass.:  Phillips  Academy,  Exeter.  N. 
II.;  anilWilliston  Aeademv.  Ha.-thampton,  Mass. 
Of  female  academies,  there  are  Mt.  Ilolyoke 
Seminary,  Hadley,  Mass.;  Abbott  Academy, 
Andover,  Mass.;  Bradford  Academy,  Bradford, 


CONG  BEUATIOXALISTS 

Mass.;  Wheaton  Academy,  Norton,  Mass.  and 
Wellesley  College,  at  Wellesley,  Mass. 

Of  Congregational  colleges  in  England,  some 
of  the  more  conspicuous  are,  Rotherham  Lude- 
pendent  Collet'  ( 1  T  -~.  I :  i .  with  wliieli  Rev.  F.  J. 
Falding,  D.D.,  and  Rev.  II.  I!.  Reynolds  are 
prominently  connected:  I-ancashiiv  I n< Kpt-nilcitt 
College  (1806),  where  Rev.  J.  G-.  Rogers  and 
Rev.  J.  Baldwin  Brown,  both  London  ministers. 
are  employed  as  lecturers;  New  College,  London 

ReT.J.Stoughton,D.D.,and  Rev.RHu^vjm- 

'l'he,.],^i,-:,l  1  [.,11  ..t  <■,.,,_,,  ^u,.,Ml  i  hmvhrs  ol- 
der is  honorably  associated,  and  several  other 
institutions,  with  the  same  general  character 
and  aim. 

The  American  Education  Society,  organized, 
in  lsltl.  to  assist  young  men  in  humble  circum- 
stances, in  obtaining  an  education  for  the  Chris- 
tian ministry,  has  given  aid,  in  the  sixty  years 
of  its  existence,  to  <;.:til'-'  young  men.  It  assists 
them  only  in  the  collegiate"  ami  theological 
courses,  though,  in  the  early  years,  it  gave  aid 
also  in  the  preparatory  departments.  Its  prin- 
ciple is  not  to  support,  but  to  help  men  to  help 
themselves.  It  gives  them  $100,  a  year,  each. 
The  society  is  now  giving  its  aid  to  310  young 
men  in  thirty  different  colleges  and  theological 
schools.  Two  years  since,  this  society  was  united 
with  the  College  Society,  so  called,  whose  func- 
tion it  was  to  assist  young  colleges  at  the  West. 
Since  the  union,  the  name  of  the  organization  is 
"The  American  College  and  Education  Society". 
and  it  has  now  the  double  duty  of  aiding  young 
colleges,  as  well  as  young  men. 

The  denomination  now  carries  on  its  benevo- 
lent work  throuidi  six  societies,  which  are  dis- 
tinctively <  'onuivlmtioiial.  namely:  The  American 
Board  of  Commissioners  for  Forei  m   Missions. 


CONNECTICUT 


171 


American   I  longregal 

ing);  The  American  .Miss 
among  the  freedmen  of  tl 
College  and  Education 


S  Society  :  The 
d  church-buUd- 
ssociation  i  work 

and  the  Con- 
gregational Publishing  Society.  Besides  these, 
the  Congregational  churches  bear  a  part  in  the 
union  societies,  like  the  American  Bible  Society. 

American  Sunday  School  L'nion.etc.  The  whole 
amount  of  the  benevolent  contributions  of  the 
denomination,  last  year,  was  $1,241,014.29. 

While  the  Congregational  system  of  church 
government  lodges  the  power  with  each  local 
church,  yet  it  makes  much  of  the  advisory  power 
of  councils.  _  In  the  settlement  and  dismissals  of 
ministers, — in  the  organization  of  new  churches. 
— in  cases  of  difficulty  in  any  local  church — it  is 
customary  to  call  upon  sister  churches  for  coun- 
sel and  assistance.  There  has  also  grown  up  in 
the  denomination  a  large  system  of  interchange 
and  fellowship,  by  means  of  associations,  local 
and  state  conferences,  and  now,  at  length,  a  trien- 
nial national  council. 

_  From  the  circumstance,  that  the  Congrega- 
tional lm  s  so  early  founded  their  system  of  public  | 


schools  and  their  colleges,  it  has  come  to  pass, 
that  this  denomination  has  furnished  the  educa 
torsof  tin imiry.  in  the  lower,  and  especially 

in  the  higher  departments,  far  beyond  any  other 
religious  denomination  in  the  land.  It  has  sup- 
plied presidents  of  colleges,  and  prof, 
leges  and  theological  schools  in  immense  num- 
bers. Anything  like  an  enumeration  of  nunc,. 
in  this  particular  would  require  so  much  space, 
that  we  will  not  attempt  it.  But  the  fact  will 
probably  stand  unchallenged  by  all  intelligent 
anil  observing  men.  A  few  conspicuous  names 
may  be  mentioned,  for  the  most  part  belonging 
to  by-gone  generations.  Such  were  Increase 
Mather.  Edward  Holyoke,  John  T.  Kirkland, 
dared  Sparks,  presidents  of  Harvard  College; 
Thomas  <  lap.  Ezra  Stiles.  Timothy  Dwight,  Jer- 
emiah Hay.  presidents  of  Yale  College;  Eleazar 
Wheelock  and  Nathan  Lord  of  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege. The  late  Dr.  Theron  Baldwin,  for  nearly 
thirty  years  secretary  of  the  College  Society,  by 
reason  of  his  large  organizing  power  in  the  depart- 
ment of  education,  fitly  finds  a  place  in  this  list. 
<  If  men  still  living,  but  who,  by  reason  of  age,  have 
passed  out  of  the  offices  theyso  long  held.and 
may  be  reckoned  as  erm  riti,  we  may  nam.    Mark 

Hopkins,  of  Williams   College,  and    II lore 

Dwight  Woolsey.  of  Vale  ( !ollege.  Prom  the  be- 
ginning until  now.  the  presidents  and  professors 
in  the  l''.-l.\  til  in  institutions  ha\e  been  laigeh 
furnished  by  New  England;  and  the  same  is  fine. 
in  a  lesser  proportion,  in  the  institutions  of  other 
denominations.  A  catalogue  of  presidents  and 
professors  in  American  colleges  and  theological 
seminaries,  including  only  the  men  born  and 
reared  among  the  "  Congregationalists,"  would 
embrace  several  hundred  names. 

CONNECTICUT,  one  of  the  original  thir- 
teen states  of  the  American  Union,  having  a 
population,  in  1870,  of  537,454,  and  an  area  of 
4,750  sq.  m..  being  the  smallest  of  the  present 
states  except  Rhode  Island  and  Delaware. 

h'i/iir,itiiniul  Ilisloiy. — This  topic  may  con- 
veniently be  discussed  under  three  heads:  (I) 
The  establishing  of  schools:  (II)  The  mode  of 
maintaining  them  ;  (III)  The  mode  of  supervis- 
ing them. 

I.  The  earliest  European  immigrants  to  Con 
necticut  established  schools  very  soon  after  their 
arrival.  Two  distinct  colonies  were  originally 
planted  within  the  present  limits  of  the  state, 
each  consisting  of  Beveral  towns  or  plantations. 
1 1  art  ford  settled  in  1  n.'i."i)  was  the  leading  tow  n  in 
the  Connecticut  colony.and  New  Havi  i 
in  I  638 1,  in  the  New  I  laven  colony.  At  firs!  i  ai  h 
town  acted  independently  in  establishing  schools. 
The  earliest  records  of  Hartford  arc  lost. but  the 
oldest  extant  records  show  that  a  school  existed 
there  as  early  as  1642.  The  records  of  New 
Haven  speak  of  a  school  there  in  1639  :• 
two  years  later  they  contain  a  vote  to  provide 
means  for  a  school.  The  action  of  these  two 
leading  towns  no  doubt  indicates  correctly  the 
similar  action  of  the  other  original  towns.  The 
first  code  of  laws  for  the  Connecticut  colony, 
completed  in  165U,  required  "the  selectmen  of 


172 


COWKCTirUT 


i-very  town  to  have  a  vigilant  eye  over  their 
brethren  and  neighbors,  to  see  thai  none  of  them 
shall  suffer  so  much  barbarism  in  any  of  their 
families  as  not  to  endeavor  to  teach,  by  them- 
selves or  others,  their  children  and  apprentices 
si  i  much  learning  as  may  enable  them  perfectly 
to  read  the  English  tongue,  etc."  The  same  code 
required  every  town  containing  :"><>  families  to 
"  appoint  one  within  their  town  to  teach  all  such 
children  as  shall  resort  to  him,  to  write  and 
read;"  and  every  town  of  1  ( 10  families,  to  "  set 
up  a  grammar  school,  the  masters  thereof  being 
able  to  instruct  youths  so  far  as  they  may  be 
fitted  for  the  university."  The  New  Haven 
colony  code,  prepared  iu  1655,  was  equally  em- 
phatic in  requiring  the  education  of  all  children. 
The  two  colonies  were  united  in  1665,  and  the 
Connecticut  code  became  the  law  for  the  whole 
colony.  In  1671'.  that  code  was  revised,  and  the 
provision  requiring  a  grammar  school  in  every 
town  of  LOO  families,  was  superseded  by  a  new 
law  requiring  such  a  school  to  bo  maintainel  in 
the   county  town  of  each  of  the  four  counties 

that  had  then  been  organize  1;  u. Iv.  Hartford. 

New  Haven.  New  London,  and  Fairfield.  This 
law  remained  in  force  till  179s.  In  I  678,  every 
town  c  mtaining  30  families  (instead  of  50)  was 
require  I  to  maintain  a  school.  A  new  revision 
of  the  code  was  prepared  in  1  700,  and  publishe  1 
two  years  later,  ruder  the  revised  code,  even- 
town  of  70  families,  or  more,  was  required  to 
maintain  a  school  eleven  months  of  each  year, 
and  every  town  of  less  than  70  t.nuilie-  to  have 
a  school  at  least  half  of  the  year.  In  1717, these 
requirements  were  extended  to  parishes  or  socie- 
ties, into  which  several  towns  of  large  extent 
were  divided,  from  time  to  time,  for  the  con- 
venience of  people  in  attending  public  worship. 
In  1700.  each  town, and  each  parish,  where  there 
was  more  than  one  iu  a  town,  was  authorized  to 
divide  itself  into  convenient  districts,  and  main- 
tain within  its  limits  as  many  schools  as  might 
be  needed  to  accommodate  its  inhabitants.  Pre- 
vious to  this  time,  the  law  had  required  only  one 
school  in  each  town  or  society.  The  law  of  1  766 
led.  in  time,  to  the  "  district  system"  of  establish- 
ing and  maintaining  schools.  At  first,  however, 
the  districts  were  merely  subdivisions  of  towns 
or  parishes.  In  17!H.  their  separate  existence 
began  to  be  recognized  in  legislation.  They 
were  authorized  that  year  to  locate  new  school- 
houses  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds  of  the  citizens,  to 
lay  taxes  for  the  same,  and  to  appoint  collectors. 
In  I  799,  they  were  empowered  to  choose  clerks 
and  treasurers  ;  and,  finally,  in  1839,  they  wen.' 
declared  to  be  "bodies  corporate,"  anil  were 
authorized  to  elect  their  own  committees.  In 
L795, 1798,  and  1799,  laws  were  passed  by  which 
parishes  or  societies  were  invested  with  full  con- 
trol over  schools  within  their  limits,  and  were 
designated  by  the  new  name  of -'school  societies." 
Such  society  might  be  an  entire  town,  a  pari  of 
a  town,  or  parts  of  two  or  more  towns  ;  bill   all 

action  concerning  schools  was  taken   by  scl 1 

ocieties,  and  towns,  as  such,  had  no  pari  in 
school    affairs.      In    ls50,    school    societies    were 


abolished,  and  their  powers  and  duties  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  towns.  In  1865,  the  towns  were 
authorized  to  consolidate  all  their  districts,  pro- 
vided a  majority  of  the  districts  in  a  town  con- 
sented. In  1866,  the  right  to  consolidate  was 
given  without  that  condition:  and  this  law.  with 
slight  modifications,  is  still  in  force.  Under  this 
law,  several  towns  have  abolished  their  school 
districts  and  returned  to  the  original  "  town 
system." 

II.  There  have  been  three  principal  sources  of 
support  for  public  schools:  (1)  Taxes:  (2)  Tui- 
tion fees,  or  rate  bills ;  (3)  The  income  of  per- 
manent funds. 

(1)  71  Mrs. — The  earliest  schools  in  Hartford. 
New  Haven,  AVethersfield.  and.  doubtless,  in  the 
other  original  towns,  were  supported  in  part  by 
appropriations  from  the  town  treasuries.  The 
code  of  1650  (already  mentioned)  directed  that  the 
teachers  should  be  paid  •■cither  by  the  pa  nail:-  iii 
masters  of  such  children  "  as  resorted  to  them, 
•or  by  the  inhabitants  in  general  by  way  of 
supply,  as  the  major  part  of  those  who  order  the 
prudentials  of  the  town  shall  appoint."  The  two 
methods  here  suggested. — taxes  and  tuition  fees 

-were,  doubtless,  combined,  as  they  had  been  be- 
fore that  code  was  formed.  In  L690,the  general 
court  (i.e.,  legislature,!  of  the  colony  granted  60 
pounds  yearly  to  each  of  the  county  grammar 
schools  of  1 1  art  ton  laud  New  Haven."  110  pounds 
of  ii  to  be  paid  out  of  the  county  treasury,  the 
other  :io  to  be  paid  in  the  school  revenue  given 
by  particular  persons,  or  to  be  given  for  thai  use. 
so  far  as  it  will  extend,  the  rest  to  be  paid  by  the 
respective  towns  of  Hartford  and  New  Haven." 
In  L693,  20  pounds  was  voted  to  each  of  the 
other  two  grammar  schools.  In  the  revised  code 
of  1700  (previously  referred  to),  an  important 
change  was  made.  The  sum  of  40  shillings 
on  the  thousand  pounds  was  ordered  to  be  paid 
from  the  colony  treasury  to  those  towns  which 
maintained  schools  according  to  law,  in  propor- 
tion to  their  respective  grand  lists  of  taxable 
property  and  polls.  This  sum  was  assessed  in 
addition  to  previous  taxes,  and  was  thus  virtually 
a  town  tax  for  schools.  If  the  amount  thus  re- 
ceived by  any  town  was  insufficient  to  maintain 
its  school,  the  deficiency  was  to  be  "  made  up  of 
such  estate  as  hath  been  bequeathed  by  any  for 
that  use,  and  for  want  thereof,  the  one  half  to  be 
paid  by  the  town,  and  the  other  by  the  children 
that  go  to  school,  unless  any  town  agree  other- 
wise." In  171 7,  parishes  or  societies  were  placed 
on  the  same  footing  as  towns  for  maintaining 
schools.  The  law  of  1700,  as  thus  amended,  re- 
mained in  force,  with  slight  modifications,  till 
1820.  The  most  important  modifications  were 
the  following:  In  1754,  the  rate  of  tax  was 
diminished  from  40  shillings  to  10;  in  I  700.  it 
was  increased  to  20:  and  in  1707.  was  restored 
to  40.    The  burdens  of  the  Seven  Years'  war 

L756  63),  doubtless,  caused  the  diminution 
of  the  tax.  In  1820,  the  state  school  fund  had 
beci ■  so  productive  that  a  law  was  passed  per- 
mitting the  discontinuance  of  the  tax  whenever 
the  yearly  income  of  that  fund  should  amount  to 


CONNECTICUT 


$62.000, which  occurred  the  next  year,  tn  ls.">4. 
the  town  school  tax  was  restored,  and  it  has  since 
been  repeatedly  increased,  till  it  now  supplies 
fully  half  of  the  funds  for  the  current  expenses 
of  public  schools.  In  L839,  school  districts  were 
authorized  to  tax  themselves  for  current  school 

expenses.     Thisisnowdi most  commonly  by 

the  more  populous  and  wealthy  districts.  In 
1*71.  there  was  appropriated  from  the  state 
treasury  50  cents  for  each  child  between  I  and 
16  years  of  age.  The  next  year  the  sum  was  in- 
creased to  one  dollar  and  a  halt  per  child,  which 
it  now  remains. 

(2)  Tuition  Fees  or  Rate  Bills.  —These  were 
a  source  of  school  income  from  the  beginning  till 
they  were  abolished  in  L868.  When'  parents  or 
guardians  were  too  poor  to  pay  them,  they  could 


fn.m  the  treasury  of  the  U.  S.  In  L836,  Congress 
directed  that  the  "surplus  revenue"  then  on 
hand  should  Undivided   a ir    the  stales  in  m'o- 


(3    /  of  Permani      /'      fe.— Alawal- 

read]  quoted,  passed  in  L 690,  refers  to  "school 
revenue  given  by  particular  persons."  The  quo- 
tation already  given  from  the  law  of  1700,  con- 
tains similar  language.  In  17,'S:i,  the  public 
lands  belonging  to  the  colony,  now  constituting 
the  north-western  part  of  the  state,  were  set  apart 
to  form  a  permanent  school  fund,  and  the  avails 
of  these  lands,  exec] it  certain  reservations,  were 
distributed  among  the  towns  then  organized,  in 
proportion  to  their  tax  lists;  parishes  receiving 
their  portions  on  the  same  basis.  The  money 
thus  obtained  now  constitutes  the  greater  part 
of  the  -'school  society  fund-"  belonging  to  many 
of  the  former  societies.     A  small  part  of  these 

funds  came  from  the '"excise  nevs"  granted 

by  the  colony,  in  L766,  lot- the  encouragement  of 
schools,  ami  another  part  from  the  donations  and 
bequests  of  benevolent  persons.  The  Connection 
School  Fund  was  for  more  than  half  a  century 
the  main  source  of  public  school  income.  By 
the  charter  granted  to  I  'oimeeticut  by  I  'ha  lie.-  1 1, 
of  England,  in  1662,  the  colony  extended  west- 
ward to  the  Pacific,  and  from  41°  to  421-'  2'  X. 
lat.  The  part  of  this  territory  now  belonging 
to  Pennsylvania,  was  yielded  to  that  state 
after  a  bitter  controversy,  but  the  title  of  Con- 
necticut to  the  remainder,  lying  farther  west. 
was  continued.  In  L786,  this  was  ceded  to  the 
U.  S.,  except  a  reservation  extending  120  miles 
westward  from  the  W.  line  of  Pennsylvania,  and 
known  as  the"  Western  deserve,"  or  sometimes 
as  "  New  Connecticut."  This  tract,  except  a 
small  part  previously  disposed  of.  was  sold  in 
17'.).")  for  Sl.000.ooii,  which  was  the  original 
capital  of  the  Connecticut  school  fund.  By  ju- 
dicious management,  particularly  that  of  James 
Hillhouse.  commissioner  of  the  fund  from  ltd 0 
to  1825,  and  Seth  P.  Beers,  from  1825  to  1st'.). 
the  capital  was  increased  to  over  $2,000,000. 
The  first  dividend  was  paid  in  1  7'.)'.).  The  fund 
now  bears  interest  at  7  per  cent,  and  in  some 
cases  more  than  that.  The  income,  until  1820, 
was  distributed  to  the  school  societies  in  propor- 
tion to  their  respective  amounts  of  taxable  prop- 
erty and  polls;  since  that  time  it  is  divided  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  children  between  4  and 
16  yearsof  age. — The  Town  l>rj„isil  Fund  came 


from  which  they  were  formed.  In  theory,  this 
money  is  merely  deposited  with  the  towns  1>\ 
the  state  (whence  its  name),  and  is  liable  to 
be  recalled;  but,  practically,  it  belongs  absolutely 
to  the  towns.  At  first,  one  half  of  the  income 
was  devoted  by  law  to  public  schools;  since 
Is.").-),  the  entire  income  has  been  so  devoted. 
111.    I  o,-t he  first  Co  or  TOvearsin  the  historv 


their  townsmen  to  prevent  the  "  barbarism  "  of 
ignorance;  but  nothing  is  recorded  which  indi- 
cates that   schools  were  particularly  under  their 


qualifications  of  the  masters  of  such  schools  and 
their  dtligi  nee  in  attending  to  the  service  of  the 
.-aid  schools,  together  with  the  proficiem  \  ol  the 
children  under  their  care."  They  were  also  re- 
quired to  give  such  directions  as  would  render 
the  schools  most  efficient  for  the  purpose  in- 
tended. This  law  remained  in  force  till  1798, 
when  each  society  -  then  called  a  school  society— 
was  required  to  "appoint  a  suitable  number  of 
persons,  not  exceeding  nine,  of  competent  skill 
and  letters,  to  be  overseers  and  visitors  of 
schools."    who    were    to    examine    and     approve 


teael 


eh  as 


then 


disregarded    the    "regit 

superintend  and  direc 
youth  in  letters,  refigii 

and  in  other  ways  promote  the  efficiency  of 
the  schools.  When  the  school  societies  were 
abolished,  in  L856,  the  appointment  of  "school 
visitors     was  transferred  to  the  towns. 

No  state  superintendent  of  schools  was  chosen 

in  C lecticut  till  ls:{'.».     In  that  year,  a  board 

of  commissioners  of  common  schools  was  created. 
ami  authorized  to  appoint  its  own  secretary, who 
was  to- devote  his  whole  time,  if  required,  un- 
der the  direction  of  the  board,  to  ascertain  the 

condition,  increase  the  interest,  and   pi ite  the 

usefulness,  of  the  common  schools."  The  board 
appointed  as  its  secretary  Henry  Barnard,  who 
served  the  state  efficiently  in  thai  position  till 
L842,  when  the  law  creating  the  board  was  re- 


m 


CONNECTICUT 


pealed.  In  1845,  the  commissioner  of  the  school 
fund,  S'eth  P.  Beers,  was  appointed  by  the  gen- 
eral assembly  superintendent  of  common  schools. 
In  1849,  an  act  was  passed  establishing  a  normal 
school,  the  principal  of  which  was  to  be.  ex  offi- 
cio, superintendent  of  common  schools.  Under 
this  act.  Henry  Barnard  became  superintendent 
in  September  of  that  year,  and  continued  to 
hold  the  office  till  January,  1855.  .lolm  1). 
Philbriek  succeeded  him  for  two  years,  and 
David  N.  Camp  was  superintendent  from  Jan- 
uary. L857,  to  August,  L865.  In  July.  1865, 
the  state  board  of  education  was  constituted,  and 
was  required  to  appoint  a  secretary,  who  by  the 
appointment  was  made  superintendent  of  schools. 
The  first  secretary  was  Daniel  C.  Oilman,  who 
filled  the  position  from  August,  1865.  to  Jan- 
uary. 1867.  The  present  secretary.  Birdsey  O. 
Northrop,  entered  upon  his  duties  January  1., 
1867. 

A  State  Teachers'  Association  was  formed 
April  7..  1846,  which  meets  once  a  year  Teach- 
ers' Institutes  arc  held  in  different  parts  of  the 
state,  every  year.  They  are  provided  for  by  an 
appropriation  of  $3,000  a  year,  from  the  state 
treasury.  Associations  of  teachers  for  mutual 
improvement  are  formed  from  time  to  time  in 
some  towns. 

School  System. — The  general  supervision  and 
control  of  the  educational  interests  of  the  state 
are  entrusted  to  the  state  board  of  education, 
which  consists  of  six  persons. — the  governor  and 
lieutenant-governor  of  the  state,  ex  officio,  and 
one  person  from  each  of  the  four  congressional 
districts,  chosen  by  the  general  assembly  for  the 
term  of  four  years,  one  going  out  of  office  each 
year,  but  re-eligible.  The  secretary  chosen  by 
this  board  is  superintendent  of  schools,  as  above 
stated.  Towns  are  required  to  maintain  schools 
for  at  least  30  weeks  in  each  year,  in  every 
district  containing  24  or  more  persons  between 
4  and  1  n'  years  of  age,  and  for  at  least  24  weeks 
in  other  districts :  but  no  school  need  be 
maintained  in  any  district  in  which  the  aver- 
age attendance,  the  previous  year,  was  less 
than  8.  Each  town  has  a  board  of  school 
visitors,  either  6  or  9  in  number,  who  are 
chosen  by  ballot  for  three  years,  one  third  go- 
ing out  of  office  each  year,  but  re-eligible.  In 
choosing  them,  no  voter  may  vote  for  more  than 
half  of  the  number  to  be  chosen  when  it  is  an 
even  number,  nor  for  more  than  a  bare  majority 
when  it  is  an  odd  number.  *  The  care  of  school 
funds  and  other  school  property  belonging  to  the 
towns, is  entrusted  to  selectmen,  and  the  visitors 
have  charge  of  strictly  educational  affairs.  They 
examine  and  certificate  teachers,  rejecting  those 
considered  unfit  or  incompetent,  prescribe  rules 
and  regulations  for  the  management,  studies, 
classification,  and  discipline  of  public  schools, 
and  direct  what  text-books  shall  be  used.  They 
approve  sites  and  plans  for  new  school-houses, 
fill  vacancies  in  district  offices,  make  rules  for 
the  care  and  management  of  district  libraries, 
and  supervise  high  schools  where  such  exist. 
They  annually  assign  to  one  or  more  of  their 


number,  ealleil  acting  visitors,  the  duty  of  visit 
ing  all  public  schools  in  the  town  at  least  twice 
in  each  term.  They  choose  from  their  own  num- 
ber a  chairman  and  secretary,  make  yearly  re- 
turns of  the  number  of  children  between  4  and 
16  years  of  age.  and  draw  all  moneys  from  the 
state  treasury.  They  also  send  to  the  secretary 
of  the  board  of  education  such  statistical  re- 
turns as  he  may  call  for.  As  compensation,  they 
are  entitled  to  receive  3  dollars  a  day,  for  the 
time  necessarily  spent  in  performing  their  duties. 
Each  town  has  power  to  form. alter, and  dissolve 
school  districts  within  its  limits,  and  any  two  or 
more  towns  may  form  joint  districts  of  adjoining 
parts  of  their  territory.  Kaeh  district  is  a  body 
corporate,  with  all  the  powers  necessary  for 
building,  purchasing,  hiring,  and  repairing 
school-houses,  employing  and  paying  teachers, 
and  raising  moneys  by  tax  or  loan.  The  name 
or  number,  and  the  boundaries  of  every  district 
arc  to  be  definitely  ascertained  and  entered  on 
its  own  records,  as  well  as  on  those  of  the  town 
or  towns  in  which  it  is  situated.  Each  district 
chooses  yearly  by  ballot  a  committee  of  not 
more  than  3  persons,  a  clerk,  treasurer,  and  col- 
lector Some  large  districts  choose  their  com- 
mittees in  the  same  way  that  school  visitors  are 
chosen,  as  already  described.  The  committee  of  a 
district  is  its  agent,  employing  its  teacher  or 
teaehei-s.  and  taking  charge  of  its  affairs;  giving 
notice  of  district  meetings,  and  calling  special 
meetings  when  deemed  necessary,  or  when  one- 
fifth  or  ten  of  the  voters  in  the  district  request 
it  in  writing. 

Any  town  may.  at  any  annual  meeting,  abol- 
ish all  the  school  districts  and  parts  of  districts 
within  its  limits,  and  constitute  itself  one  district. 
Such  town  assumes  all  the  property  and  debts  of 
the  former  district,  and  chooses  by  ballot,  as 
school  visitors  are  chosen,  a  committee  of  6,  9, 
or  12  male  residents,  who  take  the  place  and 
perform  the  duties  of  both  district  officers  and 
school  visitors.  They  arrange  for  schools,  of  at 
least  30  weeks  in  the  year,  in  the  different  parts 
of  the  town,  and  take  charge  of  school-buildings 
and  other  school  property.  All  towns  have 
authority  to  establish  and  maintain  high  schools, 
and  to  do  what  is  requisite  for  that  purpose. 
The  state  makes  yearly  payments  for  procuring 
and  replenishing  libraries  and  apparatus,  to  such 
districts  as  comply  with  certain  requirements. 
Teachers  are  required  to  be  examined  and  ap- 
proved by  the  school  visitors  before  commencing 
to  teach,  and  to  keep  an  accurate  record  of  each 
scholar's  attendance,  in  registers  provided  by  the 
state  for  that  purpose.  An  enumeration  of  all 
persons  between  4  and  1  6  years  of  age  is  made 
yearly,  in  January,  and  the  number  is  returned 
to  the  proper  officer  by  February  5th. The  dis- 
tribution of  the  school  finance  and  state  appro- 
priation is  based  on  this  enumeration. 

Education  il  condition.  The  number  of  school 
districts  as  returned  in  L876,  is  1506,  of  which 
L6  comprise  each  an  entire  town;  obout  2(10  are 
joint  districts,  lying  in  two  or  more  towns,  and 
about   1280  are  each  a  part  of  a  town.      The 


CONNECTICUT 


175 


number  of  schools  was  1 ,650  :  of  departments, 
2,499.     The  number  of  graded  schools  was  264  ; 

of  which  11-t  had  each  two  departments  ;  39  had 
3  each;  37,4;  23.5;  11.  6;  111.7;  5,8;  5,9; 
fi,  10;  1,11;  7,  12;  3,  13  ;  1,19;  1,  20;  1,21. 
The  whole  number  of  departments  in  the  graded 
schools  was  1,093.  Hence  about  1,406  of  the 
public  schools  were  ungraded. 

The  support  of  schools  (including  the  cost  of 
building  and  repairing  school-houses)  was  de- 
rived from  several  sources;   namely. 

School  Fund    $148,220.60 

Town  Deposit   Fund 46,534.97 

Other  Punas 15,614.79 

Total  from  funds $210,370.36 

State  Tax $202,119.00 

Town  Tax 668,167.13 

District  Tax 463,775.19 

Total  from  taxes     $1,334,061.32 

Voluntary  Contributions 6,881.26 

Other  sources 41,545.17 


Total  from  all  sources $1,592,858.11 

The  average  wages  per  month  of  male  teach- 
ers was  $70.05;  of  female  teachers,  $37.35.  The 
highest  salary  of  any  teacher  is  $3,000  a  year. 

The  course  of  instruction  in  graded  schools 
varies  so  widely  that  no  definite  statement  can 
be  given. 

School  Statistics  (for  the  year  ending  August 

Pupils  enrolled  (or  registered): 

In  the  winter  term 98,402 

"     "   summer  term 88,595 

"     "   whole  year 119,481) 

Average  attendance,  winter 71,935 

"  "  summer 65,251 

"  "  mean,  for  the  year. .         .   68,593 

Total  Receipts $1,592,858.11 

"      Expenditures ]  ,552,583.85 

The  items  of  expenditure  are  as  follows: — 

For  Teachers'  Wages $1,057,242.19 

"     Fuel  and  Incidentals 

"     New  School-Houses 

"    Repairs  of  School- Houses 

"     Library  ami   Apparatus 

"     other  school  purposes,  inclmliiii; 
of  supervision 


I  in,i:ai.fj 

135,1:15.46 

77.544.4(1 

8,262.15 

134,2011.17 


.$1,552,583.1 


Total 

Number  of  Teachers ;  — 
vinter,  males,  721;   females,  1.910;  total 2,631 


272;  "  2,324;      "     ...    .2.511(1 

Niunlici  of  tliflWrnt  teachers  employed,  at  least, 
males,  Till:  females,  2,307;    total,  3.011. 

Normal  Instruction. — The  state  normal  school, 
at  New  Britain,  was  established  in  1849,  and 
opened  for  pupils  in  1850.  It  is  supported  by 
an  appropriation  of  $12,000  a  year  from  the 
state  treasury.  The  number  of  students,  in  1876, 
was  180 ;  instructors,  7.  The  design  of  the 
school  is  strictly  professional  :  that  is.  to  instruct 
its  pupils  in  the  best  methods  of  organizing, 
governing,  and  instructing  schools,  as  well  as  in 
the  various  branches  pursued  in  the  common 
schools  of  the  state.  Candidates  for  admission 
must  be  at  least  16  years  of  age  ;  must  declare 
their  full  attention  to  teach  in  the  public  schools 
of  Connecticut,  and  must  pass  a  satisfactory  ex- 
amination in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, English  grammar,  and  the  history  of  the 
United  States.     The  course  of  study  embraces, 


besides  the  branches  usually  taught  in  the 
schools,  school  laws,  theory  and  art  of  teaching, 
English  literature,  vocal" music,  and  drawing. 
The  full  course  requires  two  years.  This  school 
has  a  library  of  about  500  volumes  ;  a  collection 
of  models,  Casts,  and  apparatus  for  free  hand 
drawing;  a  chemical  laboratory,  and  a  philo- 
sophical cabinet  and  apparatus.  ' 

Secondary  Instruction.  -Of  this  grade  are 
the  high  schools  and  the  academies.  The  ac- 
count already  given  of  the  public  schools  con- 
tains the  facts  in  relation  to  the  county  grammar 
schools,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  high 
schools  of  Connecticut  iron,  1672  to  1798.  The 
Colony  School  in   New   Haven  (1659— 62)  may 

be  considered  the  prototype  of  these  scl Is.    In 

1798,  every  school  society  was  authorized  to  set 
up  a  high  school:  and,  in  1856,  each  (own  re- 
ceived similar  authority.  But  very  few  towns 
have  permanently  maintained  such  schools.  In 
many  of  the  larger  villages,  the  highest  depart- 
ment of  a  graded  school  serves  as  a  high  school. 

In  1658,  Edward  Hopkins,  who  had  beei v- 

ernorof  Connecticut,  died  in  London,  leaving  by 
will  a  part  of  his  estate  to  trustees  in  New 
Haven.  Hartford,  and  Hadley.  Mass..  to  be  used 
"to  give  sonic  encouragement  in  those  foreign 
plantations  for  the  breeding  up  of  hopeful 
youths,  both  at  the  grammar  school  and  college, 
for  the  public  service  of  the  colony  in  future 
times."  New  Haven  and  Hartford  received 
each  a  few  bundled  pounds  from  his  estate,  with 
which  they  laid  the  foundations  of  the  Hopkins 
grammar  schools.  These  schools  date  from 
1660,  though  not  actually  begun  till  1664  and 
1665.  The  school  at  Hartford  was  united  with 
the  high  school  of  that  town  in  184*7,  but  the 
Hopkins  Cranmiar  School  in  New  Haven  has 
retained  its  separate  existence,  though  most  of 
its  present  endowment  came  from  other  sources 
than  the  Hopkins  estate. 

In  the  later  years  of  the  18th  century,  acade- 
mies began  to  he  established,  and  a  large  number 
have  been  incorporated.  A  general  law  for  their 
incorporation  has  been  in  force  since  1838.  At 
present,  about  25  academies  are  in  active  exist- 
ence. In  the  early  part  of  this  century,  the 
I'laintield  Academy,  the  Staples  Free  School,  at 
Easton,  and  Bacon  Academy,  at  Colchester, 
were  especially  prominent,  but  they  have  since 
relatively  declined.  The  most  important  are 
now  the  Episcopal  Academy,  at  Cheshire,  the 
Connecticut  Literary  Institute,  at  Suffield,  the 
Norwich  Free  Academy,  the  Bulkeley  School. 
at  New  London,  and  the  Morgan  School,  at 
Clinton.  The  last  three  named  have  large  en- 
dowments. Bowen  Academy,  at  Woodstock. 
Lewis  Academy,  Southington,  the  Guilford  In- 
stitute, Guilford,  and  the  academics  at  Durham 
ami  Glastonbury  are  also  valuable  instituti  ins, 

Besides  tic  high  schools  and  acad  m        '■  ere 


arc 


southern  and  western  parts  of  the  state      Many 

of  these  arc  boarding-schools  wind,  n  <-  m-  their 
pupils  chiefly  from  New  York  and  other  large 
cities. 


1T6 


CONNECTICUT 


Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — 
There  are  but  few  schools  of  this  kind  except 

those  established  by  the  Human  Catholics  in 
communities  where  citizensof  that  denomination 
are  numerous,  In  two  or  tliree  instances,  schools 
thus  established  have  been  incorporated  into  the 
public  school  system. 

Sup,  rmr  Iiislrnvtiiiii. —  Although  no  college 
was  established  in  Connecticut  till  L700,  the 
founders  of  both  the  original  colonies,  and  espe- 
cially of  New  Haven,  were  ardent  friends  of  col- 
legiate education.  I!ut  Harvard  ( 'ollege  for  a 
long  time  needed  and  received  their  assistance. 
The  Connecticut  colony  appropriated  money  to 
establish  a  fellowship  there.  In  every  town  a 
committee  was  appointed  to  receive  ami  forward 
contributions  in  aid  of  students  at  Cambridge. 
New  Haven  sent  40  bushels  of  wheat  as  one 
year's  contribution.  But  the  purpose  to  found 
a  college  at  New  Haven,  was  cherished  from  the 
outset,  and  was  never  abandoned.  At  a  town 
meeting  held  early  in  1048— less  than  HI  years 
after  the  firs!  settlement — ,  the  town  directed  a 
committee. appointed  to  dispose  of  vacant  lots. to 
••consider  and  reserve  what  lot  they  shall  see 
meet  and  most  convenient  for  a  college,  which 
they  desire  maybe  set  up  so  soon  as  their  ability 
shall  reach  thereunto."  The  subject  was  repeat- 
edly discussed  both  in  meetings  of  the  town  and 
in  the  colonial  legislature,  but  the  want  of  means 
prevented  the  gratification  of  their  desire.  In 
1659,  a  -colony  school  "  was  set  up,  in  the  hope 
that  it  might  in  time  become  a  college,  but  it 
was  continued  only  three  years.  At  length,  in 
L699,  a  plan  was  devised  for  establishing  the 
long  desired  college.  The  leaders  in  the  move- 
ment wen-  the  clergymen  of  the  colony.  Ten 
of  these  were  selected  to  act  in  behalf  of  the 
whole  number,  to  found,  erect,  and  govern  a  col- 
lege. In  1  TOO,  they  performed  the  duty  assigned 
them,  and  the  '■collegiate  school"  was  begun. 
The  next  year,  the  Legislature  bestowed  on  it  a 
charter  and  an  annual  appropriation  of  120 
pounds  for  its  support.  It  was  first  located  at 
Saybrook.  but  the  president  (then  called  rector) 
lived  at  Killingworth  (now  Clinton)  a  few  miles 
distant,  and  the  students  pursued  their  studies 
there  under  his  direction  till  his  death  in  17(17. 
Afterward,  the  senior  class  was  instructed  by 
his  successor  at  Milford,  the  other  classes  re- 
maining at  Saybrook,  where  the  successive  an- 
nual commencements  were  held.  In  1716,  the 
trustees  decided  to  remove  the  school  to  New 
Haven,  and  after  much  contention  this  was 
accomplished  the  following  year.  One  year 
later  (1718),  a  generous  and  timely  gift  from 
Llihu  Yale  induced  the  trustees  to  give  the  in- 
stitution the  name  of  Vale  College.  (See  Tale 
Colleue.) 

Trinity  ( 'ollege.  at  Hartford,  was  chartered  as 
Washington  College,  in  L823 ;  and  instruction 
was  begun  in  1824.  The  name  was  changed  in 
1845.  (See  Trinity  College.)  In  addition  to 
these,  there  is  the  Wesleyan  University,  at 
Middletown,  which  was  founded  in  L831.  (See 
Wesleyan  University.) 


Professional  mitl  Si-initifu-  lnstrvclion. —  Un- 
der this  head  are  included  Theological  School*, 
Lmr  Schools,  ami  Scientific  Schools,  of  which  the 
following  is  an  enumeration :  The  Theological 
Department  of  Yale  College  was  organized  in 
[sTl.  For  the  year  1875—0,  it  had  99  students. 
The  Theological  Institute  of  Connecticut  was 
founded  at  East  Windsor,  in  1834,  and  was  re- 
moved to  Hartford,  in  1865.  In  1870.  the  num- 
ber of  students  was  10.  The  Berkeley  Divinity 
School  was  organized  in  l"--'l  as  the  '1  lieological 
Department  of  Trinity  College,  hi  1854,it  was 
removed  to  Middletown,  and  was  incorporated 
with  its  present  designation.  It  had  39  students 
in  1870.  In  1784,  the  Litchfield  Law  School  was 
established  by  Judge  Reeve,  and  it  soon  became 
the  foremost  in  the  U.  S.,  having  students  from 
all  parts  of  the  country.  It  was  continued  about 
half  a  century.  The  Law  Department  of  Yale 
College  was  separately  organized  in  1820.  though 
no  class  was  formally  graduated  till  1843.  The 
number  of  students,  in  1870,  was  76.  'Hie  Med- 
ical Department  of  Yale  College  was  organized 
in  1813.  The  number  of  students,  in  1876,  was 
50.  The  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  Col- 
lege was  begim  in  1846,  as  the  Department  of 
Philosophy  and  the  Arts,  and  graduated  its  first 
class  in  1852.  Its  rapid  growth  has  been  due 
mainly  to  the  liberality  of  the  gentleman  whose 
name  it  bears.  In  1863,  the  legislature  granted 
to  it  the  income  ($8,100)  derived  from  lands 
given  by  Congress,  the  previous  year,  to  provide 
colleges  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the 
mechanic  arts."  The  school  had  224  students 
for  the  year  1875—6.  The  School  of  the  Fine 
Arts  in  Yale  College  has  been  quite  recently 
established,  and  has  as  yet  but  few  pupils. 

Special  Instruction-  The  American  Asylum 
for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was  established  at  Hart- 
ford in  1816.  being  the  first  of  the  kind  on  the 
Western  Continent.  It  receives  pupils  from  all 
the  New  England  States.  The  average  numberis 
usually  about  225.  The  Whipple  Home  for  Deaf- 
mutes,  at  Mystic  River,  makes  a  specialty  of 
teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb  to  talk,  in  which  it  is 
remarkably  successful.  The  State  Reform  School 
for  Boys,  at  West  Meriden.  was  established  in 

L851 .  and  ope 1  in  L85  I.     It  has  received  in  all 

about  2.3511  pupils,  and  has  an  average  number  of 
about  300.  The  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  at 
.Middletown,  was  incorporated  in  1868,  and  re- 
ceived its  first  pupil  in  January  1870.  It  has  an 
average  number  of  from  60  to  80  pupils,  and  re- 
ceives from  the  Slate  $3  per  week  for  each  pupil. 
It  is  designed  to  be  a  reformatory  institution. 
The  Soldiers'  Orphan  Homes,  two  in  number, 
were  opened  10  or  12  years  ago.  at  Darien  and 
.Mansfield.  As  the  class  of  children  for  which  they 
were  designed  is  now  mostly  beyond  school  age, 
they  cannot  be  much  longer  continued  on  the 
original  basis,  but  the  sclu  ><  >l  at  I  larien  has  a  I  reai  ly 
been  somewhat  transformed.  The  School  for  Im- 
beciles, at  Lakeville,  was  incorporated  in  1801, 
though  it  had  been  previously  carried  on  as  a 
private  institution.  It  receives  from  the  state 
treasury  an  annual  appropriation  of  $7,000. 


COXSCIKNVK 


177 


Educational  Literature. — The  chief  works  on 
the  schools  of  the  state  are  the  Report  of  Henry 

Barnard,  Superintendent  of  Conn i  Schools, 

for  L853,  which  contains  a  carefully  prepared 
history  of  education  in  Connecticut  ;  and  histor- 
ical accounts  oi  particular  institutions  which  have 
been  published  from  time  to  time.  Besides  these, 
histories  of  Vale  College  have  been  prepared  by 
-i'\.t.iI  pc-tsuiis:  and  a  full  account  of  Trinity 
College  and  tlu-  lierkelev  I>i\init\  .-.•!„ .,,1  i.,  mii- 


lain 


tiona 
nectii 


The  feeling 
that  certain 
he  sense  of 


by  Henry  Barnard,  in  August,  L838.  Four 
volumes,  lto,were  published  in  the  next4  years, 

and  4  vols,  more,  previous  to  ls.H.  From  1854 
to  1866,  inclusive,  13  vols..  8vo,  were  issued, 
and  after  an  interval  of  4  years  1  vols,  more 
(1871—74),  the  last  two  being  4to.  The  whole 
number  of  volumes  issued  is  2->.  Li  January. 
1875,  all  the  educational  .journals  of  New  Eng- 
land were  combined  into  the  .\.«-  England 
Journal  of  Eihioitioii.  published  weekly  in  Bos- 
ton. The  Journal  of  Eiliioiliou  was  begun  bv 
Henry  Barnard,  in  Is.Vi.  and  is  still  continued. 
The  series  comprises  about  20  large  8vo  volumes. 
(See  Barnard,  Henry.) 

CONSCIENCE,  Culture  of. 
of  moral  obligation,  the  coiivictioi 
actions  are  right  and  others  wrong 
duty,  the  moral  principle,  or  by  whatevei  othei 
phrase  of  similar  signification  we  may  di  i 
science,  is  the  most  impoi  I  t  object  of  <  tilt  ure 
in  every  department  and  stage  ol  moraleduca- 
tion.  The  strength  of  this  principle,  as  an  .nine 
element  of  character,  differs  greatly  in  different 
individuals,  whether  children  or  adults.  As  a 
general  fact,  however,  children  are  influenced 
but  very  slightly  by  a  sense  of  right  or  duty; 
they  are  acted  upon  by  a  different  class  of  mo- 
tives. The  desire  of  sensuous  enjoyment,  the 
love  of  approbation,  emulation. self-will,  the  hope 
of  reward,  and  the  fear  of  punishment,  are  the 
usual  means  by  which  youthful  minds  are 
swayed,  and  their  actions  controlled.  The  appe- 
tites  are  .strong;  the  moral  sentiments,  weak.  , 
Hence,  to  address  the  conscience  of  a  child  as  a 
ruling  principle  would  be  a  great  error;  perhaps, 
a  disaster.  Still,  children  should  be  treated  as 
possessing  at  least  the  germ  of  conscience  ;  and 
they  should  early  be  habituated  to  scan  their 
own  conduct  as  well  as  that  of  others,  and  apply- 
to  it  a  certain  standard  of  moral  rectitude.  How- 
ever imperfect  this  standard  in  a  child's  mind 
may  be,  much  will  be  gained  when  we  have  in- 
duced him  to  ask.  in  regard  to  any  of  his  actions, 
"  Is  it  right '.'"     The  enlightenment  of  conscience 

is  much  easier  than  its  development  :  to who 

is  deeply  impressed  with  a  sense  of  duty,  a 
knowledge  of  specific  right  and  wrong  will  be 
very  readily  acquired.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that,  while  the  child  is  really  restrained  by 
the  lower  motives  of  conduct,  such  as  those  above 
enumerated,  the  conscience  is  to  be  steadily  but 
carefully  addressed.     Thus,  if  a  pupil,  whose  love 


of  approbation  is  strong,  has  learned  a  difficnll 
li     on  simply  to   please  his  teai  hi  i 

accord  him  all  the  praise  which  he   ,  .. 

reward  of  his  condw  I  |  but  let  uot  the  teacher 

l'11'  '"  H"fo  .*--.  uj his  mind,  at  tlu 

that  this  jiiaise  is  -urn  because  the  action  per- 

be  drawn    from    his   overwi 

approbation  of  nth  ,  |,.,|   to  ap- 

preciate more  highly  the  approbation  of  his  own 
con-deuce:  and  so  m  respect  to  all  the  low.i  in- 
centives. If  the  child  is  punished  tor  a  fault  bi 
an  angry  teacher  or  parent,  he  will  rather  dread 

•ssed   with     the   ulo|,.jtlll 


ncss   of  his  coi 

1 1 nK   result 

dor   him  more 


to    1|„ 


vara  or  punishment  is  an 
mprovemi  m  ol  the  pupil: 
because  it  diverts  his  attention  from  the  charac- 
ter of  his  conduct,  as  good  or  bad  in  itself,  to  an 
exclusive  consideration  of  its  effects  upon  the 
mind  of  the  teacher,  as  producing  praise  or  cen- 
sure. Some  thoughtless  teachers  punish  their 
pupils  for  not  telling  of  each  other's  offenses; 
when  they  should  be  glad  to  perceive  an  ex- 
hibition of  .such  a  sense  of  honor,  and  should 
rather  encourage  and  commend  it.  Of  course. 
if  a  pupil  who  is  strenuous  in  his  refusal  to  act 
the  part  of  a  talc-bearer,  as  mean  and  wrong, 
could  be  convinced  that  In- dun  demanded  that 
he  should  make  known  the  wrong  doer,  he  would 
at  once  yield  ;  but,  after  a  simple  statement  oi 
the  case,  he  should  be  permitted  to  exercise  his 
conscience,  without  any  violence'  or  threats  being 
brought  against  it.  A  high  standard  oi  moral 
excellence  in  a  child  is  just  as  striking  an  in- 
stance of  precocity,  as  great  intellectual  power 
and  attainments  :  and  is,  perhaps,  as  much  lobe 
discouraged.  "  Be  content.''  says  Herbert  Spen- 
cer, ■■  with  moderate  measures  and  n 
suits.  Constantly  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  a 
higher  morality,  like  a  higher  intelligence,  must 
be  reached  by  a  slow  growth:   and  you  will  then 

have  more  patience  with  those  imperfections  of 
nature  which  your  child  hourly  displays.     You 

will  be  less  prone  to  that  constant  scolding,  and 
threatening,  and  forbidding,  by  which  many 
parents  induce  a  chronic  domestic  irritation,  in 
the  foolish  hope  that  they  will  thus  make  their 
children  what  they  should  be." 

The   conscience   is   not  to   be  cultivated   by 
simply  giving  moral  precepts.     "  Moral  educa- 
tion," says  Dymond,  "should  be  directed,  not  so 
much  to  informing  the  young  what   thi 
to  do.  as  to  inducing   those   moral   dispositions 
and  principles  which  will   make  them  adhere  to 
wdiat  they  know  to  be  right.''     The  In 
cess  in  this  is  achieved  when  the  pupil  is  seen  to 
be   willing   to   make    self-sacrifice,   to    practice 
self-denial,  in  order  to  do  what  he  fi 
right.      This  point  of   moral  excellei 
been  reached,  the  individual   may,  with  entire 
safety,  be  allowed  to  control  his  own  actions, 


CONSTITUTION  OF  U.  S. 


CONVENT  SCHOOLS 


with  the  assurance  that  he  will  not,  in  any  eir-  I  CONVENT  SCHOOLS.  The  convents  of 
cumstance  of  life,  go  far  astray.  the  Christian  church  were  originally  founded 
■  The  basis  of  moral  rectitude  has  not  here  been  from  ascetic  and  religious,  not  from  literary  and 
considered;  nor  is  it  necessary  to  plunge  into  educational  motives;  and,  for  a  considerable 
any  speculations  as  to  what  constitutes  that  (lis-  time  after  their  first  establishment,  hut  little 
criminative  power  between  right  and  wrong  value  appears  to  have  been  attributed  by  their 
whirl,  is  a  part  of  the  original  constitution  of  inmates  to  literary  culture  and  education.  Basil 
the  human  mind.  It  may  undoubtedly  be  of  c.iesarea  was  one'  of  the  tirst  who  re- 
strengthened  by  religious  training  of  a  proper  commended  the  reception  of  children  into  con- 
stitutes a  vents  for  the  purpose  of  being  educated.  The 
if  the  con-  recommendation  was  complied  with  by  many 
mlil  labor.  Eastern  convents.  Chrysostom.  as  well  as  other 
ndingand  bishops,  expressly  ordered  that  convent  schools 


character:  and  hence. such  training  i 
very  important  agenc 


Parent; 
from  the  earliest  dawning  of  und.-r.-ta 
desire, to  check  tin-  growing  obstinacy  o 
curb  all  sallies  of  passion,  impress  tin 
most  amiable,  reverential,  and  awful  s 
of  God,  a  future  state,  and  all  saerei 
(See  Moral  Education,  and   Reli i 

TION.) 

CONSTITUTION  OF  TJ.  S 
instruction  forming  part  of  the 


should  be  opened  also  to  lay  pupils,  and  admon- 
deepest,    ished  parents  to  send  their  children  for  ten  or 
itimcnts     more  years  to  convents,  in  order  that  they  might 
things."     be  brought  up  in  the  principles  of  piety.     Next 
Bduca-     to  the  bast,  th nvents  of  southern  Gaul,  Ire- 
land. Scotland,  and  England  became  the  seats  of 
a   branch  of     Christian    scholarship.       I.eriimni.    in   southern 
se  ot  studies     <  iaul,  had  an  ecclesiastical  seminary  from  which. 


pursued  in  the  common  sel Is  of  main  of  [In- 
states of  the  Cnion.  As  the  object  of  common- 
school  education  is  .  lii.-tlv  to  prepare  for  the  du- 
ties of  citizenship,  it  is  usually  deemed  essential 
to  impart  a  knowledge  of  the  organic  law  of  the 
nation,  as  the  foundation  of  those  acquirements 

struction,  besides  making  the  pupils  familiar  with 

the  particular  instrument  studied,  may  be  made 
the  basis  for  much  useful  information  in  regard 
to  the  elementary  principles  of  jurisprudence 
and  governmental  organization.  An  analysis 
of  the  various  provisions  pertaining   to  the  three 


rtments  of  tin 


their  respective  power; 
with  an  explanation  of  the  unite 
cannot  but  prepare  the  y.mthfi 
advanced  studies  of  this  kind, 
means  of  a  particular  culture  of 
judgment,  of    very  great   value. 


1  limitations  of 


'he   practical 


i  of  the  knowledge  thus  imparted,  par- 
ticularly in  boys'  schools,  is  scarcely  exceeded  by 
that  of  any  other  branch  of  instruction  usually 
included  in  a  common-school  course.  Many 
valuable  school  text-books  on  this  subject  have 
id  to 
rally 


Inch. 


aooks  of  ref- 
m  of   U.  8. 


been  compiled  :  besides  v 
teach  the  history  of  the 
comprehend  als  is  an 
of  the  Unite  I  -  tes,  an 
school  study-  —See  B.  I » 
Education  i  N.  V..  1851 1 
i  in i. v.  Story,  On  the 
(N.  V.):  Kent.  Comm 
Law  (Boston)  :     Mansfi 

(N     Y.);    NoRDHOFF,    /'" 

leans  IN.  Y.i:  Pomeroi 
i\.  Y.I;  Sufppard.  Ci 
and   m-st   Book  of  th 

Stearns,  Constitution  of  U.S.,  with  Concord- 
ance and  classified  Index  (N.  T.) ;  Townsend 
Analysis  of  Civil  Government  iN  Y.i;  An- 
drews, Manual  of  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  8. 
(Cin.,  1874). 


(I'hila 


in  the  ">th  and  (ith  centuries,  many  aut 
scholars  proceeded  ;  and,  in  the  British  islands. 
manyconvent  schoolswhieh  imparted  theological 
as  well  as  other  instruction,  were  especially 
famous  for  the  number  of  missionaries  whom 
they  educated. 

A  new  period  in  the  history  of  convent  schools 
begins  with  the  foundation  of  the  Benedictine 
order.  By  introducing  a  strict  monastic  rule, 
Benedict  not  only  developed  the  idea  and  organ- 
ization of  monasticism,  but  also  made  monastic 
institutions  one  of  the  strong  pillars  of  the 
church.  When,  therefore,  Benedict  and  his  or- 
der added  the  instruction  of  novices,  as  well  as 
of  other  scholars,  to  the  regular  work  of  the  con- 
vent, he  did  more  for  the  development  of  educa- 
tion among  the  new  states  emerging  from  the 
ruins  of  the  Roman  empire,  than  any  other  man 
up  to  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  (See  Bknk- 
dicttnes,  Schools  of  the,  and  Charlemagne.) 
Prom  the  8th  to  the  11th  century,  the  Bene- 
dictine schools,  and  their  rivals,  the  cathedral 
and  collegiate  schools  (See  Cathedral  and  Col- 
i  1 1 .  i  \  1 1  Schools),  were  almost  the  exclusive  re- 
presentatives of  Christian  education  in  western 
Europe.  Some  of  these  schools,  especially  in 
Germany,  France,  and  England,  attained  a  high 
degree  of  prospeiitv.  and  gave  a  powerful  im- 
pulse to  the  progress  of  education  by  the  revival 
of  classical  studies.  At  the  time  of  Gregory  VII., 
the  convent  schools  began  to  decline  'I  he  new 
ideas  set  afloat  by  the  crusades,  found  the  course 
of  instruction  in  the  Benedictine  schools  too  nar- 
row and  one-sided;  Franciscans,  Dominicans, 
and  oilier  n.lieani  orders  dislodged  the  Bene- 
dictines in  the  affections  of  the  lower  classes  of 
society,  and.  therefore  gathered  in  their  schools 
a  large  number  of  scholar's  who  otherwise  would 
have  flocked  to  the  Benedictines;  several  popes, 
as  Innocent  III.,  ostentatiously  evinced  their 
preference  for  the  cathedral  schools:  and,  finally, 
the  rise  of  the  universities  displaced  the  convent 
schools  from  their  rank  as  the  highest  class  of 
educational  institutions.  Moreover,  the  town 
schools  soon  began  to  make  a  powerful  compe- 


CONVENT  SCHOOLS 

tition  for  public  favor,  and  created  a  demand  for 
instruction  in  secular  subjects,  whieh  leil  to  tile 
foundation  of  new  religious  orders:  and  these. 
like  the  Hieronymites,  attempted  anew  departure 
in  the  organization  of  convent  schools.    The  suc- 

and  mother  European  countries  called  forth,  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  church,  nen  religious  orders, 
which  regarded  the  establishment  oi  schoolssu- 
periorto  those  of  the  Protestants  as  the  surest 

way  to  olitain  a  controlling  iullueuce  over  the 
rising  generation,  and  thus  to  reconquer  the 
ground  which  had  been  lost  by  the  church. 
Among  these  orders,  the  Jesuits,  the  Piarists, 
the  (Jrsulines,  and  the  many  congregations  of 
school  brothers  and  school  sisters  arc  the  best 
known.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  the  convent 
schools  lost  ground  in  consequence  of  the  greater 
influence  winch  the  -tat,-  governments  exercised 
in  the  organization  and  supervision  of  schools. 
They  were  obliged  to  submit  in  many  states  to 
die  legislation  of  the  stale  government  on  school 

matters:  and.  by  the  suppression  of  the  order 
of  the  Jesuits,  were  for  a  lone  time  deprived  of 
their  most  illustrious  representatives.  In  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  convents,  though  fiercely 
attacked  in  many  states,  and  totally  suppressed 
in  some,  have  found  for  their  schools  a  very  large 
patronage.  This  i-  particularly  the  case  with 
the  female  convent  schools,  which  count  among 
their  pupils  many  thousands  of  Protestants. 

Convent  school  education  is  based  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  religion  should  have  a  predominating 
influence  in  the  education  of  the  child,  and  that 
a  complete  retirement  from  the  world  is  condu- 
cive to  the  formation  of  a  Christian  character. 
The  features  which  distinguish  them  as  a  class 

from  other  scl Is.  consist  chiefly  in  the  peculiar 

methods  of  their  management  and  administra- 
tion. The  course  of  instruction  present--  no 
marked  points  of  difference  from  that  pursued 
in  other  schools  of  the  same  grade, comprising,  in 
England  and  the  United  States,  as  the  prospectus 
of  these  institutions  generally  informs  the  public, 
"all  the  usual  branches  of  a  sound  English  edu- 
cation," with  French,  to  which  a  greater  promi- 
nence is  given  than  in  the  majority  of  other 
schools.  Instrumental  and  vocal  music,  and  draw- 
ing are  carefully  attended  to  as  necessary  accom- 
plishments; and.  in  many  institutions,  the  pupils 
have  also  the  "advantage  of  the  best  masters  for 
dancing."  The  superior  of  each  of  these  schools 
is  expected  to  exercise  special  care  in  the  su- 
pervision of  the  deportment  of  the  pupils, 
and  the  greatest  possible  attention  is  given  to 
their  religious  and  moral  training.  The  religious 
atmosphere  in  which  the  students  live,  and  the 
frequency  of  the  devotional  exercises,  interwoven 
with  the  studies,  are  calculated  to  produce  pro- 
found and  lasting  impressions;  and  it  is  but 
natural  that  a  considerable  proportion  of  Prot- 
estant pupils  rear,-,!  in  Catholic  convents,  should, 

in  after  life,  embrace  a  rehg under  the  direct 

influence  of  which  they  received  their  early  edu- 
cation. It  is  equally  natural  that  Protestant 
churches  should  be  greatly  opposed   to  convent 


CONVERSATION 


L79 


education,  and  should  earnestlj  warn  Prote  tant 
parents  against  placing  their  children  in  institu- 
tions which,  in  so  many  eases,  while  affording  a 
thorough  secular  education,  divert  the  minds  of 
their  pupils  from   the  religious  faith  of   their 

CONVERSATION  has  nianv  claims  t i- 


deposit. 

ideas   a 
interelri 


one-sided  and 
corrected    by 

"<  'onvelsatlon 
that  is.  the  mi 
of  knowledge, 
its  acquisition: 
and  useful.  Ii 
lation.  but  ad.- 


a    reelp- 

g  infor- 
bank  of 
i.  1 1  is 
t   of  an 

or  they 


narrow,  becaus 

itheyhave  not  been 

contrast    wit 

those   of    others 

,' 'says  Bacon," 

nakesa  ready  man:" 

nd,  bythecons 

,nii  used   itsstores 

3,  and  selects  tl 

iptS    Itself    lot 

ical  rule  in  making- 
it  which  is  available 

ie  demands  of  cm- 

forth  and  discourses  «  i 
philosophy  becomes  of  i 

persons  should  be  consta 
sation  with  each  other,  i 


■Hows  that    his 

eal   use.     Young 

ti 1  in  conver- 

eir  elders,  upon 
■ell  as  the  inci- 
should  be  cu- 
ll, both  for  the 
eadv  expression 
■ir  minds.  The 
alking  or  writ- 


a  really  useful  one.  Flippaney,  eap- 
conceitedness,  and  forwardness  in  ad- 
vancing opinions,  or  in  disputing  about  them, 
should  of  course  be  repressed,  and  humility  and 
modesty  be  cultivated;  candor  should  always 
be  encouraged,  as  the  best  guide  to  knowledge. 
In  this  way,  conversation  will  be  not  only  an 
important  agent  in  intellectual  culture,  but  one 
of  the  most  effective  means  in  social  education, 
that  is.  in  training  the  individual  for  useful 
and  agreeable  intercourse  with  his  fellow.-,.  I-..  II 
Mansfield,  in  American  Education,  thus  sums 
up  the  advantages  of  conversation  as  a  means  of 
education  :  "  (1)  The  rapiditj  and  - 
versation  enables  an  intelligent  person  to  com 
miniicate  information,  or  suggest  ideas,  or  direct 
attention,  with  a  readiness  and  a  velocity  which 
it  is  impossible  to  do  by  reading  :  (2)  It  may  be 
done  more  fully  and  more  accurately,  because 
there  is  an  opportunity  to  ask  questions,  to  ex- 
press different  shades  of  thought. and  to  illustrate 


180     CONVERSATIONAL  METHOD 

in  different  ways :  (3)  ( 'onversation  suggests 
rapidly  numerous  ideas  which  can  only  be  ex- 
pressed in  a  very  limited  manner  by  written  in- 
struction; and  (4)  Such  instruction  may  thus 
draw  out  a  sympathy  of  minds,  by  which  the 
pupil  is  enlivened,  is  led  forward  without  labor. 
and  ascends,  enlarges  theeircleof  ideas,  loves  the 
pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  inquires  into  the 
reason  of  things,  without  ever  suspecting  that  a 
task  has  been  put  upon  him." 

Conversation  brings  into  play  a  great  variety 
of  faculties,  which  without  it  are  quite  apt  to 
rust   from  disuse;    but  in  order  to  exercise  its 

iv,,.!,, I  except  hva  due'ro-a'id  to  the  amen- 
ities  ol   social  intercourse,      ft  then  beco s  the 

genuine  inspirer  of  wit,  fancy,  and  sentiment, 
which  rind  their  best  and  truest  exercise  in  the 
gla  l.-oine  communion  of  congenial  minds.  But 
to  have  this  effect,  it  must  lie  an  interchange, not 
a  one-sided  harangue:  nor  must  it  be  permitted 
to  degenerate  into  dogmatism  or  debate.  The 
true  art  of  conversation,  apart  from  its  intellect- 
ual requirements,  corresponds  with  the  art  of 
politeness,  the  basic  principle  of  which  is.  to  try 
to  please  others  by  making  them  pleased  with 
themselves.  Hence,  however  much  we  may  differ 
in  opinion  with  others,  we  should  still  treat  their 
opinions  with  respect;  ami  if  we  are  obliged  to 
controvert  them,  we  should  do  it  rather  by  sug- 
gesting views  and  considerations  in  opposition, 
than  by  anything  bordering  on  dogmatism  or  de- 
nunciation, ( landor,  charity,  and  courtesy  alike 
suggest  this  course,  and  will  be  much  more  apt 
io  |.i'..  Imv  conviction  than  positive  assertion  or 
beat  (debate.  <  'onversation  has  been  compared 
to  "a  ball,  which  is  thrown  from  playerto  player 
without  being  allowed  to  drop,  ami  thus  keeps 
each  one  in  play''  •  'arricd  on  in  this  way.  and 
upon  this  principle,  it  constitutes  an  educational 
instrumentality  of  peculiar  value  and  impor- 
tance. 

CONVERSATIONAL  METHOD.  This 
refers  to  the  mode  of  giving  instruction, in  which 
the  lessons,  instead  of  being  formal  recitations, 
exercises,  explanations,  or  lectures,  consist  of  a 
familiar  discourse  by  the  teacher,  interspersed 
with  questions  or  remarks  by  the  pupils;  that  is 
to  say,  in  which  the  lessons  partake  of  the  char- 
acter of  conversations,  both  as  to  the  manner  of 
presenting  the  subject  and  the  style  of  language 
employed.  This  mode  of  teaching  is  especially 
adapted  to  young  children,  because  it  affords  the 
teacher  a  constant  opportunity  to  appeal  to  their 
intelligence  and  experience,  and  to  employ  the 
simplest  colloquial  expressions.  Besides,  the 
utmost  freedom  being  given  to  the  pupils,  they 
are  enabled  to  show  by  their  questions  and  re- 
marks to  what  extent  and  in  what  respect  they 
need  special  instruction  and  information.  In 
order  to  arouse  and  sustain  the  pupils'  interest, 
their  attention  is  called  to  such  facte  in  connec- 
tion with  the  subject  as,  although  quite  obvious 
when  shown  or  explained,  are  usually  overlooked 
by  children,  who  are  generally  but  superficial 
observers  before  being    trained  to  close  attention 


COOPER 

and  careful  investigation.  In  object  teaching, 
the  lessons  should  always  be  conversational,  the 
teacher  saying  only  enough  to  lead  the  pupils  to 
observe,  and  to  talk  freely  about  what  they 
notice.  As  examples  of  the  conversational 
method  we  may  refer  to  the  beautiful  colloquial 
lessons  contained  in  some  of  the  works  of  Dr. 
Aiken  and  Mrs.  Barbauld.  (See  Evenings  at 
Home,  edited  by  I  'ceil  Hartley.)  That  on  The 
Leguminous  Plants  is  an  excellent  example; 
although  the  style  is  by  no  means  so  simple  as 
that  which  would  be  used  in  an  actual  oral 
lesson.     The  lesson    is  given   by  the    tutor  to 

two  pupils,  (irni-ijr  and  Hnrri/,  and  commences 
with  an  exclamation  of  the  former,  who  has  ap- 
:  proached  a  bean  -held,  and  proceeds  as  follows: — 

G.     What  a  delightful  scent ! 

H.  Charming!  [t  is  sweeter  than  Mr:  Essence's 
j  shop. 

T.     Do  you  knew  whence  it  comes? 

G.  0— it  is  from  the  bean-field  on  tlie  other  side 
of  the  hedge,  I  suppose. 

T.  It  is.  This  is  the  month  in  which  beaDs  are 
in  blossom.  See— the  stalks  are  full  of  their  black  and 
white  flowers. 

H.  I  see  peas  in  blossom,  too,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  field. 

<;.  Von  told  us  some  time  ago  of  grass  and  corn 
[wheat]  flowers  ;  but  they  make  a  poor  figure  com- 
[iareil  with  these. 

T.     They  do.     Tie   glory  oi  a  corn-field  is  when  it 

be, | 


>eas  and 


lock 


ry  shabbily 


The  blossoms  of  the  bean  and  pea,  arc  then 
brought,  and  compared  by  the  pupils ;  and  the 

oi  proceeds. 

T,     Do  you  think  these  Bowers  much  alike? 

H.     O  no— very  little. 

(J.    Yes— a  good  deal. 

T.  A  little  ami  n  eu.iil  dml !  How  can  that  be? 
Come,  let  us  see.  In  the  first  place,  they  do  not  much 
resemble  each  other  in  size  or  color. 

G.    No— but  I  think  they  do  in  shape, 

T.  True.  They  arc  both  irregular  flowers,  and 
have  the  same  distribution  of  pints.  They  are  of  the 
kind  called  /)o/.)//eeoe.ei/s  ,•  from  papilio,  the  Latin 
word  for  butterfly,  which  insect  they  are  thought  to 
resemble,  etc  .  etc. 

All  the  characteristics  are  thus  successively 
unfolded  in  this  familiar  manner,  the  explana- 
tions of  the  teacher  being  interspersed  with  the 
remarks  of  the  pupils.  Hookers  Child's  Book 
of  Nature  presents  another  excellent  illustration 
of  the  conversational  mode  of  instruction,  to 
which  may  be  added  many  others.  It  is  diffi- 
cult,  however,  fully  to  show  this  method  in  a 
book;  since  its  characteristics  are  freedom  and 
spontaneity,  the  pupil  talking  in  a  child-like 
manner,  and  the  teacher  adapting  his  words  and 
modes  of  illustration  to  the  condition  of  the 
pupil's  mind,  as  shown  during  the  lesson.  This 
method  of  instruction,  in  the  elementary  stages, 
is  far  more  effective  than  that  which  is  given  by 
means  of  text-books,  much  of  the  language  of 
which  usually  needs  to  be  translated  into  such 
as  is  suitable  to  the  child's  comprehension. 

COOPER  INSTITUTE,  oi  Cooper  Union. 
See  Cooper,  Petrb. 

COOPER,  Peter,  an  American  philanthro- 
pist and  the  founder  of  the  "Union  for  the  Ad- 
\,iiiecincnt  of  Science  and  Art,"  a  large  and  im- 


portant  institution  of  learning  in  the  city  of  New 
Xork,  commonly called  after  its  founder  "< looper 
Institute, "  was  born  in  New  Fork,  Febr.  L2., 
L791.  He  was  apprenticed  at  the  age  of  seven- 
teen to  the  trade  of  coach-making,  and n  rose 

to  a  conspicuous  position  among  the  manufact- 
urers of  the  United  States.  The  development 
of  American  industry,  has  continued,  tlir.  oi-lo nit 
his  long  life,  to  be  an  object  oi  his  patriotic 
aspirations;   and,  in  his  later  years,  there  has 

interests  of  the   country,   in  the  discussion  of 

the   one   great    subject    which,    more    than  any 

other,  engrossed  the  attenti if  his  rip  i  |   at  - 

was  the  education  of  the  industrial  cl  i  rhe 

yalu  ioi  a  good  education  he  prized  all  the  more 
highly,  because  during  his  youth  his  own  edu- 
cation hail  been  sadly  neglected.  Only  for  a 
single  year  had  he  been  sent  to  school;  all  the 
varied  knowledge  acquired  by  him  since  was  the 
fruit  of  laborious  self-education.  As  an  earnest 
fried  of  education,  he  took  an  active  part  in 

the  development  of  the  public-scl I    j    e  a  ol 

the  city  of  New  Fork,  lie  was  a  trustee  and 
vice  president  of  the  Public  School   Bocietj   at 

after  this  society  had  been  merged  in    h  i  I 

of  Education,  became  a  school  commissioner. 
His  effort  to  improve  the  deficient  education  of 
his  youth,  and  the  high  opinion  which  he  held 
of  the  value  of  education,  early  inspired  him 
with  the  wish  to  found  agrand  institution  for 
the  gratuitous  instruction,  chiefly  of  the  indus- 
trial class  soi  bis  native  city.  ("  I  determined," 
he  says  himself,  "if  ever  I  cohld  acquire  the 
means,  I  would  build  such  an  institution,  as 
would  open  its  doors  at  night  with  a  full  course 
of  instruction,  calculated  to  enable  mechanics 
to  understand  Loth   the  theory  and   the  st 

Skillful  practice  Ol  their  several  trades;  so  that 
they  could  not  only  apply  their  labor  to  the  best 
possible  advantage,  but  enjoy  the  happiness  of 
acquiring    useful    knowledge     the    purest    and 

this  means.  1  hoped  to  contribute  to  the  elevation 
and  the  happiness  of  the  industrial  classes  to 
which  I  belonged,  finally,  my  plan  also  pro- 
vided for  a  school  of  art  suited  to  the  wants  of 
females,  during  the  day.  with  a  reading  room 

and  library  open  to  both  sexes,  from  ei-ht  o  clock 
in  the  morning  until  ten  o'clock  at  night.  Tins 
design  was  carried  out  by  the  establishment  ol 
the  "  Cooper  Union  for  the  advancement  of 
Science  and  Art,"  after  the  erection  of  a  mag- 
nificent building  occupying  .-in  entire  block  be- 
tween Third  and  Fourth  avenues  and  Seventh 
and  Eighth  streets.    The  deed  of  trust  devotes 

the  institution,  with  all  it-  tents,  issues,  and 
profits,  to  the  instruction  ami  elevation  oi  the 
working  classes  of  the  eit  v  of  New  'link.  The 
original  cost  of  the  building  when  conveyed  to 
the  trustees  was  $630,000.  The  aggregate  re- 
ceipts, from  the  openine  of  the  institution  in 
L859,to  Jan,  1..  L875,  amounted  to  8572,291.27, 
of  which  S.Mr_'.7L'o.i;:i  were  from  rents.  Sol.'.C!  I.,  1 
from    donations,    and    $37,635.84    from    sundry 


PER  1SI 

other  sources.   Tl xpcinliiurcs  for  earrj  ing  on 

the  several   departments   from    L659   to    L875, 
were  $583,840.27,  and    the  total  expenditures 

on    buildine;    and     education    to    .Ian.    I..    Is7.">. 
$1,213,840.85. 
The  course  of  instruction,  as  indicated  above 


em  ot  this  in- 
entific  depart 
hen  the  young 

Ion,    from    the 

f  them  are  en 

however,  both 
Mill,'   111-,  a  eel' 

any  pupil  who 
rogress  in  any 

idciitly  of  the 
neuts  made  mi 
belong  to  the, 

ate  hi  I.I  both 


ic    retouching   ot     negatives,  ami    painting  or 
ayon  drawing  on  positives.    It  is  contemplated 

i  introduce  other  application.-  a-  - as  praeti 

i  hie.  so  as  to  bring  every  depart  met  it  of  element - 
v  instruction  close  to  the  practical  life  and  re- 
iterative employment  Of  each  student,  while, 
■  or  she  remains  at  school,  or  immediately  on 
aving  it.  The  corps  of  instructors,  in  L875, 
unbercil  20,  "t  whom  .'!  were  ladies,  ami  the 
unber  of  pupils  was  2,878,  a  greater  number 
lan  in  any  previous  year.  'I  he  tradi  -  ami  occu- 
itiotis  most  largely  represented  among  the 
tpilsof  the  Union  were  the  ,  lerks  and  booi 
tepers  (369),  machinists  and  iron-workers  (30(i), 
rvers  ainl  mi  in  i  2  <■■  .  t  ngravers  and  lithog- 
ph.  i-     261  |,  teachers  and  -indents  (]  K>).  The 

S74— 1875  by  581,798  persons,  a  ,1 

'  nearly  2,000.     In  the  library  there  are  about 

i,000  volumes,  and   the    books  drawn   bj    the 


I  82 


COO'I'K 


readers  numbered  129,655.  The  board  of  trust- 
ees have  also  established  a  department  of  consul- 
tation to  assist  the  inventors  and  manufacturers 
of  new  processes;  and,  during  tl 
1875,  more  than  350  persons  ap] 
As  the  popular  lecture  is  mm 
\  tnei  tea  as  a  standing  instituti 
have  provided  that  two  courses  o 
six  to  twelve  each,  shall  be  annua 
large  hall  of  the  Cooper  Union, di 
of  each  six  months,  on  subjects 
social  or  physical  science.  Men 
are  selected  as  lecturers,  who  liein 
in  their  several  departments  and  well-known, 
draw  large  audiences,  fully  taxing  the  capacity 
of  the  hall,  though  it  accommodates  more  than 
2,000  people.  Besides,  there  are  several  smaller 
halls  in  the  building  of  the  <  looper  Union,  in 
which  free  lectures  are  given  by  the  several  pro- 
fessors on  chemistry,  natural  philosophy,  English 
literature,  elocution  and  rhetoric,  art.  ami  artistic 
economy. 

COOTE,  Edward,  a  noted  English  teacher. 


.-7  1  to 


illshcd 


Xjose    I1UL  jour    hS,    lUK-llurils,   Ml'    pi  US, 

nor  girdle,  garters,  hat  or  band, 
Let  Bhoi  s  be  tyi  d,  pin  shirt  band  close, 

keep  well  j'niir  bauds  at  any  hand. 
If  broken-hosed  or  shoe'd  vou  eo. 


With, Hit  i 


■  I'.l  I. 


then  you  and  ] 


fray. 


and  the  autl 
of 


the  followi 


English  School-Ma 

of  school-books,  Brat  pub- 
L627.  A  good  idea  of  the 
its  of  this  quaint  old  book 

mi  the  title-page,  of  which 


copy: 


Tin 


ENGLISH 

School-Master. 

Teaching  all  his  Scholars,  of   what    age    so  ever, 

tin-    must   easy,  short,  anil  perfect  order   ol 

distinct  Reading,    and   true    Writing 

our  English-tongue,  that  hath 

ever  yet  been  known  or 

published  by  any. 

And  further  also  tearheth  a  direct  course,  how  many 

unskilful    persons    may    easily    both    understand   any 


the  Or 


first  book  be  inert-  childish 

for  tlieni.but  also  for  other; 

especially  for  those  that 

are  ignorant    in  the 

Latin  Tongue. 

In  the  next  page,  the  Sehool-Master  hangeth  forth  his 

Table  to  the  view  of  all  beholders,  setting  forth  some 

Of  the  chief  Col liesol    his  profession. 

llrM-ed    l,,r    thy   sake    lint    u-antesl    any   part   of  tins 

skill;  by  mward  Ooote,  Master  ol  the   Free-School 


Perused  and  appt   oed 

now  the  10  lirm   Tmpt  inlet 

to  write  by,  at  Vie  end 

\f  this  Bo 

Printed  by  A.M.  and  It.  Ii.foi 

thecompa 

The  following  verses, extracted  from  this  book, 
give  a  picturesque  idea  of  Coote's  mode  of  school 
management  and  discipline  : 


•■  My  , 
And  si 


If  that  thou  cry.  or  talk  aloud, 

or  books  do  read,  or  strike  with  knife  : 
l  lr  laugh,  or  play  unlawfully, 

then  you  and  I  must  be  at  strife. 
If  that  you  curse,  miscall,  or  swear, 

if  that  you  pick,  filch,  steal,  or  lye  ; 
If  you  forget  a  scholar's  part, 

then  must  you  sure  your  points  untye. 
If  that  to  school  you  do  not  go, 

when  time  d.dh  call  vou  to  the  same  ; 
Or.ifyouloit.ru,  lie   streets. 

when  we  da  meet,  then  look  for  blame. 
Wherefore,  mj  i  Mid,  bi  have  thyself, 

That  thou  iiia\  >t  purchase  parents'  love, 

and  ok.   obtain  thy  master's  praise." 

See  Barxakh.  Ethn-ntimial  Biography,  s.  v. 
Ezekiel  Gheever. 
COPY-BOOKS.  See  Penmanship. 
COPYING,  in  school  education,  has  several 
applications:  (I)  Writing  or  drawing  by  imita- 
tion from  an  original,  which  constitutes  an  es- 
sential part  of  primary  instruction,  since  the  eye 
must  be  trained  to  the  observation  of  forms,  as 
well  as  the  hand  to  execute  them.  Hence,  the 
first  lessons  in  writing  largely  consist  in  practic- 
ing the  pupil  in  copying  (1)  the  elements  of  let- 
ters, straight  line's,  curves,  etc.;  (2)  letters; 
(3)  winds:  and  i  li  sentences.  In  connection  with 
this  copying,  much  incidental  instruction  is 
required,  all  of  which,  however,  is  addressed  to 
the  faculty  <ff  imitation.  (See  Penmanship.) 
Rudimentary  instruction  in  drawing  must  be  of 
a  similar  character,  beginning  with  lines  in 
various  positions  and  relations  to  each  other, 
then  passing  to  simple  figures,  and  thence  to 
more  complex  forms  ;  but.  in  all  these,  it  is  the 
eye  that  must  be  trained  through  the  faculty  of 
imitation,  simultaneously  with  the  gradual  ac- 
quisition of  manual  skill  by  means  of  constant 
practice.     (See  Drawing.) 

ill1  I  he  copying,  from  books,  of  selected  pas- 
sages in  prose  and  poetry  is  a  very  useful  exer- 
cise, if  properly  and  systematically  performed. 
Of  course,  this'  belongs  to  a  later  stage  of  ele- 
mentary instruction,  that  is,  after  the  pupil  has 
learned  to  write  with  some  degree  of  facility: 
and,  when  the  utmost  accuracy  is  insisted  upon, 
it  will  be  found  an  effective  means  of  imparting 
habits  oi  correct  spelling,  punctuation,  and  the 
use  of  capital  letters:  and  will  also  have  a  very- 
beneficial  effect  upon  the  pupil's  style,  impressing 
upon  his  memory  a  great  variety  of  words  and 
phrases,  and  thus  aiding  him  to  acquire  fluency 
and  accuracy  of  expression.  It  was  on  this 
principle  that  He sthenes  copied  the  history  of 


Thucydides  so  many  times ;  since  he  desired  to 

catch    the    style    cif   composition    |  leeuliiir  to  that 

great  writer.     What  is  particularly  necessary  in 


distensible,  copying,  as  here  described,  should 
he  treated  as  an  essential  part  of  the  school 
work. 

Ill)    The  term  copying  is  also  applied  to  the 
reprehensible   practice,   often    found   to   exist    in 

classes  and  schools  that  arc  imperfectly  disci- 
plined, of  one  pupil's  transcribing  by  stealth 
what  has  been  written  by  another.  Weak  or 
idle  pupils  will,  if  they  are  permitted,  in  this 
way  avail  themselves  of  the  work  of  their  neigh- 
bors, thus  failing  to  receive  the  benefits  of  the 
instruction  given  to  the  class,  and.  at  the  same 
time,  deceiving  the  teacher.  The  effects  of  this 
practice  arc.  therefore,  bad  intellectually  and 
morally,  and  all  necessary  vigilance  should  be 
exercised  by  the  teacher  to  prevenl  orsuppn  a>  it. 
CORDERIUS.  Mathurin  /V  Cordier), 
a  celebrated  Protestant  school-teacher,  born  in 

most  distinguished  pupils  was  Calvin,  who  ded- 
icated to  him  one  of  his  works.     He  published 

several  text  I ks  for  schools,  among  which  the 

best  known   is   i '■,'■'., /  n  ,>■'.,   ..       .     s  ,'.  ,   ,.,, 
Colloquies),  published  in   L564      This  work  was 
long  and  extensively  used   in  giving  instruction 
in  the  Latin  language;  and,  indeed,  is  one  of  the 
most  noted  school-books  ever  published. 

CORNELL  COLLEGE,  at  Mount  Vernon, 


Iowa,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  was  founded  in  1857  for  the  edu- 
cation of  both  sexes.  The  institution  has  three 
spacious  buildings.  The  college  campus,  cm- 
bracing  about  twenty  acres,  is  beautifully  de- 
signed by  nature,  and  commands  one  of  the 
finest  prospects  in  the  country.  The  college  pos- 
sesses one  of  the  largest  and  best  collections  of 
minerals  and   fossils  in  the  West,  a  chemical 

laboratory,  and  a  library  of  over  4,000  volumes. 
The  college  property  is  valued  at  $65,000,  and 
the  productive  funds  amount  to  >  HI.OIMI.  Free 
tuition  is  given  in  the  preparatory  and  collegiate 
departments  to  disabled  soldiers  and  orphans  of 
soldiers.  Five  scholarships,  endowed  with  8500 
each,  have  been  founded  for  the  purpose  of  edu- 
cating destitute  young  men  preparing  for  the 
ministry.  The  heneticiari  s  are  exempt  from  all 
charges  of  tuition  and  incidental  lees.  There 
are  a  preparatory  department,  with  classical  and 
scientific  courses,  and  a  collegiate  department, 
with  a  classical  course,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts:  a  scientific  course,  leading  to 
the  derive  of  llachelor  of  Science:  and  a  civil 
engineering  course,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  <  'ivil  Engineering.  The  young  men 
are  required  to  practice  military  drill  under  an 
officer  of  the  army  detailed  by  the  secretary  of 
war  as  professor  of  military  science  and  tactics  : 
■a  system  of  light  gymnastics  has  been  provided 
for  the  young  women.  En  1873 — 4,  there  were 
25  instructors,  and  405  preparatory  ami  ">4  col- 


CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 

legiate  students.  The  ltev.  Win.  !•'.  King, 
is  ilsTlb  the  president. 

CORNELL     UNIVERSITY,     at     1 
N.  Y..   was  chartered    in    1865,    and    open 

L868.     It  was  named  in  h r  of   Ezra  Ci 

of  Ithaca,  who  cave  for  i Is  establishment  Sail 
and  over  200  acres  of  land,  to  bi  used  as  a 
and  as  a  site  for   the   um\er.-it\    1  mil. ii i . 


hi!., 


gift  of  Henry  Y\  Si  ,.;.  f  I  r  :ok 
the  action  of  the  trustees,  in  1872, 
to  the  university  on  the  same  terms 

rasas  men.     The' value  of  the  build- 


of  New  York. 


id- In 


usual  rate  of   wages.      Skilled  labor  is   mostly  ill 
demand, 

The  points  in  which  this  university  differs  from 
most  of  the  other  institutions  of  learning  in  the 
United  States  may  be  summed  up,  in  brief,  as 
follow-:  1 1  i  The  addition  to  the  ordinary  govern- 
ing faculty  of  non-resident  professors  and  lec- 
turer-., some  of  whom  deliver  each  year  courses 
of  lectures  upon  subjects  in  the  investigation  of 
which  they  have  acquired  a  high  reputation: 
(2)   Liberty  in  the  choice  of  studies:    (3)   The 

determining  the  relative  rank  of  each  student  in 
his  class;    (5)  The  non-sectarian  charai 

institution. 

The  instruction  is  comprised  in  tour  great 
divisions:  eciieral  curses,  optional  courses,  spe- 
cial courses,  and  post-graduate  courses.  The 
general  courses  are  four  in  number,  namely:  in 
arts,  in  literature,  in  science,  in  philosophy.  The 
course  in  arts,  leading  to  the  degree 
of  Arts,  extends  through  four  year.-.  It  includes 
the  1 1  reek  and  Latin  language.-,  and  is  similar  to 


1-1 


CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 


the  usual  academic  course  in  the  other  colleges 

and  universities  of  the  Lnited  States.  I  hiring  the 
ln'-i  year,  no  option  is  allowed  in  the  choice  of 
studies.  In  the  second  year,  everything  is  op- 
tional, except  Greek,  Latin,  ami  the  exercises  in 
elocution  and  rhetoric.  I  hiring  the  third  and 
fourth  years,  everything   is  optional 


the  departments  of  pliil—  .  .,| 
letters.  During  the  Brs1  and  secondyi  :  I  itin 
and  Greek  are  required  four  times  a  week  eai  h  ; 
and  after  that  they  may  be  pursued  through  the 
two  remaining  year-  so  as  to  occupy  twelve  Out 
of  the  fifteen  hours  of  recitation  per  week.  The 
course  in  literature,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Literature,  extends  through  four 
years.  It  differs  from  the  course  in  arts  in  re- 
quiring no  Greek,  and  is  characterized  by  a  lar- 
ger amount  of  attention  to  the  modern  languages 

and  English  literature.     The   course   i,      ,. 

leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Sci  ace,  i  t- 
tends  through  four  veal's,  and  includes  five  hours 
a  week, during  the  last  year, devoted  to  someone 
science  as  a  specialty.  Its  peculiar  features  are 
the  study  of  mathematics,  of  tin-  Erench  and 
<;erman*laii".uii.  <.  a. id  of  the  historical,  phys- 
ical, moral,  and  poliii.  il  -nee,.  'I  lie  course  ill 
philosophy,  a  I  -  '■:  h  m  \  ar<.  is  designed  to  he  a 
scientific  course  of  a  hi_h  r  grade  than  the  pre- 
ceding. Latin  is  required  for  admission,  as  in 
the  courses  in  arts  and  literature.  11  leads  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Philosophy.   I  >ptiona] 

courses  are  those  whieh  the  -aii'loiii  u  '  -  "'  ' 
for  himself.  In  no  course  is  it  neo  ry,  for 
the  attainment  of  a  degree,  that  the  tidies 
should  b  ■  followed  exactly  in  the  prescribed  or- 
der; and,  in  the  general  courses,  equivalents  are 
accepts  I,  in  some  cas  :  ,  for  the  studies  indi- 
cated, provi  led  they  are  of   the  sam     °  in  iral 

character.     The  sj ial   courses  differ  from   the 

general  courses,  not  only  in  the  studies  which 
they  include,  hut  also  in  the  important  fact,  that 
while  the  general  courses  have  chiefly  in  view 
the  culture  of  the  mind,  the  special  courses  aim 
rather  to  tit  students  more  immediately  foi  some 
one  of  the  departments  of  productive  industry. 
There  are  eleven  special  courses:  namely,  l! 
agriculture,  with  a  full  course  of  tour  years. 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Agriculture; 

(2)  architecture,  with  a  full  course  of  fouryeara, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Architecture: 

(3)  chemistry  and  physics;  (4)  civil  engineer- 
ing, with  a  full  course  of  four  years,  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Civil  Engineering; 
(5)  history  and  political  science;  (6)  languages, 
c prising  three  schools — of  the  ancient  lan- 
guages, of  living  Asiatic  and  Oriental  languages, 


partineiit  of  rhetoric  and  general  literature.  No- 
regular  post-graduat urses  have  I >een  arranged. 

The  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Veterinarj  Science  is 
conferred  on  students  who  pursue  a  four  years' 
course  in  that  study  in  the  agricultural  depart- 
ment. The  advanced  degrees  of  Master  of  Arts. 
Master  i  f  Science,  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  Civil 
Engineer,  Doctor  of  Veterinary  Medicine,  and 
Architect  are  conferred  on  holders  of  correspond- 
ing M,a  lento  degrees  upon  fulfilling  certain  pre- 
scribed conditions,  and  passing  an  examination. 
The  general  faculty  is  divided  into  13  special 
faculties.  The  special  faculties  are  those  of  (1) 
agriculture,  (2)  architecture.  (3)  chemistry  and 
physics,  i  1)  civil  engineering,  (5  history  and  po- 
litical sej, .nee.  (II)  ancient  and  Asiatic  languages, 
(7)  North  European  languages,  (8)  South  Euro- 
pean languages,  (It)  mathematics.  (10)  the  me- 
chanic arts.  (1 1  i  military  -cieiice.  1 1 2)  philosophy 
and  letters,  (13)  natural  history.  There  are 
professorships  of  hi-torv;  South  European  lan- 
guages: moral  and  intellectual  philosophy;  North 
European  languages;  agricultural  chemistry: com- 
parative anatomy  and  zoology:  English  litera- 
ture (non-resident)  ;  English  history  (non-resi- 
dent): veterinary  medicine  and  surgery:  constitu- 
tional law  ( non-resident ):  general.  ec< mic,  and 

agricultural  geology;  botany,  horticulture,  and 
arboriculture;  mechanical  engineering  and  ma- 
Inn  construction;  mechanics  applied  to  agri- 
eiiliinv  non-resident  I :  analytical  chemistry  and 
i.iin.val.cv  :  liennaii  literature  I  non-resident); 
...  mistry  and  chemistry  applied  to  man- 
ei  tures  non-resident);  Latin  language  and 
literature:  Greek  language  and  literature:  rhet- 
oric and  general  literature:  architecture;  Amer- 
ican history  (non-resident);  Angio-Sa  on  and 
English  literature;  physics  and  experimental 
Mechanics;  military  science  and  tactics:  Span- 
ish and  Italian:  mathematics :  civil  engineer- 
ing: living  Asiatic  languages:  agriculture:  and 
Hebrew  and  Oriental  literature  and  history  (non- 
resident). In  1875— 6,  there  were  23  resident 
and  s  non-resident  professors.  12  assistant  profes- 
sors, and  10  instructors.  The  following  is  a 
summary  of  the  students  for  that  year:  In 
science  ill  1.  literature  45,  philosophy  17.  arts  43. 
agriculture  IT.  architecture  32, chemistry  It'.,  en- 
gineering 82,  mechanic  arts  56,  natural  history 
I",  resilient  graduates  12.  In  the  fourth  year. 
or  senior  Studies,  there  were  si  .in  junior  studies 
I  lii.  in  sophomore  studies  L35,  in  freshman 
studies  154.  Total,  deducting  repetitions.  531. 
At  the  commencement  in  L874,  72  degrees  were 
conferred,  namely:   B.  A.,  4  ;    I'..  Lit.,  t:   B.  Ph.. 


3:    1!. 


30;  B.  Ag 
M.  E 


„f  Mechanical  Engine.  nng  9  mihtarj  a  lence; 
(10)   natural  history,   comprising    the  school  of 

botany,  the  school  of  geology  and  palaeontology, 
and  the  school  of  zoology;  (1  I)  philosophy  and 
letters,  with  a  school  of  philosophy  and  a  school 
of  letters,  the  latter  having  a  department  of 
Anglo-Saxon  and  English  literature,  and  a  de-  | 


B.  Arch..!'.:    B.  C.  lv. 
2;   C.  E..  I:  Ph.  D.,1; 

•aditates  was  52.      The 

at  thelatterdate  was 

rarv    contains     47,000 

table  col- 

ire.  archi- 

tary  science,  zoology  and  physiology,  and  in  the 

fiii,'>  arts.      Male  candidates   for   admission    must 
be  at    least   sixteen,    females   seventeen  years  of 


ipri-e 


CORPOKAL  PUNISHMENT 


is., 


ago,  and  must  pass  a  thorn  uglily  satisfactory  o\ 
aiiiination  in  tin-  following  subjects  :  ( I  )  geogra- 
phy, ('-')  English  grammar,  including  orthogra- 
phy and  syntax,  (3  J  arithmetic,  and  ill  algebra 
through  quadratic  equations.  This  general  ex- 
amination will  admit  them  to  the  university    as 

optional   students,   or  as    students  ill    til.-  - 1 .i-  -i.i I 

courses  of  agriculture,   chemistry,  and    physics. 

For  other  courses  there  are  some  additional  re- 
quirements.    Andrew  D.  White,  LL.D    ha    b    m 
the  president  of  the  university  sine,,  ii-  op  ning 
CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT,  or  the  in- 


what  son  is  Ii.- whom  the  father  chasteneth not?" 
(Hebrews,  xn,  6,  7.)     St.  Augustine  says,  in  his 

Coiifrssinns,'-  Disci], line   is   needful  to  overo 

our  puerile  sloth,  and   this  also   i    a  part  of  thy 
government   over  thy  creatures,  '  I  I  lod,  for  the 

purpose   of    rest  raining    our   sinlnl    inn  ,d  no-it  v. 


in  the  education  of  children,  has  the 
high  authority  and  time-honored  ext 
in  recent  times  has  fallen  consideral 
repute  and  disuse.  Its  necessity  am 
have  been  much  discussed ;  and  then 
ably,  but   few  subjects  in   connection 


■■  relic  ol  b  u  barism,    an  I     hould   m  rer  be  em  a  requisite  i 

ployed,   but    that   children   can    be,   and    always  often  the  tr 

should  he,  governed  by  the  use  of  "moral  sua-  tion."    Cole 

sion," — an  appeal  to  their  .reason,  their  sensibil-  the  can-, •  In 

ities,  and   their  sense  of  right.     Anciently,  the  he  "hated  tl 

propriety  of  this  mole  of  educational  coerci  in  cau  e   he  wi 

seems  to  have  been  scarce^   questioned.     Sol-  "Bowyer   tl 

omon  is  emphatic  in  his  approval  of   it.  in  proof  soundly,  as 

of  which  the   following  citations  from  the  />%,/,•  izing  would 


f  Proverbs 

tint 

nli 


Usee 


I, ill   In 


Ins  rod  Idled  his  i 
■  terieth   liim  li  times." — Mil,  21, 
"Foolishness   is  bound  in  the  heart  of  a  child  ;  but 
the  rod  of  corn, lieu  shail  drive   it  tar  from  him."— 
xxn,  15. 

'•  Withhold  not  correction  from  the  child;  for  if  thou 
beatest  him  with  a  rod,  he  shall  not  die.     Thou  shalt 

heat  lira   v.    lii    a    I  .,,1,  and   -hall,  delner    he    -mil    I i 

hell."— xxiii,  13,  II. 

"Correct  tin  son   and  lie  shall  give  thee  rest,  yea, 
he  shall  jiivi-  delight  nut.,  thy  -old." — xxix,  17. 

•'  Whom  the  I.  nd  l..v.  th   lie  correcteth  :  even  as  a 
father  the  s,,n  in  win, in  he  .1,  lightcth."— ill,  1-'. 

ihih-theie  is  hope,  and  let  not 


Tha 


thy 


firmed  me  in  my  ab 
Table  Talk.)     Locki 


have  i 
the   w 

greate 


shocki 

CI  ,1]  II  ,i 


"The  rod  and  reproof  give  wisdom;  but  a  child  left     l""".'.  -cnur.n 
to  himself  bringi'tli  his  mother  to  shame."— xxix,  1.",.     the  f,  i  1 1 1 . -     i 

Whether  the  practice  enjoined  in  these  scrip-  hole  in  the  bl 
tural  texts  is  to  be  considered  as  sanctioned  and  unnecessi 
thereby  or  not,  its  existence,  if  not  its  usefulness  dren  by  these 
and  necessity,  has  been  recognized  at  all  times 
and  in  all  countries.  Horace  refers  to  it  when 
he  say-.  ■■  Mi  mini  [cannina]  quce plagosum  milii 
p  "-'- i  <  >■  -  ■       ■        I  remember  the  verses 

which  Orbilius,  my  Bogging  (or  feruling)  school- 
master,  used  to  dictate  to  me,  when  a  boy). 
Juvenal  speaks  of  this  school  discipline  as  a 
matter  of  course:  El  nos  ergo  manum  ferulce 
subduximxx:  or.  as  translated  by  I'adham 

'■And  we  oar-.  H,  -  ,  no    -i,at    h'd  thl    I  a    i  61 
From  proue  des,  emtiiiu'  r-l.a 

St.Paul  speaks  in  a  similar  manner  of  ( 
of   the   rod    as   a   means   of    family    <  1  i—  i 


it  is  no  won 

pears  to  mai 

tl ■   to  be 

"  1  >o  but  oon 

their  lesson,  a 

outcries  of   1» 

deling  of    pe 

again,  "  1  low 

1  hat  I  he  shame  ,,f 
in.  should  be  the 
t." 

so  grievously  and 
and  teachers  as 
various  and  loath- 
ion,  caning,  whip- 
reh  twigs,  thongs, 
.  gencrallv  Willi  a 


Its  are  about 
thing  but  the 
mil  the  tliuii 
fury  ;"  and 
ouldit  I™-  to 
and  Sowers, 
It  is  a  sad 
r.,,1  has  been 


"  Whom  the  Lord  loveth  he  chasteneth, 
scourgeth  every  son  whom  he  receiveth ;" 
again,  -  God  doaloth  with  you  as  with  sons 


and    tory  of  IheRwl.-h   is  recorded   ,,f  a    Suabian 

and    sel [-master   that,   during    his    fifty  one    veal's' 

for     superintendence  of  a    large  school,  he  had  given 


CORPORAL  PUNISHMENT 


011,500  canings,  121,000  floggings.  'JO'.i.ooo  his- 
toil's,  loh.oob  tips  with  the  ruler,  and  10.200 
boxes  on  the  ear.  It  was  further  calculated  that 
he  had  made  Too  boys  stand  barefooted  on  peas, 

(i,000  kneel  on  a  sharp  edge  of  \\ I.  -"'.000  wear 

the  fool's-cap,  and  1,700  hold  the  rod."  Girls  as 
-well  as  boys,  and  even  young  women,  in  schools 
of  high  repute  and  attended  by  the  children  of 
people  of  rank  and  fashion,  it  was  once  the 
custom  to  subject  to  the  most  disgraceful  and 
indecent  flagellation.  In  a  poem  entitled  The 
Terrorsqfthe  Bod,  published  in  L815,  the  whole 
scene  is  depicted. 

■•  'i  h,  governess  now  tales  her  stand, 
Tin   lurch. 'ii  scepter  in  her  hand: 
\\  ith  l..it\  air.  inspiring  awe. 
Anil  upraised  arm  to  mfurre  the  law. 
She  shakes  the  whlstlme  lues,  and  then. 
Whip— wlnii— whip-whip— millets  the  pain: 
Now  pauses— while  miss  roars  aloud 
Sad  warnings  to  the  little  crowd— 
C'rviujj.  •  Oh!  dear  nia  am.  pray  oive  o'er, 
I  never  will  do  so  no  more.'  " 
On  such  occasions,  it  seems  to  have  been  in- 
sisted that  the  other  children  should  be  witnesses 
of  the  pain  and  disgrace  of  their  fellow-pupil. 
Thus  Shenstone  in  The  Schoolmistress,  describ- 


Ainl  'I""  ii  they  nr.ip    appeal  s  his  dainty  sum, 
Fair  as  the  lurry  coat  of  whitest  ermilin." 

But.  the  most  touching  incident  of  the  affair  is 
the  presence  of  the  offenders  sister. 

•.  o  ruthfnl  seen    '  when  from  a  nook  obscure, 
His  inn-   sisl    rdot 

And   as  the  punishment   proceeds,  the  sym- 
pathies of  the  little  gill  are  painfully  excited. 
•'No  longer  can  she  now  her  shrii  ks  command, 
And  )iardl\  she  forbears,  through  awful  fear. 
To  rushen  forth,  and.  with  iiresumptuous  hand. 
To  sta\   kai-h  .insti.e  m  its  mid  career." 


boys,  were  made  to  suffer.  Of  this  numerous 
instances  are  sometimes  cited.  Plutarch  gives 
one  in  speaking  of  his  tutor  Ammonius.  "  Our 
master,"  says  he,  '■having  one  day  observed  that 
we  had  indulged  ourselves  too  luxuriously  at 
diimer.at  his  afternoon  lecture. ordered  hisfreed- 
in.iii  to  give  his  own  son  the  discipline  of  the 
whip  in  our  presence;  signifying,  at  the  same 
tune,  that  he  suffered  this  punishment  because 
he  could  not  eat  his  victuals  without  sauce.  The 
philosopher  all  the  while  had  his  eye  upon  us, 
and  we  knew  well  for  whom  this  example  of 
punishment  was  intended."  Langhorne,  in  the 
Life  of  Plutarch,  commenting  upon  this  in- 
cident, remarks,  "  This  mode  of  punishment  in 
our  public  schools,  is  one  of  the  worst  remains  of 
barbarism  that  prevails  among  us." 

Ilr.  Cotton  .Mather,  in  his"  elegy  on  "  Master 
Ezekiel  Uheever  "  see  Cheever),  refers  thus  to 
the  severities  of  teachers  in  his  time  : 


Blowesare  but  lor  tu 

The   abuses  referre 

strong  tendency  to  en 

flicl i  ci  irporal  pu 

most  earnest  and  emp 
every  form,  and  the  i 
tioii.      In  some  places. 


debased  and  hardened  all  concerned,  in  the 
Spectator  (No.  168), the  master  of  Eton  School 
at  that  time  is  described  as  a  brutal  tyrant. 
••  Many  a  white  and  tender  hand,"  says  the 
writer,  "which  the  fond  mother  had  passionately 


thousand  i 
it  was  covered  w  i 

or  for  going  a  y 


half  out  of  a  gate,  or  for  writing  an  o  for  an  a, 
or  an  a  for  an  o."  Dr.  Johnson,  although  an 
advocate  of  judicious  corporal  punishment,  had 
boon  the  victim  of  its  abuse.  "The  master."  lie 
said,  "was  severe,  and  wrong-headedly  severe.  1  le 
used  to  beat  us  unmercifully;  ami  he  did  not 
distinguish  between  ignorance  and  negligence; 
for  he  would  beat  a  boy  equally  for  not  knowing 
a  thing  as  for  neglecting  to  learn  it  For  in- 
stance, he  woidd  call  a  boy  up.  and  ask  him  the 
I -atin  for  candlestick,  which  the  boy  could  not 
expect  to  be  asked.  Now.  sir,  if  a  boy  could 
answer  every  question,  there  would  be  no  need 
of  a  master  to  teach  him."  So  necessary  was 
the  rod  deemed,  that  it  was  made  an  instrument 
of 
to 


and  especially  the 
id  excess  in  the  in,- 
■nt.  have  led  to  the. 
[enunciation  of  it  in 
lt  of  its  total  aboli- 
sort  to  this  kind  of 
discipline  is  strictly  prohibited,  and  expulsion 
substituted  in  its  place.  The  opinions  of  educa- 
tors in  regard  to  the  expediency  of  this  measure 
are  verj  diverse.  Lyman  Cobb,  an  extreme  and 
enthusiastic  advocate  of  exclusive  moral  suasion, 
expresses  the  sentiment  of  probably  the  entire 
class  of  thinkers  to  which  he  belonged.  "1  con- 
scientiously believe  that  corporal  punishment,  as. 
;i  means  of  moral  discipline,  is  adverse  to  the 
proper. full. and  happy  development  of  the  social, 
moral,  religious,  and  intellectual  character  of 
those  who  are  flogged;  and  because,  also.  I  be- 
lieve ii  has  a  degrading  and  hardening  influence 
on  tiiose  win.  receive  it,  and  on  those  who  inflict 


LTa.1. 


;arious  punishment  in  the  case  of  princes  ; 
hose  offenses  other    lads,  called    »7///v«»</- 


md  hardens  the  sensibilities  of  those  who 
t.  The  first  proposition  cannot  be  main- 
tained as  generally  true;  since  there  are  in- 
numerable examples  to  prove  that  those  who 
have  been  habitually  .subject. -.1  to  the  severest 
discipline  of  this  kind  in  their  youth,  have  grown 
up  to  be  men  of  the  highest  character  for  talent. 
benevolence,  and  worth.  (See  Busby.)  The 
eases  of  .liihnsun.  <  'olciidge.  etc..  already  referred 
to.  arc  instances  of  this.  The  second  point  of 
the  argument  would  seem  to  be  pretty  well 
established  by  the  "  history  of  the  rod;"  since 
nre  see  persons  who  have  been  accustomed  to  in- 
dict pain  upon  others  in  this  way  become  harsh, 


CORPORAL  VV  MSI  I M  ENT 


tyrannical,  and  unfeeling.  At  any  rate,  if  this 
is  not  the  invariable  result,  il  appears  to  be  quite 
generally  the  effect  oi  an  habitual  administration 
of  this  kind  of  discipline.  George  B.  Emerson 
says,  "  The  great  objection  to  corporal  punish- 
ment is  the  fart  that  it  excites  ;m-i\  passions. 
no1  only  in  the  child,  bul  in  the  master,  and 
more  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former.    My  own 


Self-willed,  SO   bent    upon    uiisrhief.su    .letenmn 

edlj  wayward,  and  at  the  same  time  so  devoid 


pain.  It  excites  a  horrible  feeling  in  him — a 
feeling  which  we  might  conceive  to  belong  to 
evil  spirits."      It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  how- 


Dr.  Dwight,  -  The  parents'  w 
to  the  child;  yet,  being  ste 
parental   affection,  is  probab 


the   .li 


power  fora  long  period,  without  greatly  abusing 
it.  At  the  present  time,  no  such  authority  ex- 
ists; and  neither  public  opinion  nor  the  law 
would  permit  teachers  to  commit  with  impunity 
the  barbarities  charged  upon  them  in  former 
times.  Very  many,  perhaps  nearly  all,  of  the 
arguments  against  corporal  punishment  ma\ ~l> 
shown  to  be  objections  to  its  abuse  rather  than 
to  its  legitimate  use.  Thus,  it  is  stated  that  the 
nent  is  often  intlictc  1  in  anger,  that    it   is 


plllllsll 

freaue 


the  whole  of  government,  is  usually  the  least 
part  oi  it,  a  part  indispensable  indeed, and  some- 
times efficacious,  when  all  others  have  failed.*' 
John  I.oeke.  an  enemy  to  corporal  punishment, 
admits  that  sometimes  children  are  so  obstinate. 
that  they  can  be  subdued  by  no  other  means. 
Mrs.  Willard,  for  many  years  principal  of  the 
Troy  Female  Seminary,  said  in  1847,"]  believe 
that  corporal  punishment  should  always  be  re- 
sorted to  as  soon  as  other  modes  of  discipline 
fail,  and  I  have  known  some  young  persons 
whose  consciences  were  so  weak,  and  who  had 


be  tl 
howi 


il  mode  of 


physical  pain  upon  others.  Nor  doe,  the 
ing  that  corporal  punishment  is  useful 
prompt  and  expeditious  mo  le  oi  punishin 
offenses  of  children  prove  its  necessity;  al 
admit  that  its  concomitants  and  tendencies 


al. 


it  to  be.  We  must  consider  the  Belfishness,  will- 
fulness, idleness,  and  spirit  oi  mischief  that  must 
be  controlled  or  exorcised  before  instruction  can 
accomplish  its  purpose;  and  before  concluding 
that  corporal  punishment  is  never  necessary,  we 
must  lie  prepared  to  say.  that,  under  all  circum- 
stances, and  with  all  available  instrumentalities, 
this  control  can  be  effected  without  any  appeal 
i*o  physical  coercion.     Are  there  not  children  so 


Mill 


tentive  olw  nation  of  the  workings  of  all  the 
plans  which  have  been  devised  to  avoid  its  use 
or  to  supply  it.-  place.'  Horace  Mann,  one  of 
the  most  enthusiastic  advocates  of  moral  suasion, 
vei  recognized  the  necessity  of  corporal  punish- 
ment in  s ■  cases.    "Punishment,"  he  says, 

••„ho„ld  never  be  inflicted  except  in  cases  of  the 
extremes!  necessity:  while  the  experiment  of 
sympathy,  confidence,  persuasion,  encourage 
incut,  should  be  repeated  forever  and  ever  \  a 
English  teacher  says,  ■■  It  is  necessary  for  a  child 
to  learn  that  the  violation  of  law.  whether  oi 
school,  society,  or  fiod.  brings  inevitable  suffer- 
ing.    The  sense  of  right  is  so  imperfectly  devel 

pressing    u] hild    that    right    is   right,  and 

wrong  :    m      _   i    bj   showing  that  suffering  fol 

lows  from :,  enjoyini  n1    and  a  sei.se  of  satis 

faction  from  the  other."  |  Jlw  Educational  Re- 
porter  (London,  July  L,  1874.)  Corporal  pun- 
ishment is  sanctioned  by  Roseiikranz  in  I'rihi- 
iinijint  ua  ,i  Si/slmi.  •■  This  kind  of  punishment," 
he  says,"  provided  always  that  it  is  not  too  often 
administered,  or  with  undue  son  in .  i-  im- 
proper way   of    dealing   with    willful   defiance, 


COKPOUAL  PUNISHMENT 


with  obstinate  carelessness,  or  with  a  really  per- 
verted will,  so  long  or  so  often  as  the  higher  per- 
ception is  closed  against  appeal."  Under  pecu- 
liarly favorable  circumstances, — a  condition  of 
things  which  may  be  considered  ideal,  that  is. 
where  the  home  training  ot  the  pupils  of  a  school 
has  been  judicious  and  correct,  where  all  have 
been  taught,  from  their  earliest  years,  to  obey 
their  elders  and  superiors ;  and  this  not  by  vio- 
lence and  severity,  but  with  gentleness  and  firm- 
ness; and  moreover,  where  the  teacher  or  teach- 
ers of  the  school  are  gifted  with  the  same  talents 

for  discipline.— under  such  circumstances    -i 

educators  would  agree  thai  a  resort  to  corporal 
punishment  would  scarcely  ever,  if  at  all.  be 
neces  iry.  Bu1  such  are  no!  the  circumstances 
under  which  children  are  instructed  in  school. 
This  point  is  ably  presented  by  Horace  Malm. 
■■  The  children  «  ho  attend  school."  sns  he.  "en- 
ter it  from  that  vast  variety  of  homes  which 
exist  in  the  state.  From  differenl  households, 
where  the  widest  diversity  of  parental  and 
domestic  influences  prevails,  the  children  enter 
the  school -room,  where  there  i  usi  b  compara- 
tive uniformity.     At  hom  s  s f  these    ihil- 

dl'ell  have  been  indulge  I  ill  :  ■'  V  ■'.  i-'i  ll  i-  •■■■■■  1 
and  smiled  upon  f  >r  the  ,■  ,.  ■  j  -  of  ,',,  n  ],,,,.,- 
.  and  even  their  ti'eaks  and  whims 
enacted  into  household  laws.  Some  have  been 
so    rigorously    debarred     from    every    innocent 

.nun     I     .'ind     in  'il    nee.    that     they    have 

opened  for  themselves  a  way  to  gratification, 
through  artifice,  and  treachery,  and  falsehood. 
Others,  from  vicious  parental  example,  and  the 
corrupting  influences  of  vile  associates,  have 
been  trained  to  bad  habits,  and  contaminated 
with  vicious  principles,  ever  since  thev  were 
born  : — some  being  taught  that  honor  consists  in 
whipping  a  boy  larger  than  themselves:  others, 
that  the  chie!  end  of  man  is  to  own  a  box  that 
cannot  be  opened,  and  to  get  money  enough  to 
till  it  ;  and  others,  again,  have  been  taught,  upon 
their  fathers'  knees,  to  shape  their  young  lips  to 
the  utterance  of  oaths  and  blasphemy.  All 
these,'' as  he  says,  "must  be  made  to  obey  the 
same  genera]  regulations,  to  pursue  the  same 
studies,  and  to  aim  at  the  -nine  results."  More- 
over, the  teachers  who  are  to  control  these  diverse 
characters  and  dispositions,  are  persons  of  im- 
mature age  and  experience,  with  little,  if  any, 
special  preparation,  and  often  morally  and 
temperamentally  unfitted  for  the  work:  and. 
therefore,  as  he  further  says.  ••  He  who  denies 
the  necessity  of  resorting  to  punishment  in  our 
schools,  virtually  affirms  two  things:  (1)  That 
this  great  number  of  children,  scraped  up  from 
all  places,  taken  at  all  ages  and  in  all  conditions, 
can  be  deterred  from  the  wrong  and  attracted  to 

the  right  without  punish at ;  and  (2)  That  the 

teachers  employed  to  keep  their  respective 
schools,  arc  in  il,  ■  pp  n*  condition  of  things, 
able  to  accomplish  so  glorious  a  work.  Neither 
of  these  propositions  am  I  at  presenl  prepared 
to  admit."     He  also  prudently  remarks,  that  "it 

is  useless,  or  worse  than  ii-cles,.  to  say.  that  such 
or  such  a   thing  can   be  done,  and  done    imme- 


diately, without  pointing  out  the  agents  by  whom 
it  can  be  done." 

Thesi nsiderations  assume,  that  every  avail- 
able agency  has  been  employed  before  corporal 
punishment  is  resorted  to  :  for  all  educators  are 
agreed  upon  the  point,  that  this  kind  of  dis- 
cipline is  only,  if  ever,  justifiable  as  a  dernier 
ressort ;  that  is.  after  every  possible  substitute 
for  corporal  punishment  has  been  used.  There 
is  then  one,  and  only  one,  alternative,  a-s  far 
as  school  discipline  is  concerned,  and  that  is 
expulsion.  To  this  it  is  objected  that  to 
expel  a  pupil,  ami  particularly  from  a  public 
school,  is  to  acknowledge  the  inadequacy  of  the 
means  to  restrain  him.  "The  vicious  and  ig- 
norant scholar."  says  l>.  P.  Page,  "is  the  very 
one  who  most  needs  the  reforming  influence  of  a 
good  education.  Sen!  away  from  the  fountains 
of  knowledge  and  virtue  at  this,  the  very  time 
of  need  !  And  what  may  we  expect  for  him  but 
utter  ruin?"    In  the  city  of  New  York,  coroora] 


following  statement  is  made  :    ■•There 
class  of  boys  whom  our  schools  do  not 


a  large 
not  and  can- 
not restrain,  and  v,  hom.  therefore,  they  cannot 
benefit,  but  must  send  adrift,  to  find  their  way 
inevitably  to  the  reformatories  and  prisons,  after 
having  committed  those  injuries  to  the  com- 
munity which  our  scl 1  system  was  designed  to 

prevent."  It  is  further  stated.  "  There  arepupils. 
the  sons  of  widowed  mothers,  who  cannot  be 
restrained  at  all  at  home:  and  when  these  are 
turned  from  the  school  they  arc  lost  indeed.  To 
these  children  the  city  owes  an  education,  and 
in  order  to  be  able  to  bestow  it.  it  is  bound  by 
every  obligation  of   right  and   duly   to   govern 


ment.  thougli 
been  abandon 
tendent    state 


•ars,  the  superin- 
./•/  for  1874-  ;".t. 
he  great  bugbear 

1C   use  ot    the   rod. 


"  Misprisions  tor   mi- 

in  the  sight  of  apologists 

have  been  far  less   frequent  than  in  the  years 

when  corporal  punishment  was  in  vogue.     The 

most  favorable  year  under  the  old  regi gave 

us  one  suspension  for  each  22,000  pupils  in  daily 
attendance.  The  past  year  shows  but  one  suspen- 
sion for  each  48,888  pupils  in  daily  attendance." 
He  also  states  that  "a  greater  good  has  been 
secured  at  less  cost  than  by  the  old  methods. 
The  chief  element  of  cost  has  been  time  spent  in 
discipline:"  and  added  to  this,  is  "  loss  of  school 

ti by     enforced     absence."         The     sll|  lerilltell- 

denl  of  St.  Louis  (A»»»<il R<>p<»-1  for  18(59— 70) 
says  "Corporal  punishment  is  still  inflicted  in 
the  schools  of  our  city,  but  lam  glad  to  say  in 
fewer  cases  every  succeeding  year..  .  .  Ex- 
perienced  teachers  affirm  that  they  think  it  im- 
possible to  do  without  it."  The  Report  of  the 
same  superintendent  for  1873 — \  says,  "We 
have  had  but  very  few  cases  of  corporal  punish- 
ment, when  compared  with   former  years,  but 


CORPORA  I 


still  the  uumber  is  quite  large  when  brought 
together ....  Our  general  average  is  now  aboul 
L.000  cases  per  quarter  for  25,000  pupils.     Six- 

t.vii  veal-  a^o.  there  w.-t-  ..II.-  li.ni.li-.  ,l  tunes  this 


Rion  mi.  in ed,  the  Supreme  <  '..mi   of   Ma    a 

chusetts  held   that  a  /ecu/,    is  a   proper  instru- 

III. 'HI    '.I    .-.     i."    I    |    [mi. 'HI       'I   lir      '  .in-   Melons 


hment  will  be  with  us  a  thing 
is  kind  of  punishment  still  sur 


e  stale    .-H|"  

is  doctrine.     Pupil 
ible  to  sui  I.  |iiuii  : 


sary  means  of  discipline.     In  Gi 
punishment  is  permitted  in  thi 

for  certain  uffenses.  as  resistatiei 


■s.     A  child  should  never  be  struck  f.u 

■ics.  for  faults  of  forgetfuliicss.  for  ii 
lid  carclcssii. .— ,  ..i   for  p,  H\   hieeular 


exceeding  "the  boui: 
cipline,"  and  that  tli 
for  inflicting  any  ex. 
local  ordinance  pro' 


ili.  i 


Mows  with  the  fist,  or  on  the  head,  are  strictly 

prohibited.     Similar  laws  prevail  in  the  cantons 
of  Switzerland.     In   France,   the   law   of    1850, 


il.i.' 


still  in  force,  prohibited  all 


■p.  i 


puni.--liui.iit  in  the  primary  schools  ;  and  the  sub- 
stitutes for  it  are  such'  punishments  as  bad 
marks,  confinement,  the  imposition  of  tasks, 
placing  the  names  of  delinquents  on  a   roll  of 

did r,  etc.     In    Russia,  corporal  punishment 

was  prohibited  in  the  pitman  schools  at  a  very 

tain  restrictions.  In  L862,  a  statute  was  pro- 
posed for  the  government  of  the  schools  without 
corporal  puiii.-lim.-iit  :  and  this  statute  was  sub- 
mitted to  German  educatoK  for  their  criticism  and 

suggestions.       Of    the    twenty-. .lit'    W  ho  presented 

opinions,  eleven  opposed  the  abolition  of  t  orporal 
punishment,  and  two  favored  it.  while  eight  ex- 
pressed no  opinion  on  that  part  of  the  statute. 
The  statute  was  finally  so  modified  as  to  leave 


the  decision  of  the 


pi.- 


or  with  the  knuckles,  1» 

sing  il ars,slapping 

the  cheeks  or  the  mouth, 

in  aU  brutal  expedients. 

These   irritating  and  an 

more  likely  to  arouse   n 

alignant    passion     than 

to  allc\  iatc  them.     ,  1 

11,.   tempei  with  which 

you  administer  punishmi 

nt  will,generally, excite 

in   the   child   a  corresp. 

i:,;,,  ;    feeling.  '  If  you 

bring  ang  r,  anger  will  1 

s  excited;  if  you  bring 

affi  ctioi     i    d    sorrow,  j 

,u   will   find   the  child 

responding   in  sorrowful 

t.  elings  ;  if  you  bring 

moral    feelings,    tli.     clu 

!,-   conscience   will    be 

excited.       Anger   and    s 

verity   destroy  all   the 

benefit  of  punishment  : 

love  and  firmness  will 

if  anything  can,  work  i 

enitence  and  a  change 

of  conduct-     See  11.  M 
,     Ed 

"%,/:''':'..,.n"it;'n. 

1872);  Rem  rl 1 

of  (he  Eon.  II            V    - 

Masters  ol  thi    Boston 

'ublic  schools     Boston 

1844);    Reply  '      esan 

,bv  1  loi.iec  Mann  (Bos- 

ton,    1-1  1    :    /' 

Tears  (Boston,   1845); 

Lymam  Cobb    /'■      Evil 

Tendency  of  Corporal 

Punishment    S    V..  1-1 

7);  Cooper,  .1  History 

of  0     Rod    London);  K 

VKI.    RoSENKRANZ,   /'"'/ 

By  Kuglish  an.l  American  law,  a  parent  may 
correct  his  child  in  a  reasonable  manner,  and  the 
teacher  is  in  loco  parentis  (sec  2  Kent,  205; 
1  Blackstone,  453;  !)  Wendells  Itepori.-..  3.V.  : 
27  Maine,  280;  32  Vermont.  123 ;  2  Devereux 
and  Battle,  365  ;  4  Gray,  37.)     In  the  last  deci- 


(Edinburgh)  ;  Pillans,  Rationale  ■ 
(Edinburgh,  1852).  (See  also  \n 
.  ltional;    A  i  moKiTv;  and  Discipline.) 


190 


CORVALLIS  COLLEGE 


CORVALLIS  COLLEGE  (State  Agri- 
cultural), at  Oorvallis.  Benton  county,  Oregon, 
was  founded  bv  the  Methodist  Episcopal  ( 'liureh. 
in  ISlin,  and  is  still  under  its  control.  'The  state 
agricultural  college  was  made  a  department  of  it 
in  1872.  The  value  of  the  college  property  is 
■110,000;  the  endowment  consists  of  90,000 
acres  of  agricultural  college  land  granted  by 
Congress.  The  sum  of  85.000  is  annually  re- 
reived  from  the  state.  The  institution  embraces 
a  primary  department,  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment, and  a  collegiate  department.  The  last 
comprises  the  following  schools:  (1)  School  of 
Physics;    2)  School  of  Mathematics ;  (3)  School 

of  'Mur.,1  Science;     :     Scl I  of  Language;  (5 

Scl I  ol  His  orj  and  Literature;  (6)   School  of 

Engineering  i  Special  studies  of  Agriculture. 
In  chemistry  and  mathematics  there  are  three 
classes  (junior,  intermediate,  and  senior),  and  in 
Greek  and  Latin  two  (junior  and  senior).  There 
are  four  degrees  conferred  in  this  institution  : 
(1)  The  degree  of  A.  M.,  conferred  on  all  who 
complete  the  course  in  the  study  of  physics, 
mathematics,  moral  philosophy,  history,  an  I 
literature  and  language:  ("-')  The  degree  of  A. 
B.,  on  such  as  complete  the  course  in  the  schools 
of  physics,  moral  philosophy,  matin-mat  ic.  an- 1 
ancient  languages;  (3)  The  degree  of  B.S.,  on  such 
as  complete  the  course  in  the  schools  of  physics, 
mathematics,  moral  philosophy,  engineering,  an  1 
the  special  department  of  agriculture;  (4)  The 
degree  of  Graduate  of  a  Scl I,  on  such  as  com- 
plete the  course  in  any  school.  The  title  Pro- 
ficient is  granted  to  any  candidate  for  degrees 
svho  passes  two  successful  examinations,  one  of 
which  must  be  final.  Both  sexes  are  entitled  to 
the  privileges  of  the  college.  The  tuition  varies 
from  .$f>  to  SI  5  (gold)  per  term,  the  college  year 
being  divided  into  three  terms.  An  extra  fee 
of  s;.  is  charged  for  each  modern  language.  Tin- 
law  provides  for  the  free  tuition  of  sixty  young 
men,  over  sixteen  years  old,  who  are  known 
as  state  students,  [n  1873 — 4,  there  were  6  in- 
structors and  1  34  students,  of  whom  32  were  in 
the  agricultural  department.  The  number  grad- 
uating was  4  (I?.  S.);  the  whole  number  of 
alumni,  is,  B.  L.  Arnold,  A.  M„  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION,  or  Course 
of  Study,  is  a  series  of  subjects  of  instruction 
or  study,  arranged  in  the  order  in  which  they 
should  be  pursued,  and  grouped  or  divided  itrto 
grades,  each  to  be  completed  in  a  certain  time. 
Such  an  arrangement  of  studies  is  sometimes 
called  a  i/rm/,;/  cmirv,  and,  especially  in  Superior 

instruction,  a  curriculum.  When  these  various 
subjects  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  daily  or- 
der of  exercises,  showing  the  time,  or  the  number 
of  lessons,  to  be  given  to  each  subject,  it  consti- 
tutes the  school  programme. 

In  order  that  the  objects  of  intellectual  edu- 
cation may  be  fully  attained,  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  that  the  course  of  instruction  should 
be  judicious  in  respect  to  several  points:  (I )  The 
selection  of  subjects  ;  (2)  Their  order  or  arrange- 
ment ;  (3)  The  number  prescribed  for  simultane- 


COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION 

otis  study  :   (t)  The  divisi if  the   course   in;  i 

grades,  with  a  definite  time  assigned  for  the  com- 
pletion of  each.  The  first  of  these  considerations 
is  of  paramount  importance;  since  the  subjects 
of  study  constitute  not  only  the  basis  of  intel- 
lectual culture,  but  the  source  of  necessary  in- 
formation. Two  points,  consequently,  are  to  be 
considered  in  this  selection:  (I)  Tin-  value  of 
the  subjects  as  means  of  culture;  (2)  Their 
importance  as  sources  of  information.  In  the 
early  stages  of  education,  the  first  of  these  con- 
siderations should,  without  doubt,  have  the 
preference:    but.    as    education    advances,    the 


instruction  without sidering  tin-  nature  of  the 

mind  to  be  educated  as  well  as  the  objects  for 
which  it  is  to  be  educated.  In  elementary  or 
primary  education,  the  necessary  subjects  of  in- 
struction may  lie  grouped  into  the  following: 
(1)  Language,  including  reading  and  elocution, 
spelling,  the  analysis  and  definition  of  words, 


jjeel  instruction 
v.  natural  histo- 

' y-  etc.;    (I) 

g,  drawing,  etc; 
alisthenics.    To 

"f  instru ntal, 

tics.  In  addition 
e  eases,  the  rudi- 

also  taught.  The 

d  secondary  in- 
d  as  to  subjects, 
may  be  deemed 
■  higher  grade, 
here  must,  how- 
well  as  words.  - 


ever,  be  instruction  in  thin 
the  perceptive  and  eonceptive  faculties  must  lie 
trained  as  well  as  the  expressive  faculties,  so 
that  the  mind  may  be  stored  with  ideas  and 
their  representatives  in  language.  A  proper 
discrimination  between  primary  and  secondary 
instruction  depends  upon  (1)  the  kind  of  in- 
struction, and  (2)  the  subjects  of  instruction. 
Science  taught  in  the  high  school  is  a  very  differ- 
ent thing  from  science  in  the  primary  school  ; 
in  the  one  case  we  address  to  a  much  greater 
extent  the  higher  faculties, — abstraction,  general- 
ization, reasoning,  etc. :  in  the  other,  chiefly  the 
perceptive  and  eonceptive  faculties.  The  sub- 
jects of  elementary  instruction  have  been  classi- 
fied by  an  eminent  educator  as  follows:  "(1) 
Reading  <///'/  Writing — the  mastery  of  letters; 
(2)  Arithmetic — the  mastery  of  numbers;  (3) 
(rr,,,/rnji//i/ — the  mastery  over  place  ;  (4)  Gram- 
mar— the  mastery  over  the  word;  (5)  History — 
the  mastery  over  time." 

In  schools  of  secondary  instruction  (high 
schools,  academies,  etc.),  the  course  includes  also 
language  —  the  vernacular,   and   one  or  more 


i'iiI'KSK  OF   INSTHI  CTION 


modern  languages,  anil  also   the   ru.limiiits   of 
Latin   and   Greek,   particularly  in    preparatory 


of  the  larger  "  union  schools,"and  of  schools  in 
cities,  appear  to   preclude   the   possibility   of  a 


(taught  a~-,„  I,  -  il,.-M..Un_  ; ., ,  x -n  -  :, , ,  I 

astronomy  descriptive,  at  least),  phys 
to  which  are  usually  added  English 
rhetoric,  the  elements  of  mental  and 
losophy.etc.  What  properlj  belong 
school  or  academic  course  is.  boweve 
being  settled  :  indeed,  to  fix  the  line  c 
tion  between  primary  and  secondary 
has  scarcely  been  attempted  ;  henc  .  « 


of 


these  si 


man.  it   will   be   im- 
•  of  study  which  all 
ely  the  best." 
ior  instruction  (col- 
courses  of  study  are 


States  require-  thai 
high  school  with  a  { 
already  mentioned  ; 
arithmetic,  geogra] 
the  history  of  the 
great  error  to  suppi 
fully  mastete  1  In  : 
all  education,"  says 
agree  as  to  the  pr 
study,  as  well  as  to 
el  information,  and 
faction  of  all,  what 
into  activity,  and  ju 
of  these  faculties  ed 
possible  toestablis] 
shall  aeknow  h-  lu>-  a 
In  institution,  f, 
leges  and  universal 
also  various  but  they  all  include  the  departments 
of  classics,  mathematics,  scii  ntific  studies,  litera- 
ture, philosophy,  and  modem  languages.  In  the 
American  colleges,  elective  courses  have,  within 
a  few  years,  become  quite  general.  I  See  lio-n,\ 
University,  and  Colleges.)  The  courses  of 
study  prescribed  in  the  different  cities  of  the 
United  States  for  the  elementary  public  schools, 
differ  considerably  as  to  subjects,  number  of 
grades,  and  time  assigned  for  the  completion  of 
the  course.  The  states  do  not  prescribe  any  uni- 
form course;  in  regard  to  which  fart  Mr  Francis 
Adams,  in  The  Free  School  Syst  m  fffieUniied 
States  1875),  says.  "  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
American  educationists  do  not  appear  to  recog- 
nize that  the  absence  of  uniformity  in  study  and 
examination  weakens  their  .syst  an.  The  nearest 
appro.M  h  to  a  uniform  course  of  study  which  has 
ever  been  attempted  by  any  state,  is  to  prescribe 
the  text-books  which  shail  be  used,  ami  when 
this  has  been  done,  it  has  been  sometimes  re- 
sented, and  the  cry  of  centralization  has  been 
raised.  It  is  obvious  that  it  would  be  a  great 
advantage  to  statesmen  and  statisticians,  and  to 
the  nation  at  large,  if  there  were  some  test  by 
which  the  progress  of  scholars  in  each  state  could 
be  definitely  ascertained."  The  diverse  circum- 
stances, however,  of  schools  in  the  rural  districts, 


oolsof  this 
usually  de- 
special  aim 


New  York,  in  address! 
Association,  at  the  ci 
1  873,  said.  -  ( >ur  courses 


of  ostentatious  learning  rather  than  useful  cul- 
ture. The  desire  for  sho«  n  acquirements,  treat- 
facts,  irrespective  of  their  use  in  giving  mental 
nourishment  and  cultivating  power,  is  a  perni- 
cious evil."     The  complaint   that   the  courses  of 

larly  m  many  of  the  cities  of  the  Northern 
.-tai's.  ,.te  burdensome  in  their  requirements, 
has  frequently  been  made.  In  this  connection, 
Mr.  Francis  Adams  remarks.  -  Our  [the  English] 
elementary  course  is  generally  longer  than  the 
American  ;   ami  Vet  ours  is  nothing  like  so  ainbi- 


along  the  line.  A  foreign  languagi  i-  often 
commenced  in  the  lowest  grade  of  the  primary 
school."  In  prescribing  a  course  of  instruction  for 
elementary  schools,  the  special  province  oi  such 

schools  should  In-  kept  steadily  in  view,  to  give 
to  their  pupils  the  keys  of  knowledge,  reading, 
writing,  etc.,  and.  tit  the  same  time,  to  discipline 
their  minds  so  that  they  will  be  able  to  acquire 
and  use  knowledge  in  discharging  the  i  lut  Li  oi 
their  after  lives. 

The  division  of  the  Course  of  Instruction  into 
grades  is  sometimes  made  by  Ay '■■.<.  and  some- 
times by  text-books;  and  each  method  has  its 
advoi  at  The  former,  it  is  claimi  I  gives  more 
freedom  to  the  teacher  -more  scope  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  intelligent  discrimination  ami  original 
treatment;  the  instruction  proceeds  to  a  greater 
extent  from  the  living  teacher,  since  there  is  less 
inducement  to  confine  it  to  a  mere  hearing  of 
recitations.  The  subject  is  the  paramount  con- 
sideration: the  text-book,  secondary.  The  teacher, 
.and  the  pupil  also  as  far  a.s  possible,  is  reipiiivd 
to  consult  various  books,  to  compare  their  state- 
ments, to  cor, t   their  errors;  and   thus,  while 

perhaps  a  particular  text-book  is  used  as  a  basis 
for  the  instruction,  a  more  general  knowledge  of 
the  sul.|c,t  is  imparted  than  is  contained  in  any 
single  work.     Thus,  if  the  study  is  the  history  of 


book.it  would  be  necessary  that  all  the  schools 
should  use  the  same,  and  a  certain  number  of 
pages  would  be  assigned  to  each  grade.     For  ab- 


COUSIN 


solute  uniformity,  of  course,  the  second  plan  is 
preferable;  but  some  educators  claim  that  uni- 
formity may  be  carried  too  Far,  constituting  a 
Procrustean  standard,  and  tending  ti>  deprive 
the  instruction  of  one  of  it-  most  essential  qual- 
ities,— its  adaptability  to  different  minds.  Evi- 
dently the  topical  system  makes  mure  demands 
upon  the  teacher;  and  this,  it  is  claimed,  con- 
stitutes its  great  advantage,  since  it  necessitates 
better  information,  higher  culture,  and  more  real 
teaching  ability.  What  kind  of  development,  it 
is  ,i-k,'d  .•■in  result  fr the  men:  hearing  of  rec- 
itations? And  what  kind  of  influence  can  be 
exerted  by  a  teacher  that  never  goes  beyond  the 
narrow  scope  of  the  school  text-book  ?  Not  that 
the  legitimate  use  of  text-books  is  to  be  diseour- 
aged,  but  only  a  servile  dependence  upon  them  ; 
and  it  is  claimed  that  the  prescribing  of  topics 
rather  than  books,  tends  to  prevent  this.  Says 
I).  P.  Page,  in  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teach- 
iu'l."  A  teacher  who  is  perfectly  familiar  with 
what  is  taught,  has  ten  times  the  vivacity  of  one 
who  is  obliged  to  follow  the  very  letter  of  the 
book."  For  the  courses  of  instruction  of  com- 
mon schools  in  the  different  cities,  see  the  titles 
of  the  sa :  the  courses  in  the  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning  are  given  each  under  its  re- 
spective title.  No  attempt,  has  been  made  here 
to  show  what  in  regard  to  moral  and  religious 
training  properly  belongs  to  a  course  of  instruc- 
tion for  public  or  private  schools.  The  various 
considerations  appertaining  to  these  topics  will 
be  found  under  the  titles  Mob  vi.  Education,  and 
Religious  Education.  —  See  How  to  Teach 
(N.  Y..  is;  |);  Wells,  A  Graded  Course  of  In- 
struction for  Public  Schools  (X.  Y.,  1862); 
Francis  Adams,  The  Free  School  System  of  the 
UnitedStates  (London,  1875);  Thomas  Hill,  The 

r,;„-   <>,;!.  ,-nf  S/„,/irs  (X.  Y.,  ISTii). 

COUSIN,  Victor,  a  French  philosopher,  and 
the  founder  of  systematic  eclecticism  in  philos- 
ophy.was  bom  Nov.  28,  17"L'.  and  died  Jan.  L5, 
lstlT.  lie  di-tiu-ni-licl  himself  as  a  student  at 
the  Ly  Char  m  ague,  and  in  1812,  was  made 
assistanl  Greek  professor  a1  the  Itcole  Nbrmale. 
His  early  studies  were  rather  in  the  direction  of 
belles-lettres,  but  he  soon  turned  his  attention 
to  philosophy.  Roger  Collard  had  already  re- 
volted against  the  sensationalism  of  Locke  as 
depraved  by  Oondillac,  and  had  introduced  the 
Scotch  philosophy  into  France.  For  a  while. 
Cousin  was  an  ardent  disciple  of  Reid  :  and,  in 
I  si;,,  he  became  an  assistant  professor  of  philos- 
ophy with  Poger  Coilar.l.  and  lectured  both  at 
the  EcoleNormale  and  at  the  Sorbonne.  In  L817, 
he  visited  t  I'erinanv.and  became  acquainted  with 
the  Kantian  philosophy,  which  had  a  great  influ- 
ence upon  his  later  teachings.  In  lKL'l.  his  lec- 
tures wee  suspected  of  a  had  political  tendency, 
and  were  indefinitely  suspended.  In  1824,  he 
went  to  Germany  again,  and  was  arrested  in 
Dresden  on  the  charge  of  belonging  to  the  Car- 
bonari, and  sent  to  Berlin,  where  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  six  months.  During  this  stay  in 
Germany',  he  became  acquainted  with  Hegel, 
Schleiermacher,  and  ScheUing.    Lu  1826,  he  re- 


CRAMMING 

turned  to  Paris;  and.  in  1  s27.  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  philosophy  at  the  Siirhtmne.  During 
this  period  of  enforced  silence,  he  published  ail 
edition  of  Proclus  and  Descartes,  anil  also  part 
of  a  translation  of  Plato,  which  was  completed 
in  1840.  After  the  revolution  of  L830,  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  Council  of  Public  In- 
struction, and  later  a  director  of  the  ticole  Nbr- 
male. In  1840,  he  became  minister  of  public 
instruction,  which  position  he  held  for  only  a 
few  months,  owing  to  the  unsettled  condition  of 
politics,  lie  was  friendly  to  the  revolution  of 
Is  is.  but  never  had  any  political  importance 
under  the  empire.  I  [is  <r\r,  r  f .  ism  »a-  based  on 
the  doctrine  that  philosophy  has  always  been 
either  sensualism,  idealism,  scepticism, or  mysti- 
cism. His  constant  oscillation  of  opinion  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  each  of  these  systems  has  some 
truth  in  it;  and  the  true  philosophical  method. 
doubtless,  is  to  take  from  each  of  them  the  true, 
and  reject  the  false.  Without  some  standard  of 
selection,  the  product  must  be  a  mere  philosoph- 
ical medley  ;  and  such  was  the  result  in  this 
case.  Still  Cousin's  eloquence  and  his  exalted 
moral  views  combined  to  make  his  lectures  very 
popular.  The  crowds  at  the  Sorbonne  recalled 
the  days  when  William  and  Abelard  had  dis- 
puted there,  lie  reorganized  the  system  of 
primary  instruction  in  France,  and  arranged  the 
course  of  studies  for  the  normal  school.  He  also 
published  several  very  full  and  valuable  reports 
upon  public  instruction  in  Prussia  and  Holland. 
I  he  e  have  been  translated  into  English.  Cousin 
was  an  ardent  believer  in  religious  education. 
Purelj  secular  instruction  he  thought  more  likely 

to  do  mischief   than  g I.     A  complete  edition 

of  his' works  is  published  in  French;  and  trans- 
lations ot  his  more  important  works  have  ap- 
peared in  English,  s.v  Ripley,  Philosophical 
Miscellanies  (Boston,  1838)  :  0.  W.  Wight, 
Translation  of  Cousin's  Course  of  Modern  Phi- 
losophy (N.  Y.,  1855),  and  his  Lectures  on  the 
True,  the  Beautiful,  andthe  Good{N.  Y..  1857); 
Cousin's  Report  on  the  State  of  Education  in 
Holland, translated  by  Horner  (London,  1838); 
and  Report  on  the  State  of  Public  Instruction  in 
Prussia;  with  Plans  of  School-Houses,  trans- 
lated by  Austin  (London.  1SM4). 

CRAMMING,  a  term  used  in  regard  to  edu- 
cation, to  denote  the  fault  of  filling  the  mind 
with  facts,  without  allowing  it  sullieieiit  time  to 
arrange  and  generalize  them,  to  compare  them 
with  its  previous  acquisitions,  or  to  determine 
their  real  significance,  as  related  to  general  prin- 
ciples. It  is  thus  a  kind  of  mental  stuffing,  and, 
consequently,  is  opposed  to  the  true  object  of 
education,  which,  as  the  word  etymologically  i 
considered  implies,  is  not  to  pour  something 
into  the  mind,  but  to  bring  out,  by  appropriate 
exercise,  its  latent  faculties.  In  college  phrase, 
students  are  said  to  cnuu  for  an  examination, 
when  they  make  preparation  with  undue  haste, 
impressing  upon  their  memory,  by  repetition,  a 
mass  of  things  about  which  they  expect  to  be 
questioned,  but  which,  when  the  examination  is 
over,  they  immediately  forget.      Such  a  process 


CRECHE 

is  exceedingly  injurious  to  the  mind,  since  it  is  a 
misdirection  of  its  powers,  wasting  them  at  a 
time  when  they  should  be  all  steadily  employed 
in  the  formation  of  those  habits  of  acquisition 

.in  I   thought,   whii  li   < stitiite   the  basis  of  a 

snunil  intellectual  character. 

In  elementary  education,  cramming  is.  there- 
fore, especially  pernicious  ;  ami  it  is  ai  tin-  stage, 
that  it  is  the  must  likely  to  occur.  It  may  as- 
sume various  forms.  Imt  chiefly  the  following: 
,  1  i  ( 'row  i linn  the  memory  w  ith  \  erUil  /'../•/»  ni,t  . 
-definitions,  rules,  statements  of  facts,  names  in 
geography,  dates  in  history,  etc. ;  (2)  Overtask- 
ing the  powers  of  the  mind  with  a  multiplicity 
of  studies,  or  with  such  as  are  QOt  adapted  to  its 
immature  condition,  and.  therefore,  cannot  lie 
comprehended;  (3)  Undue  haste  in  instruction, 
so  that  the  pupils  arc  compelled  to  commit  to 
memory  what  they  have  had  no  time  properly 
to  digest  in  their  minds.  Cramming  may  be  the 
result  either  of  the  ignorance  of  the  teacher,  or 
of  circumstances  which  compel  him  to  violate 
the  correct  principles  of  education  for  some 
special  end.  as  the  preparation  of  pupils  for  a 
public  exhibition  in  which  they  may  make  an 
imposing  display  of  their  superficial  acquire- 
ments. (See  Exhibition.)  Such  a  sad  perver- 
sion of  the  teacher's  work  as  this  implies  is  of 
too  frequent  occurrence  :  for  parents  and  patrons 
are  too  fond  of  witnessing  such  displays,  and 
there  are  teachers  whose  eagerness  for  praise  or 

patronage  is  sutlicient  to  mi.iv.nin'  their  sense  of 
the  true  object  of  their  vocation.  They  seem  to 
work  more  for  their  own  petty  ambition  or 
pecuniary  gain  than  for  the  true  welfare  of  their 
pupils.  The  evil  of  this  is  not  alone  with  the 
pupil,  hut  is  shared  by  the  teacher  himself:  for 
by  merely  cramming  the  minds  which  it  is  his 
duty  to  educate,  he  fails  to  realize  in  himself 
the  best  results  of  giving  instruction  :  since. 
while  "he  may  have  the  exquisite  pleasure  of  see- 
ing the  growth  of  his  pupils'  minds,  he  may  also 
have  the  higher  satisfaction  of  feeling  the  growth 
of  his  own."— See  Blackte,  On  Self-Culture 
(Edinburgh,  1875). 

CRECHE,  a  French  word  signifying  a  crih 
or  manger,  but  used  in  France,  Belgium  and 
some  other  countries  in  Europe  to  designate  a 
kind  of  infant  asylum  I  in  remembrance  of  the 
manger  of  Bethlehem).  These  institutions  are 
supported  and  managed  by  either  private  per- 
sons or  corporations.  One  of  the  most  noted, 
and  a  model  of  its  class,  is  the  famous  Creche 
Marie-Henriette,  at  Antwerp,  named  after  the 
queen  of  Belgium.  This  asylum  originated  in  | 
circumstances  caused  by  the  cholera,  in  1866. 
The  ravages  of  the  epidemic  were  very  great  in 
Belgium,  but  especially  in  the  city  of  Antwerp. 
causing  extreme  suffering  and  distress  among 
the  poorer  classes  of  the  population.  Many 
children  were  deprived  of  one  or  both  of  their 
parents,  and  tints  left  helpless  and  destitute. 
Others  suffered  almost  as  much  in  consequence 
of  the  sudden  destitution  of  their  parents.  In 
order  to  afford  relief  to  these  unfortunates,  the 
creche  was  opened  in  January,  18(17,  through 


CRIME  AND  EDUCATION 


193 


the  efforts  of  a  number  of  philanthropic  ladies 
and  gentlemen;  and  since  that  time  has  con- 
tinued to  afford  an  asylum  to  hundreds  of  poor 

children,  both  l.ovs  and  -ills.     \\  hen  the  ...-.rents 


port  of  the  child  according  t 
their  earnings.  The  institutioi 
sick  and  diseased  children  n. 
Every  child  aged  15  days,  or 
whose  parents  reside  in  the  cit; 

to  'I '.  i  h  .     The  utmost  ca 

inmates,  both  as  to  their  nurti 
No  corporal  punishment  is  pe 


.-are  taken  of  young  children  .luring  the  day. 
while  their  parent  or  parents  are  engaged  in 
their  work.  Thus,  mothers  may  have  their  in- 
fants in  the  morning,  and  take  them  away  in  the 
evening,  at  a  charge  of  .">  centimes  .about  1  Cent  I 
per  .lay.  or  25  centimes  per  week  in  i  a 
payment.  This  feature  of  the  creche  distin- 
guishes it  particularly  fri  \m  I  >t  her  classes  of  infant 
and  orphan  asylums. 

CRIME  AND  EDUCATION.     The  rela- 
tion between  crime  and   education  has,  of  late, 


compared  with    the   entire   educated  population, 

were  in  the  proportion  of  1  to  931 ;  while  the 
illiterate  criminals  were  as  1  to  41,  compared 
with   the   whole  number    of    illiterate    persons; 

thus  proving  the  proporti if  criminals  in  the 

uneducated  classes  to  be  226  times  as  great  as 
that  ol  the  educated  classes.  The  facts  thus  far 
published  on  this  subject  are.  however,  still  very 
incomplete:  but  they  invariably  tend  to  prove 
that  the  uneducated  constitute  the  class  of  so- 
ciety most  prone  to  .rime.  It.  therefore,  fol- 
lows, that  every  advance  made  toward  the  re- 
moval of  illiteracy  must  have  a  tendency  to  re- 
duce also  the  number  of  crimes.  It  is  also  evi- 
dent that  the  more  complete  the  stal 
formation  which  can  be  obtained  of  the  criminal 
classes  of  all  the  countries  of  the  world,  the  bet- 
ter will  statesmen  and  educators  be  enabled  to 
establish  with  certainty  the  true  relation  exist- 
ing between  crime  and  education.  I  hi  n  ari 
Still,    unfortunately,    countries    in    which    it     is 

tl _lit   tli.it  the   government  has  discharged  its 

duty  with  regard  to  the  criminal  class.-.-,  when  n 
has  enacted  criminal  laws  for  the  punishment  of 
crime,  and  erect.-.l  prisons  and  penitentiaries. 
The  criminal  is  treated  more  as  an  offender 
against  society  who  deserves  to  be  punished  and 
restrained  from  doing  any  more  harm,  than  as  an 
unfortunate  member  of  society  who  should  be  re- 
formed. Great  progress,  however,  is  of  late  no- 
ticeable in  the  legislation  of  almost  every  civil- 


I '.11 


CRIME  AM)  EDUCATION 


ized  country.  The  intellectual  and  moral  con- 
dition of  criminals  is  more  thoroughly  studied 
than  before ;  the  causes  which  lead  to  crimes  are 
more  earnestly  investigated,  and  the  agencies 
which  are  calculated  to  reform  criminals  are 
more  eagerly  employed.  The  improvement 
which  has  already  been  achieved  is,  to  a  great 
extent,  due  to  the  prison  congresses  held  in  the 
United  States,  as  well  as  in  Europe.  The  first 
congress  of  this  kind  was  proposed  by  the  in- 
spector general  of  prisons  in  Belgium.  Ducpe- 
tiaux,  and  was  held  in  Frankfort  on  the  Main, 
in  1st",,  Tin-  most  important  was  the  Inter- 
national Prison  Congress,  chiefly  arranged  by 
Dr.  Winesof  New  York,  and  held  in   London, 

in  1872.     A  s nd  international  congress  is  to 

be  held  in  Europe  in  1877.  A  penni nt  com- 
mission for  the  promotion  of  penitentiary  reform. 
organized  by  the  congress  of  Ijondon,  met  in 
L874,  a1  Brussels,  and  in  Is;;.,  at  Bruchsal,  in 
the  grand-duchy  of  Baden,  Germany.  In  the 
United  States,  national  prison  congresses  wen- 
held  in  1870  at  Cincinnati,  in  1872  in  Balti- 
more, and  in  1874  in  St.  Louis.  The  labors  of 
ill,  ,  ,  uiuiesses.  while  being  chiefly  devoted  to 
the  improvement  of  prisons  and  of  prison  life. 
have  also  died  a  flood  of  light  on  the  causes  that 

produce  crimes.      Beltrani    Scalia,   i    of    the 

foivino-i  prison-reformers  of  Italy  of  the  present 
century,  estimates  the  illiterates  among  the  con- 
victs of    Belgium,  Denmark,   the    Netherlands. 

Italy.  Saxony,  and  Sweden  at  about hall  of 

the  entire  prison  population  of  thos mines. 

Recent  official  returns  show  that  the  percentage 

of  those  wh lid  not  read   on   entering  prison, 

was  56  in  Austria,  19  in  Belgium,87  in  Fiance. 
4  in  Baden.  12  in  Bavaria.  IT  in  Prussia,  60  to 
92  in  the  different  provinces  of  Italy,  about  W 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  30  in  Switzerland.  In 
Ireland,  22  per  cent  of  males,  and  63  per  cent  of 
females  were  illiterate.  In  England,  34  per  cent 
of  the  persons  committed  to  county  or  borough 
prisons,  were  totally  ignorant.  In  regard  to  the 
United  States.  Mr.  J.  B.Sanborne  of  Massachu- 
setts, in  a  report  prepared  for  the  International 
Prison  Congress  of  London,  says  that  the  gen- 
eral condition  of  American  prisoners  in  point  of 
education  is  low,  yet  they  are  not  so  extremely 
illiterate  as  criminals  are  in  many  countries,  if 
we  except  the  colored  criminals  of  the  South. 
In  Massachusetts,  for  a  period  of  eight  years 
past,  the  statistics  show  very  nearly  one  third  of 
all  prisoners  to  be  wholly  illiterate:  yet,  in  the 
highest  prison  at  ( 'harlestown,  the  proportion  of 
illiterate  convicts,  since  the  begmningof  L864, 
has  been  scarcely  more  than  1  in  10.  Partial  re- 
ports from  seventeen  states,  including  only  three 
from  the  middle  and  western  states,  show  that 
of  an  aggregate  of  110,538  prisoners,  82,812 
could  read  and  write,  5,!i:il  could  read  only,  and 
21,650  had  no  education.  The  totally  ignorant 
were  thus  about  22  per  cent  of  the  criminal 
population ;  inclusive  of  those  who  could  read 
only,  they  would  amount  to  25  per  cent  \ 
large  number  of  those  who  could  read  and  write, 
were  also  found  to  be  very  deficient,  and  the  ag- 


gregate number  of  those  "  very  deficient  in  edu- 
cation" was  estimated  at  about  50  per  cent  of 
the  criminal  population.  There  was  a  great 
diversity  in  regard  to  illiteracy  among  criminals 
of  different  groups  of  states.  In  New  York  and 
Pennsylvania,  the  totally  ignorant,  or  those  un- 
able to  read  and  write,  were  1 '.I  per  cent:  but 
those  very  deficient,  at  least  60  per  cent.  In 
five  north-western  states,  the  totally  ignorant 
were  fo  per  cent,  the  very  deficient,  75  per  cent: 
in  four  states  between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Pacific,  the  totally  ignorant  were  21  per  cent,  the 
very  deficient,  50  per  cent  ;  in  five  far  southern 
States,  the  totally  ignorant  were  60  per  cent,  the 
very  deficient,  85  per  cent.  According  to  the 
census  of  I  870,  the  number  of  illiterates  above  10 
year-ot  age  was, in  New  Yorkand  Pennsylvania. 
I  percenf  of  the  population:  in  the  central  states. 
3J  per  cent  :  in  the  western  and  Pacific  states,  3 
per  cent  :  and  in  the  South.  22  per  cent.  A  com- 
parison of  these  figures  which  give  the  total  num- 
ber of  illiterates,  with  the  number  of  illiterate 
criminals,  shows  that  the  illiterate  classes  of  the 
population  furnish  a  disproportionately  large  con- 
tingent to  the  number  of  criminals.  The  causes  of 
this  fact  are  plain.  Ignorance  unfits  a  man.  to  a 
considerable  extent,  for  earning  his  daily  bread, 
and.  in  most  cases,  dooms  in  to  ;ihjeet  poverty: 
the  want  of  intellectual  culture  is,  moreover,  gen- 
erally coupled  with  a  lack  of  the  feeling  of  self- 
respect  and  moral  responsibility,  thus  leaving  the 
poor  victim  an  easy  prey  to  the  many  tempta- 
tions which  society  offers.  That  education  is  a 
I  force  restraining  vice  and  crime,  appears  to  be 
clearly  established  by  two  very  important  facts  : 
(li  Wherever  education  is  diffused  among  the 
people,  the  ratio  of  the  number  of  criminals  to 
the  whole  population  diminishes;  and  (2)  In  all 
countries,  the  criminal  class  is  mainly  fed  by  the 
ignorant  class.  The  conviction  that  the  absence 
of  education  tends  to  increase  crime,  has  induced 
educators  and  statesmen  to  strive  to  prevent  this 
evil  by  the  introduction  of  compulsory  education 
laws  (See  Compulsory  EnucATioN.)  The  friends 
of  this  policy  charge  such  states  as  fail  to  require 
that  all  children  should  be  educated,  with  pro- 
ducing the  very  crime  for  which  the  criminal  is 
punished.  Opinions  differ,  however,  as  to  the 
effect  of  compulsory  education  in  diminishing 
crime,  and  as  to  the  responsibility  of  the  state 
government  for  uneducated  criminals.  Alison, 
in  the  History  qf  Europe,  boldly  asserts  the 
whole  doctrine  to  be  a  fallacy,  and  presents  sta- 
tistics to  prove  that  crimes  are  more  numerous 
where  education,  that  is.  what  is  usually  con- 
sidered education,  is  diffused.  "  Experience."  he 
says,  "has  now  abundantly  verified  the  melan- 
choly truth,  that  intellectual  cultivation  has  no 
effect  in  arresting  the  sources  of  evil  in  the 
human  heart ;  that  it  alters  the  direction  of 
crime,  but  does  not  alter  its  amount."  I  fiber! 
Spencer  asserts,  in  Social  Statics,  that  "we 
have  no  evidence  that  education,  as  commonly 
understood,  is  a  preventive  of  crime."  Fletcher, 
in  Siimmtuy  (if  !!/<•  Mural  Statislirs  </  h'ta/laml 
and    Wales,  says,  that  the  comparison  of   the 


CRIME  AND  EDUCATION 

criminal  and  educational  returns  of  England  and 
other  countries  of  Europe,  "has  afforded  no 
sound  statistical  evidenced  favorof.and  as  little 
against,  the  moral  effects  associated  with  instruc- 
tion, as  actually  disseminated  among  the  people." 
These  are,  undoubtedly, extreme  views,  and  can- 
not be  accepted  in  the  light  of  mop  lvivnt  sta- 
tistical information,  'liny  present,  however,  a 
strong  argument  in  favor  of  improving  the  qual- 
ity as  well  as  the  quantity  of  education  diffused 

among   tin-   people,  anil  especially  nf   tin-   impor- 

tance  of  moral  training  as  will  as  intellectual  in- 
struction. (See  Moral  Education,  National 
Education,  and  Public  Schools.) 

\\  lull- every  one    must    hope   that  the  steadily 

increasing  diffusion  of  education  will  be  found  a 
powerful  aid  in  reducing  the  Dumber  of  crimes, 
all  prison-reformers  of  the  present  day  agree  in 

criminals  through  the  means  provided  fortheir 

instruction.  The  provisio"ns  made  in  this  respect 
in  the  United  States  are  still  inadequat  ;  but 
great  progress  has  been  made  of  late  years  Li- 
braries are  common,33  prisons  in  1873  reporting 
50,663  volumes,  being  an  average  of  1  535  to 
each.  In  some  prisons,  the  convicts  have  the 
benefit  of  schools,  individual  instruction  in  their 
cells,  and  lectures.  Secular  instruction  is  reg- 
ularly afforded  in  the  prisons  of  California,  Illi- 
nois, Indiana.  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Massachusetts, 
New  York,  NVu  Hampshire,  ihv.,,,,,.  Pennsyl- 
vania, Rhode  Island,  anil  Wisconsin.  In  some 
of  these  states,  a  school  is  held  once  a  week  ;  in 
others,  two  or  five  evenings  a  week.  The  prisons 
uf  most  European  countries  are  also  generally 
provided  with  a  school  and  a  library.  In  the 
so-called  houses  of  correction,  which  are  intended 
for  the  treatment  of  those  convicted  oi  higher 
offenses, the  educational  element  naturally  occu- 

prisons.  Still  mure  is  this  the  case  in  the  institu- 
tions for  the  treatment  of  juvenile  offenders. 
(See  Reform  Schools.) 

An  important  discovery  recently  made  by  sta- 
tistical science,  has  sometimes  been  quoted  against 
those  who  hope  that,  as  education  increases. 
crime  will  decrease.  It  has  been  found  that  in 
the  number  of  crimes  committed  in  a  country, 
the  annual  reports  exhibit  the  same  regularity. 
as  in  finances,  commerce,  and  other  departments 

of   civilized   life ;    and    the   inference    has    I n 

drawn  from  this  fact,  that,  however  valuable 
education  may  be,  no  notable  influence  there- 
from on  the  amount  of  crime  need  be  expected  ; 
since  that  is  unalterably  fixed.  This  steadiness  in 
the  amount  of  crime  was  observed  by  Madame 
de  Stael,  and  is  made  much  of  by  Buckle,  in  his 
History  of  Civilization.  Statistically  it  was 
proved  by  the  great  lielgian  statistician  Hiietelet. 
who  adduces  an  array  of  figures,  which  appear 
to  render  his  position  impregnable.  Some  have 
regarded  this  as  a  law  of  fatality;  but  Quetelet 
himself  states,  that  this  apparently  invariable 
proportion  depends  upon  the  moral  condition  of 
society,  and.  that  if  this  be  changed,  the  appa- 
rently uniform  proportion  of  crime  will  change  in 


the    same    degree.      See    Annual    Reports    of  the 

U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1872,    :t. 


1815  to 
The 


England  (I 


L857— 61);  Porter,  The 
Progress  of  the  Nation  (Lond.,  1G36  13)  ; 
Spencer,  Social  Statics  (London.  1850)  ;  Quete- 
,et,  La  Statistique  Morale,  in  vol.  xxi.  of  Mem. 
lerAcad.de  Belgique  (Brussels,  1848). 

CRUELTY  (to  Animals  i  is  a  prevailing  trait 
n  the  characters  of  children  who  have  not  been 
specially  trained  to  habits  of  kind,  considerate. 
iii" I  humane  feeling  and  conduct.  The  activity 
if  a  child's  nature,  its  love  of  sport,  and  its  un- 
leveloped  sympathies  predispose  it  to  acts  of  io- 


cs harden  their 
hey  who  delight 
of  inferior  erea- 
y  complacent  or 
d."  The  neces- 
i  the  spirit  of 
ho  have  written 
Says  one.  "  I 
lydelight  which 


in  sports  of  this  kind,  they  may  acquire  by 
habit  what  they  never  would  have  learned  by 
nature,  and  grow  up  in  a  confirmed  inattention 
to  every  kind  of  suffering  but  their  own.  Ac- 
cordingly, the  supreme  court  of  judicature  at 
Athens  thought  an  instance  of  this  sort  not  be- 
low its  cognizance,  and  punished  a  boy  for  put- 
ting out  the  eyes  of  a  poor  bird  that  had  nnliap 
pily  fallen  into  his  hands."  Hogarth,  in  the 
series  of  paintings  entitled  TV  Progress  of 
<  VueUy,  illustrates  this  vice  in  its  several  stages 
of  formation,  the  first  picture  showing  children 
engaged  in  various  barbarous  diversions.  The 
effect  is  heightened  by  the  contrast  of  a  youth 
who  intercedes  to  prevent  cruel  outrage  to  a 
poor  dog,  offering  a  book  to  the  inhuman  young 
tyrant.  To  this  picture  the  following  lines  are 
annexed : — 

What  various  scenes  of  cruel  sport 

The  infant  rate  employ; 
What  future  baseness,  must  import 

The  tyraut  in  the  boj  ! 

Behold  a  youth  of  gentler  loot  ; 

To  save  the  creature's  pain. 
"O  take  !"  he  cries,  "here  take  my  book;" 

But  tears  and  book  are  vain. 

Learn  from  this  fair  example,  you 

Whom  savage  sports  delight. 
How  cruelty  disgusts  tin-  view, 

While  pity  charms  the  sight 


196  CUM 

All  children  are  not  equally  addicted  to  such 
cruel  sports  ;  but  perhaps,  if  we  exclude  certain 
extreme  and  abnormal  cases,  it  may  be  said,  that 
this  inclination  is  found  to  exist  in  youths  whose 
fearless  courage,  resolution,  and  activity,  if  prop- 
erly trained,  would  make  them  exceedingly  use- 
ful, if  not  illustrious,  in  after  life.  The  germs 
of  glory  or  of  infamy  exist  in  the  mind  of  the 
young  child;  and,  doubtless,  in  many  cases,  are 
precisely  the  same,  expanding  into  one  or  the 
other  according  to  the  circumstances  by  which 
they  are  fostered.  "  It  would  be  curious,"  says 
a  celebrated  writer,  "  to  trace  the  human  mind 
either  to  the  perfection  of  greatness  or  to  the 
completion  of  crime;  to  trace  the  hero  from  his 
play  at  prisoner's  base,  where  he  domineered  over 
his  a  I Imates,  to  the  battle   by  which  he  gains 


and  in  the  latter,  the  result  of  their  operation. 
Culture  comprehends  both  development  and  re- 
finement; that  is.  not  simply  bringing  into 
active  exercise  the  latent  powers  of  the  mind  or 
body,  but  adding  thereto  a  nice  and  careful  dis- 
crimination as  to  then-  proper  or  improper  ex- 
ercise, with  a  due  regard  to  the  circumstances 
which  require  their  employment.  Thus  a  man 
of  culture  not  only  is  able  to  express  his  thoughts 
in  suitable  and  impressive  language,  but  knows 
how  to  adapt  his  language  to  the  persons,  the 
place,  and  the  occasions  which  call  for  this  ex- 
pression: nor  docs  he  give  utterance  to  his 
thoughts  except  when  it  is  proper  to  do  so. 
I  lenee.  culture,  iii  iis  mature  stage,  not  only  im- 
plies power  bu1  restraint,  both  belonging  to  the 
inner  nature  of  the  individual.     There  are   as 


heart  In   has  stabb  i 

The   need  of   sp< 

thetic  affections  in, 


points  out  a  number  of  ways  of  instilling  such 
habits;  such  as  accustoming  children  to  be  gentle 
and  considerate  to  their  pets,  to  be  kind  to  each 
other,  and  to  treat  servants  and  dependents  with 


rsical,  intellectual,  mural,  spiritual,  and  esthetic, 
ording  as  its  scope  is  the  improvement  of 
powers  and  susceptibilities  of  the  body,  the 
„'llect,  the  moral  sentiments,  the  sold,  or  the 
:e.  (ieneral  culture  implies  that  everything 
Btituting  the  character  of  the  individual  has 
n  brought  to  as  high  a  degree  of  improvement 


waste  nothing."  Especially  should  they  be  cor- 
rected in  cruelly  treating  those  animals  \\  hose  ex- 
ternal appearance  is  repugnant.  "Children,"" 
says  Maria  Edgeworth,  "  shuuk  I  in  it  be  taught  to 
confine  their  benevolence  to  those  animals  which 
are  thought  beautiful ;  the  fear  and  disgust 
which  we  express  at  the  sight  of  certain  unfort- 
unate animals,  whom  we  are  pleased  to  call  ugly 
and  shocking,  are  observed  by  children,  and 
these  associations  lead  to  cruelty."  Another 
writer,  in  this  connection,  remarks.  "  It  might  be 
of  service  in  order  to  awaken,  as  early  as  possible, 
in  children  an  extensive  sense  of  humanity,  to 
give  them  a  view  of  several  sorts  of  insects,  as 
they  may  be  magnified  by  the  assistance  of 
glasses,  and  to  show  them  that  the  same  evident 
marks  of  wisdom  and  goodness  prevail  in  the 
formation  of  the  minutest  insect,  as  in  that  of 
the  most  enormous  leviathan."  In  the  same 
spirit  are  the  strung  lines  of  Cowper  : — 

Ye,  therefore,  who  love  merey.  teaeh  your  sons 
To  love  it  too.    The  spring-time  of  our  years 
Is  soon  dishonored  and  defiled  in  most 
By  budding  ills,  that  ask  a  rrinh  nt  hand 
To  cheek  them.  But,  alas  !  none  sooner  shoots, 
If  unrestrained,  into  luxuriant  growth, 
Thau  Cruelty,  most  dev'lish  of  them  all. 

(See  Moral  Education.) 

CULTURE,  a  term  used  to  denote  the  im- 
provement of  the  human  character  by  means  of 
discipline,  training,  ur  self-exertiun.  It  is  used 
in  both  an  active  and  a  passive  sense ;  in  the 
former,  implying  the  use  of  all  necessary  means 
and  agencies  to  cultivate  the  human  faculties, 


ever,  does  not  exclude  general  culture;  for  no 

man  need  be  merely  a  practitioner,  or  worker  in 
any  narrow  sphere  of  effort.  The  object  of 
higher  education  is  to  give  this  general  culture 
as  a  basis  for  that  which  is  necessarily  special,  or 
technical. 

The  real  instrumentality,  in  a  certain  sense 
the  only  one.  by  which  culture  can  be  effeeted.is 
self-exertion.  None  of  the  faculties,  whether  of 
the  spirit,  mind,  ur  body,  can  be  cultivated  ex- 
cept by  exercise.  Tims  a  person  can  never  learn 
to  compose  by  studying  grammar  and  rhetoric, 
nor  to  think  and  reason  by  committing  to  mem- 
ory the  rules  of  logic.  If  he  would  learn  to 
write,  or  to  think  and  reason,  he  must  write  and 
think  and  reason,  on  the  same  principle  and  in 
the  same  way  as  a  person  learns  to  swim,  or  a 
child  to  walk."  This  exercise  is  the  individual's  own 
work  ;  but  the  exercise  may  be  unsuitable  and 
injurious,  and.  therefore,  needs,  at  first,  the  care- 
ful guidance  of  experience.  Hence,  the  need  of 
an  educator,  until  the  individual  has  acquired 
sufficient  knowledge  and  experience  to  direct  the 
exercise  himself.  This  shows  the  relation  of 
education  and  culture,  the  one  being  the  handmaid 
of  the  other.  The  instruments  of  culture  vary 
with  its  special  scope.  For  those  of  physical 
culture,  we  must  learn  what  a  knowledge  of 
physiology  and  experience  in  gymnastics  dictate; 
those  of  intellectual  culture  can  be  judiciously 
selected  only  by  studying  the  laws  which  regulate 
the  operations'  of  the  mind.     But  we  are  par- 


CUMBERLAND  UNIVERSITY 
ticularly  to  be  on  our  guard  in  supposing  that 

intellectual    culture    can    spline    fri.nn    the    mere 

study  of  other  persons' ideas.  True  culture  of 
this  kind  can  alone  come  from  (l|a  patient, 
laborious, and  diligent  acquisition  of  idea-  ,,f  ,,ur 
own,  by  observation  and  reflection;  and  (2)  the 
study  of  the  experience  of  other  minds,  and  its 
verification,  as  far  as  possible,  by  that  of  our 
own.       "  The    original    and     proper    .sources     of 

knowledge,"  says  Professor  Blackie,  "are  not 
hooks,  but  life,  experience,  personal  thinking, 
feeling,  and  acting."  And  again,  "All  knowl- 
edge which  comes  from  books  comes  indirectly, 
by  reflection,  and  by  echo;  true  knowledge 
grows  from  a  living  root  in  the  thinking  soul: 
and  whatever  it  may  appropriate  from  without 

it  take~  by  living  assimilation  into  a  luin.j  m 
ganism,  not  by  mere  borrowing."  (See  Se/f- 
CuUure,  Eldinburgh,  L875.)  This  is  simply  an 
emphatic  and  illustrative  expansion  of  the  gen- 
eral principle  above  stated ;  namely,  that  to  cul- 


CURTIS 


197 


'  meroial.  T.»7  ;  telegraphic  ::s  :  preparatory,  66  ; 
collegiate,  85 ;  law .  70;  theological,  28.  The. 
university  library  contains  about  7,000  volumes. 
The  presidents  have  been  as  follows:  P.  I!.  Cos- 
-itt.  I>.  I>..  L842—  t  ;  .1.  C  Anderson.  I  >.  It.. 
L844— 1866;  II.  W.  McDonald,  D.  D„  I, I..  I)., 
1867  —  1872;  Nathan  Green,  A.  M..  I..  1!. 
(chancellor),  the  present  incumbenl 
in  ls7'_'. 

CURIOSITY,  or  the  desire  to  foimr,  is  a 
very  important  element  of    the  mind,  in  its  n  la 

tion  to  education.    The  basis  of  the  success  of 

the  teacher   is  the  attention  of  tin'  pupil;  and 


tivate 

them, 
study. 

cise  of 
rliscove 

be  trail 


paramount  to  all,  and  to  which  every 
cies  of  culture  is  subservient  ;  and  j 
can  learn  to  walk  only  by  walking,  to 
by  thinking,  and  to  live  nobly  only 


ing  a  genumi 

that  is.  by  st  i 
of  which  hi' 
norant.     Thi 


ira  ;  d.     'I  I  '     h     i    jo I   by   I  ocke 

T/ioi  jM  o?i  Edi  i  m  \-  children,"  he 
s.  "should  nevei  be  heard  when  theyspeakfor 
f  particular  thing  they  would  have,  unless  it, 
it  be  proposed  to  them',  so  they  should  always 
heard,  and  fairly  and  kindly  answered,  when 
\  a  I,  about  anything  they  would  know  and 
tire  to  be  informed  about,  i  'uriosity  should 
as  carefully  cherished  in  children,  as  other 


Father 

verse. 

develop 


beneficence.   !,.,...  |     „, ||„.     Mlnple-t     pri  1.C1  p|.  ■„ 

of  moral  and  religious  truth.  [See  Bdui  ition  | 
CUMBERLAND  UNIVERSITY,  at  Leb- 
anon, Tenn.  was  founded  by  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  church  in  1842.  The  value  of  its 
buildings  and  grounds  is  $20,000.  The  institution 
comprises  a  business  college  and  telegraph  insti- 
tute (at  Nashville  ;  a  preparatory  school ;  a  col- 
legiate department,  with  a  classical  course  of 
four  years,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Arts,  and  a  scientific  course  of  three  years,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science;  a 
school  of  civil  engineering  with  a  twi  i  years'  course. 

leading  to  the  degree  of  Civil   Kngii r:  a  law 

school  :  and  a  theological  school.  The  d. -gives  of 
Master  of  Arts  and  Doctor  of  Philosophy  are 
conferred  upon  graduates  who  pursue  prescribed 
postgraduate  courses  of  study.  A  plan  has  been 
adopted,  by  which  non-resident  students,  through 
a  system  of  correspondence  and  examinations, 
may  receive  the  benefits  of  the  college  courses. 
In  IsT-t ■—.">.  then-  were  13  instructors  and  391 
students   (deducting  repetitions)  ;  namely,  com- 


CURRICULUM.     See  Course  op   Lnstruc- 

CURTIS,  Joseph,  a  distinguished  friend  of 
education  in  the  city  of  New  York,  was  born  in 
Newtown,  (t.,  in  1782,  and  died  in  Ni -u 
York.  April  12.,  1856.  He  became  a  resident 
of  that  city  at  the  age  of  Hi,  and  early  mani- 
fested a  disposition  for  active  beneficence.  He 
served  for  several  yearsasthe  secretary  of  the 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Pauperism,  and 
was  active  in  all  the  public  charities  of  the  day. 
As  a  member  of  the  Manumission  Society,  he 
ardently  cooperated  with  Peter  A.  Jay,  Cadwal- 
lader  (olden.  Isaac  M.  Ely,  and  others  in  secur- 
ing the  State  act  of  manumission,  which  was 
passed  in  1817;  and  he  was  afterward  one  of 
the  leading  spirits  in  establishing  the  New  York 
House  of  Refuge,  of  which  he  took  charge  for 
about  a  year,  thus  initiating  the  then  novel  en- 
terprise of  attempting  to  reform  juvenile  delin- 
quents  (1825).      Previous  to  this,    in    1820,   he 


198  CURTIUS 

was  instrumental  in  opening,  at  Flatbush,  I,.  I., 
the  first  Sunday-school  for  free  Macks.  Mr. 
( 'uvtis  was  also  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Pub- 
lic School  Society  of  the  city  of  New  York,  of 

which  h ntinu'eil  to  be  an  active  and  devoted 

member  until  its  dissolution  in  1853,  when  he 
was  chosen  one  of  the  fifteen  members  of  that 
society  who.  toy  a  time,  were  to  represent  it  in 
the  Board  of  Education,  lie  had  been  a  diligent 
and  sagacious  business  man,  and  always  eminently 
practical;  bu1  he  suffered  great  losses  through  the 
effects  of  the  war  of  1812—15.  Fev.  lives  have 
been  marked  so  deeply  and  constantly  with  deeds 
of  genuine  philanthropy  and  self-sacrificing 
benevolence,  as  was  that  of  Joseph  Curtis,  not 
only  in  his  public  life  but  in  the  inner  circle  of 
domestic  privacy.  —  See  W.  0.  Boi  EKE,  History 
of  the  Public  School  Society  (N.  Y.,  1870); 
15.  K.  Pkibcb,  A  Half  Century  with  Juvenile 
Delinquents  (N.  Y..  1869);  Barnard's  Journal 
of  Education,  vol.  i.\  CM.  Sedgwick,  Memoir 
of  Joseph  Curtis,  a  Model  Man  (N.  Y.,  1858). 

CURTIUS,  George,  a  German  philologist 
and  author  of  school  books,  was  born  at  Liibeck, 
in  1820, and  studied  philology  at  the  universities 
of  Berlin  and  Bonn.  In  1-1'J.  he  was  appointed 
teacher  at  Blochmann's  Institute  (see  Bi.och- 
makn)  at  Dresden;  in  1845,  he  became  lecturer 
at  the  university  of  Berlin  ;  in  1840,  extraordi- 


DAKOTA 

nary,  and  in  1851,  ordinary  professor  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Prague  ;  in  1 K54,  professor  in  Kiel:  and 
in  1862,  professor  in  U'ipsic,  where  he  also  be- 
came one  of  the  directors  of  the  philological 
seminary.    Curtius  endeavored  to  u-e  the  result.- 

.  it  i i para tive  linguistics  to  a  larger  extent  than 

had  previously  been  clone  in  the  study  of  Latin 
and  (  ireek.  and  was  the  first  who  wrote  a  gram- 
mas of  the  Greek  language  for  schools  from  this 
stand-point.  This  work  [Griechische  Schulgram- 
matik,  Prague.  1852;  1  lth  edit..  1875),'  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  best  text-books  in  the  prov- 
ince of  the  classical  languages,  and  has  not  only 
been  extensively  introduced  into  the  German 
gymnasiums,  but  has  been  translated  into  mam 
foreign  languages.  The  principles  which  are 
carried  out  in  this  book,  are  elucidated  in  a  spe- 
cial work,  called  Erltiiii.  i-miif  a  :"  meiner  grie- 
chischen  Schidgrammatii  2d  ed.,  Prague,  1870), 
and  in  many  essays  of  his  Slmlirn  :ur  bileini- 
schen  und  griechischen  GrammaUk  (8  vols., 
Leips.,  L868— 75).  In  another  work.  Grundzuge 
der  griechischen  Elymologie  (2  vols.,  4th  ed.. 
Leips.,  1873),  he  undertook  to  find  a  strictly 
scientific  basis  for  (ireek  lexicography.  He  also 
wrote  Zur  Chronologie  der  indogermanischen 
Si„;ifhft>rsrl,n,i<i  filed  .  Leips..  1*73), and  Dux 
Verbum  der  griechischen  Sprache  (1st  vol., 
Leips.,  1873). 


DACIER,  Andre,  a  noted  French  scholar, 
born  at  Castres  in  1651,  died  in  Paris,  in  1722. 
He  published  translations  of  several  classic 
authors,  among  them.  Plutarch's  Lives,  Aris- 
totle's Poetics,  the  CEdipus  and  Electro  of 
Sophocles,  the  works  of  Horace,  and  some  of 
Plato's  dialogues.  He  was  one  of  the  39  schol- 
ars selected  to  edit  the  celebrated  series  of  the 
classics  in  iixiim  delphini,  prepared  by  order  of 
Louis  XIV.,  for  the  instruction  of  the  dauphin. 
To  this  series  he  contributed  an  edition  of  Pom- 
ponius  Festus  and  of  Valerius  Flaccus.  lie  was 
appointed  keeper  of  the  library  of  the  Louvre; 
and,  in  L713,  became  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
French  Academy. 

DACIER,  Anne,  wife  of  Andre  Dacier.and 
illustrious  for  her  extraordinary  attainments  in 
classical  i especially  (ireek)  scholarship,  was  born 
in  1654,  and  died  in  17JH.  Her  father  was  the 
eminent  scholar  Tannegtiy-L'tevre.  by  whom  she 
w.as  educated.      Her  marriage, in  1683,  to  Andre 

Dacier,  who  had  been  her  fellow-pupil  under  her 
father's  instruction,  was  humorously  styled  the 
"  marriage  of  Greek  and  Latin."  She.withher 
husband,  assisted  in  prepai  ing  classics  for  the  u-e 


acuteneSS  of   mind,  she   is  generally   thought  to 
have  excelled  her  learned  husband. 


DACTYLOLOGY  (Gi 

a  method  of  communicant 
signs  made  with  the  fhig<  t 
called  the  manual  or  fingi 
ployed  by  the  deaf  and  di 
alphabets   of  this    kind  :      1 

phabet,  the  origin  of  whicl 
(q.  v.),  and  which  is  used  e 
Great  Br 

(2)  the  * 
invented 

these 


if,  a  finger), 
by  means  of 
sing  what  is 
)et.  and  em- 
hcre  arc  two 
lgle-band  al- 
lele to  Bonet 
lie  except  in 
gaining  ground  there  ;  and 
tabet.  which  was  originally 
o  (i j.  v.).  The  former  of 
'fought  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection  by  the  abbe  de  l'Epee  and  the  abbe 
Sicard  (q.  v.).  (See  Deaf-Mutes,  and  Peet, 
Harvey  P.) 

DAKOTA  was  organized  as  a  territory 
March  2.,  1861,  being  formed  from  the  terri- 
tories of  Minnesota  and  Nebraska.  In  1868,  a 
portion  of  the  extensive  territory  of  Dakota  was 
taken  to  form  the  territory  of  Wyoming.  All 
this  region  originally  formed  a  part  of  Louisiana. 
purchased  from  France  in  1803.  According  to 
the  census  of  1870,  the  area  of  Dakota  comprises 
150,932  square  miles;  and  its  population,  at 
that  time,  was  14,181.  The  first  permanent 
white  settlements  were  mad.'  in  1  859,  in  what 
are  now  the  counties  of  Yankton.  Clay,  and 
Union;  but  there  was  but  little  immigration 
into  the  territory  until  1866. 

Educational  History.— The  first  legislature 
met  in  March.  1862  :  but  no  school  law  was  en- 
acted until  IstiT.  when  an  act  was  passed  by  the 


DAKOTA 


territorial  assembly,  providing  for  the  appoint-  I  houses, the  supi.lv  of  furniture  or  apparatus,  the 
ment  of  a  superintendent   ot    pul.hr   instruction,     employment    of   t.-;«.-li.-rs.  ,„■    the  direct   govern- 

n/Mm+i*     <.,,,..,...,.. 1....+  .      .11    *..:.*       i:, ,..„..       ...,.i       ,       a-  ...  .         .         .        .  ,.  ,.- 


.viim.il. u   assciiniiy,    pro\  null'-,    I. .1 
incut  of  a  superintendent    of   pul.L      . 
county   superintendents,  district   dirt 

boards  of   scl I    i 

proved  Jan.  3.,  L86€ 
passed,  which  direct 
rial  superintendent, 
to  the  legislature,  t 
who  were  t..  repoi 
November.    The  im 


Co  In  p. 


district  clerk  made  the  annual  enumeration  of 
children;  and  no  district  that  had  not  maintained 
a  school  three  months  during  the  year,  was  en- 
titled to  any  portion  of  the  school  'fund.  Politics 
and  sectarianism  were  excluded  from  the  schools. 
In  L870,a  general  improvement  in  the  school.,, 
and  an  increase    in    attendance,  were   remarked  J 

the  number  of  children  r iving  instruction  be- 
ing 1,144,  out  of  a  population  of  1  1.1-1.  and  the 
salaries  of  teacher.,  ranging  from  $25  to  $100  per 
month.  .Much  trouble,  however,  was  caused  l.v 
the  want  of  uniformity  in  text-books.  In  1-71. 
the  school  law  was  repealed,  and  a  new  one  en- 
acted.  Inl873,this  was  amended,  the  numberof 


approximate  estimate,  loo,  and  the  number  of 
children  of  school  age  being  5,312,  of  whom  2,006 
were  reported  as  enrolled  in  the  schools.  About 
$22,000  were  raised  that  year  foi  school  pur- 
poses. The  territorial  superintendents  have  been, 
•  lames  S.  foster,  L869— 71;  J.  M.Turner  1-71 
—3;  E.  W.  .Miller.  1873—5;  and  J.  J.  Mcln- 
tyre,  elected  in  Is;;,,  and  still  in  office    1-7'.  . 

under  the  present    law   is  the  s   p  r a   ni  ol 

ptihtir  iitn/riirtinii,  who  is  elected  biennially.  He 
is  permitted  to  choose  a  deputy  who  must  reside 
in  that  portion  of  the  territory  north  of  the  Kith 
parallel  of  latitude.  His  duties  are  to  exercise 
a  general  supervision  over  the  schools,  and  to 
hold,  in  connection  with  the  county  superin- 
tendents, annual  teachers'  institutes,  attendance 
upon  which  is  expected  from  all  teachers  ap- 
plying for  certificates.  To  defray  partially  tin- 
expenses  of  these  institutes,  the  sum  of  6100  is 
appropriated  from  the  treasury.  The  territorial 
superintendent,  also,  grants  teachers  certificates, 
fixes  the  grades  of  county  certificates,  prescribes 
the  text-books  to  be  used  in  the  schools,  and 
makes  an  annual  report  to  the  governor.  County 
kills  are  elected  bv  the  people  bien- 
nially. They  divide  their  counties  int..  school- 
districts,  examine  teachers,  grant  certificates  valid 
for  3  months  or  a  year,  apportion  the  school 
moneys,  and  report  annually  to  the  territorial 
superintendent.  THstrict-school  boards  com- 
posed of  three  officers,  a  director,  a  clerk,  and  a 
treasurer,  arc  elected  annually.  Pern  ing  their  au- 
thority directly  from  the  people  of  the  district  by 
vote  at  the  annual  meetings,  their  power,  within 
the  law,  is  supreme  in  everything  that  relates  to 
the  building,  purchasing,  or   renting  of  school- 


have  forwarded  to  the  count} 

annual  report,  within  40  days 
lied  for  holding  the    annual    1 


a  school   tor  ;t  months 
previous  year.     Each  district  may 

rposes,  not  to  exceed  one  per  cent  of 
n.  County  or  town  assessors  are 
ax  every  voter  $1  annually  for  the 
he  schools,  to  which  is  added  ai;  ad 


Eklucational  Condition. — The  number  of  or- 
anized  school  districts,  in   1875,  was  296;  the 
umber  of  schools,  1  7'J      The  school  revenue  was 
s  follows  : 
From  county  tax $13,138.41 


ilistnct 
ithe 


::.'.i.vj.'j:; 


The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 
For  t.a.  hers1  wages  $18,045.88 

'•    buildings,  repairs,  rent,  etc.   9,985.01 

"     incidentals  ami  furniture. .  .    4,572.26 

Total  $32,603.13 

The  following  are  the  principal  items  of  school 

s/iilislir.i  for  lSTTi: 

Number  of  children  ..I  sol I  age   5  to  -1  years)  8,343 

"  "        .ill'" II.-. I  ill  the  sell. nils' 4,42s 

N'umlier  of  teachers,  belli  sexes 20s 

Normal  Instruction. — No  school  has  yet  been 
established    for    the   training   of   teachers,    the 


general  attendance,  on  the  part  of 

if    the   territory. 

ms  made  in  Dakota  for  any  thing 


U 


territorial  superintendent  says:  -We  have  no 
regularly  formed  school  associations,  e\ee|ii  in 
some  of  the  older  counties,  which  are  beginning 
to  organize  county  teachers' associations."  The 
only  school  of  a  higher  grade  than  elementary, 
is  an  academy  at  Yankton. 


jun 


DALGARXO 


DALGARNO,  George,  an  ingenious  Brit- 
ish scholar,  teacher,  and  writer,  chiefly  noted  for 
his  publications  on  the  art  of  teaching  deaf- 
mutes.  He  was  born  at  Aberdeen  about  1627, 
and  died  at  Oxford  in  1687.  He  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Aberdeen,  and  subsequently 
taught  a  school  at  Oxford  for  about  30  years. 
Mis  two  celebrated  publications  are  Ars  S,,,„n- 
rum.  ml, in  Cb.irrictrr  Viii rrrs„/is  el  Liiiqua 
Philosophic/!  (London,   1661),   and    Didascah- 


DAME  SCHOOLS 

every  form  of  derision,  the  pupils  formed  in  line, 
and  buzzingly  passed  a  ragged  book  from  hand 
to  hand.  The  book  had  an  alphabet  in  it,  some 
figures  and  tables,  and  a  little  spelling;  that  is 
to  say — it  had  once."  This  description  gives  an 
idea  of  the  interior  of  one  of  these  schools,  and 
the  following,  from  Good  Words,  is  intended  to 
represent  the  exterior: 


bit rarv  sign-,  and  present:',  a vl.'v  lull  and  put 
accurate  exposition  of  the  principles  of  deal 
mute  instruction  :  the  latter  work  was  designee 
"to  Ining  the  way  of  teaching  a  deaf  man  t 
read  and  write,  as  near  as  possible  to  that  c 
teaching  young  ones  to  speak  and  understan 
their  mother-tongue."  Ualganio  also  invented 
two-hand  alphabet,  from  which  the  one  suba 
quently  adopted  in    England  appears   to   bav 


(1834).- 


',,,  (July, 
1 1,,  vol.  IX.. 


DAME  SCHOOLS, 


abounded,  every  village  and  hamlet  having  i 
dame  school.  Shenstone  in  the  Sckool-mistret 
gives  a  probably  correct,  although  satirical  d 
script  ion  of  such  a  school  and  of  the  dame  tin 


For  unkempt  hair,  or  task  un.-onned,  are  sorely  shent." 
Although,  owing  to  the  present  ample  provi- 
sion, in  England,  for  better  instruction  through 
the  national  schools,  the  need  of  dame  schools  no 
longer  exists,  yet  they  still  linger  in  large  num- 
bers, and  obstruct  the  proper  working  of  the 
Education  Act.  In  the  School  Board  Chronicle 
of  Feb.  6.,  1875,  there  is  the  following  suggestive 
complaint:  « It  is  within  the  power  ol  a  f ew  il- 
literate old  people  to  set  the  elementary  educa- 
tion act  at  nought. by  giving  the  nai if  m-huiilx 

to  the  miserable  places  in  which  it  is  their  mis- 
fortune to  dwell,  and  professing  to  impart  in- 
struction to  children  whose    parents  are  desirous 

of  which  the  toll,, wing  i-  a  specimen  :  "  The  pu- 
pils ate  apple-,  and  put  straws  down  one  an- 
other's hack-  until  Mr.  Wopsle's  great-aunt  [the 
school-mistress,  or  dame]  collected  her  energies. 
and  made  an  indiscriminate  totter  at  them  with 
a  birch  rod.     After  receiving  the  charge  with 


off"  to  the  old  ! 


The  existence  of  da 
recently  been  much  i 
parents  can  comply  \s 
ance  law,  or  evade  its 


at  of  mischief, 
ly's." 

in  England  has 
of.  inasmuch  as 
npulsory  attend- 
by  sending  their 


penal  legists 

'"i',,  the  I 
schools  are 
but  the  lav 
larlv  eeititi 
beautiful    li 


:lt  to  control  without  more  stringent 
lion  than  public  opinion  in  England 

nite.l  Slate.-,  the  country  district 
generally  taught   by  young  women  ; 

requires  thai  they  should  be  regu- 
ated  teachers.  To  one  such  the 
ies   of    Longfellow   probably    refer, 

w-ith  interest,  be  contrasted  with 
quaint  description  of  the  school 
time. 


•■  sin-  dwell-  l>\  an  al  Kanhawa's  si 
In  valleys  grc-.-n  and  cool. 

And  all  her  hope-  and  all  her  pride 
Are  in  her  village  school. 


And  thus  she  walks  amid  her  girls, 
With  praise-  and  mild  r.-lmkes; 

Subduing  i-.-n  rude-  village  churls. 
By  her  angelic  looks." 

Some  of  the  private  or  "  select"  schools  of  the 
cities  answer,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  the  English 
dame  schools,  but  are  of  much  higher  grade  of 
efficiency.  There  is  no  doubt  that,  as  education 
bec-c -s  more  diffused  among  all  classes  of  so- 
ciety in  England,  the  possibility  of  "  illiterate  old 
people"  keeping  a  school  with  the  chance  of  ob- 
taining any  patronage  whatever,  will  become  en- 
tirely a  thing  of  the  past. 


DANCING,  .iml  Dancing  Schools.  Han-  danced  every  Sunday  and  festive  day.  Every 
ng.  as  a  means  of  expressing  by  movements  church  festival  had  its  own  peculiar  dances;  and, 
id  gestures  of  the  body  the  emotions  of  the  i  on  the  vigils,  the   most    zealous  and   virtuous 


the  solei 

formers 


ed,  for  the  s 
Sacred  danci 
anniversaries 

tally  being  a 


v   are    worship. 

in  the         In  proportion  as  dancing  became  disconnected 
King     from  the  church  ami  religion,  ii   assumed  greater 


as  an  appropriate  close  of  the  joyous  occasion  of 
the  feast  of  the  Tabernacles.  The  members  of 
the  Sanhedrim,  the  rulers  of  the  synagogues, 
doctors  of  schools,  and  all  who  were  eminent  for 
rank  or  piety,  accompanied  the  sacred  music 
with  their  voices,  and  leaped  and  danced  with 
torches  in  their  hands  foragreat  part  of  the 
night,  while  the  women  and  common  peopli 
looked  on.  The  Jewish  ilanee  was  performed  by 
the  sexes  separately.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
the  diversion  was  promiscuously  enjoyed,  except 
perhaps  at  the  erection  of  a  deified  calf  when, 
in  imitation  of  the  Egyptian  festival  if  kpis  all 
classesof  the  I  lebrews intermingled  in  the  frantic 
revelry.  Among  the  Egyptians,  dam  ing  formed 
a  part  of  the  religious  ceremonies,  and  was  also 
common  in  private  entertainments,  Lu  Greece, 
the  gods  themselves  were  represented  as  pas- 
sionately fond  of  the  diversion;  and  in  the 
Roman  empire,  it  wasa  favorite  pastime,  resorte  1 
to,  not  only  to  enliven  feasts,  but  in  the  celebra- 
tion of  domestic  joy.  It  was.  however,  con- 
sidered beneath  the  dignity  of  persons  of  rank 
and  character  to  practice  it.  Cinder  the  patron- 
age of  the  Roman  emperors,  the  art  was  earned 
to  the  utmost  perfection;  the  favorite  mode  be- 
ing that  of  pantomime,  which,  like  that  of  the 
modern  almehs,OT  Arab  dancing  women,was  often 
of  the  most  licentious  description.  In  the  early 
Christian  elmreh,  the  dance  was  introduced  on 
the  festival  days  of  martyrs  and  other  saints,  as 
well  as  on  occasions  of  great  ecclesiastical  solem- 
nities.     Subsequently,   dai s   connected    with 

masquerades  became  a  universal  habit  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  world  at  Shrove-tide,  on  the 
day  of  St.  Vitus  (hence  the  name  of  St.  Vitus 's 


danee).  and  on  that  of  Corpus  Chri 
"  .lumping   Procession  "  at  Echterna 

grand-duchy  of  Luxemburg,  which  wai 


by  large  crowds  of  devout  people.  In  all  the 
Christian  churches  of  Germany,  there  was,  in 
early  times,  an  elevated  portion  which  was  sepa- 
rated from  the  other  parts  of  the  churches  and 
called  chor  (from  the  Ureek  \ .i(»»;,  dame  or  dan- 
cing place,  English,  choir).    Upon  this,  the  priests 


came  to  be  looked  upi 
of  social  enjoyment;  ai 
as  the  ballet,  were  in 
Every  eountrv.  and    al 


■liar 


thus    bee. 


SS.      Re- 

aeeord- 


litle 


acquaintance  with  each 
H  hen  properly  restrict 
prolific  source  of  moral 
ligious  writers  of  all  di 
ingly  Med  with  each 
persons  against  the  dam 


taken  by  different  churches  in  regard 
in  general.  Many  of  the  Proti  -u 
absolutely  prohibit  then  member-  tn 
while  the  Human  Catholic  Church  1 
strict  in  its  denunciations,  raising 
voice  more  against  the  abuses  than 
practice  itself. 

The  prevalence  of  dancing  as  a  social  amuse- 
ment ami  the  esteem  in  which  it  is  held  asa  part 


the 


•tv. 


structed  in  dancing.     Noprovision  has  anywhere 

been    made    for   it    in    any  public-schoo]   system; 

but,  in  private  schools  and  boarding-scl Is,  it 

is  quite  common  to  find  that   the  pro 

eludes  dancing  among  the    f.rlnis  in   which  in- 
struction may  be  received.  This  is  less  frequently 


JII'J 


DAXA 


the  case  in  Protestant  than  in  Catholic  semi- 
naries, and  in  American  than  in  European 
schools.  The  large  majority  of  pupils,  however, 
who  are  instructed  in  dancing,  receive  their  in- 
struction in  special  dancing  schools  or  academies, 
the  number  of  which  is  immense.  It  is  a  matter 
of  course  that,  as  a  general  rule,  this  latter  class 
of  schools  cannot  offer  so  good  a  supervision  of 
its  pupils  as  the  former.  Sec  Czerwinski,  Ge- 
schichie  der  Tamkunst  (Leipsic,  1862). 

DANA,  James  Dwight,  an  eminent  Amer- 
ican scientist,  teacher,  and  author,  born  at  Utica. 
X.  Y.,  in  1813.  He  was  educated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege, where  he  afterward  served  as  an  assistant 
to  Professor  Silliman,  and  subsequently  (1855) 
succeeded  him  as  professor  of  chemist ry.  lie 
published  several  works  of  importance  in  the  de- 
partments of  natural  history,  geology,  and  min- 
eralogy. His  school  text-books  have  been  ex- 
tensively used ;  among  which  may  be  particular- 
ly mentioned  Ins  System  of  Mineralogy,  5th  ed. 
(1858),and  Manual  of  Geology  (1863).    Since 

1846,    lie   lias    been    one    of    the    editors    of    the 

Arm  rican  Journal  of  Science  and  jirfs,  founded 
in  1819,  by  the  elder  Silliman. 

DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE,    at    Hanover, 

New  Hampshire,  was  chartered  in  ITCH.  The 
first  class  graduated  in  1771.  It  originated  in  a 
school  for  Indian  youth  established  at  Lebanon. 
( 'oi .iicut,  by  the  Ilev.  Dr.  Wheelock,  the  first 


chcini 

librar 
by  tt: 
menta 
about 
demii 
paxtn 


,e  usually  been  Ortb 
'he  buildings  front 
mil  plain  near  the  ( ' 
ion  has  extensive  pli 
i  astronomical  and  n 
ith  a  telescope,  mad. 


■al  laboratory  i  and  a  gymnasium.  I  he 
escontain  53,900  volumes!  It  issupported 
ition  tees  and  the  income  of  its  endow- 
,  which,  in  all  the   departments,  amount  to 

d.partm'nt.    tin    :  I.Vndhi     s:  K-Vititi:      h 

cut.  the  New  Hampshire  coUege  of  Agri- 
e   and    the    Mechanic    Arts,    the   Thavei 


DARTMOUTH  COLLEGE 

particular  studies.  The  course  in  the  academic 
department  is  one  of  four  years,  and  leads  to  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  The  cost  of  tuition 
is  $90  a  year.  Aid  is  afforded  to  indigent  stu- 
dents ehietly  in  the  form  of  scholarships,  usually 
yielding  $70  per  annum,  but  in  Borne  cases  Sinn 
Of  the';,  there  arc  (1876)  more  than  L20.  The 
Cliandler  Scientific  Department  was  established 
by  a  resolution  of  the  trustees,  in  I852,in  accep- 
tance of  thesuniof  Srill.nnn.  bequeathed  to  them 
in  trust  by  Abie)  Chandler  for  the  establishment 
andsupportof  a  permanent  department  or  school 
of  instruction  in  the  practical  and  useful  arts  of 
life,  comprised  ehietly  in  the  branchesof  mechan- 
ics and  civil  engineering,  architecture  and  draw- 
ing, the  modern  languages  and  English  literature, 
together  with  book-keeping,  &c.  The  course  is 
of  four  years,  ami  leads  to  the  degree  of  Bache- 
lorof  Science.  In  the  hist  year,  there  are  two 
courses,  —  the  general  course  and  the  civil  en- 
gineering course.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $60  a 
year.  At  the  session  of  the  legislature  of  Xew 
'Hampshire  in  lHlill,  an  act  was  passed  establish- 
ing t£e  2Veui  Hampshire  CoUege  of  Agriculture 
,,,7,/  the  Mechanic  Arts,  on  the  basis  of  the  con- 
gressional  land  grant, and  authorizing  its  location 
at  Hanover,  and  its  connection  with  Dartmouth 
College. 

The  course  of  instruction  embraces  three 
years.  1  luring  the  first  year,  all  the  students 
pursue  the  same  studies.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  second  year,  they  are  required  to  select  either 
the  special  course  of  agriculture  or  the  course  of 
mechanic  arts.  The  degn 1  Bachelor  of  Sci- 
ence is  conferred  upon  those  who  have  completed 
the  entire  course  of  agriculture  or  mechanic  arts 
and  have  passed  the  final  examination.  The  cost 
of  tuition  is  $30  a  year.  There  are  twelve  free 
scholarships,  covering  the  charge  for  tuition. 
,„,,.    |,„.  each  -.eii.it, .li.il  di-trirt.  e-tablished   in 

connection  with  the  congress algrant    Several 

scholarships  have  also  been  established  by  the 
lion.  John  ( lonant,  one  for  each  town  in  ( Iheshire 
County.  There  arc'  other  scholarships  available  to 
worthy  applicants  from  any  part  of  the  state. 
There  is  an  experimental  farm  of  165  acres  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  college  buildings, 
which  furnishes  opportunity  to  the  students  for 
remunerative  labor.  The  college  has  also  re- 
centK  purchased  200  acres  of  woodland  adjoin- 


estab'lisl'i  a  law  department.  '  While  the  college 
adheres,  m  general,  to  the  idea  of  n  settled  and 
well-balanced  curriculum,  it  admits,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  elective  principle.  (1)  There  is  a 
choice,  as  students  enter,  between  the  three  un- 
der-graduate  departments,  —  academic,  scien- 
tific, and  agricultural.  (2)  In  each  of  these 
departments,  a  partial  course  may  be  taken,  em- 
bracing two,  at  least,  of  the  prescribed  studies, 
and  securing  an  appropriate  testimonial  (3)  In 
the  scientific  department,  there  is  a  choice  in  the 
last  year,  and  in  the  agricultural  department  in 
the  last  two  years,  between  different  courses. 
4)   There  arc,  also,  a  number  of  options  between 


vi  mi,  I  h  net-  lor  i  lie  c.-tablii-liineiit  of  a  special 
coursed  instru  tion  in  civil  engineering.  It  is 
essentially,  though  not  formally,  post-graduate. 
The  course  of  study  is  of  two  years.  The  degree 
of  Civil  Engineer  is  conferred  on  those  whose  pro- 
ticiencv  is  such  as  to  secure  a  recommendation 
from  the  board  of  overseers.  The  cost  of  tuition 
i-   Sun   ;i    vear.      The    medical    department   was 

founded  in  I797,and  was  formerly  known  as  the 
New  Hampshire  Medical  College.  It  has  mu- 
seums of  anatomy,  materia  medica,  and  pathol- 
ogy The  degree  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  is  con- 
ferred after  examination.      livery  candidate  must 


i»avii»so\  (\h,lki;k 


be  twenty-one  years  of  age,  have  attended  two 
full  courses  of  lectures  at  some  regularly  author- 


I'KAK  \ICTKS 


ing  to  take  a  regular  course,   but  to  acquire  a 

in.  i  !■■■!  ■.■  ill'    |  iai  t  icul.ii-  branches  are  pel-milled 


,1  Ml 


tion  of  some  regular  ])ractitiuiier,  the  time  spew 
at  lectures  being  included.  There  is  a  lectin* 
term  as  well  as  a  recitation  term.  The  fee  fot 
lectures  is  §77,  and  for  recitations   $40.      Thi 

statistics  for  1875- 

Departments. 

A.-iiile ■  17  284 

Scientific  17  7ti 

Agricultural  14  29 

Engineering  3  G 

Medical  9  84 

Total  (ili'.luctiim  repetitions)  H'i  47U 

According  to  the  triennial  catalogue  of  ls7.'i, 
the  whole  numberof  afomrei  was  3,907.ofwhom 
2,077  were  living.  The  following  is  the  list  of 
presidents:  Eleazar  Wheelock,  It.  !>..  17ii!» — 7'J: 
John  Wheelock.  LL.D.,  1771I-1  si. 7:  Francis 
Brown,  D.D.,  1815—20;  Daniel  Dana,  D.D., 
1820—21;  Bennet  Tyler.  D.  D.,  1822—28;  Na- 
than Lord,  ll.lt..  Li.  !»..  L828— 63 ;  and  Asa 
I).  Smith.  1).  1).,  LL.  It.,  the  present  incumbent, 

In  1816,  the  state  legislature  vested  the  prop- 


pairing  the  obligation  of  eoutraets. 

DAVIDSON  COLLEGE  is  situated  in 
Mecklenburg  Co.,  N.  C,  on  the  line  of  the 
Atlantic.  Tennessee,  and  Ohio  Railroad,  twenty- 
three  miles  north  of  Charlotte.  The  name 
of  the  post-office  is  Davidson  College.  It  was 
chartered  in  1838,  and  is  under  the  control 
of  the  Presbyterians.  Its  buildings  contain  spa- 
cious chapels,  society-halls,  and  lecture-rooms,  to- 
gether with  pleasant  dormitories  sufficient  lor  a 


ihI 


The   Ml 


and  351  alumni.  The  presidents  have  been 
as  follows:  the  Rev.  II.  II.  Morrison,  D.  D., 
I  years;  the  Key.  Sand.  Williamson.  D.  I  >..  13 
years;  the  Rev.  Drury  Lacy,  D.  D.,  6 
Rev.  J.  L.  Kirkpatriek.  D.  D.,  6  years;  the  Rev. 
G.  W.  McPhail,  D.  D.,  1. 1..  D.,  5  years.  There 
is  now  i  1  876)  no  president.  Prof,  .lohn  R.  Blake. 
M.  A.,  having  been  chairman  of  the  faculty 
since  ls71. 

DAVIES,  Charles,  a  noted  American 
mathematician  and  teacher,  bom  at  Washing- 
ton, Ct..  in  171-s  ;  died  at  Fishkill,  \.  V.,  in 
1876.  He  graduated,  in  L815,  at  the  West  Point 
Academy,  and  subsequently    tilled,  in  the  same. 


itly 


the  Cuiversity  of  the  city  of   New  York,  and 

Columbia  College,  of  the  latter  of  which  he 
s  made  emeritus  professor.  Prof.  Davies  is 
etly  known  by  his  scries  of  school  and 
lege  text-books  in  the  various  departments 
mathematical  study,  which  have  had  a 
le  circulation.  He  has  also  published, 
,gic  of  Mathematics,  and.  in  connection 
th  Prof.  G.  W.  Peck,  a  Mathematical  Bio- 
nary  ini,l  Cyclopaedia  of  Mathematical  Sti- 
ve (N.  Y..  1855). 
DAY,   Jeremiah,  a  noted    American   edu- 


legefrom  1817  to  1846  ,H|  wa 
Preston,  Ct.,  Aug.  3.,  Hi.i  and 
Haven    Aug.  22.,  1867.     His  eh 

were    A,/     liilniihirtnni    In    Alifln 


constantly  lee  IVIIl..'    aee, 

college  and  of  the  adjacent  village  is  remarkably 
healthy,  being  free  from  malaria  and  other  local 
causes  oi  sickness.     The  value  of  its  grounds. 

I  mil.  linu's.  and  apparatus  h  SI..0.1 ;  theamounl 

of  its  productive  fund-.  885,1 ;  oi   scholarship 

funds.  $10,000.  The  collegi  y  .1  li  1  led  into 
two  terms,  and  the  cost  ol  tuition  1-  S  10  for  the 
first  1  en  11.  and  $40  for  the  second.  Candidates  for 
the  ministry  are  not  required  to  pay  for  tuition 
while  under  the  care  of  some  Presbytery.  The 
college  has  a.  classical  course  of  four  years,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  a 
scientific  course  of  three  years,  leading  to  the  de- 
cree of  Bachelor  of  Science.     Students  not  wish- 


DEAF-MUTES,   or  Deaf  and  Dumb, 

ass  of   persons,  scattered   tlironghoni 


decennial  enumerations  of  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  and  the  censuses  of  most  of  the 
countries  of  continental  Europe,  have  supplied 


L'04 


DEAF-MUTES 


statistical  information  as  to  the  number  of  deaf-  j 
mutes.  The  proportion  to  the  population  is 
quite  diverse,  varying  in  Europe  from  1  in  1,0(10  | 
to  1  in  2,000.  In  the  United  States,  theaverage 
proportion  is  1  in  2380;  while  in  England  it  is 
about  1  in  2,000.  Hence,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
actual  number  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  is  quite 
large.  According  to  the  census  of  L870,  tin' total 
number  in  the"  United  States  was  Hi.205,  of 
whom  8,916  were  males;  and  7,289,  females.  The 
number  between  the  ages  of  5  and 'Jo  was  re- 
ported as  7,648.  In  many  ruses,  they  are  deaf 
from  birth;  in  others,  the  loss  of  hearing  is 
caused  by  accident  or  disease  at  an  early  age,  or 
in  some  eases,  later  in  life;  but  deafness  is 
almost  always  followed  by  a  loss  of  speech,  from 
disuse  of  the  organs  and  a  want  of  ability  to 
modulate  the  voice.  In  the  first  few  months  of 
life,  little  difference  can  be  perceived  between  the 
child  who  has  its  hearing  perfect,  and  the  one 
horn  deaf.  The  effect  of  sound  is  not  often 
thought  of  by  the  parents  and  friends,  in  some 
instances,  till  the  child  is  two  years  oi  age  :  and. 
even  when  deafness  is  suspected,  the  means  em- 
ployed to  asei'i-tain  llie  taet  are  often  such  as  to 
confound  the  nervous  condition  of  the  whole  body 
with  that  of  the  portion  wilcly  connected  with 
the  ear.  In  former  times,  the  little  one  was  con- 
sidered as  a  doomed  being,  and  sorrow  took  the 
place  of  joy  in  the  breast  of  the  parents.  Among 
some  nations,  deaf  persons  were  regarded  as  be- 
ing under  the  curse  of  Heaven.  Among  some 
Karliaioii-  nation-  they  were  called  monsters,  and 


nous  passion,  in  the  absence  of  a  control  of  judg- 
ment :  by  fretful  impatience  at  the  dim  percep- 
tion of  unknown  or  unattainable  excellence  seen 
in  others:  by  a  total  unfitness  for  nearly  all  the 
occupations  of  their  fellow  beings  ;  by  an  entire 
exclusion  from  the  vast  stores  of  knowledge  dis- 
played to  their  view  in  books  ;  or  by  an  igno- 
rance ofthe  truths  of  religion.  All  these  causes 
operating  upon  a  sensitive  nature,  may  easily  un- 
settle the  reason. 

Such  was.  and  is,  the  sad  condition  of  the  un- 
educated deaf  and  dumb,  and  by  many  it  was 
asserted   to  be  irremediable.     St.  Augustine  de- 


hearing  by  the  word  of  God."  The  poet  Lucre- 
tius expressed  in  the  following  lines  the  opinion 
prevalent  in  his  1  ime  : 


]  .nt   to 

as  the 
They  \ 


Mill 


thr, 


as  deficient  m  intellect,  and.  consequently,  were 
abridged  of  their  civil  rights:  as  we  find  in 
the  code  of  Justinian.  <  londillac,  at  a  compara- 
tively recent  period,  denied  them  the  faculty  of 
memory  and  the  power  of  reasoning.  Many 
parents,  even  at  the  present  time,  consider  them- 
selves disgraced  by  having  a  deaf  and  dumb 
child,  and  studiously  conceal  the  fact  from  the 


evi 


capacity  aim  enuownient  :  nut.  n  we  reucia  uiu, 
a  moment,  we  shall  find  that  the  result  of  being 
deaf  and  dumb,  is  to  be  ignorant,  not  to  be  weak, 
— ignorant  of  science,  ignorant  of  history,  of 
morality,  and,  above  all,  ignorant  of  religion, 
and  thus  virtually  "without  God  in  the  world." 
The  limited  circle  of  purely  intellectual  ideas 
which  these  unfortunates  possess,  is  a  natural 
consequence  of  their  limited  intercourse  with 
those  around  them.  They  are  shut  out  from 
communion  with  the  world  in  things  which  in- 
terest others,  from  a  knowledge'  of  literature  and 
history,  and,  in  many  eases,  from  all  means  of 
amusement.  In  some  cases,  it  has  happened 
that  they  have  become  idiots,  consequent  upon 
the  non-employment  of  the  natural  powers  of 
the  mind.  In  other  case-,  they  have  bee,, me  de- 
ranged   by  the  indulgence   of    headstrong,  impct- 


these  unfortui 
philanthropy 
by  the  ancient 
edged  to  possi 
with  other  p. 
the  sense  oi  1 
they  are  founi 
fleet  ion  ol  mi 
well  i 


us  Pedius, 


upon 


:■  -  .,!■  !i  "I. .-.nation,  anil 
tin  ne.l  the  opinions  held 
mutes  are  now  acknowl- 
•tnal  faculties  in  common 
ml.  although  deprived  of 
nl  the  fatadty  of  speech, 
pahle  of  attention,  of  iv- 
iuiagination.  and  of  judg- 
•  ability  to  communicate 
thoughts,  their  desires,  and  their  wants,  to 
their  more  favored  fellows. 

According  to  the  Venerable  Bede,  St.  John  of 

licvcrlcv.   bishop  of  lla-ul-ta.lt.  taught   a  dumb 

man  to  speak.  Bede  also  described  a  manual 
alphabet  in  his  Be  Loquela  per  Gestum   Digi- 

its  plates  showing  the  finger  alphabet  are  prob- 
ably the  earliest  illustrations  of  dactylology  in 
existence.  Efforts  were  made  in  the  early  part  of 
the  1 6th century,  to  impart  instruction  to  the  deaf 


Spain,  about  1550.  who  taught  two  or  three  to 
read,  write,  and  articulate.     Later,  Juan  Pablo 

lionet,  also  in  Spain,  taught  a  few.  and  published, 
in  1620.  a  treatise  on  the  subject,  with  a  manual 
alphabet,  the  same  which  is  now  used  in  Europe 
and  America.  (See  Bonet.)  Some  learned  men 
in   Italy  also  taught  single  persons;  as  Cardan. 


dumb  in  England.  In  1667,  Van  llelmont.  a 
native  of  Holland,  published  a  tract,  entitled 
Alpliabetwm  Naturae,  in  which  he  explained  the 


DEAE-Ml'TES 


process  of  reading  from  the  lips.    The  two-hand 

;i]|iIi;iIm  I .    now    used    ill     England,    was    iiiM-nlcil 

by   Dalgarno,  in   L680.      (See    Dalgarno.)      In 


1749,  Rod] 
before  the 
could  read 
method  se 
L754,  Sa 
cessfulrj  : 
Leipsicwl 
by  an\  civ 
and  itssuc 
adoptiono 


llir    pupils 

Paris,  who 
iir  kepi  his 


the  abbe  Sicard,  one  of  whose  pupils,  Lauren! 

•  'Iriv, aivoiii|ianii'd  Rev.  'I'lioinas  1 1.  ( iallaudel  I" 

ih-  I  imi.-.I  Si.in-,.  and  aided  him  in  establishing 
the  Lmerican  \  j  lurn  a1  I  lartford  i  'i.  undei 
the  patronage    oi    the    N'evt     England    states; 

and    from    that,   iii-titulioiis   Inn,       ,,,   mo    up    in 


walk.-  of  life.  In  ( 
name  Le  Clerc,  .1-  1 
as  an  editor  ;  ( '•.  W. 
teachers  and  writers; 
.Mann,.).  R.  Burnet, 
J.  Carlin,   as  an  ar 


1 
Loring  and  W.  Whiton,  as 
J.  \.«L  as  a  poet  ;  E.  -I . 
Hid  A.  Newsam,a£  svriter 
isl  :    Alio     Cogswell    as  .1 


years,  becami  the  Royal  Institution  of  E ranee.  I  of  all  the  institutions  in  the  1'niteil 
I  le  used  the  natural  Language  of  signs  as  the  in-  teaching  ol  deaf-mutes,  according 
strument  of  instruction.     He  was  succeeded  by  \  of  the  1 .'.  S.  Commissioner  of  Edu« 

Institutions  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  in  the  United  States. 


Maryland  Institution. 
Arkansas  lii-titiiti.in. 
Xrbra-ka  In-tilutinii 


Oregon  Institution 

Inst,  for  Colored  Blind  &  Deaf-Mates. 

School  of  Articulation 

Colorado  Institute 


Bartford.Ct.  - 

New  York  City 
Philadelphia,  " 
Panvillo.Kv. 
( lolumbus,  0 
Jacksonville, 
Staunton,  Va 
Inili; 


Pa.. 


tnd 


II! 


Knew  lilc.  'IV 

Raleigh,  N.  C.   . 

Cave  Spring,  Ga 

Cedar  Springs,  s.  C, 

Fnlt Mi 

Flint.  Midi   

Delavan,  Wise 

Buflalo,  X.  V 

Baton  Rouge,  La 

<  'oiinril  HluH's.  l.iwa. 
.lark-on,  Mi-- 

Austin,   Tex 

vVushimiton,  D.  C 

Tallaileiru,    Ala 

Oakland,  Cal 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

Fairbanlt,  Minn 

W  a-luneton,  1>.  C 

Olatke.  Kan 

New  York  City 

Northampton,  Ma--. 

Frederick,  Mil 

kittle  Rock,  Ark 

Omaha,  Neb 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

I'.M-toii,   Mass 

Mystic  River,  Ct. 

Fordham,  X.  V 

Romney,  \V.  Va 

Salem,  Oreg 

Baltimore,  Mil.. 

Aurora,  N.  Y. 

Colorado  Springs,   Col. 


1867  Private  .. 

1867State 

1-.;-  Directors 


Trusters  . 
Private  .  . 
State 


14,500      40,000 

:i:s,ooo   150,000 


104 

7 

26,000 

8( 

0 

10,500 

»'. 

s 

104 

1 

30,000 

st 

4 

:;::, 

:;.» 

:. 

10,0011 

4/ 

2 

2,000 

fi 

fi 

6,000 

1? 

2 

525 

4i; 

fi 

52 

4 

25,000 

:n 

7 

1 

10,000 

1 

■< 

12 

2 

5,000 

17...  Olio 

18,000 

■15,000 


20.1 

17,000 
7,000 


$175  per  pupil  from  the  New  England  States. 


206 


DKAF-Mr'I'KS 


inciples  on  which 

itutions  are    con- 
ed by  De  L'Epee, 
assary  in  order  to 

iguageandanad- 

The  first  institution  for  the  education  of  deaf- 
mutes  in  the  United  States  was  opened,  as  stated 
before,  in  Hartford.  Ct..  April  15.,  1817,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Rev.  Th.  H.  Gallaudet.  (See 
Gallaudet.)  Associated  with  him  was  Laurent 
Clerc.one  of  the  most  talented  of  Sieard's  pupils, 
who  had  accompanied  Mr.  Gallaudet  on  his 
return  to  the  United  States  after  a  visit  to 
Europe,  which  he  had  made  to  acquire  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  methods  of  deaf  mute  instruction. 
At  first,  the  Connecticut  institution  had  only 
7  pupils,  but  accessions  during  the  year  made 
the  number  33.  Congress,  soon  afterward,  do- 
nated to  „  a  township  of  wild  land  the  proceeds 
of  which   now  form  a   fund  of  8339,000.     This 

gift  led  to  its  assuming  the  nai t    American 

Asylum.  The  New  York  Asylum  * as  opened 
in  "1818.  The  fundamental 
nearly  all  the  American  in 
ducted,  are  those  first  introd 
modified  as  shown  to  be  ni 
facilitate  the  acquirement  of 
vancement  in  knowledge  I 
250  schools  for  deaf-mutes  in  the  world.  In  1850, 
there  were  '2 27  in  Kurope.  and  23  in  America. 
The  greater  number  in  Europe  teach  articulation 
alone;  while,  in  America,  more  dependence  is 
placed  upon  acquiring  the  ability  to  use  written 
language.  The  first  regular  school  for  deaf-mutes 
in  Great  Britain  was  that  established  near  Edin- 
burgh  by  Thomas    Braid's 1    and  from  this 

have  descended  the  present  public  institutions 
for  deaf-mute  instruction  in  Great  Britain.  (See 
Bbaidwood,  and  Pbbt,  1 1.  P.) 

Systems  of  Instruction.  -Two  methods  or 
systems  of  teaching  are  in  use  (with  some  modi- 
fications) in  nearly  all  the  institutions  in  the 
world.  One  is  that  of  articulation  and  Up- 
reading  (sometimes  called  the  German  method, 
because  used  in  most  of  the  German  schools), 
the  other  that  of  writing,  or  the  sign  lan- 
guage. Both  have  their  special  advocates;  and 
each  it  is  claimed,  possesses  superior  facilities  for 
educating  the  deaf  and  dumb.  In  teaching  ar- 
ticulation, the  pupil  is  placed  before  the  teacher, 
who  begins  with  the  vowels,  and  requires  the 
pupil  to  watch  the  motions  he  makes  with  his 
mouth,  lips,  and  throat:  he  places  the  pupil's 
hand  upon  his  own  throat,  so  as  to  feci  the  dif- 
ferent movements,  and  then  imitate  them  him- 
self. When  he  luus  succeeded  in  some  degree. 
the  consonants  are  introduced  and  practiced  for 
a  longer  or  shorter  time,  according  to  the  ability 
or  aptitude  of  the  pupil.  Simple  words  are  then 
introduced,  and  their  meaning  illustrated  by 
pointing  out  the  object,  action,  etc.;  and  as  prog- 
ress is  made  in  this,  qualities  and  actions  are 
introduced.  This  course  must  be  continued,  and 
the  lessons  repeated,  till  the  pupil  can  read  the 
lips  of  tin'  teacher,  and  communicate  his  own 
thoughts,  in  questions  and  answers.  Reading 
must  then  be  taught  ;  and  the  knowledge  of  lan- 
guage already  acquired  aids  the  pupil  in  under- 
standing what  he  reads.  It  will  be  apparent 
that  this  is  a  work  requiring  much  time  and 
patience  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  as  well  as  of 


DEBATING 

the  pupil,  merely  to  acquire  the  meaning  of  the 
words  and  their  proper  pronunciation.  Most  of 
the  Institutions  in  the  United  States  give  more 
or  less  instruction  in  articulation,  generally  in 
special  departments.  The  Clarke  institution,  the 
Boston  Day  School,  the  N.  T.  Institution  for 
Improved  instruction,  and  Whipple's  Home 
School  make  articulation  a  specialty.  This  mode 
of  teaching  is  especially  adapted  to  the  condition 
of  semi^mutes,  who  still  retain  some  remnant  of 
the  ability  to  use  spoken  language.  Experience 
has  shown  that  children  deprived  of  the  sense 
of  hearing  an  learn  by  means  of  sight  and  feel- 
ing, to  distinguish  the  various  elements  of  speech, 
to  read  them  from  the  speaker's  lips,  and  to 
imitate  them  in  articulation. 

'II ther  method,  writing  and  sign-making. is 

substantially  taught  in  the  following  manner: 
\n  object  i-  show  a  to  the  pupil,  as  for  example. 
a  cat  and  the  natural  sign  made  for  it,  an  out- 
line is  then  drawn  on  the  slate,  and  o-a-t  is  writ- 


the 


The  object  is  removed  and  the  outline  rubbed 
out;  the  same  sign  is  used  for  the  word  alone 
and  the  pupil  soon  associates  it  with  the  object 
Other  objects  are  presented,  and  the  same  proc- 
ess repeated.  The  color  of  the  cat  is  then  taught: 
a.s.  if  black,  that  is  joined  to  the  name. and  black 
cat  is  learned;   then  action  is  represented,  as 

black  '-,il  eats;  and  then  the  object  follows. black 
cat  eats  meat.  The  phrases  are  lengthened  as 
the  pupil  proceeds,  and  short  stories  are  related 
by  signs,  and  written  down  by  the  pupil,  the 
proper  distinctions  being  made  at  the  time,  so 
that  the  pupil,  in  a  short  nice,  is  enabled  to  use 
language  properly.  An  important  feature  of 
this  method  is.  that  the  pupil  begins  at  once  to 
learn  words  which  convey  meaning,  without  the 

letters  of  which  convey  no  ideas;  and  in  this 
manner  the  mind  is  quickened,  and  incited  to 
redoubled  activity  by  the  knowledge  gained.  As 
this  proceeds, the  pupil  becomes  familiar  with 
the  printed  as  well  as  the  written  characters,  and 
soon  understands  short  simple  phrases;  and  then 
only  a  few  months  are  required  to  enable  the 
pupil  to  understand  clearly  what  is  related  to 
him. -Sec  John  Wallis,  Letter  to  Thomas 
Beverley    in   the    Philosophical    Transactions 

t„  1698);  Joseph  Wai-son.  Instruction  of  the 

Deaf  and  Dumb  (London.  1809);  De  I'Epee, 
La  veritable  man  iere  etc.  (Paris,  I  (84),  English 
translation  (London,  1801)  ;  American  Annals 
!  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb:  Syle,  .1  Summary 
of  the  Researches  etc  of  H.  P.  Peel  I Wash.. 
1873);  Reportqfthe  Institution  forihe  Improved 
Instruction  of  Deqf-Mutes  (N.T.,1874);  in  the 
Appendix  to  which  will  be  found  a  statement 
of  the  method  of  teaching  articulation  and  lip- 
reading;  Annual  Reports  of  the  U.  S.  Commis- 

x/Vv/.r,/  E<h,v.tti<u,  for  1871,-2,-3,-4. 

DEBATING  is  often  employed  as  an  ex- 
ercise in  schools  for  young  men  (and  sometimes 
in  those  for  the  other  sex),  in  order  to  afford  a. 


DECIMAL  NOTATION 

means  for  practice  in  extemporaneous  speaking, 
and  an  incentive  to  the  study  and  investigation 
of  subjects  of  scholastic  ,,i-  ,<eueral  interest. 
When  so  used,  it  should  be  carefullj  n  ■  dated, 
both  as  to  the  questions  selected  for  discussion  and 
the  manner  in  which  the  debates  are  conducted. 
The  usual  rules  of  debate  should  be  strictlj  en- 
forced, and  the  participants  confined  to  the  ex- 
act subject  considered,  and  required  to  us.-  lan- 
guage of  undoubted   propriety       The  rules  of 

parlia ntary  debate  may  be  made  a  subject  of 

formal  study  auxiliary  to  the  practice  of  debat- 
ing, and,  in  this  way.  the  students  partly  pre- 
pared for  public  life.  The  d     ■'  .  ,  soc con- 

lleeted  with  colleges  have  UMialK    In     i - 1 .  i .  ■  1 .  -.  1 


DEFINITIONS 


20  T 


the  power  of  extemporaneous  speaking     and 

I Sequentl}  .  in  the  ad\anivd  stav.es   nf  '"uisiriic 

tioii  there  is  need  of  resorting  to  ex  raises  in  off- 
hand speaking  in  order  to  cc thi    h  ndenci 


"They  are,"  says  McElligott,  "capabl  i  oi  splendi 
service  in  the  course  of  education;  and  not  on! 
splendid,  but  peculiar;  a  service,  in  fact,  f< 
which  it  is  impossible  to  find  any  sufficient  sul 
stitute.  Their  appropriate  sphere  moreve 
seems  to  be  in  connection  with  collegiate  institi 
tions.  There,  at  all  events,  we  have  a  right  t 
expect   from  them  the  best  possible  results;  fc 


\.  V 


Tin 


r.A 


xaki.'s  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  in. 

DECIMAL  'NOTATION,  the  ordinary 
method  of  expressing  numbers  on  a  scale  oi  ti  a 
ten  units  of  any  order  being  equal  to  one  unit 
of  the  next  higher  order.  The  first  lessons  in 
arithmetic  should  give  the  pupil  a  clear  idea 
of  the  principle  of  this  notation.  This  can  lie 
done  by  means  of  the  numeral  frame  (q.  v.). 

DECLAMATION,  or  the  formal  delivery 
of  set  speeches  or  of  memorized  pieces  of  ora- 
tory, is  a  school  exercise  of  considerable  im- 
portance, when  conducted  in  a  proper  manner 
and  with  a  due  regard  to  its  special  uses  and 
limitations.  The  objects  chiefly  to  be  gained  by 
exercises  of  this  kind  are  the  following :  L)  lln 
training  and  culture  of  the  voice;  (2)  Practice 
in  elocution  :  (3)  The  habit  of  speaking  in  pub- 
lic with  confidence,  ease,  and  grace;  (4)  The 
cultivation  of  a  taste  for  public  speaking;  (5)  An 
improvement  of  the  pupils'  style  of  composition. 
In  the  education  of  boys  and  young  men  partic- 
ularly, these  are  all  points  of  great  importance, 
inasmuch  .as  the  ability  to  speak  effectively  in 
public  is  of  great  value  in  all  civilized  commu- 
nities. The  practice  of  declamation  may.  how- 
ever, be  carried  too  far,  and  may  thus  engender 
an  artificial  style,  and  a  taste  for  mere  verbal 
and  elocutionary  display,  without  sufficient  re- 
gard to  the  sentiment  expressed  or  to  the  occasion 
of  their  utterance.  Indeed,  it  has  been  held  by 
some  that  those  who  have  excelled  as  declaimers 
in  school,  have  rarely  become  it'feine  -peakei-s 
in  afterlife;  but.  if 'this  is  the  case,  il  has  re- 
sulted rather  from  the  abuse  of  the  exercise  than 
from  its  legitimate  use.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  long  practice  in  dec] 
memorized   pieces  may  prodi 


The  following  points  should  be  carefully  at- 
tended to  in  giving  elementary  instruction  in 
declamation  :  (I)  The  piece  to  be  declaimed 
should  be  well  studied,  not  only  in  its  language, 
but  in  regard  to  the  thoughts,  emotions,  reason- 


as  well  as  il 
various  kind 
pupil  should 

to  their  use 
form,  shouli 
struction  ;  ; 
pupil  to  spe 


n.'iall 

.ml   hi.  < 
The    pu 

apacity  to 

iils  of    the 

dently  ad- 
n  in  rhe- 

'll'mi'" 
al.     Even 

iriate 

tools,  how 

exercises 

iver  ma\ 
in  recita- 

g    exclusively 
habit  that   is 


calculated  to  interfere  with  the  acquisition  of 


tiou  and  declamation  ;  thus,  the  speaking  of 
easy  and  interesting  dialogues  by  two  Or  more 
children  will  be  found  one  of  the  best  methods 
to  impart  to  young  pupils  a  practical  knowledge 
of  the  elementary  rules  of  declamation,  besides 
cultivating  a  natural  style  of  speaking. 

DEFINITIONS,  a  branch  of  elementarj 
education,  generally  used  to  designate  instruction 
in  the  meaning  of  words.  The  operations  of  a 
child's  mind  naturally  lead  to  a  knowledge  of 
words  as  representatives  of  ideas;  and.  at  quite 
an  early  age,  a  child  acquires  a  very  extensive 
vocabulary  of  terms  and  the  ability  to  apply 
them  properly,  since  they  are  learned  not  by 
formal  statement  or  definition,  but  by  hearing 
them  used,  and  by  subsequent  practice  in  using 
them  in  connection  with  the  actual  objects  or 
conceptions  which  they  represent.  In  this  way. 
the  words  which  young  children  learn  make  but. 
little  impression  upon  their  minds  as  minis  ;  but 
they  are  so  intimately  associated  with  the  objects, 
actions,  and  qualities  which  they  represent,  that  • 
they  convey  to  the  mind   the  same   ideas  as  the 


208  DEFINITIONS 

objects,  actions,  etc.  themselves.  The  school  ex- 
ercises or  lessons  designed  to  increase  the  child's 
vocabulary,  or  to  teach  the  meaning  of  words 
found  in  books,  often  disregard  tiiis  natural 
method  of  acquisition,  and  attempt  to  teach  the 
meaning  of  individual  words  by  means  of  their 
approximate  synonyms,  without  any  regard  to 
their  application, or  use  in  phrases  and  sentences. 
Without  an  embodiment  of  words  in  actual 
speech,  the  recitation  of  formal  definitions  is  of 
no  use.  \n< t  sufficient  illustration  of  this  kind, 
the  pupil  -huil  I  be  required  to  tell,  in  his  own 
language,  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  question, 
which  the  teacher  can  then  correct.  No  exercise 
in  synonyms  is  of  any  value,  but  on  the  con- 
trary, rather  injurious,  until  the  meaning  of 
words  has  been  thus  explained.  In  oral  lessons 
in  definitions  to  classes.  pupil  may  be  re- 
quired to  use  the  given  word  in  a  phrase  or  sen- 
tence, another  to  explain  its  meaning,  and  an- 
other to  give  a  brief  definition  by  a  synonymous 
phrase  or  word.  Verysimple  words,  the  meaning 
of  which  is  already  known  to  the  child,  should 
not  be  given  for  formal  definition;  sine,-  properly 
to  define  such  words,  requires  a  nice  discrimina- 
tion in  the  use  of  language,  and  a  minuteness  of 
analysis  beyond  the  capacity  of  a  young  child. 
A  full  exercise  of  this  kind  should  comprise  the 
following:  (I)  To  pronounce  it  ;  (2)  To  use  it  in 
the  construction  of  a  phrase  or  a  sentence;  (3)  To 
define  it  :  (4)  To  write  a  sentence  illustrating  its 
meaning  and  use.  [A  written  exercise  for  the 
whole  class,  each  pupil  writing  a  different  sen- 
tence.] Instruction  in  the  derivation  of  words 
and  the  meaning  of  the  common  prefixes  and 
suffixes  should  be  commenced  at  an  early  stage. 
(See  Etymology.) 

Kvcrv  subject  of  instruction  has  its  definitions, 
or  precise  statements  of  elementary  truths,  con- 
stituting the  basis  of  the  science;  and  it  is  an 
important  consideration  as  to  the  proper  time 
and  method  of  teaching  them.  The  teacher  is 
very  apt  to  err  in  requiring  them  to  be  com- 
mitted to  memory  before  the  mind  has  been  suf- 
ficiently impressed  with  the  elementary  ideas 
which  they  involve.  In  How  to  Teach  (N.  V.. 
is;;!),  we  tiud  this  quite  fully  and  emphatically 
expressed:  "One  of  the  most  serious  abuses  to 
which  the  employment  of  elementary  text  books 

is  liable,  is  the  practi if  requiring  the  pupil  to 

commit  to  memory,  verbatim,  all  the  definitions 
of  a  subject  before  teaching  the  subject  itself,  so 
as  to  enable  the  pupils  to  understand  the  nature 
of  the  things  defined.  It  is,  of  course,  most 
logical  in  the  scientific  treatment  of  a  subject  to 
place  the  definitions  first,  and  the  reasoning  based 
upon  them  afterward  :  but  this  is  not  the  order 
of  investigation.  The  definitions  are  tin'  results 
of  an  induction  based  upon  the  facts  obtained 
by  observation  ;  they  are  generalizations  of  those 
facts,  and  are  unintelligible  to  those  entirely  un- 
acquainted with  the  facts  themselves.  Thus  the 
order  of  investigation  is  Inductive;  the  treatment 
is  deductive,  and  in  elementary  teaching  the 
method  should  conform  rather  to  the  former 
than  to  the  latter.     Give  the  pupil  accurate  and 


DEGREES 

vivid  conceptions  of  the  facts,  encourage  him  to 
observe  the  phenomena  -tocollect  an  experience 
of  his  own  :  tell  him,  or  let  him  learn  from  the 
book, what  has  been  discovered  by  the  experience 
of  others;  and  when  the  facts  thus  obtained 
form  a  sufficient  groundwork,  lead  his  mind  to 
the  propei  induction,  after  which  the  definition. 
principle,  or  rule, based  upon  it,  comes  naturally. 
nderstood,  The  defini- 
be  brief  and  accurate  in 
id  thing,  should  be  com- 
<tim;  tor  great  skill  is 


II  be  thoro 
tions  thus  taught 
language,  and.  as 
mitted  to  memo 
required  to  const 
of  the  greatest  v 
to  have  his  min 
marks   and  guid 


he  scholar  and  thinker 

tored  with  these  land- 

of    knowledge."       The 

distinction  between   the  description   and  the  de- 


finition of  a  thing  should  be  kept  in  view  by  the 

teacher.      The  former   may  include  a    statement 


of  all  the  qualiti 


properties  of  the  object 
,  being 


other  objects  of  the  same  kind.  At  first,  chil- 
dren should  be  taught  rather  by  descriptions 
than  definitions:  for  the  latter,  while  forming 
necessary  standards  of  judgment  for  the  mind, 
generally  do  not  give,  of  themselves,  complete 
ideas  of  the  things  defined. 

DEGERANDO.  See  (Jerando. 
DEGREES  are  titles  of  rank  conferred  upon 
students  in  colleges  and  universities,  as  evidence 
of  their  proficiency  in  the  arts  and  sciences, 
or  upon  learned  men  as  a  testimony  of  their 
literary  merits.  At  fiist.  the  terms  master 
and  doctor  were  applied  indifferently  to  any 
person  engaged  in  teaching  in  the  university.  In 
process  ol  time,  the  term  unisf^r  was  restricted 
to  teachers  of  the  liberal  arts,  and  the  term 
doctor  to  divinity,  law,  and  medicine.  When 
regulations  were  established  to  prevent  unquali- 
fied pei-sons  from  teaching,  and  an  initiatory 
stage  of  discipline  was  prescribed,  these  terms 
became  significant  of  a  certain  rank,  and  of  the 
possession  of  certain  powers,  and  were  called 
gradus, — steps  or  degrees.  The  passing  of  the 
initiatory  stage,  said  to  have  been  first  instituted 
by  Pope  Gregory  IX.  (1227 — 1241),  conferred 
in  any  of  the  four  faculties  the  title  of  bachelor 
(baccalaureus),  and  an  additional  course  of  dis- 
cipline and  examination  was  necessary  in  order 
to  obtain  that  of  master  or  doctor.  A  degree 
intermediate  between  bachelor  and  doctor  was 
that  of  licentiate.  This  is  no  longer  in  use  in 
Kngland.  except  in  Cambridge,  as  a  degree  of 
medicine.  In  Germany  the  degree  of  iAcentiat 
now  exists  only  in  the  theological  faculty.  The 
title  of  Master  of  Arts  originally  implied  the 
right,  and  even  the  duty,  of  publicly  teaching 
some  of  the  branches  included  in  the  faculty 
of  arts ;  but  this  custom  has  now  fallen  into 
general  disuse.  The  title  of  doctor  seems  to 
have  been  conferred,  for  the  first  time,  in  the 
12th  century,  at  the  university  of  Bologna ;  and 
the  ceremonial  of  investiture  was  drawn  up 
by  the  learned  lrnerius.  The  university  of 
Paris  almost  immediately  followed  in  the  foot- 


steps  of  Bologna,  the  first  reception  of  doctors 
having  taken  place  in  the  year  1U5,  in  favor 
of  Peter  Lombard  and  Gilbert  de  la  Porree, 
the  greatest  theologians  of  the  day.  At  a  later 
period,  the  emperors  were  accustomed  to  confer 
upon  the  universities  the  right  of  appointing 
doctors  of  law  by  their  authority  and  in  their 
name.  The  example  of  the  emperors  was 
speedily  full. ■wed  by  the  popes,  who  conferred 
the  same  right  in  reference  to  the  canon  law. 
In  England,  the  degree  of  doctor  was  not  given 
until  the  time  of  King  John  (1207).  In  the 
middle  ages,  the  title  of  Doctor  of  Laws  con- 
ferred, in  some  countries,  great  privileges  ;  and 
the  possession  of  the  title  was  requisite  for  some 
of  the  higher  officers  in  church  and  state.  In 
most  civilized  countries,  the  acquisition  of  the 
title  of  Doctor  of  Medicine  is  still  required  pre- 
vious to  an  authorization,  by  the  state  govern- 
ment, of  medical  practice.  The  titles  Doctor  of 
Theology  and  Doctor  of  Law,  or  of  Laws,  have 
still  to  be  acquired  by  professors  of  these  branches 
of  learning  in  universities  and  colleges  ;  but  they 
are  also  conferred  honoris  causa  upon  distin- 
guished theologians,  jurists,  and  statesmen.  In 
the  United  States,  the  conferring  of  degreesis 
carried  to  an  extent  which  was  formerly  unknown. 
While  in  Germany  there  are  only  about  twenty 
universities  which  have  the  right  to  confer  de- 
grees, and  in  Kiiglan.l  a  still  smaller  number,  there 
are  in  the  I'nited  States  more  than  .'{0(1  chartered 
colleges  which  are  entitled  to  this  right:  and 
they  generally  make  a  very  liberal  use  of  it  at 
the  annual  commencement.  All  the  graduates  of 
American  colleges  and  universities  receive  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  after  three  years 
standing  have  the  title  of  Master  of  Arts  con- 
ferred upon  them.  The  former  is  made  con- 
tingent in  the  United  States  as  well  as  in 
England,  upon  the  result  of  a  previous  ex- 
amination ;  but  the  latter  is  conferred,  in  due 
course  of  time,  without  any  further  require- 
ments. In  Germany,  the  title  Master  of  Arts 
has  fallen  into  disuse,  and  the  philosophical 
faculty,  which  corresponds  to  the  faculty  of 
arts  in  the  United  Slates,  confers,  instead  of 
it,  the  title  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy.  In  the 
nineteenth  century,  and  especially  in  the  United 
States,  a  number  of  new  degrees  have  been  cre- 
ated. The  diploma  of  Doctor  of  Music  is  given 
in  England,  the  United  States,  and  Germany. 
Women  have  been,  until  very  recently,  the  re- 
cipients of  academic  degrees  in  only  very  excep- 
tional cases:  but,  with  the  progress  of  the  supe- 
rior education  of  females,  and  the  admission  of 
women  to  some  of  the  highest  institutions  of  learn- 
ing, all  the  degrees  which  have  so  long  been  the 
monopoly  of  the  one  sex,  begin  to  be  accessible 
to  both.  (See  Co-F.nucATioN  op  the  Sexes.) 
The  annual  reports  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner 
of  Education  afford  complete  statistics  of  all  the 
degrees  conferred  each  year  by  American  col- 
leges, universities,  and  schools.  Below  is  given 
a  list  of  the  various  degrees  which  were  conferred 
in  1874,  with  the  usual  abbreviations  employed 
to  designate  them. 


EES  209 

The  colleges  for  females  confer,  in  the  place  of 
the  title  I'.achelor  :of  letters,  of  Arts  oi  Liberal 
Arts  .  the  title  Graduate,  thnue.li  thev  retain  the 
abbreviation-  I..  I'...  A.  1!..  and  B.  L.  A. 


Wis. 


B.  M.  E.,  Bachelor  of 

C.  K..  Civii  I    j     eei 

C.  A:  M.  E..  Civil  atei  Minnie  EllLrilieer. 
l>.  i:.  Bachelor  m  Divinity: 

1).  ('.  b..  Doctor  ol  Civil  Laws. 

D.  D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity. 

D.  D.  M.,  Doctor  ot  Dental  Medicine. 
I).  E.,  Dynamic  Engineer. 

I).    Sc,     DoCtOl-    III    Sec    e      e. 

L.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Letters. 

PL.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.  D.,  Duel, a-  oi  Laws. 

L.  Sc.  Laureate  of  Science. 

M.  B.,  Bachelor  nl  Medicine. 

M.  D.  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

M.  E.,  Mmiim  Engineer. 

M.  E.  I...  Mi-ire-,  e|  Kndi-h  Literatim 


Mus.  B.,  Bachelor  of  Music. 

Mus.  D.,  Doctor  of  Music. 

Ph.  B.,  Bachelor  ot  Philosophy. 

Ph.  P.,  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 

Sc.  B.,  Badi-lnr  of  Science.' 

Se-  M..  Masterol  Scienci  . 

s.  T.  D.,  Sai  rai  n  i  le  Doctor. 
As  the  title  Doctor  of  Medicine,  when  con- 
ferred by  a  medical  faculty,  alone  entitles  its 
holder  in  some  countries  to  practice,  attempts 
have,  in  many  eases,  been  made  by  incompetent 
to  purchase  it,  and  by  dishonest  persons 
make  money  by  selling  it.  The  greatest  noto- 
riety, in  this  respect,  has  been  gained  by  a  so- 
called  faculty  of  medicine  in  Pennsylvania,  which 
carried  on  the  sale  of  the  title  of  Doctor  of 
Me  iieine  for  a  considerable  time,  not  only  in  the 
United  States,  but  all  over  Europe,  until  the 
legislature  of  Pennsylvania  put  a  stop  to  this 
nefarious  business.  In  Germany,  an  article  by 
the  historian  Theodor  Mommsen  (in  Preussisch 
Jahrbwcher  xxxvu.  1.)  severely  censured  several 
of  the  universities  of  the  minor  states  for  pro- 
moting absent  candidates  who  had  merely  sent 
in  a  written  dissertation,  and  prostituting  the 
honor  of  German  science  for  mercenary  purposes. 
The  article  produced  a  profound  impression,  and, 
early  in  187(1.  induced  all  the  incriminated  uni- 
versities to  abolish  the  /irimwlioitrx  in  n//sr„',,i. 
Many  writers,  in  modern  times,  have  main- 
tained.that  'degrees  have  always  been, and  must 
continue  to  be,  utterly  worthless."  Among  those 
who  severely  censured  the  way  in  which  degrees 
formerly  were  and.  in  general,  still  are  conferred, 
was  Dr.  Adam  Smith,  in  his  Wealth  of  Na- 
tions. The  same  writer  more  fully  develops  his 
views  in  a  letter  on  Dr.  Cullen,  which  is  given  in 
Dr.  McCulloch's  edition  of  that  work.  He  con- 
tends that  the  value  of  a  degree  must  always  de- 
pend on  the  disinterested  character  of  the  parties 


who  confer  it,  and  that,  therefore,  the  system 
hitherto  pursued  in  universities  of  having  aca- 
demical distinctions  awarded  by  the  parties  en- 


■  llv 


A  ch 


test  of  literary  or  scienunc 
this  system  was  inaugurated  on  the  establish- 
ment of  the  London  I  niversity  (q.  v.).  in  which 
the  right  of  conferring  degrees  is  vested  in  aboard 
from  which  the  professors  are  excluded.  In  <Jer- 
many,  a  different  reform  has  been  proposed  by 

Prof.  \l msen   of   Berlin,  who,  alter  severely 

denouncing  the  abuses  existing  in  s of  the 


[Pr 


to 


clusively  the  degrees  conferred  by  universities 
belonging  to  the  union,  or  to  abolish  entirely  the 
institution  of  academic  degrees.  In  France,  the 
right  of  conferring  degrees  was  one  of  the  must 
hotly  contested  points  of  the  new  law  on  superior 
education,  adopted  by  the  national  assembly  in 
187:">.  This  law  abolishes  the  monopoly  of  the 
state  faculties  in  conferring  degrees,  and  gives  the 
right  possessed  by  state  faculties  also  to  special 
juries'  consisting  of  professors  partly  of  the  state 
faculties,  and  partly  of  the  free  families  author- 
ized by  the  new  law. 

DELAWARE,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  having  an  area 
of  2,120  sq.  m..  and  a  population,  in  1870,  of 
125,015,   of    whom    1.02,221    were   whites,   and 

Educational  History.— The  original  constitu- 
tion of  the  state  contained  a  general  provision 
forthe encouragement  of  education:  but,  through 
want  of  specific  enactments  on  the  part  of  the 
legislature,  it  was  for  a  long  time  of  little  prac- 
tical value.  In  L813,  the  secretary  of  state, 
VVillard  Hall,  suggested  to  the  legislature  a  sys- 
tem of  popular  education;  but  no  immediate 
action  was  taken.  In  1829,  a  bill  providing  for 
the  establishment  of  free  schools  was  passed, 
embodying  substantially  the  views  suggested  by 
the  secretary  of  state,  who  has  always  been  re- 
garded as  the  founder  of  the  present  system. 
The  law  then  enacted  has  remained,  in  all  essen- 
tial respects,  the  school  law  of  the  state  to  the 
present  day.  slight    modifications   only   having 

1 n  made  from  time  to  time.    The  constitution 

of  the  state, framed  in  183]  .declares  it  to  be  the 
duty  of  the  legislature  to  provide  for  ■■  establish- 
ing schools,  and  promoting  arts  and  sciences." 
In  1837,  the  school  fund  of  the  state,  established 
in  L796,  was  increased  by  the  addition  of  the 
income  of  the  United  States  surplus  revenue 
fund.  Up  to  1852,  the  counties  were  divided 
into  school-districts,  to  each  of  which  full  power 
was  granted  to  establish  a  school  or  nol .  accord- 
ing to  its  pleasure.  In  1852,  the  school  law 
was  revised  by  the  legislature,  but  was  not 
materially  changed.  Educational  interests  were 
left  to   the   voters  in  each   school-district,  their 


action  consisting  in  holding  an  annual  meeting, 
at  which  any  number  of  voters  constituted  a 
quorum.  Their  business  was  to  elect  a  school 
committee,  consisting  of  a  clerk  and  two  com- 
missioners, and  to  decide,  by  a  majority  vote, 
\\  hat  sum  should  lie  raised  for  a  school-house,  or 
a  free  school.  The  same  year. an  act  was  passed 
by  the  legislature  for  the  benefit  of  the  public 
schools  in  Wilmington,  which,  by  this  act,  be- 
came permanently  separated  from  the  public 
school  system  of  the  state.     In  L855,  the  prop- 

1  861 .  a  free-school  act  was  passed,  w  Inch  author- 
ized the  levy  of  a  yearly  tax  in  each  district  of 
the  state.  By  an  act  passed  .Mmvh  '-'.">..  1*7."), 
the  school  system  was  remodeled,  and,  in  its  gen- 
ua I  features,  assimilated  to  that  existing  in 
most  of  the  other  states.  The  first  state  super- 
intendent  appointed  was  James  II.  Groves,  in 

S  ia  '  System.  The  state  board  of  education 
con  i-i-  oi  the  secretary  of  Btate,  the  auditor,  the 
president  of  Delaware  College,  and  the  state 
superintendent  of  five  schools.  It  holds  an  an- 
nual meeting  at  which  the  president  of  Delaware 
College  acts  as  chairman,  and  the  auditor,  as 

secretary.     It   designates  what   text-1 ks  shall 

be  used    in    the    BC Is,  settles  all   controversies 

between  the  -mte  sii,,,.,  mien, lent  and  the  school 


commissioners  on  i ne  nana,  ami  subordinate 

officers  on  the  other,  and  issues  uniform  blanks 
for  the  use  of  teachers.  The  state  supi  rintendent 
is  appointed  annually  by  the  governor.  He 
visits  each  school  once  n  year,  examines  and 
licenses  teachers,  keeps  a  full  and  accurate 
record  of  the  schools,  their  condition,  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  attending  them,  the  qualifications 
of  the  teachers,  methods  of  instruction,  discipline, 
and  all  other  matters  necessary  to  the  making  of 
an  annual  report  to  the  governor.  County 
superintendents,  one  for  each  county,  are  ap- 
pointed annually  by  the  governor,  their  duties 
being,  to  correspond  with  school  committees  and 
teachers,  "to  aid  them  with  advice,  to  supply 
proper  forms,  to  collect  information,  and  to  re- 
port to  the  general  assembly  the  state  of  the 
districts,  and  such  matters  as  they  shall  deem 
proper."  Three  school  committeemen  are  elected 
in  each  of  the  districts,  one  each  year,  the  term 
of  office  being  three  years.  Their  duties  are, 
to  assess  and  levy  the  annual  school  tax,  to 
select  the  sites  for  school  buildings,  to  build 
school-houses,  to  supply  furniture  and  fuel,  to 
employ  teachers,  and  to  see  that  the  schools  are 
kepi  open  as  long  as  the  funds  will  permit.  The 
school  committee  levies  in  each  district  of  New- 
castle Co.  $100  for  the  support  of  the  schools; 
of  Kent  Co.  S.Ml:  and  of  Sussex  Co.  830,  the 
maximum  additional  amount  in  each  being,  ac- 
cording to  the  law  of  1861,34:00  for  general  school 
purposes,  and  $500  for  the  building  and  repair 

of  school-houses.  Thescl Is  arc  open  to  all  white 

children  over  five  years  of  age.  In  L875,  provi- 
sion was  made  for  the  education  of  colored  chil- 
dren, by  the  taxation  of  colored  citizens,  and  the 


DELAWARE 


21  1 


establishment  of  separate  schools,  from  the  pro- 
ceeds of  such  taxation,  by  the  Delaware  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Education  of  Colored  People.  The 
permanent  school  fund,  which  consists  of  the 
share  of  the  state  in  the  surplus  revenue  distrib- 
uted by  the  general  government  an g  the  sev- 
eral states,  the  proceeds  arising  from  marriage 
and  tavern  licenses,  and  from  various  other 
sources,  has  yielded  for  several  years  an  annual 
income  of  about  $30,000. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
schools  report i'' 1  by  the  superintendent  in  1875, 
was  369.    The  school  revenue  was  as  follows: 


Total $192,735.05 

The  expenditure  per  capita  of  average  attend- 
ance was  $9.64.     The  school  statistics  show  the 

following : 


Nimilirr, 


Avrr.mi-  m, mm 
Normal  Int 
to  teachers  in  the  Wilmington  Normal  School 
ami  at  Delaware  College,  Newark,  in  which  a, 
course  has  been  organized  for  the  purpose.  1  h  ■ 
graduates  of  the  former  find  employment  prin- 
cipally in  the  schools  of  tin- city.  It  employs 
3  teachers,  and  holds  its  sessions  in  the  evening, 
and  on  Saturdays.  The  course  provided  for  the 
training  of  teachers  in  Delaware  College  by  act 
of  the  legislature,  in  L873,isopen,  free  of  charge, 
to  Id  students  from  each  county,  who  shall  bind 
themselves  to  teach,  after  graduation,  not  less 
than  one  year  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state. 
The  time  required  for  the  completion  of  this 
course  is.'!  years.  The  branches  pursued  are  those 
included  in  the  literary  course  of  the  college,  ex- 
cept Latin  and  nio.lern  languages,  with  special 
instruction  in  methods  of  teaching.  Candidates 
for  admission  to  this  course  are  appointed  by  the 
me .nli  is  of  the  legislature.  They  must  be  not 
less  than  16  years  of  age,  of  good  moral  character. 
and  of  average  proficiency  in  Knglish  studies. 
Diplomas  are  granted  at  the  end  of  the  .'!  years' 
course;  while,  for  one  year  or  more,  but  less 
than  3  years,  certificates  are  given  indicative  of 
the  proficiency  acquired.  The  Delaware  State 
Normal  University,  at  Wilmington,  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1867,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  an 
advanced  course  to  teachers.  It  was  authorized 
to  confer  all  degrees  custi  unary  with  universities. 
and  to  grant  diplomas.    The  special  degree  of 

Bachelor  of    Scl 1   Teaching  was  conferrable 

upon  such  students  in  the  normal  department  as, 
upon  examination,  were  found  qualified,  and 
the  degree  of  Master  of  School  Teaching  upon 
such  as  had  been  actually  engaged  in  teaching 
for  ■'!  years  after  graduation.  In  IS7I.  however. 
the  charter  of  the  university  was  repealed,  but 
the  students  held  a  meeting  shortly  after  al 
which  it  was  resolved  to  continue  the  institution 
without  state  aid.  It  is  divided  into  4  depart- 
ments: a  primary  school,  a  select  school,  a  me- 
chanical and  commercial  school,  and  a  high  and 


19,881 

430 

...$28.28 

. — ,-pccial  training  isgix 


normal    school. —  Truchrrs    fnstilutrs    li.m    1  em 

almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  city  of  Wil- 
mington, Tin'  new  law,  however,  requires  the 
state  superintendent  to  hold  one  annually  in  each 
county  for  three  .lays,  all  the  teachers  of  the 
county  being  required  to  attend.  'I  he  Delaware 

State    I".  :i .  1 1 .  i  ~      \ ii.Ji    was    organized   in 

Wi gton,in  December,  L875. 

Sfe  ■<  Instrurli.,,1 — liraclcdse] 1.-.  e\i-i 

in  neaih  all  of  the  large  towns  oi  the  state  ;  and, 
in  the  city  of  Wilmington  all  of  the  schools  are 
of  this  character.  The  course  of  study  in  the 
latter  requires  :!  years.  The  branches  taught  are 
those  usuallj  pursued  in  high  schools,  Latin  and 
German  having  bee,,  added  to  the  studies  of  the 


Hull. 


Dover.  Smyri 
and  Milton, 
dual,  and   cl 


education    is   the    I  telaware    ( 'oil,  ge     q.  v.     al 

Newark.  The  We,-le\all  female  College,  at 
Wilmington,  was  organized  in  1 ,-.'!!».  It  has  two 
regular  courses  of  study,  of  4  years  each,  a  pre- 
paratory ami  a  collegiate,  besides  p.mial  i  nurses 
for  special  purposes.  It  has  a  library  of  3,600 
volumes,  and.  in  1873,  reported  8  professors  and 

I  ...  ,../  S    i  ,  vfk  Tnstrx     ■  I 

agricultural  department  oi  Delaware  College 
furnish  s  insti  in  tion  to  such  students  as  intend 
to  devote  them,  elves  to  the  business  of  agricult- 
ure, while  they,  at  the  same,  time  at  tee.  I  to  thi 
studies  that  constitute  a  liberal  education.  The 
grant  of  90,000  teres,  made  by  Congress  to  the 

state  for  the  founding  oi  anagri  tilt legi 

has  been  given  to  this  institution  It  provii  i  a  a 
scientific  and  an  agricultural  course,  admission 

to  which    is  granted    to  students   of  g 1    moral 

character  who  are  14  years  of  age.  and  who  suc- 
cessfully pass  an  examination  in  geography. arith- 
metic, the  elements  of  algebra.  Knglish  grammar, 
In  -inn  ol  ihel  iiiie.l  States,  and  "such  branches 
as  form  the  basis  of  a  complete  Knglish  educa- 
tion.'' The  time  required  for  the  completion  of 
each  course  is3  years,  the  instruction  in  the  agri- 
cultural department  being  supplemented  by 
practical  exercise  in  fanning,  gardening,  and  the 
work  of  the  nursery.  Thedegree  of  Bachelor  oi 
Philosophy  is  conferred  by  the  scientific  depart 
incut;  that  of  <  Iraduate  in  Agricultun  1 3  I ! 
agricultural  department.  In  1872,  the  admission 
of  females  to  the  college  classes  was  authorized, 
the  conditions  of  admission  being  the  same  as  in 
the  case  of  males.  The  result  is  .said  to  have 
been  very  satisfactory.  No  special  provision  is 
made  by  the  state  for  the  instruction  of  the  deal 
and  dumb,  the  blind  or  the  imbecile:  each  county 
caring  for  its  own.  or  the  state  bearing  the  ex- 
pense of  their  care  in  the  institution 
provided  for  the  purpose  by  the  neighboring- 
state.  Pennsylvania. 


212 


DELAWARE  < '< H.Ll'.l  !E 


DELAWARE  COLLEGE,  at  Newark, 
Del.,  was  chartered  in  1867  and  opened  in 
1870.  It  includes  the  slate  agricultural  college, 
established  by  the  congressional  land  grant.  The 
value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus  is 
.s.Ml.OOO;  tl„.  amount  of  it-  productive  funds, 
$83,000;  the  number  of  volumes  in  its  libraries, 
6,000.  The  farm  of  the  professor  of  agriculture, 
embracing  about  70  acres  of  well-improved  land 
adjoining  Newark,  is  used  as  an  experimental 
farm.  Agricultural  students  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  defraying  a  part  of  their  expenses  by 
labor.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  institution  is 
si'l  fm-  the  first  term  of  the  year,  $18  for  the 
second,  and  S2S  for  the  third.  Kadi  countj  in 
the  state  is  entitled,  by  a  law  passed  in  1869,  to 
have  ten  students  educated  at  the  college  free  of 
charge  for  tuition.  The  membersof  the  legisla- 
ture arc  vested  with  authority  to  make  these 
appointments,  each  member  having  the  right  to 
make  one  nomination. 

In  1872,  the  trustees  authorized  the  admission 
of  females  to  the  college  classes  upon  the  same 
conditions  as  male  students.  There  are  four 
courses:  thvr/i/sxiad,at  four  years,  leading  to  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts;  the  scientific,  includ- 
ing agriculture,  of  three  years,  leading  to  ihe  de- 
gree of  Bachelor  of    Philosophy;    the   literary, 

of  three  years,  leading  to  the  degr >f  Bachelor 

of  Literature;  and  the  normal,  of  three  years. 
Those  not  desiring  to  lake  any  one  of  the  regular 
courses  may  pursue  selected  studies.  The  lit- 
erary course  is  similar  to  the  classical,  hut  its 

the   higher   mathematics,  and   stih>titutes  0 if 

the  modern  languages  for  Greek.  Ii  i-  specially 
designed  for  female  students  but  may  be  pursued 
by  all  such  as  prefer  it  to  any  one  of  the  other 
courses.  The  course  of  study  in  the  normal  de- 
partment embraces  all  those  branches  of  learn- 
ing which  arc  included  in  the  literary  course, 
with  the  exception  of  Latin  and  the  modern 
languages,  for  which  is  substituted  instruction  in 
the  higher  essentials  of  a  thorough  English  educa- 
tion, and  in  the  best  and  most  approved  methods 
of  teaching.  Students  who  obligate  themselves  to 
teach  in  the  free  schools  of  the  slate  for  not  less 
than  one  year  receive  tuition  free.  In  1874  -•>. 
tlh  i  -...  !;■  -  instructors  and  .VI  .-indent.-,  in  Dela- 
ware College.  At  the  commencement  in  1875,  L2 
■degrees  were  conferred  ;  namely,  A.  B.,  3  ;  Ph. 
B.,  4;  B.  L„  5.  William  H.  Purnell,  LL.  J).,  is 
(1ST Hi  the  president, 

DELPHIN  CLASSICS,  an  edition  of  the 
Latin  classics  prepared  for  the  use  of  the  dauphin 
(in  iK'iiii  Delphini)  by  order  of  Louis  XIV., 
under  the  editorship  of  Bossuet  and  Huet,  tu- 
tors to  the  dauphin.  The  compilers,  39  in  num- 
ber, were  selected  by  Huet  from  the  best  scholars 
of  the  time.  The  plan  of  the  work  comprises 
a  continuous  gloss  in  the  margin,  and  copious 
foot-notes,  explaining  the  text.  The  different 
works  are  edited  with  very  unequal  merit ;  and, 
as  a  whole,  the  series  has  ceased  to  have  any 
special  value  in  comparison  with  more  recent 
and  more  accurate  editions.  —  See  Hallam, 
Literature  of  Europe,  vol.  n, 


DENMARK 

DENISON  UNIVERSITY,  at  Granville, 

Ohio,  under  the  control  of  the  Baptists,  was 
founded  in  1  s.'d.  The  buildings,  three  in  num- 
ber, are  situated  on  a  hill,  north  of  the  town. less 
than  liOII  yards  from  the  public  square,  the  site 
containing  '-'4  acres,  nearly  half  of  which  is  oc- 
cupied by  a  grove  of  old  fores!  trees.  Theuni 
versityand  society  libraries  contain  about  1  1,000 

volumes.     The  cabinet  containsag I  collection 

of  shells,  and  of  specimens  in  geology, mineral- 
ogy, zoology,  and  archaeology.  The  value  of  its 
grounds,  buildings, andapparatus is $90,000;  the 
amount  of  its  productive  funds.  $190,000.     The 


gree  of  Bacheli 

of  three  years, 
of  Science.  'I' 
$13  for  the  fa 
winter  and  spr 
partment,  it  is 
for  the  ministr 
of  the  Ohio  Bi 


dsT 


gree  of  Bachelor 
in  the  college  is 

,50  i  ai  h  For  the 
preparatory  de- 


supplies  them  with  from  S--0  to  SI. Ml  per  annum 
besides  free  tuition.  In  L875  6,  there  were  9  in- 
structors, and  71  collegiate  and  80  preparatory 
students.  The  number  graduating  in  bs7.~> 
was!).  The  Lev.  E.  Benjamin  Andrews.  A.M., 
is  (1S76)  the  president, 

DENMARK,  a  kingdom  of  Europe,  has  an 
area  of  I  f,753  sq.  m.,  and, in  L874,hada  popula- 
tion of  1,874,000.  Almost  the  entire  population 
(over  99  per  cent)  belongs  to  the  established 
Lutheran  Church ;  and  all  public  religious  in- 
struction is,  accordingly,  based  on  the  original 
Augsburg  confession.—  Pew  countries  have  un- 
dergone so  many  vicissitudes  of  fortune  as  Ben- 
mark.  During  the  middle  ages,  it  was  one  of  the 
most  powerful  empires  of  northern  Europe. 
•Jutland  and  the  Danish  isles  became  the  early 
home  of  a  warlike  (iothie  tribe,  the  piratical 
Danes  or  Normans.  Ring  Gonn  the  Old  sub- 
jected all  the  chieftains  to  his  sovereignty  in  the 
beginningof  the  loth  century.  Canute  the  I  Ireat, 
after  1024,  extended  the  Danish  rule  over  Nor- 
way, southern  Sweden,  and,  for  a  short  period, 
even  over  England.  Under  the  two  Walde- 
mars.  in  the  I'Jihaiid  L3th century,  Mecklenburg, 
Holstein,  Pomera ma. and  the  present  Baltic  prov- 
inces of  Russia  were  added  to  the  empire. 
During  the  civil  wars  following  their  reigns, 
many  of  these  conquests  were  lost.  The  so-called 
Calmar  Union  of  1397,by  which  Queen  Margaret 
united  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway,  was  of 
shorl  duration.  Under  Christian  III.,  in  1537, 
the  Reformation  was  introduced.  In  llJIiO,  south- 
ern Sweden,  and  in  1814  all  Norway  was  ceded 
to  Sweden;  and  by  the  unfortunate  war  of 
1804,  against  Austria  and  Prussia,  after  which 
the  duchies  of  Schleswig,  Holstein,  and  Lauen- 
burg  were  re-united  with  Germany,  the  area  of 
the  kingdom  was  reduced  to  its  above-stated  ex- 
tent (exclusive  of  Iceland,  the  Faroe  isles,  and 
the  colonies).  Owing  to  the  new  liberal  con- 
stitution of  1849  (revised  in  L865),  the  industry, 


DENMAEK  '213 

commerce,  and  finances,  as  well  as  the  literary    trj  in  every  neigborhood  capable  of  supporting  a 
.•mil  educational  institutions  of  the  country  are    school,  and  of  two  scl Is  in  all  the  larger  villages; 

at  pivs.-nt  m  a  ll"iu -i-liiir.'  oHidit  mm  of  an  i-l.-ni.-ntarv  laindirr  s.Iiu.,1.  ami'.  II  I.  a.-iTilr. 


With  ila- 1 
convent   a 


establishe  I  i 
(1-640),  and 
were  greatly 
after  1537, 

Schools,  I"'!1 

those  of  the 
tothechildri 

ing  schools" 


:../,. 


hagen,  which  received  its  fundamental  statute 
early  as  1788. 


I  a  sir  mi  a, a.  —  The  ge 
iriman  scl Is  is  in 


tnni  in  l.aim.  w.-iv  support.-.!  and  .  -  - 1  >  t  i  . 
the  municipal  authorities.  In  the  rural  d 
the  only    instruction    imparted    t"    you 

sisted  in  teaching  the  catechism,  in   weekly  lea  the  ministry  o1   instructions 

either  by    pupils  of    the    highest    class  of   the  intends  the  schools  in  his  dioi 

Dearest  Latin  school,  mi  Saturday*,  tor  a   remu-  all    teachers   in    the    rural   i 

nerati )i   free  lodging  and  board,  or   by  the  school  board  of  the  Amt  (a  s 

sextons,  or  by  students  of  'I logy.     The  I8th  cese)  apj ts  the  teachers 

century  is  marked  by  a  quick   succession  oi   im-  ministrj   of   instruct and 

portant  steps  toward  the  perfection lextensio osists  ol   two  departments 


al   super- 
:  hands  of 


hschi 


Bxingthe  -aim  oi  the  I  ich 
and  reading  obligatory,  writi 
■  ■  ] > t i i > 1 1 . 1 1  st inlics.  and  i- ■•  1 1 1 i i~i i 
an  ind  school,  from  their  5th 
everyday  for  5  or  6  hours,  an 
only  half  a  day.  The  royal  i  sample  was 
by  many  noblemen  and  landed  propife 
.-stalni-di.-d  -iniilar  >.-li...,|<  .,,,  iheirestat 
benefit  of  the  chil  Iren  oi  their  tenai 
Bupen  tsion  ol  all  these  schools  was  as 
/■the  clergy;  but  a  general  system  of  p 
stnii-ti.ui  was  m.t  miroduced  until  L739 
cree  of  Christian   VI.  ilT::u — L746),  . 

the  establishment  of  i imon  or  parisl 

cv.-rv  l.ir-j- -i-  villas.-,  where  religion, 


hisi 


- 


writing,  and  arithme 
si-ho.il-inast.  is  . 
The  schools  wei 
fund,  collections 
.'in  I  jitin  schools 
ished,  and  their 
mon-school  fun< 

tills    Dew    svst.-l 

opposition  of 
maintaine  I  I  hei 
matters.  A  oev. 
under  Frede 
29.,  L81  t.  the  principal 
in  force.  It  ordained 
mentary  schools,  each  o 


to 


v  tin-  i-li'iuvuiaii. 
irted  by  a  revenue 
■li.nil  tax.     About 


:k   V 


■t  school 
T 1  nl-  au- 
country. 


from  one  to  four  in  the  afternoon  ; 
-.  from  nine  to  twelve  in  the  morn- 
one  to  i in  the  afternoon  ;  but 


214  DEN 

few  rules  are  laid  down  for  the  management  of 
schools,  and  oidy  very  few  schools  have  printed 
rules.  For  disrespect  and  disobedience,  teach- 
ers may  resort  to  corporal  punishment,  while 
laziness  and  truancy  must  be  reported  to  the 
rector  or  principal  of  the  school,  who  inflicts  a 
proper  punishment  in  such  cases.  School  .lo- 
ries have  been  introduced  in  all  the  classes  ex- 
cept the  highest.  For  every  recitation  the 
scholar  receives  a  mark  expressed  by  a  number, 
(i  being  the  highest,  anil  (I  the  lowest.  At  the 
end  of  every  month,  the  marks  are  added  up, 
and  the  standing  for  each  ensuing  month  is  thus 
determined.      In   the   highest   class,   the   daily 

marks  are  dis ltinueii.  and  a  monthly  report  is 

given  instead.  While  the  length  of  the  school 
term    is   generally   let    to    the    separate   school 

boards,  the  royal  deer if  Jan.  27.,  1860,  fixed 

'J40  days  in  the  year  as  the  minimum  for  every 
school.  A  general  model  course  of  studies  for 
the  kingdom  docs  not  exist.  Every  teacher  pre- 
pares his  own  course  of  studies,  which  must  In- 
approved  by  the  school  board.  An  equal  free- 
dom prevails  in  regard  to  the  choice  of  text- 
books, and  in  the  methods  of  teaching  as  I  En 
1819,  the  monitorial  or  Lancasterian  system  was 
introduced  into  the  military  school  in  Copen- 
hagen, by  a  young  officer  who  had  observed  it  in 
Prance.  The  king  took  great  interest  in  the  ex- 
periment, and  in  L822  the  system  was  recom- 
mended for  introduction  into  all  elementary 
schools.  It  was,  however,  severely  attacked  by 
lyiesterweg  (see  Diestkkwkg),  and  gradually  fell 
into  disuse,  being  greatly  modified  in  those 
schools  in  which  it  still  exists.  Almost  everj 
town   has,   besides    the   elementary   schools,  at 

lea  i higher  primary  school,  orburgher  real 

school,  in  which  a  small  fee  is  charged.  The 
course  of  instruction  in  these  schools  embraces 
the  following  subjects:  Danish  language,  n  ligion, 
aril  huietie,  penmanship.  I.  ,  il.-k  ■  . 1 1 1 - .  the  i  inli- 
mciits  of    algebra,   geometry    natural    history, 


n. in 


and  g itrical  drawing,  singing,  and 

tics.     The  number 

country,  in  18G7,  wa 

teachers  2,929,  female  teachers  59,  the  number  of 


children  of  school  agt 
children  attending  public  si 
the  number  of  children  attoii 
13,994,  making  the  total  qui 
der  instruction  208,1  92.  Thi 
1 1 .'!  primary  schools,  with  4: 
mall-  teachers,  and  2.'i..'i."i'J 
6,161  attended  the  burghei 
salaries  oi  the  teachers  m  I 
siderably  from  fchos  ■  p  rid  i 
both  in  city  and  1 1  luntrj . 
favorably  will i  the  salaries  pj 
Europe.  In  the  country,  tin 
sists  of  a  fixed  salary,  paid  partly  in  money  and 
partly  in  grain,  which  is  changed  into  money  ac- 
cording to  the  average  price  of  grain  for  the  past 
I'll  years,  which  price  is  determined  annually. 
!  eaeheis  also  receive,  for  their  services  as  sex  Ions, 


51,  the  number 
lools   194,198,  and 

ling  private  schools 
bcr  of  children  un- 
citieshad.in  1867, 
2  male  and  54  fe- 
icholars,  of  whom 
real  schools.      The 


in  otlier  parts  ot 
imuneration  con- 


the  sum  of  three  marks  (1  rix-dollar  @  6  marks 
=  $0.55.3),  payable  by  every  child:  and  there  is 
an  increase  of  salary,  according  to  age,  of  from 
twentj  fiveto  fifty  rix-dollars.  Every  teacher  has 
a  house  free,  which  must  be  kept  in  repair  by 
the  parish,  and  a  certain  amount  of  school  land, 
and  lie  receives  fuel,  and  such  provisions  as  eggs, 
milk,  etc.  Every  ten  years,  the  ministry  deter- 
mines for  each  position  the  money  value  of  all 
receipts,  based  on  the  average  prices  for  the  pre- 
ceding ten  years.  In  1867,  the  total  amount 
thus  determined  was  1,370,914  rix-dollars,  which, 
for  2,5C6  teachers,  gave  an  average  salary  of 
534  rix-dollars.  According  to  the  law  of  1850, 
one  half  of  the  teachers  in  every  city  receive,  be- 
sides free  lodging,  not  less  than  300  rix-dollars 
and  50  tons  of  barky,  while  the  other  half  re- 
ceive not  less  than  150  rix-dollars  and  50  tons 
of  barley,  so  that  no  teacher  receives  less  than 
.:iio  rix-dollars.  taking  everything  into  account. 
The  average  salary  of  the  teachers  iu  the 
cities,  in  1807,  was  690  rix-dollars.  Teachers 
throughout  the  kingdom  are  exempt  from  mili- 
tary duty.  Denmark  has  five  seminaries  for 
teachers, —  in  Joenstrup,  with  51  pupils;  in 
Skaarup.  with  75  pupils;  in  Lyngbye,  with  31 
pupils;  in  Banum,  with  31  pupils;  and  in  Jel- 
ling, with  45  pupils  :  making  233  pupils.  Every 
seminary  has  three  classes,  the  course  of  each 
class  comprising  one  year.  No  pupil  is  admitted 
to  the  lowest  class  under  IT  years  of  age.  The 
course  of  studies  is  as  follows  for  all  three  classes: 
religion:  reading  and  the  Danish  language  and 
literature :  arithmetic  and  other  branches  of 
mathematics:  penmanship;  history  and  geog- 
raphy; natural  history:  lessons  on  education 
and  instruction:  music:  gymnastics;  drawing; 
catechisation.  for  some  years  past,  there  have 
been  established,  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. Peasants'  High  Schools,  which  are  attended 
by  young  farmers  who  come  together  at  their 
own  expense  during  the  winter  months.  In 
these  schools,  lceturo  are  delivered  on  the  history 
and  institutions  ot  the  kingdom,  and  the  sciences 
relating  to  agriculture.  The  plan  of  instruction 
depends  chiefly  on  the  wishes  of  the  pupils  and 
the  capacity  of  the  teachers,  who  are  generally 
graduates  of  the  universitv.  Of  these  schools, 
there  were,  in  1874,  49,  with  2,132  male  and 
1,003  female  pupils.—  In  Copenhagen,  the  pri- 
mary sel Is  have  three  class  s,the  two  sexes  are 

,:.-•!  e.  .  j  .-  ] ..oat.  -1\ .  and  ili.-  i -our.se  of  studies  is 
a  little  more  extended  than  that  in  other  cities. 
According  to  the  law  of  1844,  modified  by  that 
of  I  S57.  the  schools  are  governed  by  a  board  of 
school  directors. composed  of  the  chief  magistrate 
of  the  -ity.  the  burgomaster  who  has  charge  of 
school  affairs,  and  a  clergyman  of  the  city  ap- 
pointed by  the  minister  of  instruction.  The  im- 
mediate supervision  is  in  the  hands  of  a  super- 
intendent, who  has  a  seat  but  not  a  vote  in  the 
board  of  directors.  Every  ward  of  the  city  and 
suburbs  has,  furthermore,  its  own  school  com- 
mittee of  three  members.  The  schools  are  partly 
free  and  partly  pay  schools.  They  are  of  two 
kinds. —those  consisting  of  day  classes  in  which 


the  school  time  is  six  hours  per  day,  and  half-day 
classes  whirl)  are  taught  only  four  hours  per  daj 
On  May  1.,  1874,  the  aggregate  number  of  pupils 


the  numbs 

■ofehildi 

Of  the  -i.r 

.'s  childri 

4,286  receit 

vd  privat 

of  is;::.  ti 

DENOMINATIONAL  schools    215 

160  scholars.     The  school   ;it    Herlufsholm  was 
founded  in  L565,  and,  in  L8T0,  had  95  scholars. 
Superior    Instruction.— The    I  niversity    of 


1537,  Latin  schools,  of  from  three  to  four  classes, 
were  founded  in  all  the  citiesof  Denmark.  Owing 
u.  the  different  wars  and  from  other  causes,  the 
condition  of  these  schools  was  not  very  favorable, 
until. in  17.'!!*,  Christian  VI.  considerably  dimin- 
ished their  number,  and  thus  obtained  the les- 

sary  means  t < >  improve  the  financial  standing  of 
those  remaining.  At  the  same  time,  the  course 
of  instruction  was  extended,  and  the  Danish  lan- 
guage introduced  as  a  study,  an  1  in  some  cases 
as  the  vehicle  of  instruction,  while,  up  to  thai 
time,  instruction  had  been  given  in  the  Latin 
language  only.  Under  Christian  VII.,  the 
course  of  sin. lies  was  more  definitely  regulated, 
and  instruction  in  the  Danish  language  was 
introduced  into  all  the  schools.  The  schools 
then  made  steady  improvement,  until,  in  1850, 
they  received  their  present  form.  The  institu- 
tions for  secondary  instruction  now  comprise 
gymnasia,  fashioned  after  the  German  model, 
some  of  which  also  have  real  classes  ;  burgher 
schools,  corresponding  to  the  German  real 
schools;  and  private  schools.    The  course  of  iu- 


-The  schools  for  special 
jws  :  A  royal  veterinary 
>1,  with   1(1  professors;  a 


are  are  eight  schools 

Denmark,  was  first 
ie  subject  to  Norway 


i  the  college;  and  it  als, 
v.— See  Schmid,  Enci/clo 
rd,  National   Education 


« 


struction  embraces  a  period  of  i 

pils  upon  entering  must  be  at  le 
age.  and  must  pass  a  satisfa 
tion  in  various  branches.  The 
in  the  gymnasia  comprises,  bes 
lion  of  the  studies  of  the  elci 
Latin  and  Greek,  one  or  mi 
natural  history,  and  nal 
he  course  of  study  in  the  burg 
prises  Danish,  French,  German, 
geography,  arithmetic,  geometry 
penmanship,  and  drawing.  The 
secondary  schools  at  present  is  26 
gj  mnasia,  5  burgher  schools,  and 
The  number  of  teachers,  in  187.' 
gymnasia,  6  in  the  burgher  schi 
the  private  schools,  making  a  tot 
number  of  pupils,  in  the  same  v 
the  gymnasia,  410  in  the  burgher  i 


padie,  vol.  x.; 

vol.  II. 

DENOMINATIONAL,     SCHOOLS    are 

schools  either  under  the  control  of  a  particular 


e  most  important  educational  controversies 
•  present  aev.  in  the  United  States  as  well 

al st   every  country  of   Europe.     The 

•school  system  has  been  developed  in  close 
ction  with  both  church  and  -tan- :  and.  in 
ie,  until  a  recent  period,  it  has  been  the 
d  rule  to  eive  to  th.-  nublic  school  a  de- 


dl 


was  249,151  rix-doUars.     Among  the  oldest  and 

wealthiest  secondary  schools  of  the  kingdom,  tire 
those  of  Soroe  and  Herlufsholm.  Theschoolat 
Sortie  was  founded  in  L580.  In  1749,  it  was 
changed  into  the  Knights'  Academy.  After- 
wards, a  classical  school  was  added';  and,  in 
1849,  the  academy  was  discontinued,  so  that  only 
the  classical  scl 1  remained  which,  in  1870,  harl 


dell. 


estants  in  Germany  and  in  other  countries  of 
the  European  continent,  generally  take  the 
same  view,  but  more  in  regard  to  the 


216 


DENOMINATIONAL  SCHOOLS 


pointt 
place. 


schools  than  to  secondary  schools  ami  univer- 
sities. Imong  the  Liberal  party,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  is  a  growing  demandfor  the  ex- 
clusion of  all  instruction  in  the  tenetsofapartic- ! 
ular  religion  from  the  state  schools,  and  for  the 
abolition  of  every  religions  distinction  in  the  ap- 
They  demand,  in  the 
.11,. I  schools  i in  Germany 
called  Confess  ■-  '  -  communal "  or  " na- 
tional"  schools  ;  but  they  differ  among  them- 
selves as  to  whether  religious  instruction  is  wholly 
to  be  excluded.  Some  desire  that  there  should  he 
instruction  in  the  general  principles  of  religion 
and  moralii  j  instea  1  of  instruction  in  a  denomi- 
national ■  1-  while  others  preferthe  total  exclu- 
sion of   religious  teaching.    (See  Diesterweg.) 

Rolfns  and  Pflster  [R  il-Encyclopadu  des  Er- 
:,,  hungs-  und  Unterru  hi  tees    is,  art.  Comn     >>  ■■- 

<,J,.,/r„  i  addnees.  tit _   "!  i.'  i-    '[ '     follow  ing 

arguments  in  behalf  of  deiioininat  'oii.il  .-eh.  o],. 
The  public  school  is  intended  not  merely  to  im- 
part instruction,  but  to  take  part  in  the  work  of 
education.  Its  educational  function  is  not  of  a 
preparatory  or  continuing  character,  bul  it  is  to 

aid  and  to  accompany    ; '  rhe 

latter  is  based  on  religion,  without  wl      ha     ood 
education  is  impossible.     A   school  which  doe. 
not  pr..vi  I  ■  fov   v  ■'i^iotis    instruction 
nun  subj  cts  'i  •  bild    to    influ  mo     <     ectly  iD 

conflict  with  the  education  received  al   h< 

••■  .ii    is,  more  than  any  other 
initiate  a    child  into  an  under- 

ract   ideas.     It  offers   i! s1 

■ial  for  exercises  in  reading  and 
the  development  of  the  intcl- 
5  the  emotional  faculties  of  the 
chil<l.  It  is  unquestionably  better  suited  than 
mere  exercises  in  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic, to  establish  a  bond  of  affection  between 
teacher  and  pupil.  In  the  eyes  of  the  im- 
mense majority  of  people,  instruction  in  their 
own  religion  is  the  most  important  ami  the  most 
desirable"  that  can  be  given  to  their  children ; 
and.  hence,  the  authority  of  a  teai  her  «  ho  is  Dot 
permitted  to  give  religious  instruction,  must  be 

lowered  in  their  estimation.     The  public  scl 1 

is  supported  by  those  who  have  the  righl  to 
demand  that  the  subject  to  which  they  attach 
the  greatest  importance  should  not  be  excluded 
from  the  course  of  instruction.  The  strong  con- 
victions of  a  teacher  manii  si  th  mst  Ives  chiefly 

in  his  religious  belief.      Scl 1-.  therefore  which 

compel  the  teaeher  to  ivpre.-s  everything  that  re- 
flects his  religious  convictions,  may  be  expected 
to  have  as  teachers  few  persons  of  firm  prin- 
ciples. Where  state  and  church  are  allied  in  the 
supervision  of  denominational  schools,  the  state 

govei nt  fully  knows  what   ideas  of  good  and 

bad,  of  virtue,  or  of  conscience  are  taught;  but 
w  here  teachers  are  appointed  w  ithout  regard  to 
their  religious  views,  and  where  the  church  is 
excluded  from  superintending  the  instruction,  it 

will  be  impossible  to  keep  out  of  the  scl Is  the 

most  destructive  views  of  religion  and  morality. 
which  teachers  without   religious  principles  will 


Religious  instr 
brarn  h  suil  11 
standing  of  ah 

interest  ing  mat 
writing,  and  to 
lectual  as  well 


find  it  easy  to  inculcate  indirectly  on  many  oc- 
casions. When  undenominational  schools  are 
the  rale  in  a  community,  very  many  parents  are 
dissatisfied,  and  private  institutions,  combining 
religious  with  other  instruction,  flourish.  But  it 
is  not  for  the  interest  of  the  state  that  a  large 
portion  of  the  population  should,  in  a  demon- 
strative manner. express  its  want  of  confidence  in 
state    institutions,  and    patronize  schools  which 

have  I n  organized  for  the  express  purpose  of 

neutralizing  the  effect  aimed  tit  by  the  legislation 
Of  the  state. 

The     Protestant     cvclopa'dias    of     education 
edited  by  K.  A.  Schmid   [Encyclopadie  des  Er- 

:,.i ■  te  s    is  etc  and    Padagogisches  Hand- 

huch,  art.  Co  fes  ions  und  Communalsckiir 
few),  take  the  same  view.  The  Padagogische 
HandbwJi  says:  " Religious  school  instruction 
is  specially  a  want  of  the  evangelical  child.  The 
church  of  the  Word  builds  itself   up  by  the  tin- 

fore  her  children  must  be  supplied  with  religious 
knowledge;  Bible  history,  the  most  beautiful 
sentences  of  the  Bible,  and  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel  must  be  inculcated  for 
beli         id   practice  in  life;  the  treasure  of  the 

ngs  of    ■  hi   church  must  1 pened  to  them  for 

edification;  and  they  must  learn  to  join  in  the 
chorus  of  the  congregation.  The  Catholic 
I  'hureh.witli  a  form  of  worship  which  captivates 
the  senses,  with  its  religions  ceremonies,  into 
which  even  small  children  are  introduced,  and 
win.  !i  are  constantly  practiced  by  its  members, 
produces  naturally  a  certain  religious  habit, 
which  interweaves  itself  with  the  ideas  and  emo- 


W: 


from  our  schooh  must  fatally  injure  the  relig- 
ious, moral,  and  ideal  life  of  our  Protestant 
congregations." 

The  advocates  of  denominational  schools  also 
point    to    the    fact    that    the   results  thus  far 

obtai 1   1^  the  undenominational  school  have 

failed  to  satisfy  even  the  most  zealous  among  its 
defenders.     One  of  the  leaders  of  the  Liberal 

party  of   Prussia,  Miquel.in  a  S] ch   made  in 

the  Prussian  house  of  deputies,  March  12..  L875, 
said  :  "  The  system  of  undenominational  schools 
in  the  Netherlands,  which  prohibits  teachers 
from  giving  religious  instruction,  bul  provides 
1  permission  be  given  to  the  pupils 
ruction  from  the  dergy- 
.tiiinatioiis  to  which  they 
under  the  liberal  ministry 
at  statesman  subsequently 
to  me  that  the  system. in- 
iciidK  relations  between 
ominatioiis.  had  widened 
ils  of  the  public  schools 
ions  instruction  at  all,  or 
being  instructed  by  clergymen,  became  more  at- 
tached to  denominational' differences,  than  would 
have  been  the  case,  if  the  religious  instruction 
had  been  given  by  the  school-teacher." 


hat  t 

line 

and  | 

t'l'l 

"    '" 

.clon 
if  Tl 

-'•  "' 

ke. 

•km  n 

liffei 

he    1 

•lit 

inn,, 
1.      1 

DENOMINATIONAL  SCHOOLS  217 

But  although  the  fruits  of  the  undenomina- 1  nominations  in  almosl  every  I   the  numer 

tional  school  system  in  Holland  and  elsewhere    ous  small  townships  which  do   not    i 'I    more 

have  failed  to  satistv  its  friends.  i.ul.Ii.-  .minion    tha school    would  have  made  the  estab- 


recognizes  the  principle  of  national  or  communal 

schools,  though  it  authorizes  the  churches  to 
establish  their  own  denominational  schools.  In 
Bavaria,  the  new  law  of  1873  gives  to  town  coun- 
cils the  power  to  consolidate  the  existing  denomi- 


•I Is 

il  thel 


The  leaders  in  the  great  e llet    ,,f  the  stale  ,j.,,\ 

ernmentsof  Kurope  with  the  ( 'atholic  ( 'hurrheon- 
cerning  the  public  school.all  favor,  more  or  less, 
the  undenominational  school.  In  England,  when- 
the  traditional  distrust  ol  Qxego\ m  in  mat- 
ters relating  to  the  school  i-  -till  very  apparent  in 
the  actual  condition  of  school  matters,  an  immense 
majority  of  all  the  schools  deriving  support  from 
the  government,  bear  a  strictly  denominational 
character.  The  advocates  of  secularism  in  state 
education  arc.  however.  1 u ■coming  more  tinmen  >us 
and  more  powerful;  and  even  those  who  fav< 
ik'Domiiii'itiiniiilisiii  are  beginning  to  endorse  the 

underlying  principle  of    mil  n iuat  i ,  >i  i  ■ .  I    state 

education.  Says  Dr.  Rigg,  in  Nation  ■'!'■'■  r- 
tion,"  It  must  be  adi  litted  that.it  the  state  is  to 
all  directly  in  the  matter  of  popular 
education,  its  own  function  and  responsibility 
should  certainly  be  limited  to  that  which  is  uu- 
sectarian.  and.  if  it  were  possible,  would  most 
conveniently  be  limited  to  that  which  is  secular. 
in  instruction  and  results.  Here  1  find  myself, 
in  principle,  pretty  well  agreed  with  the  secular- 
ists. It  is  where  they  would  forbid  the  co-ope- 
ration of  Christian  organizations  and  of  Chris- 
tian teaching,  otherwise  pre  ided.  with  the  func- 
tions and  work  of  the  state  in  popular  education, 
that,  in  common  with  most  others,  1  am  obliged 
to  differ." 

In  the  United  States,  the  undenominational 
character  of  the  public  school  has  always  been 
its  most  distinctive  feature.  The  teaching  of  the 
doctrinal  tenets  of  particular  denominations  is 
every-where  excluded  from  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion. In  many  states,  as  in  Arkansas.  Illinois. 
Kansas,  Kentucky.  Massachusetts,  Nevada.  Ne- 
braska. New  Jersey.  New  York,  Ohio,  South 
Carolina,  and  Wisconsin,  the  constitution  of  the 
state  expressly  forbids  sectarian  instruction  and 
control.  But  even  where  the  constitution  of  the 
state  has  not  sanctioned  the  principle  by  a  spe- 
cial provision,  the  practice  is  universally  the 
same.  The  growth  of  the  undenominational 
school  was  the  natural  fruit  of  the  voluntary 
system  which  pervades  all  American  institutions, 


family  and. 
onl\  religiou 
of  America! 


>1.  The 
portion 
i   in  the 


the  Roman  Catholic  (  hurch.  It  disapproves 
the  practice  of  havii  v.  the  Bible  without  m  te  or 
comment,  i  ad  h\  or  to  the  pupils :  it  complains 
of  the  reading  of  a  Protestant  version  of  the 
Bible  to  ( 'atholic  children  as  an  injii  -t  a  ■  but  it 
still  more  objects  to  any  system  of  instruction 
which  excludes  the  teaching  of  religion  from  its 
regular  course.  It  ha-  tli--refoi-o.  put  forth  the 
claim  for  a  division  of  the  school  funds  of  the 
Mat'-  aicee  all    role-ions  denominations  in  a  fair 


I'lie  fi 


lamental  principl which 

the  claim  is  based. that,  from  an  educational  point 
of  view,  it  is  desirable  to  include  religious  teach- 
ing in  the  regular  course  of  instruction,  has  been 
conceded  by  not  a  few  of  their  opponents:  and 
cases  have  not  been  wanting  in  which  Protestant 
congregations  have  asked  for  (he  support  of  their 

denominational  scl Is  out  of  the  public  funds. 

Some  eminent  statesmen  also,  like  Win.  II.  Sew- 
ard, were  disposed  to  recognize  the  Catholic  de- 
mand as  being. in  the  main. fair  and  to  concede  it. 
Public  opinion,  however,  in  the  progri  -  oi  thi 
controversy,  has  taken  it  very  deterim,ie,l  stand 
in  opposition  to  the  Catholic  view  and  in  favor 
of  the  undenominational  school.  The  majority 
of  the  American  people,  at  the  present  time,  un- 
doubtedly hold  that  n  ligion  is  a  matter  entirely 
voluntary  and    individual,   which   everj    •    ■    m 

should  regulat  ■  tin     t  i  the  dictafc     i  I   bis 

own  conscience,  and  in  which  the  public  author- 
ities should  in   no  way  intt  i  fer 
in  the  eyes  of  I  h    -    ti  ,  ai     on 
ciations  of  families  holding  ti 


churches, 

arv  asso- 


of  1 


religious  denominations  than  are  found  any- 
where else,  live  together  in  the  possession  of 
equal  rights.     The  co-existence   of  various  de- 


power  to  supply,  in  Sunday-schools,  all  the  re- 
ligious instruction  the\  desire  their  children  to 
receive  ;  that  the  state  has  no  right  to  tax  people 


218    DENOMINATIONAL  SCHOOLS 

for  ecclesiastical  objects  ;  and  that  the  exclusive 
aim  of  schools  supported  by  the  public  funds 
should  be  to  fit  their  pupils  for  the  discharge  of 
their  civil  obligations.  To  the  most  interesting 
episodes  of  this  conflict  belongs  the  religious  con- 
trowr.-v  in  the  eitv  of  New  York  from  1840  to 
IS4-J.  "During-"  the' ah-  -n.-e  oi  Kid...].  Hughes  in 
Europe,  the  Catholics  of  the  city  of  New  York, 
in  L839,  organized  an  opposition  to  the  public- 
school  system.  « >n  hi-,  return,  bishop  Hugh..-.,  in 
1840,  himself  took  the  lead,  and  drew  up  a  peti- 
tion to  the  common  council,  praying  that  seven 
parochial  schools  should  be  designated  as  ''en- 
titled to  participate  in  the  common-school  fund, 
upon  complying  with  the  requirements  of  the 
law. "  Bisdemand  being  rejected  by  the  common 
council,  the  matter  was  brought  befi  re  the  legis- 
lature: and  when  he  was  baffled  in  his  suit  there 
aLso,  he  recommended  the  Catholics  to  nominate 
independent  candidates  in  the  ensuing election-. 

thus  nmeneing  a  movement   which  developed 

into  considerable  strength.  The  controversy  was 
finally  settled  by  the  passage  of  the  act  of  April 
11.,  1842,  which  provided  that  "no  school  shall 
be  entitled  to.  or  receive,  any  portion  of  the  school 
moneys,  in  which  the  religious  doctrines  or  teiieis 
of  any  particular  Christian  or  other  religious 
sect  shall  be  taught,  inculcated,  or  practiced,  or 
in  which  any  book  or  books  containing  compo- 
sitions favorable  or  prejudicial  to  the  particular 
doctrines  or  tenets  of  any  sect  shall  be  used." 
The  Catholic  bishops  have  since  taken  the  same 
ground  as  bishop   Hughes;  and.  in   many  cases. 

have  adopted  very  decisive  ;i-mv,  aguin-t    th  ■ 

public  schools.  In  some  places,  as  in  Pough- 
keepsie.  N.  Y..  a  compromise  has  been  effected 
between  the  common  council  and  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  Catholic  congregations,  by  means 
of  which  the  parochial  schools  have  been  placed 
under  the  supervision  of  the  city  superintendent, 
and  thus  enabled  to  participate  in  the  school 
fund  of  the  city;  but  on  the  whole,  public  op- 
pinion  appears  to  pronounce  itself  in  favor  of 
fully  carrying  out  the  principle  of  the  undenomi- 
national school,  without  the  slightest  compromise. 
When  the  subject  was  agitated  in  Ohio,  in  the 
electoral  campaign  of  1874,  the  state  conventions 
of  both  Republicans  and  Democrats  formally  de- 
clared in  favor  of  the  principle  of  the  unsectariau 
school.  The  legislature  of  New  York,  in  April 
1876,  almost  unanimously  declared  itself  in  favor 
of  the  same  principle.  President  Crant.  in  his 
message  of  Dec.  7,  1875,  thought  it  proper  to 
bring  this  matter  to  the  attention  of  Congress, 
and  most  earnestly  recommended  that  a  constitu- 
tional amendment  should  be  submitted  to  the 
legislatures  of  the  several  states  for  ratification, 
making  it  the  duty  of  each  of  the  states  to 
establish  and  forever  maintain  free  schools  ade- 
(piate  to  afford  an  elementary  education  to  all 
the  children  within  its  limits,  irrespective  of  se\. 
color,  birthplace.  <>r  religion,  forbidding  the  teach- 
ing, in  said  schools,  of  religious,  atheistic, or  pagan 
tenets,  and  prohibiting  the  granting  of  any  school 
film  Is.  or  school  taxes,  or  any  part  thereof,  cither 
by  legislative,  municipal,  or  other  authority,  for 


DETROIT 

the  benefit 

or  in  aid,  directly  or  indirectly, of  any 

religious  si 

ct  or  denomination. — See  S.  S.  Ran- 

DALL,   Ilisll 

ry  of  Common  Schools  of  New  York 

N.Y.,187 

|;  Bouse,  History  of  the  School  System 

of  the   C 

qf    \        )■  rl     V  V..  L869);  Has- 

sard,  Life 

f  Archbishop  Hughes  (N.Y.,1866); 

Porri     B 

igixm   in  Public  Schools;   The  pro- 

h  i, it,, in  qf  sectarian  for  public  free 

cw     Haven,   1848):    Rigg,   National 

Education 

in  Us  Social  Conditions  and  Aspects 

(London.  1 

»,::  ;  Vino.   The  Bible  in  the  Public 

Schools    N 

V..  1870);    Bourne,  History  qf  the 

Public  Scl, 

So       i  iN.  Y.   1870);  Wimmer, 

D„  Eire) 

and  Schult  in  Jfordamerika  (Leips., 

II,  II, I 


DENTISTRY,  Schools  of.     See  .Medical 

Sc |.s. 

DEPARTMENTAL  SYSTEM,  or  Sub- 
ject System,  a  method  of  school  organization 

in  which  each  department  of  instruction  or  sub- 
ject of  study  is  assigned  to  a  particular  teacher. 
instead  of  requiring  each  teaeln  r  to  give  instruc- 
tion to  a  particular  class  in  all  the  branches  of 
Study  pursued.  This  system  is  rarely  employed 
in  schools  for  primary  instruction;  but,  in  those 
of  a  higher  grade,  is  nearly  univ<  real.  In  regard 
to  its  advantages  and  disadvantages,  as  compared 
wnh  the  class  system,  many  considerations  are 
urged:  ami  tne  experience  of  instructors  seems 
to  be  quite  diverse  as  to  its  success.  The  chief 
argument  in  its  favor  is,  that  it  would  narrow 
the  range  of  subjects  required  to  be  mastered  by 
a  single"  teacher!  ami.  in  this  way.  improve  the 
character  of  the  instruction  imparted.  For  other 
considerations  in  regard  to  this  question,  see 
Class. 

DEPRAVITY.     See  Moral  Education. 

DES  MOINES,  University  of,  at  Des 
Moines.  Iowa. was  chartered  in  1865.    It  is  under 

the  c tn  >1  of  the  1  '.aptists.  and  admits  both  sexes. 

It  occupies  a  fine  park  of  five  acres,  and  a  four- 
story  brick  building  on  an  eminence  command- 
ing a  fine  view  of  the  city  and  vicinity.  The 
library  contains  2,000  volumes.  The  value  of 
its  building,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is  $50,000  : 
the  amount  of  its  productive  funds  sin.niHl.  In 
1875 — <;,  there  wen-  6  instructors  and  139  pre- 
paratory and  Is  collegiate  students.  The  Hon. 
Frederick  Mott  is  (1876)  president. 

DETROIT,  the  principal  city  of  Michigan, 
situated  on  the  N.  W.  side  of  the  Detroit  river. 
about  18  miles  from  Lake  Erie.  The  river  is 
only  about  a  half  a  mile  wide  at  this  point; 
hence  the  name  of  the  city  I  Pr.  Detroit,  narrow]. 

The    populate f    this  city,   according   to   the 

census  of  1870,  was  79,597,  of  whom  35,381  were 
of  foreign  birth,  and  of  these  nearly  13,000  were 
natives  of  Germany.  The  number  of  colored 
persons  was  2,325.  The  first  permanent  settle- 
ment on  the  site  of  this  city  was  made  by  the 


French  in  1701.  In  1763,  it  passed  under  the 
government  of  the  Knglish. 

Kliinitiiiiiiil  Ilisttirii.—'VW  earliest  scl ]  hav- 
ing any  authentic  record  is  thai    of  the   Rev. 

David  Bacon,  established  in  1802.  Two  years 
afterward,  mention  is  made  of  two  other 
schools,  but.  particulars  in  regard  to  them  have 
not  been  preserved.  A  theological  school  was 
opened  at  this  time  also;  mil  the  fire  of  1805 
caused  it  to  lie  discontinued.  About  this  time, 
the  first  free  school  in  the  city  was  opened,  un- 
der Catholic  control,  near  St.  Ann's  Church,  on 
Lamed  street.  It  was  a  girls'  school;  and  an  in- 
teresting  fact  in  regard  to  it  is.  that  three  dozen 
spinning-wheels  were  kept  in  theschool,  on  which 

regard  to  schools  from  the  time  of  thegreat  tire 
ly  meager.     -\  so- 
opened  on  the  10th  of 
"     f  New  England: 


HOIT  219 

present  law  was  passed.    The  first  board  of  edu 
cation  met  March  15.,  1842,  consisting  of  twelve 


in- a  portion  of  the  llible  \n  ithout  comment  st„-|, 
rcadn,-  to   be   optional  Willi    the  lead,,.,,  and  at 

tended  with  the  penalty  of  re val  in  case  of 

comment  In  L847,  the  number  of  children  be- 
tween the  aces  of  5  and  1  7.  was  2  239.  The  first 
graded  school,  known  as  the  old  Capitol  Scl I. 


of   1805  to  181 

6,    isexcecdil, 

called  common 

school 

vas  op, 

dune,  L816,  by 

a  Mr. 

la  n  for 

and,  in  July 

followii 

".    he 

1817,  the  cove 
establish  the  "< 

'a'thoic 

Michigania". 

The  en 

rgies  i 

this  formidable 

instil 

ition, 

have  been  spen 

■  pro! 

and  the  passag 

of  tic 

lishme.nt,  as   n 

found,  though 

the  re 

ult   of 

the  Catholepis 

emiad 

Act,  \ 

the  public  taxe 

3  by  15 

of  a  primary  si 

iooI.  ai 

d    the  , 

inc.  writing,  a 

,     lie    111 

c.  and 

in  the  classical  i 

1  III  pi 
epartn 

ent'i.f 

was  li  igun  in 

818. 

I'll,-  sa 

teriau   school   was   es 

ablislu. 

was   committet 

to  tl 

e  care 

who  had  been 
by  the  trustees 

special! 
if  the 

branch  of  whic 
In  1834,  on  the 

had  1 

v  occii| 

n  of  read- 


•  of  Michigan,  a 
shed  in  Detroit. 

ai i  by  the  city-hall 

was  erected  a  building  for  a  female  seminary, 
which  was  continued  till  1842.  In  1836,  W. 
A.  Bacon  opened  a  select  school  on  the  site 
of  the  present  cathedral,  which  he  conducted 
for  38  years.  In  1838,  a  public  school  was 
opened  m  the  second  ward;  and,  in  1841,  the 
first  separate  colored  school  was  opened,  with  88 
pupils.  The  unsatisfactory  operation  of  the  school 
law,  however,  led  to  the  appointment,  in  1841,  of  a 
special  committee  of  inspection,  which  reported 
that  there  were  27  schools  in  the  city,  furnishing 
instruction  to  714 pupils,  at  a  cost' of  $12,600; 
while  there  were  L.850  children  without  instruc- 
tion. The  result  of  this  examination  was  a  rec- 
ommendation that  the  legislature  be  petitioned 
for  an  amendment  of  the  citv  charter  permitting 
the  creation,  by  annual  popular  vote,  of  a  board 
of  education,  and  direct  taxation  for  the  support 
of  the  schools.  The  opponents  of  this  proposition 
were  numerous;  but  the  measure  was  sustained 
by  the  people  at  an  election  ordered  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  was  embodied  in  a.  law  Feb.  L8.,  L842. 
tJnder  this  law,  with  a  few  amendments,  the 
schools  were  administered   till  1868,  when   the 


lull  (he  resulting 

election,  in  L853,  expressed  the 

will  of  a  large  n 

ajority  of  the  people  in  opposi- 

tion  to  such  divi 

aon,  and  the  question  has  not 

been  revived     T 

te  first  high  school  was  estab 

l.shed  in    l.s.-ifv     ' 

'he  supervision  of  the  schools 

was  originally  co 

dined  to  the  inspectors,  and  so 

continued  till   18 

13,  when  J.  M.  B.  Sill  was  ap- 

pointed  to  the  d 

ice  of  superintendent.    His  sue- 

as   Duane  Doty,  who  held  the 

II''    v.:  til  1. 

when  Mr.  Sill  was  re-appointed, 

and  again  appoin 

ted  in  1876,  for  .'!  years. 

Tic-  care, if  the  schools  is  in- 

trusted  to  a  boon 

ofedu  r;  i  h,  consisting  of  two 

biennially.  one  h,- 

eh  ward,  •  lected  by  the  people 
If  going  ou1  -I  office  each  year. 

The  mayor  and  r 

icorde-  are  members,  ex  officio 

but  without  vote 

The  board  appoints  annually 

a  superintendent 

whose  duties  are  those  usually 

milts  on  every  itoitar  oi  real  ami  personal  prop 
city.  The  school  year  comprises  a  period  ,,(  not 
less  than  3  months.  The  school  age  is  from  5 
to  "J  I)  years.  Connected  with  the  system  is  a 
public  library,  the  building  for  which  was  ,,ul\ 
recently  begun.  The  schools  tire  divided  into 
three    classes:     primary,    grammar,    and    high 

scl Is.     The  total  number  of  schools,  in  1875, 

was  L's,  including  -  evening  schools.  The  chief 
items  of  schuni  statistics  for  the  year  are  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5—20) 34,593 

enrolled 13,739 

Average  enrollment  .(number  beloicjinc).   .  ..       ii.'.'IM 

daily  attendam  e 8,760 

Number  of  teachers,  males     9 

females 212 

Total 221 

Receipts  (1875) 8211,690.2: 

I.  ;pi  I,  lit., i,  -     1S75)  

I  .,'.,1  ,  all,  1. 1. .a  of  school  pro], city..    .  . 

Besides  the  public  schools,  there  are  several 
Catholic  schools,  a  German  Lutheran  school  a 
Ccrinaii-Anierican  seminary,  and  several   public 

hi, lanes  cnitai u  about  40.0H0   volumes.      For 

information  in  regard  to  institutions  for  highei 


Mi,  i 


tls   iii  relation  to  the  early  educational 

t  Heir,, ii.  see  W.  D.Wilkins    R 

ml   Traditions  of  the   Detroit  Schools, 

1  in  the  Tin-Htii-e'ttpith  Annual  Import  of 
•dqf  Education  (Detroit,  1871). 


DEVELOPING  METHOD 


DEVELOPING  METHOD  is  a  term  in- 
troduced into  the  science  and  practice  of  peda- 
gogy through   the  philosophy  of  Herbart.   and 

popularized  among  Fairopean  teachers  through 
followers,  Beneke  and  I  >iestei  weg.  11 
means  an  education  of  the  natural  endowments 
of  the  individual  according  to  the  psychologic 
laws  of  human  development,  and  to  the  exelusion 
of  all  purposes  foreign  to  such  development.  The 
term,  in  some  respects,  is  a  misnomer,  as  it  im- 
plies far  more  than  it  expresses.  It  means  a 
system,  realized  in.  or  applicable  to.  a  variety  of 
educai al  methods,  and  based  on  the  fundamen- 
tal principle,  that  human  nature  alone,  as  devel- 
oped and  shown  in  its  best  products  through  a 
long  historical  period,  should  be  the  guiding  star 
in  all  educational  efforts.  Herbart,  who  was  the 
first  among  the  German  philosophers,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  prevailing  speculative  philosophy, 
to  apply  the  method  of  induction  to  philosophy, 
and  who  based  his  system  on  inductive  psy- 
chology, and  treated  the  latter  mathematically, 
wrote  as  early  as  1806  a  work  on  pedagogy,  en- 
title 1  /'<  ■  atigenu  ine  Pcedagogik,  a 
ili-m  Zir.;-l-  i'/i'r  Er:b-h ,/ „,/.  in  which  the  new 
drift  of  educational  ideas  inanuniited  by  Rous- 
seau and  Pestalozzi.  was  reduced  t,,  logical  prin- 
ciples, lie  was  the  first  in  history  to  render  in- 
telligible the  processes  in  the  human  soul  which 
lead  to  memory,  comparison,  thedistiin  it  i.n>l  nc 
pressions  and  their  growth  into  mental  images. 
notions,   judgment  and  reason,   disposition  and 

will;  and,  in  so  doing,  he   reasoned    ti the 

established  facts  of  consciousness  and  developed 
a  long  scries  of  mathematical  form  <  a  evi- 
dences of  his  correctness  in  interpreter  ;h  ■  i  ■■<--. 
Beneke,  more  straightforward  than  I  hi  but.  gave, 

in  his  Lehrbuch  der  Psychologie als  A  it>a s  •/<- 

srhnfl  lis:!.'!),  and  Ki-'zii-hini-js-  >/„,}  Unti'i-rirhln- 
lehre  ( L835),  a  very  lucid  and  common-sense  ex- 
position of  this  new  system  of  psychology,  in  its 
application  to  pedagogy,  which,  through  Diester- 
weg's  practical  treatises  and  school  books,  grew 
almost  universally  popular  among  the  German 
teachers.  What  the  ■■n,hit;,,,i  lln-nri/  is  in  modern 
natural  scienct — an  explanation  of  natural  effects 
from  natural  causes  according  to  general  laws 
that  can  be  verified  by  the  evidences  of  the  senses 
and  logical  reasoning,  that  is  the  developing 
iifllniil  with  regard  to  mental  facts  and  laws,  in 
matters  of  education.  The  founders  of  this 
system  did  not  go  so  far  as  to  reach  all  the  legiti- 
mate conclusions  which  may  ultimately  be  drawn 
from  its  principle,  and  which  wei  ■  drawn  by  the 
succeeding  generation  of  teacher-  The  sy  tem, 
as  now  taught  and  practiced  by  men  like  Hittes 
and  some  of  Froebel's  followers,  has  undergone  a 
scries  of  gradual  improvements,  and  seems  capable 
of  many  more;  since  human  nature  itself  is  a 
subject  that  receives,  through  the  constant  im- 
provement of  all  the  natural  science^,  a  daily 
increasing  illustration.  Nor  is  there,  as  yet, 
a  tolerably  full   agreement  among  the  foremost 

pedagogical  writers  upon  what  may  be  consid- 
ered the  genuine  development  of  human  nature; 
but   the  principle    itself,  that    the   spontaneous 


growth  of  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind  into 
the  greatest  possible  harmony  should  be  facil- 
itated according  to  the  laws  of  normal  devel- 
opment, not  counteracted:  guided,  but  not 
curbed ;  and  all  this  in  the  order  which  is  in- 
dicated by  nature  herself — this  principle  seems 
to  be  so  well  established,  that,  henceforth,  oidy 
its  interpretation  can  be  doubtful. 

This  new  psychology  sails  clear  of  all  the  rocks 
of  preconcerted  systems  and  of  the  maelstrom 
of  party  strife;  it  deals  with  none  but  demon- 
strable facts.  Such  facts  arc.  that  there  is  no 
beginning  of  mental  action  in  the  newborn  child 
except  by  impressions  from  without;  that  the 
latter,  called  /races,  cannot  grow  into  distinct 
images  without  a  grouping  of  the  traces  in  an 
order  corresponding  to  the  outward  objects ; 
that  we  can  verify  by  actual  experiment,  both 
with  animals  and  men.  the  laws  according  to 
which  equal  traces  strengthen  each  other   similar 


sions,  cli  ar  traces;  tnal  one  trace  or  sei  oi  traces 
is  for  a  time  obscured  by  new  ones,  and  that  the 
consciousness  of  an  image  is  the  effect  of  either 
pleasure  or  pain  of  the  mind   in   consequence  of 

the  impressions,  etc..  etc.     The  tl ry  goes  on  to 

shovi  that  all  the  higher  mental  processes  are  re- 
petitions of  the  photographic  action  of  the  first 


traces,  in  a  highe 
matical  exact) 

is.  therefore.  ] 
ical  systems. 
and  psycholog 


..rdc 


.Ho' 


,  i  1 1 1  mathe- 


the  conditions 


iv  be  ignored  and   left  to  the 

•nt  of  science  ;  but  it  is  all-im- 
rogy,  to  demonstrate  clearly  all 
thout  which  no  mind  can  grots . 
whatever  the  nature  of  mind  itself  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be. 

It  is.  therefore,  of  the  first  importance  to  cul- 
tivate the  action  of  the  senses,  the  gates  to  all 
mental  development,  in  such  a  way  as  to  render 
them  self-active  by  their  appropriate  combina- 
tion with  pleasure  and  pain:  next,  to  offer  1. 1  their 
self-activity  a  succession  of  outward  impressions 
which  will  leave  distinct  and,  by  repetition, 
lasting  traces  and  the  most  complete  images  of 
objects,  accompanied  by  sensations  and  impulses. 
The  first  consciousness  being  thusawakencd.it 
follows  that  a  comparison  and  distinction  of  the 
representations  once  produced  must  lead  to  both 
clear  notions  of  their  single  features  and  clear 
consciousness  of  the  mind,  without  which  the 
origin  of  self-consciousness  woidd  be  retarded, 
and  its  growth  stunted.  The  latter  taking  its 
start  from  the  first  efforts  in  speaking,  language 
becomes  the  chief  means  of  education,  and  its 
proper  use  on  the  part  of  the  educator,  in  con- 
nection with  the  objects  designated,  the  way  to 
the  subsequent  norma]  development.  The  gap 
in  this  system  left  between  this  stage  and  the 
first  school  age  was  not  tilled  until  Kroebel. 
siartiiie  from  a  somewhat  different  standpoint. 
invented  his  kindergarten  plays. 


DEVELOPING   METHOD  221 

Great  stress  is,  in  this  system,  laid  on  the  gradual    had  to  dedi for  themselves  From  a  comparison 

progress  of  education,  which,  alter   all.  is    little    <>t   examples,     Eraser  anil  Vogel    improved  this 
more   than   instruction,  a  somewhat    one-sided    method,  which  is  liable  to  be  too  mechanically 


crease  of  every  mental  faculty.    '1 

he  pupil  is  t 

be  rendered  his  own  teacher;  his 

to  be  fostered  first,  last,  and  a1  all 

or^a^n^rreflectio^Thwh! 

in'ainw/', 

teaching,  plays  so  prominent  a  pai 

.  is  made  ui 

aeces8ary  by  stimulating  the  menti 

1  appetite  an 

digestive  power  of  the  pupil  ;  wliati 

ver  is  fully  ui 

derstoodwil]  foreverremai enta 

property.   \ 

mechanical  .hill. and  all  r.il  pre 

chins  is  uioi 

hurtful  than  useful, because  skill  n 

to  grow  out  of  repeated  self-appi 

■|  .t  i.i  1 1. 1 1    eoi 

nected   with   that    pleasure  whicl 

,i  mpnnii 

the  satisfaction  of  everj    mental 

ippetite;  an 

because  an  appropriate  mental  foi 

1  is  conduct 

to  moral  power.     Development  in 

opment,  guided  by  well-developed 

higher  standard  of  abilities  and 

the  educator  than  ever  before  hai 

been  deeme 

necessary.     This  necessity  led  to 

i  considerabl 

improvement  in  the  course  of  tra 

nine. if  pupi 

teachers  in  the  German  and  other  i 

ormal  school 

"The  teacher  is  the  school,    was 

the  maxim  ii 

culcated   there.      If   he   be   the 

•roper  perso 

destined  by  natural  gifts   anil   pr< 

calling  by  a  careful  study  of  men! 

and  alone'  theoretic   anil   praetic; 

1  training,  h 

will  make  up  for  the  short-comings 

ot  text-book 

apparatus,  and  previous  education 

If  he  be  fll 

of  enthusiasm    for    his    sacred    ta 

k  of   formin 

he  will 


Mllil 


means  of  their  self-ilevelopiuciit.  The  rational 
sobriety  of  this  system  was  greatly  aided  by  the 
marvelous  spirit  of  self-devotion  and  educational 
enthusiasm  which  had  been  engendered  in  the 
teaching  fraternity  by  Pestalozzi ;  and  it  may 
be  called  a  fact,  that  hardly  ever,  or  anywhere. 
was  there  done  such  intelligent  and  faithful 
work  in  thousands  of  school-  ;m,|  tor  so  .^eanty  a 
remuneration,  as  in  the  detn  loping-rm  thod  schools 

up  to  the  period  of   the  "Scl I  Regulations " 

(Sckulref/uliitirij). 

Among  the  reforms  in  special  methods  that 
followed  in  the  wake  of  this  system,  must  first 
be  mentioned  the  introduction  of  phonic  or 
phonetic  reading.  Spelling  was  altogether  super- 
seded, and  orthographical  writing  exercises  sub- 
stituted, based  on  a  few  rules  which  the  pupils 


Readers)  and 
which  must  b 


hi,    national 


in  ling    ti 


s  at   a  very  early 

c eiitrie  circles  : 

ions  even  before 
lessons  in  special 
ler  (Pestalozzian) 
crowded  out  when 


all  teaching  became  olyect  teaching;  yet  spe- 
cial object   lessons  in  zoology  and  botany,  e,. 

etry  and  geography,  remained  favorite  branches 
in  most  plans  of  teaching.  The  method  of  teach- 
ing the  mother-tongue  is  also  very  variable  :  but. 
through  all  that  variety,  a  tendency  is  conspic- 
uous to  make  the  most  of  the  pupil's  self  activity 
by  guiding  him  to  form  .sentences  orally  and  in 
writing,  whether  for  orthographical,  grammat- 
ical, rhetorical,  or  elocutionary  purposes.  Gram- 
matical analysis  with  parking  till,  far  less  ti 

than  synthesis.  It  is  a  strange  fact  that  the 
study  of  Latin  and  Greek  has.  only  very  recently 
and  to  a  very  limited  extent,  been  subjected  to 
the  same  method;  but  the  modern  languages 
were  treated  in  the  analytico-synthetic  waj  (this 
way  ought  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Aim 
or  Ollendorf  method,  from   which  it    is  distin- 


222        DEVOTIONAL  EXERCISES 

guished  by  scientific,  pedagogic  spirit,  and  a  far 
greater  efficiency).  This  method  may  be  called 
Mager's  method.  There  is  an  endless  variety  of 
special  methods  in  all  branches  of  primary  and 
secondary  instruction,  which  it  is  not  necessary 
here  to  explain. 

It  is  useless  to  discuss  the  merits  and  short-  ; 
comings  of  special  methods,  since  any  one  of  them 
that  has  passed  the  ordeal  of  a  practical  applica- 
tion in  the  school  room  may  be  called  good,  be- 
cause adapted  to  the  genius  both  of  the  teacher 
and  his  particular  class  of  pupils.  No  single  prac- 
tical method  can  claim  universal  applicability  ; 
every  one  will  have  to  be  modified  to  be  adapted, 
not  only  to  every  other  teacher's  peculiar  de- 
velopment, but  also  to  that  of  every  other 
class  or  pupil.  He  is  a  bad  follower  of  the 
developing  method  who  treats,  year  in  ami  year 
out,  every  new  class  of  pupils  according  to  a 
stereotyped  manner  for  each  branch  of  instruc- 
tion, instead  of  accommodating  himself  to  the 
wants  of  the  class.  The  developing  method 
means  nothing  more  nor  less  than  that  there 
shall  be  method  in  all  the  teacher's  doings.— a 
well-concerted  plan,  calculated  to  develop  every 
gift  of  each  pupil  by  educating  him  to  self- 
activity  in  every  branch  of  the  curriculum,  and 
to  produce  a  certain  degree  if  uniform  general 
development  without  neglecting  either  the  for- 
ward, or  the  backward  portion  of  his  ela>s.  And 
high  as  this  standard  of  abilities  in  the  true  edu- 
cation may  be,  experience  proves  thai  It  Will  lie 
almost  universally  realized,  if  the  position  of  th  ■ 
teacher  be  sufficiently  remunerative,  independent, 
and  honored,  to  attract  to  the  profession  all 
pel-sons  born  to  lie  teachers.  This  realization  has, 
moreover,  been  considerably  facilitated  by  the 
preparation  for  the  primary  classes,  which  may 
lie  obtained  from  Froebel's  kindergarten. 
DEVOTIONAL  EXERCISES.     See    Hi 

DIARY,  School,  a  daily  record  of  the  les- 
sons, recitations,  deportment,  etc., of  pupils,  kept 
in  a  small  book  winch  is  taken  home  each  day, 
or  each  week,  to  be  exhibited  to  the  parents, 
whose  inspection  is  attested  by  their  signature 
previous  to  the  diary's  being  returned  to  the 
teacher.  Thus,  a  constant  correspondence  is  kept 
up  between  parent  and  teacher,  the  former  being 
continuously  informed  of  the  child's  progress, 
merit  or  demerit,  and  behavior:  and  thus  enabled 
intelligently  to  co-operate  in  his  school  edueation. 
Instead  of  the  diary,  some  teachers  prefer  the 
monthly  report.      (See  School  Records.) 

DICKINSON  COLLEGE,  at  ( 'arlisle.  Pa., 
was  founded  in  1783.  Since  1  833,  it  has  been 
under  the  control  of  the  Methodisl  Episcopal 
Church,  prior  to  which  date  it  was  under  Pres- 
byterian control.  Prominent  among  it-  founders 
were  John  Dickinson,  first  governor  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Dr.  Benjamin  Bush  of  Philadel- 
phia. Before  the  late  war.  its  patronage  was 
largely  from  the  South:  since  that  event,  it  has 
depended  for  patronage  chiefly  on  the  Middle 
States.  The  value  of  grounds,  iiuildings.  and  ap- 
paratus is  $150,000;  the  amount  of  productive 


DICKINSON  COLLEGE 

funds,  $175,000.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  merely 
nominal. being  by  scholarships,  the  whole  expense 
of  winch  is  $25  for  the  four  years'  course.  The 
board  of  trustees  have  recently  established  the 
following  departments  of  study,  and  propose 
to  carry  out  the  university  principle  of  elective 
courses,  as  far  as  the  means  at  their  command  will 
permit:  Hi  moral  science;  (2)  ancient  languages 
and  literature:  (3)  pure  mathematics ;  (4)  phi- 
losophy and  English  literature,  including  history 
and  Constitutional  law:  (5)  physics  and  mixed 
mathematics,  and  the  application  of  calculus  to 
natural  philosophy,  astronomy,  and  mechanics: 
(6)  chemistry,  and  its  application  to  agriculture 
and  the  arts;  (7)  physieal  geography,  natural 
history,  mineralogy  and  geology;  B  modern 
languages;  (9)  civil  and  mining  engineering, 
and  metallurgy.  The  scheme  embraces  much 
more  than  can  be  accomplished  in  four  years. 
Those  students  who  wish  to  obtain  the  collegiate 
degrees  are  required  to  devote  the  earlier  part 
of  their  course,  as  heretofore,  mainly  to  the 
elements  of  classical  learning  and  the  pure 
mathematics;  but,  for  the  latter  part,  certain 
studies  are  made  optional,  and  those  who  go 
through  any  of  the  prescribed  special  courses, 
obtain  the  decree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  equally 
with  those  who  complete  the  classical  course. 
These  special  courses  are  the  Scientific  Course, 
in  which  Mich  students  as  desire  a  re  allowed  to 
substitute  practical  chemistry  for  the  Latin  and 
Greek  of  the  junior  and  senior  years, and  the 
Biblical  Course,  in  which  students  preparing  for 
the  Christian  ministry  are  allowed  to  take  lie- 
brew  and  New  Testament  Greek  in  their  junior 
and  senior  years,  in  place  of  equivalent  studies, 
chiefly  mathematical.  A  partial  course,  of  about 
two  years,  and  embracing  such  studies  from 
the  regular  curriculum  as  bear  directly  upon 
any  special  vocation,  can  be  pursued  by  stu- 
dents not  intending  to  graduate.  The  college 
has  a  museum  containing  specimens  in  mineral- 
ogy, geology,  and  natural  history,  and  a  cabinet 
of  ancient  coins ;  valuable  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus:  and  an  astronomical  ob- 
servatory, provided  with  an  achromatic  tele- 
scope. The  college  library  contains  about  8,000 
volumes;  those  of  the  'I'.elles-Lettres  Society 
and  the  Union  Philosophical  Society  about 
10,1 each.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  7  pro- 
fessors and  8s  students.  There  is  a  law  depart- 
ment under  the  charge  of  the  professor  of  law. 
The  presidents  of  the  college  have  been  as  fol- 
lows :  Charles  Xisbet,  D.D.,  1784— 1804;  Rob- 
ert Davidson,  D.D.  (pro  tern.),  1804—9;  Jere- 
miah At  water.  D.D.,1809— 15;  John  McKnight, 
|l    D    [on,  ten))    1S15— III;   John  Mitchell  Ma- 


Durbin,  D.D.,  1833—45;   Robert  Emory,  D.D., 

1S45— S:  Jesse  Truesdale  Peck,  D.  D..  1848— 
52;  Charles  Collins,  D.  D.,  1852— 60 ;  Herman 
Merrills  Johnson.  D.  !>..  1S60— 7;  Robert  L. 
Dashiell,  I>.  D.,  1868  —  72;  and  James  A. 
McCauley,  D.  D.,  the  present  incumbent,  ap- 
pointed in  1872. 


DICTATION  DICTIOls  \I.V                   223 

DICTATION,  a  school  exercise  in  which  the  and  much  additional  information  of  greal  value, 

lacher  reads  or  speaks  (dictates)  to  the  pupils  This  work  isalarge  quarto,  of  L840  pagi     and 

hat  is  to  be  written  by  the  latter  for  practice    i tains  about    1 11  .(ton   words.    The  elaborate 


Webster's,  and 


In   this   respect,  it    supplements   n,j, ,/,„.,,    wii 

exclusively  disciprines  the  eye. 

DICTIONARY,  a  book  containing  a  lis( 
all  the  words  of  a  language,  alphabetically 
ranged,  with  information  in  regard  to  tli 
derivation,  meaning,  ami  use.  The  Greek™ 
lexicon  is  frequently  used  to  designate  a  dicti 
ary  of  the  words  of  a  foreign  language 
term  ghi 
obsolete, 

tillitio,,    I 


how, 

but 

pl.t. 

ran  ir> 

coll'.. 

also 

grap 


.1  in  the  Xew  En-land  -tat, 

ebster's  Dictionary  is,  howev, 

pan-  oi  the  I  uited  Stab 


to  denote  a  collection  of  technical, 

pupilsto  Irani  byroteth 

ther   words  requiring  special  de- 

of-words  fro,,,  abridged 

tonation.     A  dictionary  of   facts 

tors,  the  alphabetical  an 

encydop  edia    if  it  embraces  the 

ing  followed  in  the  assi 

if   the   full  circle  of  sciences,  and 

this  absurd   practice   is 

it     it     treat-     it    a    ~ ] ). -.  i; 1 1   depart- 

obsolete.     After  a  certaii 

edge.    These  two  terms  are  not. 

in  learning  to  read,  it  is 
portaiuv  that  the  pupils 

vs  used  with   this  discrimination, 

applied  indifferently  to  any  min- 

simple   ilietionaries.   and 

eoni)ilete  collection  of 
language  was  the  Uni- 
lish  Dictionary  (Lon- 
ley,  which  subsequent- 
lasis  upon  which  Dr. 
•at  work.  Johnson's 
755,  after  seven  years 
fly  entitled  its  author 
ler  of  English  lexicog- 
larged  by  Todd  in  the 


raphy.     It  was 

edit a  of  1814 

dictionaries  published  in  England  since  the  time 

of  .lolinson  are  Walker's  (171»1).  Enfield's  (1807), 
liooths  lis:;;,).  Smart's  (ls.'Ki),  and  Richardson's 
(1837).  The  catalogue  of  works  of  this  kind  is, 
however,  verv  extensive;  but  the  most  important 
is  the  elaborate  work  of  Dr.  Richardson,  entitled 
a   New    Dictionary  of  the   English    Language 

tion  is  given,  in 


the    h: 


rk,  to   tin 


nolo-. 


words  and  their  illustration  by  copious  citations 
from  standard  writers  :  and  the  arrangement  is 
in  t he  alphabetical  order  of  the  primitives,  be- 
neath each  of  which  its  derivatives  are  grouped. 
Of  this  work.  Dean  Trench  remarks,  "  It  is  the 
only  English  dictionary  in  which  etymology  as- 
sumes the  dignity  of  a  science." 

The  first  dictionary  of  any  importance  published 
in  the  United  States  was  the  first  edition  of 
Webster's  American  Dictionary  of  tlie  English 
Language  (2  vols..  It,,.  X.  Y ..  1828  .  Of  this 
work,  revised  and  enlarge  leditionswere  published 
in  L840  and  L843,  during  the  life  ol  the  author: 
bui  m  L848,  a  new  edition,  revised  and  enlarged 

by   Prof,    (i Inch,    was    issued    at  Springfield, 

Mass.,  and  in  L864,  a  still  larger  edition  was 
published  in  Springfield,  with  revised  etymologies 


lead  to  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  their  lan- 
guage, more  especially  its  orthoepy,  in  which 
most  persons,  even  those  of  considerable  culture 
otherwise,  are  apt  to  be  quite  faulty.  In  pur- 
suing this  method,  the  following  course  of  pro- 
cedure will  be  found  beneficial  :  (1)  The  teacher 
assigns  a  certain  portion  of  reading  matter,  or  a 
certain  number  of  selected  words,  which  the 
pupil  is  to  study  critically  by  the  use  of  the  dic- 
tionary, as  far  as  may  be  necessary;  (2)  The 
pupil  learns,  from  the  dictionary,  the  meaning 
or  definition  of  those  which  he  does  not  under- 
stand, and  next  studies  lmw  to  illustrate  their 
application  by  using  them  in  sentence,,  or  by 
citations  from  standard  authors;  (3)  In  an  ad- 
vanced stage,  the  student  gives  more  critical  at- 
tention to  the  precise  shades  of  meaning  of  the 
words  usually  deemed  to  be  synonymous,  and 
learns  how  to  make  a  proper  discrimination  in 
the  use  of  such  words.  For  this  purpose,  such 
works  as  Roget's  Thesaurus  and  Crabbe's  Syn- 
onyms will  be  found  important  auxiliaries  to 
the  unabridged  dictionary  of  either  Webster  to 
Worcester. 

To  the  tea.  In -r.  no  acquisition  is  more  impor- 
tant than  a  critical  knowledge  ,,f  the  orthography, 
pronunciation,  meaning,  and  proper  use  of  words 
in  his  own  language:  and.  hence,  a  good  dic- 
tionary should  always  be  at  hand  for  the  deter 
ruination  of  those  doubtful  points  which,  with 
even  the  best  scholar  and  the  most  experienced 
teacher,  will  sometimes  arise.  A  die: 
therefot  a  part  of  the  school  apparatus,  which 
cannot  be  dispensed  with. 

In  the  study  of  a  foreign  language,  the  diction- 
ary is  needed  at  a  much  earlier  ftagc  than  in  the 
study  of  the  vernacular  ;  although   modern  edu 


'.'•24 


DICTIONARY 


cators  strongly  advocate  that  the  process  of  ac- 
quiring a  foreign  language  should  lie  made,  as 
much  as  possible,  to  conform  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  child  learns  to  speak  his  nat  h  e  tongue. 
The  number  of  words  of  the  foreign  language 
which  can  be  learned  in  this  way  must,  however, 
be  always  quite  limited,  and  hence  the  constant  ; 
need  of  consulting  the  dictionary.  It  is  a  note 
worthy  fact  in  this  connection,  that  the  science 
of  lexicography  has  been  developed  by  the  need 
of  dictionaries  to  facilitate  the  study,  if  foreign 
languages,  not  the  native  tongue.  Though  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  even  some  of  the 
oriental  nations  before  them,  had  vocabularies  of 
the  words  of  their  languages,  arranged  more  or 
less  in  alphabetical  order,  the  origin  of  complete 
dictionaries  is  no  earlier  than  the  time  when  the 
study  of  the  classics  was  revived  in  Italy.  The 
mi  i  I. inn. us.  though  not  the  first  among  these 
was  f'.i/rpiiio  (Latin  Lexicon.  Kcggi...  I  oO'J  ).  fr.ui) 
whose  name  is  derived  the  French  word  calepin 
(a  commonplace-book).  But  the  path  in  which 
modern  lexicographers  have  gained  so  much  dis- 
tinction was  first  opened  in  1532  by  Robert 
Stephens  (Ft.  IStienne  or  Eslii  nne)  by  the  pub- 
lication of  the   Thesatir  s  / i   Latino-  and 

Benry  Stephens's  Thesaurus  Lingua  Grcecce, 
published  in  1572,  in  5  volumes,  but  abridged 
l.\  Scapula,  who  issued  in  loT'J  Is.rinm  l.Vn.ii- 
Latinum  novum.  (See  Stephens.)  These  works 
were  the  first  notable  attempts  to  develop  the 
various  in callings  of  every  word,  and  to  make 
scientific  arrangement  no  less  an  essential  feature 
than  completeness  of  vocabulary.  Among  the 
most  prominent  of  the  sine Hue  I, .geogra- 
phers, are.  Forcellini,  Scheller,  Kreuud.  and 
Georges  for  the  Latin,  and  Passow  for  the  Creek. 
Forcellini  was  chiefly  distinguished  for  illus- 
trating the  meaning  of  every  word  by  examples 
from  classical  authors;  and  the  Germans  just 
named,  developed  this  feature  to  a  high  degree 
of  perfection.  The  first  Latin-English  dic- 
tionary was  edited  by  Sir  Thomas  Elyot  (Lon- 
don. l.MtS):  the  most  famous  was  that  of  Ains- 
worth  (q.  v.).  The  work  of  Forcellini  was  the 
basis  ot  the  Uvtin-English  dictionary  of  Leverett 
(Boston,  1836),  and  that  of  Freund,  of  the 
Latin-English  dictionary  of  E.  A.  Andrews 
(New  York.  Is.ui).  The  Creek  lexicon  of  Pas- 
sow  is  the  basis  of  the  Greek-English  lexicon  of 
Liddell  &  Scott  (Oxford.  1845)  and  its  Ameri- 
can revision  by  Drisler  (New  York.  1848).  It  is 
a  noteworthy  fact  in  the  history  of  English  and 
American  education,  that  until  the  present  cen- 
tury the  Greek  language  was  studied  through 
the  medium  of  the  Latin,  and  there  were  no 
Greek-English,  but  only  Greek-Latin  lexicons. 
The  Germans,  for  a  considerable  time  previously, 
had  published  lexicons  in  their  own  language, 
and  the  French  had  followed  their  example.  'Hie 
first  Greek-English  lexicon  announced  (in  1814) 
was  that  of  John  Pickering,  which  was  based  on 
the  Greek-Latin  dictionary  of  Schrevelius.  But 
before  it  was  published  (  Hoston.  Is26i.  a  similar 
work,  the  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  of  John 
Jones  (London,  1823),  appeared  in  England.  The 


Lexicon  of  Donnegan  (London,  182")  was  pro- 
fessedly, in  substance,  a  translation  of  Passow's 
work:  and  Dunbar's  Greek  and  English  Lexi- 
con (Edinburgh,  1843)  was  chiefly  a  reprint  of 
the  second  edition  (18211)  of  Pickering's  work. 
Creat  improvements  in  the  adaptation  of  the 
classical  dictionary  to  school  purposes  were  in- 
troduced by  Ingerslev's  Latin-German  Lexicon 
.1st  edit.,  1852;  4th.  L876).  Before  him.  it 
had  been  the  aim  of  lexicographers  in  general 
to  attain  the  greatest  possible  completeness 
of  words  and  their  different  meanings;  and 
the  works  of  smaller  compass  wen-  condensed 
abridgements.  Ingerslev  conceived  the  idea  of 
a  school  dictionary  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the 
term.  It  was  to  be  limited  to  those  writers 
whose  works  are  usually  read  in  classical  schools, 
and  was  designed  to  explain  sufficiently  every 
difficult  passage  occurring  in  any  of  this  class  of 
authors.  By  "referring  in  succession  to  all  the 
synonyms  of  a  word,  and  only  defining  the  dis- 
tinctive meaning  of  the  word  itself,  the  .syno- 
nymic clement  of  the  language,  as  far  as  it  is  of 
value  for  the  pupil  of  a  Latin  school,  is  explained 
in  the  smallest  possible  compass.  The  poetic,  later, 
and  ante-classic  use  or  meaning  of  every  word  is 
pointed  out  by  appropriate  abbreviations:  the 
remainder  is  classic.  This  plan  has  met  with 
universal  approval  among  Gorman  scholars:  and 
a  number  of  other  works  have  since  been  pub- 
lished, the  most  important  of  which  are  those 
by  Georges  (1st  edit..  1864  :  3d  edit..  1874),  and 
Beinichen  (Leips.,  1864),  for  the  Latin:  and 
by  Benseler  (4th  edit.,  1872),  and  Schenkl  (3d 
edit.,  L867)  for  the  Greek.  The  lexicon  of  In- 
gerslev is  the  basis  of  the  Latin-English  lexicon 
of  Crooks  and  Schem  (Philadelphia,  1857).  A 
large  number  of  special  dictionaries  to  classic 
authors,  especially  those  read  by  beginners,  have 
been  prepared,  but  many  educators  disapprove 
of  the  use  of  books  of  this  class.  ( >n  the  other 
hand,  the  compilation  of  an  elementary  diction- 
ary specially  suited  for  the  study  of  the  Latin 
writers  read  by  beginners  has  been  recommended, 
and  a  good  work  of  the  kind  has  been  edited  by 
Georges  [Latein  isch-deuisches  Schuhcorterbuch, 
Leipsic,  1876). 

The  dictionaries  of  modern  languages  are 
either  unilingual,  intended  for  the  natives  of  a 
country,  or  bilingual,  intended  for  the  study  of  a 
language  other  than  the  vernacular.  The  former 
more  or  less  resemble  in  their  history  and  scope  the 
English  works  referred  to  above.  Slany  works  of 
the  former  class  owe  their  origin  to  learn.  .1  socie- 
ties. Among  them  is  the  celebrated  1  talian  diction- 
ary delta  Orusca  [Vocabidario  degli  accademici 
della  <  rusca,  first  published  in  1612).  The  fame  of 
this  work  is.  however,  greater  than  its  real  merit, 
for  it  is.  in  fact,  only  a  dictionary  of  the  Tuscan 
dialect,  and  while  regarding  the  14th  century  as 
the  Augustan  age  of  Italian  literature,  it  slighted 
the  distinguished  writers  of  the  16th  century.  It 
was  subsequently  enlarged  and  improved  (Flor- 
ence, 1729 — 1738),  and  in  this  augmented  form 
is  still  the  standard  authority  for  the  Italian  lan- 
guage.— Spain  also  owes  its  largest  dictionary  to 


DICTIONARY 

the  Spanish  Academy  (6  vols..  Madrid,  1726 — 
1739),  which  became  the  absolute  standard  of 
Spanish  orthography;  it  was,  in  the  present  cent- 
ury, revised  and  greatly  enlarged  bj  Salva  who 
added  more  than  20,000  words    1st  edit.,  L846). 

dietionarv  of  its  lantruauc  to  Hubert  Stephen*. 
who  published  a  French-Latin  dietionarv  in  l.VW. 
The  dictionary  of  the  French  Academj  was  Brsl 
published  in  1694, and  soon  became  the  standard 


as  to  read  ;  and.  hence, the  native-foreign  part  of 
the  dictionary  is  as  much  needed  as  the  foreign- 


It 


ith 


lexical  authority  of  the  French. 
from  time  to  time  revised;  and  a  si 
under  the  editorship  of  Patin,  was  to  lie  com- 
pleted in  L876.  The  dictionary  of  the  Academy 
was  followed  by  a  considerable  number  of  other 
works,  the  most  important  of  which,  that  of 
Littre  (3  vols..  Paris.  L863— 1873),  is  regarded 
as  being,  in  many  respects,  even  superior  to  the 
dictionary  of  the  Academy,  and  entitled  to  a 
place  among  the  very  best  products  of  lexical 
science.  —  The  history  of  German  lexicography 
is  traced  to  the  7th  century.  The  first  work  of 
lasting  value  was  the  German-Latin  dictionary 
of  Frisch  (Berlin,  1741).  Adelung's  dictionary 
(Leips.,  1774 — 1781)  was,  for  a  time,  a  classical 
work;  but  the  standard  work  of  German  litera- 
ture is  the  dictionary  of  the  brothers  Jacob  and 
Wilhelm  Grimm,  begun  in  1  No '2,  on  a  plan  more 
extensive  than  any  other  dictionary  of  any  mod- 
ern language.  It  is  to  include  every  word  used  in 
German  works  from  Luther  to  Goethe.  It  was 
continued  after  the  death  of  the  authors  by  Moritz 
Heyne,  Rudolf  Hildebrand,  and  Karl  Weigand: 
and  it  is  expected  that  the  whole  will  beready 
about  1890.  Of  other  German  dictionaries 
those  of  Sanders  are  highly  valued  and  have 
found  a  large  circulation  (  Worterbuch  der  deutr 
schen  Sprache,  2  vols.,  Leips.,  L859— 1m',7  ;  and 
HandwSrlerbuch  der  dt  Usch,  i  Sprache,  Leips., 
1869).— The  standard  dictionary  oi  the  Russian 
language  has  been  prepare!  by  the  Russian  Acad- 
emy (4  vols., 


Mo.-t 


the  smaller  nationalities  of  Kurope  have  like- 
wise their  national  dictionaries,  which,  though 
inferior  to  the  works  of  Grimm  and  littre,  are, 
in  many  cases,  store  houses  of  profound  learning 
and  indispensable  for  the  philosophical  study 
of  the  several  languages.  In  the  schools  of  all 
the  countries  referred  to,  the  use  of  this  class 
of  dictionaries  in  the  study  of  the  native  lan- 
guage is  less  frequent  than  in  England.  The 
bilingual  dictionaries  belong  to  the  same  class  as 
the  Greek  and  Latin  lexicons,  but  there  are  some 
marked  points  of  difference.  The  Greek  or  the 
Latin  lexicon  is  chiefly,  or  almost  exclusively, 
used  for  acquiring  the  ability  to  read  the  classic 
authors;  a  speaking  and  writing  knowledge  of 
either  of  these  languages  has  been  the  object  of 
study  in  only  few  cases,  and,  at  present,  even 
more  rarely  than  formerly;  therefore,  the  great 
majority  of  students  use  only  the  classic-modern 
dictionary,  and  but  very  few  the  modern-classic 
dictionary;  indeed,  many  distinguished  educa- 
tors regard  the  latter  as  entirely  superfluous.  In 
the  study  of  modern  languages,  on  the  contrary, 
the  object  of  study  is  to  speak  and  write  as  well 


tempts  to  compile  dictionaries  containing  the 
words  of  more  than  two  languages,  have  not 
been  wanting,  but  have  met  with  but  little 
favor.  The  alphabetical  arrangement  is  the 
universal  rule  in  all  dictionaries;  all  attempts 
to  substitute  any  other  having  always  failed. 
In  classical  dictionaries,  however,  for  begin- 
ners the  partial  combination  of  the  etymolog- 
ical with  the  alphabetical  arrangement  is  re- 
garded by  some  educators  as  useful  and  con- 
venient. The  dictionaries  of  oriental  languages 
are,  to  a  higher  degree  than  either  classical  or 
modern  dictionaries,  written  for  the  special  use 
of  scholars. 

The  great  progress  of  linguistics,  and,  espe- 
cially, of  comparative  linguistics,  has  nude  it 
possible  for  modern  lexicographers  to  develop  the 
etymological  department  ot  the  dietionarv  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  render  works  of  an  earlier 
date  almost  useless.  There  is,  however,  a  great 
want  of  agreement  as  to  the  extent  to  which  it  is 
desirable  to  introduce  this  feature  into  school 
dictionaries.  In  the  classical  dictionary,  it  is 
the  general  rule,  to  give  at  least  as  much  of  ety- 
mological explanation  as  isof  immediate  prac- 
tical value  to  the  pupil.  Of  the  dictionaries  of 
modern  languages,  some  give  etymological  ex- 
planations, and  some  wholly  omit  them.  Asa 
very  valuable  fruit  of  the  science  of  comparative 
linguistics  may  be  mentioned  the  etymological 
dictionaries  of  whole  families  of  languages.  I  hie 
of  the  best  representatives  of  this  class  of  works 
is  the  Etymologische  WSrterbuch  tier  romani- 
scken  SpracJien  by  Diez. 

As  in  the  study  of  languages,  whether  classical 
or  modern,  as  we'll  as  in  the  native  language,  the 
dictionary  is  an  important  school  book,  the 
teacher  should  not  omit  to  familiarize  his  pupils 
with  the  proper  way  of  using  it ;  and  it  is  there- 
fore, desirable,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  that 
the  pupils  of  a  school  should  be  all  supplied 
with  the  same  dictionary.  For  information  re- 
garding the  literature  of  dictionaries,  see  Vater, 
LiliTiitiir  </er  <-trnmm<itikvn.  Lr.rini  iiml  Win- 
tersammlungen  alter  Sprachen  der  I 
edit.,  revised  by  Jtilg,  Berlin.  Isl7). 

DIDACTICS,  the  theory  of  instruction,  as 
distinguished  from  that  of  education  in  its  nar- 
rower sense,  implying  simply  moral 


■22t) 


DIDACTICS 


It  is  commonly  treated  under  two  heads  :  gen- 
eral didactics,  which  exhibits  the  philosophical 
principles  of  teaching,  and  the  conditions  of  its 
success;  and  special  didactics,  or  methodics, 
which  applies  tile  general  truths  to  the  several 
branches  of  instruction,  the  different  ages  to  be 
instructed,  and  the  various  individual  characters 
and  their  treatment.  The  distinction  between 
didactics  anil  pedagogy  in  the  narrower  sense  is 
made  only  for  the  sake  of  separate  scientific 
treatment,  as  it  is  universally  conceded  that  all 
instruction  can  be  rendered  a  means  of  moral 
education,  and  that  no  instruction  deserves  the 
name,  or  can  be  truly  successful,  without  a  cor- 
responding development  of  moral  power.  In  any 
branch  of  instruction,  the  very  first  beginning 
presupposes  attention  on  the  part  of  the  pupil, 


\S  llilc 


;ll'l"'"l 


Ml  de 


,11    111. 


his  si'lf- 
m  his  full 
iherent  in 


branch  of  art  or  science  concerned.  On  the 
part  of  the  teacher,  moral  power,  engendered  by 
such  mastership,  must  be  presupposed,  if  he  is  to 
impart  to  his  pupil  attention,  self-activity,  and 
love  for  the  subject.  In  regard  to  the  age  of 
the  pupil,  instruction  and  moral  educ.it ion  bear 
to  each  other  a  changing  proportion.  During 
the  first  age, — from  earliest  infancy  up  to  the 
eighth  or  tenth  year,  the  so-called  formal  pur- 
pose of  education  prevails  in  importance;  the 
several  functions  of  the  youthful  mind  must  be 
made  self-active,  and  the  material  purpose  of 
didactics.  -  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  or  posi- 
tive learning,  must  be  made  a  mere  means  to  the 
former,  so  that  no  more  of  each  concentric  circle 
of  facts  be  given  to  appropriate  than  can  be  di- 
gested for  the  benefit  of  each  function.  The 
second  age.  which  extends  to  the  beginning  of 
sexual  maturity,  is  the  one  during  which  instruc- 
tion and  education  .should  lie,  as  it  were,  in  .  qui- 
poise;  while,  in  the  period  after  sexual  maturity, 
the  material  purpose,  that  of  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  and  skill,  may  preponderate.  In  re- 
gard to  the  branches  of  instruction,  general  di- 
dactics shows  which  of  these  are  adapted  to  the 
several  stages  of  the  mental  and  moral  develop- 
ment of  the  three  ages,  and  which  concentric 
circle  of  facts  and  truths  of  every  science  and  art 
may  be  introduced  at  the  time  when  it  can  serve 
as  wholesome  mental  and  moral  food.  A  most 
important  distinction  is  made  between  the  peda- 
gogical and  the  scientific  treatment  of  every  sub- 
ject of  instruction,  the  latter  being  of  necessity 
systematic  and  synthetic,  while  the  former  should 
lie  methodic  and  analytic  first,  synthetic  last; 
that  is  to  say,  should  introduce  every  object  of 
learning  at  such  a  time,  and  in  such  a  manner, 
that  it  may  be  mentally  and  morally  appropriated. 
Special  didactics,  commonly  designated  as  me- 
thodics,  treats  of  the  pedagogical  means  proper 
in  each  branch  of  instruction,  at  each  age  and 
stage  of  development.  An  explanation  of  the 
more  important  methods  of  didactics  will  be 
found  under  the  titles  of  the  various  branches.  In 
general,  however,  we  may  state  that  all  promi- 
nent educators  concur  in  holding  that  the  teacher 


DIBSTBBWEG 

is  every-where  the  best  method,  as  he  is  in  fact 
the  school  itself,  if  he  be  a  true  teacher.  It 
would,  however,  be  a  dangerous  error  to  sup- 
pose, on  that  account,  that  every  teacher  should 
be  lefl  free  to  invent  his  own  methods,  or  could 
be  expected  to  be  successful  without  an  acquain- 
tance with  the  best  methods  in  use.  This  error 
will  lie  avoided  by  those  who,  on  the  one  hand, 
are  so  deeply  imbued  with  the  great  responsi- 
bility of  their  calling,  as  to  feel  that  the  wisdom 
of  the  preceding  generations  of  great  teachers 
cannot  be  neglected,  and.  therefore,  that  the 
methods  devised  ami  practiced  by  them  should 
be  made  a  subject  of  faithful  and  conscientious 
study  ;  but  who,  on  the  other  hand,  realize  the 
principle  that  the  most  approved  methods  can- 
not benefit  a  teacher  who  has  not  mentally  so 
appropriated  them  as  to  reproduce  them  accord- 
ing to  his  own  individuality,  and  to  be  able  to 
adapt  them  to  the  peculiar  wants  of  his  pupils, 
as  well  as  to  all  other  circumstances  in  which  he 
is  placed.  All  teaching  should  be  methodical  in 
every  aspect;  it  should  be  based  on  the  thorough 
appropriation  of  a  proper  system  of  pedagogy; 
and  it  should  be  a  natural  outgrowth  of  the 
teacher's  personality,  if  it  is  to  perform  its  proper 
office  in  the  work  of  real  education. 

DIESTERWEG,  Friedrich  Adolf  Wil- 
helm,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  educational 
writers  of  (iermany,  in  the  present  century,  was 
born  at  Siegen,  Oct. '-".).,  1 790,  and  died  at  Berlin, 
July  7..  ls'dii.  After  studying,  at  the  universities 
of  Herborn  and  Tubingen,  theology,  philosophy, 
mathematics,  and  natural  science,  he  became,  in 
1810,  a  private  tutor  at  Mannheim;   in   lull, 

teacher  at  the  si. lary  school  of  Worms,  which 

at  that   time  was  French;  in  1813,  teacher  at 

the  i lei  school  of  Frankfort;  in  1818,  second 

rector  of  the  Latin  school  of  Elberfeld;  and.  in 
1820,  first  teacher  and  acting  president  of  the 
seminary  at  Meurs.  While  in  the  latter  position, 
he  gained  a  reputation  both  as  a  teacher  and 
as  an  educational  writer,  which  spread  through- 
out Germany.  He  not  only  compiled  a  large  num- 
ber of  school  books,  many  of  which  arc  still  in 
extensive  use.  bul  also  took  an  active  part  in 
all  the  educational  controversies  of  the  day.  In 
1827,  he  founded  the  Rheinische  Blatter  fur 
Unterricht  und  Erziehung,a,  quarterly  journal 
devoted  to  instruction  and  education,  with  special 
regard  to  elementary  instruction.  In  1832,  he 
accepted  a  call  as  director  of  the  teachers'  semi- 
nary at  Berlin,  where,  as  an  advocate  of  sweeping 
and  radical  reforms,  he  had  to  contend  with  many 
difficulties.  In  1830,  the  Prussian  government 
sent  Diesterweg  to  Denmark,  to  observe  and  re- 
port, on  the  monitorial  system  which  prevailed  in 
the  schools  of  that  country.  Diesterweg's  report, 
published  under  the  title  of  Bemerkungen  und 
Ansichten  avf  einer  padagogischen  Reist  tuich 
denddnischen  Staaten  im  Sommer  1836  (Berlin, 
L836  .  was  adverse  to  the  Danish  system,  and 
called  forth  replies  from  /.erronner  and  others. 
In  L846,  Diesterweg  took  an  influential  part  in 
the  celebration,  by  the  German  teachers,  of  the 
centennial  birthday  of  Pestalozzi,  and 


found 


DIESTERWEG 


22? 


ing  an  institution  for  orphans,  as  an  appropriate 
monument  to  the  great  regenerator  of  modern 
popular  education. 

Diesterweg  was  very  obnoxious  to  the  political 
conservatists  ami  the  orthodox  Protestants,  but 
maintained  himself,  amidst  constant  conflicts, 
until  1-17.  when  the  minister  of  educational  and 
ecclesiastical  affairs,  Eichhorn,  suspended  him 
from  office.  Three  years  later,  in  I  son.  he  was 
definitely  removed,  but  Ins  entire  salary  was 
left  to  him.  Henceforth,  he  devoted  his  time 
partly  to  literary  labors,  and  partly  to  the  advo- 
cacy of  his  views  in  the  town  council  of  Berlin 
and  the  Prussian  parliament,  to  both  of  which 
bodies  the  city  of  Berlin  elected  him  a  member. 
In  the  Prussian  parliament,  Ih'o-terwoe  was  the 
leader  of  the  opposition  to  the  principles  which 
the  Prussian  government,  at  that  time,  endeav- 
ored to  carry  into  effect,  in  the  state  scl I  system, 

and  especially  to  the  famous"three  school  regu- 
lations" (SchulregulaHve),  which  aimed  at  sub- 
stituting for  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi  the  most 
intimate  connection  between  church  and  school. 
1  >iesterweg  was  generally  regarded  by  the  teachers 
of  Protestant  Germany  as  the  leader  of  the 
party  which  demanded  an  entire  disconnection 
of  the  school  from  the  church;  and,  by  his  own 
party,  he  was  looked  upon  with  sentiments  of 
profound  love  and  admiration.  When  he  cele- 
brated. Oct.  29.,  1865,  his  seventy-fifth  birthday, 
a  number  of  his  pupils  from  all  parts  of  « lermany 
presented  him  with  a  silver  laurel  wreath. 

The  views  of  Diesterweg  concerning  the  rela- 
tion between  religion  and  education  necessarily 
provoked  the  determined  opposition  of  those 
who  did  not  share  them,  but  even  his  opponents 
concede  the  excellence  of  many  of  his  school 
books.  Among  these  books,  may  be  mentioned 
the  following:  Lehrbuch  der  matkematischen 
Geographie  und  popularen  Himmdskunde  (8th 
edit!,  Berlin.  L874);  Leitfaden  fur  den  Unter- 
richi  in  der  Farm,;,-  und  GrtSss.  n  '  hr  3dedit, 
Elberfeld,  Ls:dii;  /,;,/,■/,.<,■),.,■  /../,,■;.,■<■/  fur  den 
Unterricht  in  der  deuischen  Sprache  (Part  I., 
6th  edit...  Giitersloh,  1836;  Part  2.  and  3.,  5th 
edit..  1836);  Praktisches  Rechenbuch  fur  Ele- 
mentnr-  und  hb'here  Bilrgerschulen,  in  connec- 
tion with  Heuser  (part  1 ..  'Jlst  edit..  Giitersloh, 


the  different  branches  of  instruction  in  particular. 
The   literature  on   every  subject   is  given  with 


libels 


I  III, 


lSlllli 


//■ 


eometrie   (4th  edit.,  Frank- 


with  Heuser 
and  the  Elen, 

fort,  1874).  As  an  organ  for  tie  dissemination 
of  his  views,  he  established,  in  1851,  in  addition 
to  the  Rheinische  Blatter,  his  Pddagogisches 
Jiilirhiirli,  of  which  one  annual  volume  appeared 
regularly  until  his  death.  This  theory  of  in- 
struction and  education  is  fully  developed  in  the 
Wegweiser  zur  Bildung  fur  deutsche  Lehrer, 
which  he  published  in  union  with  Bormann. 
Luben.  Mager,  and  other  teachers  (5th  edit., 
Essen,  L875).  He  treats  in  this  work  of  the  prin- 
ciples according  to  which  man  should  be  in- 
structed and  educated  in  general,  and  of  the 
method  which  should  be  observed  in  teaching 


Prussian  government.  He  was  outspoken  in  ad- 
vocating that  the  denominational  character  of  the 
public  school  should  be  abolished,  and  that  unsec- 
tarian  "communal"  or  "national  schools"  should 
be  established  in  their  place.  He  did  not  wish, 
however,  to  have  religious  instruction  excluded 
from  the  schools,  but  favored  an  instruction  in 
the  general  tenets  of  religion  by  the  teacher. 

Although  Diesterweg  devoted  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  elementary  schools,  he  also  wrote  on 
the  reform  of  the  secondary  schools,  and  still 
more  on  that  of  the  universities.  In  his  essay 
Ueber  (/o.<  Verderben  auf  deuischen  Universi- 
t&ten,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  work  Beiirage 
zur  Lebensfrage  der  Civilisation  (Essen,  1836), 
he  severely  censured  the  course  of  instruction 
pursued  at  the  German  universities,  and  con- 
tended that  the  method  of  teaching  should  be 
made  to  conform  to  the  wants  of  the  age. 
and  that  the  studies,  as  well  as  the  conduct  of 
the  students,  should  no  longer  remain  without 
superintendence  by  the  proper  authorities.  The 
universities  were  defended  against  these  charges 
by  Prof.  Leo.  of  Halle,  in  the  work  Herr  Dr. 
Diesterweg  und  die  deuischen  Vhiversitaten 
(Leipsic,  L866). 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Diesterweg,  a  number 
of  his  friends,  pupils,  and  admirers  determined 
to  establish,  in  commemoration  of  his  merits,  a 
I),,  sfl  run  j-Stiftung,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
enable  a  numb,  r  .,1  competent  teachers  to  devote 
themselves  wholly  to  educational  labors  in  the 
spirit  ol  Diesterweg.  The  &iflimg  embraces  with- 
in the  scope  of  these  labors  educational  lectures, 
the  publication  of  educational  works,  inclusive  of 
a  continuation  of  Hicsterweg's  Juhrhuch;  and 
the  establishment  of  a  national  German  model 
school  on  the  basis  oi  Diesterwegs  principles. 
See  Kneciit.  Adolf  Diesterweg,  sein  Leben  und 
Streben  (in  Magazin  fur  P&dagogik,  1869)  ; 
Langenbkro.  .-I.  Diesterweg,  sein  Leben  und 
.s',-/',/c  Srhrift'-ii  (Frankfort.  1  SC!)  ;  this  biography 
contains  a  complete  list  of  all  the  writings  of 
Diesterweg).  A  "Memoir"  of  Diesterweg  has 
appeared  in  Barnard's  Journal  of  Education, 
in  which  are  also  published  translations  of  sev- 
eral essays  of  Diesterweg:  as,  Catechism  of 
Methods  of    Teaching,   ScJiool    Discipline  and 

Plans  of  Instruct Intuit ' Spea 

Exercises.     Aselection  h the  worl     oi    Di 

s-terweg,   with   a    biographical    iiitrodiKti.in.    ha.s 
been  published  by  Langenberg,  under  the  title, 
.1.  l),,'shrir,.t,  I/ifhWi-nhh-n    • 
ten  (Leipsic.  1875). 


228 


DIFFIDENCE 


DIFFIDENCE,  or  an  instinctive  distrust  of 
one's  own  ability,  arising  from  peculiarities  of 
temperament  and  menial  constitution,  very  often 
characterizes  both  children  and  adults ;  and,  when 
it  is  excessive,  presents  a  very  serious  hinderance, 
in  respect  to  both  moral  and  intellectual  educa- 
tion, to  the  teacher  who  fails  to  study  sufficiently 
the  individual  characters  of  his  pupils,  or  who  is 
ignorant  of  the  proper  methods  of  addressing 
their  peculiar  traits,  so  as  to  guide  or  correct 
their  natural  tendencies.  Every  teacher  of  ex- 
perience is  aware  that  some  children  are  bold, 
forward,  confident,  or  conceited  ;  while  others 
are  timorous,  shy.  bashful,  and  diffident.  The 
former  seem  to  be  better  subjects  of  instruction, 
and  make  a  more  gratifying  return  for  the 
teacher's  efforts,  because  they  are  ready  to  make 
an  immediate  use  or  display  of  their  acquire- 
ments ;  while  the  others,  however  much  they 
may  have  learned,  fail  to  meet  the  ordinary  exi- 
gencies of  school  recitations,  examinations,  or 
public  exhibitions,  on  account  of  their  excessive 
self-restraint,  and  their  natural  shrinking  from 
any  trial  of  their  ability.  They  fail  because 
they  think  they  will  fail,  or  because  they  are  so 
sensitive  to  censure  or  unfavorable  criticism, 
that  they  are  paralyzed  by  the  apprehension  of 
it.  Of  this  peculiar  trait  the  poet  Cowperwas 
a  singular  example ;  and  all  are  familiar  with 
the  sufferings  which  he  underwent  in  anticipa- 
tion of  the  performance  of  his  public  duties  as 
clerk  to  the  house  of  lords,  almost  unseating  his 
reason,  and  compelling  him  at  last  to  resign  the 
honorable  and  lucrative  position  which  his 
friends  had  obtained  for  him. 

This  peculiar  trait  of  character,  according  to 
Spurzheim,  is  the  "effect  of  circumspection, 
combined  with  secretiveness  and  intellect ;"  to 
which  may  be  added  deficient  self-esteem,  and  a 
sensitive,  impressible  temperament.  When  the 
feeling  of  secretiveness,  or  shyness  is  predomi- 
nant, diffidence  assumes  the  form  of  bashfulness; 
when  caution  is  the  leading  trait,  it  is  the  sense 
of  danger  that  restrains;  and  when  self-esteem 
is  deficient.it  is  humility,  modesty,  or  an  extrav- 
agant impression  of  inability.  All  these  phases 
should  be  subjected  by  the  teacher  to  a  close  and 
discriminating  scrutiny,  and  proper  means  should 
be  adopted  to  give  tone  and  balance  to  the  char- 
acter, as  one  of  the  most  important  results  of  a 
judicious  education.  .Some  of  the  best  minds 
have  been  characterized  by  diffidence  ;  but  gen- 
erally they  possessed  other  qualities  which  coun- 
teracted its  effects,  or  compensated  for  the  in- 
firmity. Washington  was  noted  for  his  modesty, 
arising,  without  doubt,  from  natural  diffidence 
mixed  and  tempered  with  firmness  and  an  un- 
usually strong  sense  of  moral  rectitude  ;  but  he 
was  also  distinguished  for  his  fearlessness  in  the 
presence  of  extreme  peril,  showing  that  diffidence 
is  by  no  means  inconsistent  with  intrepidity. 

In  dealing  with  children  who  possess  this 
trait,  the  teacher  should  use  every  means  of  en- 
couragement, should  be  careful  not  to  place  the 
pupil  in  positions  in  which  there  is  a  probability 
of  failure  and  disgrace,  and  should  aim  to  con- 


DILWORTH 

trol  his  will  by  an  appeal  to  his  affections,  his 
love  of  approbation, and  his  sense  of  right, rather 
than  to  his  fear  or  his  sense  of  shame.  His  self- 
esteem  being  deficient,  everything  should  be 
done  to  cultivate  it,  and  he  should,  therefore,  be 
led  rather  by  praise  than  driven  by  censure ;  but, 
above  every  thing  else,  in  a  child  who  is  want- 
ing in  self-esteem,  should  the  seeds  of  moral  prin- 
ciple be  planted;  so  that  if  he  is  not  governed  by 
pride  or  a  sense  of  personal  honor,  he  may  listen 
to  the  dictates  of  conscience.  The  principle  un- 
derlying this  treatment  is,  to  counteract  the  bad 
effects  of  a  deficiency  in  certain  mental  qualities 
by  addressing  those  which  are  strong  or  excessive. 
flecker,  in  The  Scientific  Basis  of  Education.,  in 
this  connection  remarks,  "If  the  child  with  whom 
the  teacher  is  dealing  has  these  restraining  facul- 
ties large,  the  teacher,  on  that  account,  has  more 
difficulty  in  guiding  him,  but  has  the  conditions 
of  greater  success  if  he  can  succeed  in  doing  so. 
On  this  disposition  depends  the  character  of 
self-sustained  and  self-made  men." 

DILIGENCE,  the  virtue  of  constancy  in 
labor,  is  an  important,  though  not  the  sole,  means 
of  success  in  any  branch  of  human  calling.  It 
is  a  function  of  the  will  power,  as  distinguished 
from  intellect  and  sensation,  and  is  of  sponta- 
neous growth,  wherever  the  occupation  is  akin  to 
the  inclination  and  productive  of  pleasure.  It 
can,  therefore,  artificially  be  engendered  only 
by  connecting  the  occupation  with  pleasurable 
emotions  that  are  not  foreign  to  the  subject. 
Where  the  latter  are  missing,  only  dire  necessity 
can  keep  diligence  alive, — either  some  necessity 
from  natural,  or  from  positive  law.  But  then 
diligence  has  ceased  to  be  a  virtue,  though  it  may 
continue  as  a  habit,  mechanically  as  it  were.  In 
education,  diligence  is  more  powerfid  than  nat- 
ural adaptation,  as  all  the  experience  derived 
from  the  history  of  great  men  shows.  It  is  the 
office  of  pedagogy  to  promote  diligence  in  the 
pupils  by  spontaneous  growth,  as  is  done  in  the 
kindergarten  system  of  education.  Where  such 
spontaneous  growth  has  not  been  effected  l>\  early 
influences,  an  artificial  growth  must  be  cultivated; 
but  the  pleasurable  emotions  to  be  connected 
with  the  occupation,  should  be  prompted  as 
little  as  possible  by  means  foreign  to  the  sub- 
ject, such  as,  for  instance,  outward  punishments, 
rewards,  purely  mechanical  discipline,  or  the 
stimulus  of  ambition.  Whatever  the  occupa- 
tion or  study  in  which  pupils  are  required  to 
engage,  they  should,  as  soon  as  possible,  be  in- 
duced to  take  a  lively  interest  in  it  for  its  own 
sake  ;  because  such  an  interest  will  arouse  into 
active  exercise  all  the  best  powers  of  their  minds, 
and  thus  lead  to  the  most  effective  and  salutary 
educational  discipline.  Besides,  the  habit  of  de- 
pending upon  external  incentives. — the  love  of 
distinction,  of  praise,  of  pleasure,  or  of  gain, 
must  necessarily  engender  selfishness,  and  thus, 
narrow  and  debase  the  mind  which  a  generous, 
earnest  zeal  in  the  pursuit  of  a  praiseworthy  ob- 
ject would  expand  and  ennoble. 

DILWORTH,  Thomas,  an  English  teacher, 
and  the  author  of  several  very  successful  and 


DINTER 

popular  school  text-books,  among  which  were  a 
.Y.'/r  Guide  to  the  English  Tongue  (London, 
1740),  which  passed  through  more  than  forty 
editions,  and  a  Compendium  of  Arithnu  Hi  1 1  on- 
don,  1752);  also  The  Book-keeper's  Assistant, 
8vo.,  and  the  Schoolmaster's  Assistant,  L2mo. 
These  were  anion--  the  most  noted  school  books 
of  their  time.     Dilworth  died  in  L780. 

DINTER,  Dr.  Gustav  Friedrich,  a  Ger- 
man educator,  was  born  Febr.29.,  1760,at  Boma, 
in  Saxony.  He  received  his  first  education  at 
the  Furstenschule  of  Grimma,  where,  at  that 
time,  the  monitorial   system  was  in  use.  and  the 


DISCIPLES  OF  C1IIUST  229 

eminence  in  the  use  of  the  catechetical  method 
of  instruction,  which,  through  his  influence,  not 
only  came  into  general  use.  but  was  s t.im«a 


Ills  views  on  female  education  areTafd  down  in 
a  work,  entitled  Malvina.  Although  lie  did  not, 
begin  his  literary  activity  until  he  was  forty 
wars  ot  age,  he  is  entitled  to  a  place  among  the 
most  prolific  educational  writers  in  Germany. 
His  complete  works  edited  by  Wilhehn  (1K41  — 


edu 


m  a  private  family,  lie  was  appointed,  in  I7s7. 
pastor  of  a  church  in  K  itzscher.  near  Borna.  Here 
he  gratuitously  received  young  men  into  his  house 
in  order  to  educate  them  as  school-teachers,  and 
soon  attracted  the  attention  of  the  highest  school 
boards  of  the  country  by  tin'  superior  knowledge 
which  his  pupils  showed  on  entering  the  normal 
school.  He  was,  therefore,  offered,  in  1  7'.»7,  the 
position  of  director  of  the  teachers"  seminary  at 
Friedrichstadt-Dresden,  which  he  accepted,  al- 
though it  yielded  a  smaller  income,  hoping  to 
find  there  a  more  extensive  field  of  usefulness. 
Inconsequence  of  his  able  administration,  the 
seminary  attained  a  high  reputation;  but.  as  his 
health  tailed,  he  resumed,  in  1S07,  the  charge 
of  a  village  church.  Again  he  received  young 
men  into  his  house,  and  prepared  them  for 
the  gymnasium,  employing  some  of  his  former 
pupils  as  assistants.  In  1816,  the  Prussian  gov- 
ernment appointed  him  eonsistorial  and  school 
councilor  at  Konigsberg.  lie  found  the  schools 
which  he  had  to  inspect  in  a  deplorable  condition. 
When  he  made  his  first  tour  of  inspection,  there 
were  forty-two  rural  and  two  town  schools,  in 
which  not  a  single  child  was  able  to  write  a  let- 
ter. Twelve  years  later,  all  the  boys  who  had 
been  regular  in  their  studies,  in  sixty  out  of 
sixty-seven  schools,  had  acquired  this  ability. 
One  year  after  settling  at  Konigsberg,  he  re- 
ceived, in  addition  to  his  office  as  councilor,  an 
appointment  as  professor  at  the  university.  He 
was  an  indefatigable  writer,  working,  on  an 
average,  eighty-three  hours  a  week.  He  died 
May  29.,  1831.  Asa  theologian,  Dinter  belonged 
to  the  Rationalists'  school,  though  he  never  at- 
tacked the  Evangelical  school.  His  merits  as  a 
school  inspector,  teacher,  and  educational  writer 
were  so  conspicuous,  and  his  life  was  so  pure,  that 
even  the  opponents  of  his  theological  views, 
without  exception,  recognize  the  prominent  posi- 
tion which  he  occupies  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion. He  exerted  a  considerable  influence  upon 
the  educational  system  of  Prussia,  by  introducing 
into  the  state  school  the  ideas  of  Basedow  and 
Pestalozzi,  which  heretofore  had  been  applied  only 
in  private  institutions.    He  was  a  master  of  rare 


and  the  fourth  the  aseetieal  works  (5  vols.).  The 
most  celebrated  of  his  works,  the  S  huUehrerbibel, 
has  been  severely  criticised  from  several  points; 

but  two  of  his  works,  entitled   lh,    OOTZugHcksti  u 

Regeln  der  Pddagogik,  Methodik  ><»</  SchuL 
meisterklugheit  (7th edit.,  1836)  and.  Die  vorziiq- 
lichsten  Regeln  der  Katechetik  (7th  edit..  1827), 
are  regarded  as  standard  works  of  imperishable 
value. — See  Dinter's  Leben,  von  ihm  selbst  be- 
echrieben  (Plauen,  1860);  Schmidt,  Geschichte 
,/rr  />a,/„,„,,,i/,;  vol.  iv. 

DIPLOMA  (Gr.  e, ->,.,„„.  anything  doubled, 
or  folded),  a  term  anciently  given  to  a  formal 
certificate  of  authority,  because  such  documents 
were  usually  written  on  double  or  folded  waxen 
tablets.  In  more  modern  times,  the  term  was 
applied  to  a  royal  charter  or  to  any  governmental 
testimonial  of  authority,  privilege,  or  dignity. 
(Hence  the  science  of  state  documents  is  called 
diplomatics.)  The  term  is  now  chiefly  confined 
to  a  certificate  given  by  a  university,  college,  or 
other  literary  institution,  as  an  evidence  that 
the  person  upon  whom  it  is  conferred  has  at- 
tained a  certain  degree  of  scholarship  ;  or,  in  the 
case  of  professional  schools,  as  a  license  to  prac- 
tice a  particular  art. 

DISCIPLES  OF  CHRIST,  or  as  they 
prefer  to  be  named,  "  The  Church  of  Christ," 
a  body  of  Baptists,  sometimes  called  by  their 
opponents  "  Campbellites,"  after  Thomas  Camp- 
bell and  his  son  Alexander  Campbell,  who  gave 
the  immediate  origin  and  distinctive  character 
to  the  denomination.  The  original  purpose  of 
Thomas  Campbell,  who  came  to  the  United 
States,  in  1808,  from  Ireland,  as  the  minister  of  a 
Presbyterian  denomination  known  as  the  Seced- 
crs,  was  to  unite  the  various  denominations  of 
( 'hristians  on  the  exclusive  basis  of  the  Bible. 
For  a  time,  the  congregations  organized  h\  the 
two  Campbells  attached  themselves  to  a  Baptist 
association;  but,  in  1827,  a  distinct  ecclesiastical 
organization  was  begun.  The  disrip/i's  believe  in 
"baptism  for  the  remission  of  sins, "  and  practice 
weekly  communion.  In  church  government, 
this  denomination  is  congregational.  In  1874, 
a  committee  of  conference  was  .appointed  to 
confer  with  the  Free  Will  Baptists  on  a  union  of 
the  two  denominations.  The  membership  in  the 
United   States,    cluefly    in    the    Southern  and 


Western  states,  is  estimated  at,  about  500,000  ; 
in  the  British  Islands,  they  numbered,  in  1874, 
101)  churches;  and  congregations  have  also  been 
established  in  Canada,  the  West  Indies,  and 
Australia.  They  have  always  taken  a  deep  in- 
terest in  education,  and  have  a  large  number  of 
academies  and  seminaries,  as  well  as  several  col- 
leges of  high  standing.  The  moit  prominent 
among  their  literary  institutions  are  Bethany 
College,  founded  by  Alexander  Campbell,  and 
presided  over  by  him  until  his  death  ;  Kentucky 
University,  at  Lexington,  Ky.;  the  Northwes- 
tern Christian  University,  at  Indianapolis,  Ind.i 
Abingdon  College,  at  Abingdon,  111.;  Eureka 
College,  at  Eureka.  111. ;  and  Hiram  College,  at 
Hiram.  Ohio.  Female  colleges  have  been  estab- 
lished at  Columbia,  Mo.,  Versailles  and  Har- 
rodsburg,  Ky.,  and  Bloomington,  111.  Theological 
schools  are  connected  with  the  Kentucky  Uni- 
versity and  Eureka  College.  A  Bible  school  for 
colored  ministers  was  established  at  I^ouisville, 
Ky.,  in  1874.  The  number  of  Sunday-schools  in 
1874  was  2.450,  with  253,000  scholars.  For 
fuller  information  on  the  literary  institutions  of 
this  denomination,  see  the  special  articles  on  the 
colleges  above  mentioned. 

DISCIPLINE  ( I -at.  i/isrip/iiia.  from  discere, 
to  learn),  a  term  which,  according  to  its  literal 
acceptation,  means  the  condition  of  a  disciple,  or 
learner ;  that  is,  subordination  requiring  strict 
obedience  to  certain  directions  or  rules,  or  con- 
formity with  a  system  of  instruction,  having  for 
its  object  some  kind  of  training.  Hence  the  word 
discipline  is  sometimes  used  iii  an  active  sense  as 
synonymous  with  training  or  culture,  as  in  the 


should,  particularly  m  education,  he  confined  to 
its  strict  meaning  as  above  defined.  In  all  teach- 
ing, there  is  need  of  attention  and  obedience  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil ;  and  as  an  important  aim 
of  education  is  to  instill  certain  habits  as  a  basis 
for  the  formation  of  character,  the  learner  must 
be  required  constantly  and  punctiliously  to  con- 
form to  certain  rules  and  general  precepts;  and 
the  discipline  of  the  teacher  is  good  or  bad  in 
proportion  as  he  succeeds  in  enforcing  obedience 
to  these  necessary  rules.  In  large  schools,  the 
system  of  regulations  becomes  more  complicated, 
and  a  habitual  ready  attention  to  them  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils  produces  what  is  technically 
called  order.     [See  Order.)     This  kind  of  dis- 


an 


large  mini 
a  single  pi 


son.     In  military  discipline,  the  indi- 
crificed  to  the  general  object  to  be 


dividuals  being  lost  sight  of  in  the  endeavor  to 
enforce  mere  discipline  for  the  purpose  of  gen- 


eral management  or  show.  In  education,  how- 
ever, the  interests  of  the  individual  should  never 
be   disregarded.     School  machinery, — marching 


pline,  but  a  kind,  if  not  absolutely  pern 
but  little  educational  value  Order  is  indispen- 
sable to  the  proper  working  of  a  school ;  but  it  has 
been  well  remarked  that  "  good  order  involves 
impression  rather  than  repression;  it  does  not 
consist  in  a  coercion  from  which  result  merely 
silence, and  a  vacant  gaze  of  painful  restraint;  but 
it  proceeds  from  the  steady  action  of  awakened 
and  interested  intellect, — the  kindling  of  an 
earnest  purpose  and  an  ambition  to  excel." 
Hence,  the  discipline  that  is  necessary  to  produce 
order  in  a  school  or  class,  is  of  secondary  im- 
portance, in  comparison  with  that  which  has  for 
its  object  to  train  the  intellectual  and  moral  nat- 
ure of  the  pupils  as  individuals.  "I!y  discipline." 
says  Currie,  "we  understand  the  application  of 
the  motives  which  prompt  the  pupil  to  diligent 
study  and  to  good  conduct ;"  that  is.  such  mo- 
tives as  the  desire  of  the  approbation  of  teacher 
or  parent,  emulation,  or  the  desire  of  distinction, 
the  hope  of  reward,  and  the  fear  of  punishment. 


traits  of  character,  constitute  important  subjects 
for  careful  discussion.  (See  Government,  and 
Kewards.J 

All  moral  discipline  must  be  directed  to  the 
training  of  the  will ;  and  it  is  in  this  connection 
that  the  consideration  of  motives  becomes  of 
primary  importance.  Educators  are  at  con- 
siderable variance  as  to  the  proper  methods  of 
controlling  the  will  of  children.  Some  advocate, 
in  all  cases,  an  application  of  the  law  of  kind- 
ness, and  contend  that  physical  force  should 
never  be  brought  in  to  coerce  or  restrain  even 
the  most  self-willed  pupil ;  others  are  of  the 
opinion,  based  on  experience,  as  they  claim,  that, 
in  some  cases,  physical  punishment  is  indispen- 
sable. (See  Corporal  Punishment.)  The  best 
training  is.  without  doubt,  that  which  brings 
into  play  the  pupils  higher  nature,  and  leaves 
him  habitually  actuated  by  motives  derived  from 
it.  The  child  cannot  be  always  restrained  by 
fear, — that  is,  the  fear  of  immediate  physical 
pain  ;  and,  hence,  the  discipline  to  which  he  is  to 
be  subjected,  should  be  such  as  will  implant 
motives  and  principles  of  conduct  that  will  be 
effective  as  a  means  of  permanent  sell  control. 
The  mere  subduing  of  the  will  of  children  is  not 
sufficient  ;  indeed,  it  may  be  injurious.  The 
aim  of  the  teacher  should  be  to  bring  the  will 
into  subjection  to  conscience  ami  a  sense  of  right; 
in  the  words  of  a  distinguished  educator,  "to  dis- 
courage the  child  in  the  proper  development  of 
its  nature  has  a  tendenev  to  crush  out  the  life  of 
the  child  rather  than  to'  cultivate  that  life  into 
tion."  The 
school-room 


better    methods   of    thought    and   8 
motives   brought    to    bear    in     the 


DISPUTATIONS 


(ISTEICT  OP  COLUMBIA 


■s-il  11  >nTe  1.  as  far  as 


ile.  lie   those  which  will  be 


The  same  author  characterizes  the  exercise, 

operative  m  after  life.     Special  school  incentives,     which  was  originally  designed   as  ;,   public  proof 
such  as  merit  marks  etc..  are  useful  ami  in-.. per    of  the  student's  progress  in  the  art  oi    reasoning 


cling  to  the  child  du 

Unnatural,  overstrain. 
exaction  of  a  precise  c 

regulations  of  a  scl I 

individuality  of  the  chi 


mind,  which,  having  no  outward  demonstration 

naturally  results  in  a  hal lit  of  deceit  Nothing 
is  so  baneful  to  the  nature  of  a  child  as  an  at- 
mosphere of  tyranny  ami  arbitrary  power ;  and 
any  system  of  discipline  that  is  founded  exclu- 
sively upon  it,  must  produce  the  worst  effects 
possible.  After  all.  the  best  discipline,  even  if 
the  outward  order  should  not  be  so  exact,  is  that 

the  consistent  example,  and  the  kindly  heart-felt 
sympathies  of  the  living  teacher,  whose  very 
presence  is  sunshine  to  his  school. and  who  quells 
waywardness  by  the  very  sublimity  of  Ins  pa- 
tience, firmness,   and   perfect  self-control.     (See 


For  a  long  time  the  study  of  dialectics,  or  the 


DISPUTATIONS 

ical  exercises  in  which 
the  universities,  were 
hibit  their  powers.  1 1 
as  applied  in  the  1'nivt 
land,  to  those  who 
honor: 
These 


German  universities  of  the  Uth  and  lath  cent- 
tuiies,  Noii  Raumer  says,  "the  lectures  were 
accompanied  with  frequent  disputations,  in  which 
teachers  and  scholars  took  part.  The  regular  dis- 
putation day  was  Saturday.  Sophismata  and 
he  old  form  of  rhetor-  qUKStiones,  after  the  fashion  of  theses,  furnished 
ndidates  for  de-ices  in  the  basis  for  the  disputing.  The  purpose  of  them 
ancrlv    reonire,?  to    «.      all  seems  to  have  been  not  SO  much  to   deal  w,th 


i.il.l 


III. 


progress.      I  licy  were   ot    two    kin. Is:  iinhiturii. 

practice  ;  and  extraordinary,  or  those  performed 
publicly  as  the  necessary  qualifications  for  a  de- 
gree. The  exercise  finally  became  absurd  and  was 
held  up  to  ridicule.  The  following  gives  a  hu- 
morous description  of  the  method  of  disputation 
at  Oxford,  England,  in  the  last  century  : 

"The  persons  of  this  argumentative  drama  are 
three  :  namely,  the  opponent,  the  respondent,  and  the 
-moderator.  The  opii.ment.is  the  person  who  always 
begins  the  attack,  and  is  sure  of  Io-uil'  the  .l.iv.  ]..ai'iLr 
always  (as  they  call  It.  on  the  wrong  si  le  of  the  ques- 
tion;  though  oftentimes,  that  side   is  palpably  the 

right  side,  according  I r  modern   philosophy  and 

discoveries.  The  respondent  -i's  ,,\,-,  .i-.nii-t  the  ..p- 
ponent,  and  is  prepared  to  d'-io  u  I,  it, i.i  In-  affirms, 
and  always  eomes  ott'  with  thin-  .  ;■  i  -.  \\  hi.-li  hum 
need3  make  him  enter  the  li-ts  w  eh  "i.  at  iMititinle  and 
intrepidity.     The  i ler.n,, r  i-  the  |„.,,,.  ,„■  ,,,,,„ .,,,,. 


1795);   Von  1!  u  mkk.  Geschichte  der  Padagogik, 
vol.  v.,  trans,  in  Barnabd's  German  Universities 
(N.Y.,1859). 
DISTRICT   OF  COLUMBIA,   the  federal 

district  in  which  the  capital  of  the  Dinted States 
has  been  located  since  November.  Imiii.  It  orig- 
inally consisted  of  portions  of  territory  ceded 
to  the  general  government  by  Maryland  and 
Virginia,  and  forming  a  square' of  LO  miles,  and 
hence  having  an  area  of  11)0  sq.  m.,  (J4  on  the 
Maryland  side,  and  36  on  the  Virginia  side,     li 


pursuance  of  anac 


bate  ; 
to  cut 
again  ; 

ipiantit 


quantity  "I  suntle 
quoad  'line  el  ./»",/ 

Jll-irilirtHnint  Oiih  .' 
pntentialiler,  dire, 
cidens,  eutil, ttirc  i 


meld  was  organized,  the  charters  of  Wa.-hitigloii 
and  Georgetown  were  repealed,  and  the  adminiS- 


232 


DISTRICT   OF    COLUMBIA 


tration  of  the  affairs  of  the  District  was  com- 
mitted to  a  governor  and  legislative  assembly. 
By  act  of  Congress,  June  20.,  1874,  the  territo- 
rial government  was  abolished,  and  the  adminis- 
tration was  vested  in  three  commissioners  to  be 
appointed  by  the  President  with  the  consent  of 
the  senate. 

Educational  History.— The  charter  of  the  city 
of  Washington,  amended  in  1804,  first  made 
provision  for  the  "establishment  and  superintend- 
ence of  schools"  in  the  District;  and  an  act  of  the 
city  council,  the  same  year,  required  the  appoint- 
ment of  thirteen  trustees  to  carry  these  provi- 
sions into  effect.  Six  of  these  trustees  were  to  be 
chosen  by  those  persons  who  contributed  to  the 
support  of  the  schools.  Among  the  trustees  elected 
by  the  contributors  was  Thomas  Jefferson,  who 
was  made  president  of  the  first  board  convened. 
The  first  action  taken  by  the  new  board  contem- 
plated the  establishment  of  schools,  a  college,  and  a 
university — the  whole  to  constitute  an  institution 
"in  which  every  species  of  knowledge  essential  to 
the  liberal  education  af  youth  may  eventually  be 
acquired."  As  the  result  of  this  action,  two 
schools  were  established,  which,  in  1809,  it  was 
resolved  to  merge  into  one.  About  this  time 
(1810),  the  citizens  of  Georgetown  applied  to  the 
corporation  of  their  city,  to  set  apart  a  lot  on 
which  suitable  school  buildings  might  be  erected. 
Their  application  is  supposed  to  have  been  suc- 
cessful, as  eight  months  afterward  the  officers  of 
the  city  attended  the  laying  of  the  corner-stone 
of  a  new  school-house ;  and,  five  months  after 
that,  a  new  school,  organized  upon  the  Lancas- 
terian  plan,  was  opened.  In  1812,  the  sum  of 
$1,000  was  appropriated  by  the  council  for  the 
purpose  of  building  an  addition  in  which  the 
female  pupils  might  receive  separate  instruction. 
The  reputation  of  this  school  had  extended  so 
far,  that  the  committee  of  the  Washington  school 
board,  on  receipt  of  a  letter  from  one  of  the 
teachers  of  the  Georgetown  school,  suggesting  the 
establishment  of  a  similar  school  in  Washington, 
acted  immediately  upon  the  suggestion,  and  pro- 
cured the  passage  of  an  order  "that  there  shall  be 
one  school  in  the  city  of  Washington,  as  near  as 
practicable  in  the  center  thereof,  to  be  conducted 
on  the  plan  of,  and  as  nearly  correspondent  as 
may  be  with  the  forms  observed  in,  the  Lan- 
casterian  School."  »  longress.  meantime,  by  a  joint 
resolution,  authorized  tie.'  establishment  of  a  lot- 
tery for  raising  SIO.OOO  to  be  used  in  the  organ- 
ization of  two  Lancasterian  schools.  These 
schools  must  have  been  established,  as  we  find 
the  board  of  trustees,  in  1813,  electing  officers 
and  supervisory  committees  for  the  Eastern  and 
Western  schools,  and  for  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Lancasterian  schools.  In  1833,  the 
subject  of  free  schools  in  the  District  appears  to 
have  engaged  the  attention  of  Congress,  but 
nothing  decisive  was  done  ;  and,  on  the  1th  of 
May  of  that  year,  the  city  corporation  applied 
$200  for  the  relief  of  the  Georgetown  school. 
The  authorities  of  the  three  cities  Washington, 
Georgetown,  and  Alexandria,  in  1837,  united  in 
an  appea.1  to  Congress  for  an  appropriation  for 


the  endowment  of  a  system  of  education  that 
should  embrace  the  whole  District  of  Columbia, 
by  which  the  children  of  all  might  equally  enjoy 
tin'  inestimable  advantages  of  a  liberal  education. 
The  effort,  however,  was  of  no  avail,  and  the 
schools  were  provided  for  by  private  contributions 
and  annual  appropriations  from  the  city  treasury 
till  1842,  when  the  corporation  of  the  city  or- 
dered that  the  schools  should  be  "taken  under  the 
exclusive  care  of  the  corporate  authority."  To 
this  end,  aboard  of  guardians  of  the  Georgetown 
school  was  appointed,  with  full  powers  to  pro- 
vide for  the  keeping  of  said  schools,  and  to  man- 
age the  same  for  the  public  interest.  In  1844, 
the  public-school  system  was  reorganized  by  the 
abolition  of  the  two  ward  boards,  and  the  creation 
of  a  new  board  of  twelve  trustees  with  ample 
power  for  the  complete  supervision  and  control 
of  the  schools.  These  were  to  be  open  to  all 
white  children  between  6  and  1 0  years  of  age, 
on  prepayment  of  a  tuition  fee  of  not  more  than 
50  cents  a  month,  the  pupils  furnishing  their 
own  books,  except  in  the  case  of  children  of  in- 
digent parents,  who  were  taught,  and  furnished 
with  books  free  of  cost.  The  same  act  appropriated 
$3,650  for  building  two  school-houses,  and  for 
renting  rooms  for  school  purposes.  Between 
184.r)  and  1848,  ten  new  primary  schools  were 
established,  tuition  fees  were  abolished,  and  a 
tax  of  $1  was  oVdered  to  be  annually  levied  on 
every  white  male  citizen  for  the  use  of  the  schools. 
The  changes  during  the  next  five  years  (1849  to 
1853)  were,  the  establishment  of  13  new  pri- 
mary schools,  the  buying  of  lots,  and  building  of 
new  school  -  houses,  the  increase  of  teachers' 
salaries,  and  an  annual  average  appropriation  of 
about  $15,000.  In  1857,  an  attempt  was  made 
to  bring  the  public  -  school  system  more  into 
conformity  with  the  system  which  had  been 
adopted  with  such  success  by  some  of  the  Eastern 
states,  by  creating  the  office  of  superintendent 
of  public  instruction,  and  making  an  assessment 
of  i0  cents  on  every  $100  of  taxable  property, 
but  it  was  not  successful.  In  1  still,  the  attempt 
to  pass  so  much  of  the  original  act  as  related  to 
taxation,  was  renewed,  and  with  success, a  tax  of 
10  cents  on  the  $100  being  ordered.  Since  that 
time,  the  progress  of  the  schools  lias  been  marked. 
In  1864,  the  first  school  for  colored  children 
went  into  operation.  The  same  year,  Congress 
approved  an  act  to  organize  public  schools  in 
the  county  of  Washington,  exclusive  of  the 
cities  of  Washington  and  Georgetown.  The 
first  obstacle  encountered  in  the  carrying  out  of 
this  law  was  a  disagreement  in  the  board  of  com- 
missioners in  regard  to  the  division  of  the  school 
fund  among  the  white  and  colored  schools.  A 
decision  was  reached  in  July:  and,  the  same  year, 
two  schools  were  opened,  affording  instruction  to 
150  pupils.  The  following  year,  five  schools 
were  opened,  and  the  few  schools  for  colored 
children  previously  existing  were  incorporated 
into  the  public-school  system.  Since  the  creation 
of  the  board  of  guardians  in  Georgetown,  in 
1842,  no  changes  except  those  incident  to  the- 
ordinary  routine  of  a  successful  school  system  are- 


DISTRICT   OF    COLUMBIA 


recorded.  The  act  of  Congress  which,  in  1871, 
placed  the  District  under  a  territorial  form  of 
government,  led  to  changes  in  the  form  and  com- 
position of  the  board  of  trustees,  and  to  many  in 
the  details  <>f  the  management  of  the  schools;  but 
the  efficiency  of  the  latter  was  in  no  way  im- 
paired. In  1874,  the  school  boards  of  Washing- 
ton, Georgetown,  and  the  county  were  consoli- 
dated into  one  board  of  1!)  trustees,  of  whom  1 1 
were  residents  of  Washington.  3  of  Georgetown, 
and  5  of  the  county.  In  1869,  the  officeof  super- 
intendent of  public  schools  of  Washington  was 
created,  Zalmar  Richards  being  chosen  to  the 
position.  The  following  year,  he  was  succeded 
by  J.  0.  Wilson,  who  has  continued  to  discharge 
its  duties  to  the  present  time.  The  present  super- 
intendent of  colored  schools  for  the  cities  of 
Washington  and  Georgetown  is  I  i.  F..T.  Cook. 

School  System. — The  control  of  the  schools 
throughout  the  District  rests  with  the  board  of 
trustees  already  mentioned,  who  report  directly 
to  the  triumvirate  commission  created,  in  1874, 
for  the  government  of  the  District.  This  com- 
mission appoints  a  superintendent  of  white  schools 
in  Washington,  Georgetown,  and  the  county,  and 
a  superintendent  of  colored  schools  in  Washing- 
ton and  Georgetown.  No  permanent  school  fund 
exists,  the  schools  being  maintained  either  by 
special  appropriations  by  Congress,  or  by  direct 
taxation  and  voluntary  contributions.  The  second 
method — that  of  direct  taxation — has  been  most 
effective,  the  amount  of  tax  per  dollar  of  assessed 
property  for  the  support  of  the  white  schools  in 
the  District  and  county  having  been,  during  the 
past  year,  3.7 |  mills  for  Washington,  and  3.7J 
mills  for  Georgetown;  the  amount  for  the 
colored  schools  was  3.3  mills  in  the  former,  and 
4  mills  in  the  latter.  Tuition  is  free,  the  cost  of 
books  only  being  charged  to  scholars;  but,  in 
case  of  poverty,  this  charge  is  remitted.  The  legal 
school  age  is  from  ti  to  1 7  years. 

Educational  Condition. — The  principal  items 
of  school  statistics,  for  the  year  1874 — 5,  are  as 


The  school  revenue  for  the  year  was: 
Local  taxation  for  white  schools  ;.;•  i  i.  << 
All  other  sources       "         "         93,749.67 


Total 28,817 

Number  of  chil.lren  em  "lied,  white.  .  11,241 

"        "              "          colored  5,489 

Total 16,730 

Average  daily  attendance,  white....  8,520 

"          "              "            colored.  .  3,924 

Total 12,444 

Number  of  schools,  white 166 

"        "        "        colored 75 


Total.. 
Average  number  of  teachers,  males,  colored      2 
"  '         females      "         86 

Total..  88 
Estimated  enrollment  in  private  and  paro- 
chial schools  for  the  year 6,837 


71.454,12 

Total $174,458.04 

Expenditures $334,547.36 

Normal  instruction. — The  normal  school  at 
Washington  was  organized  in  1873, for  the  pur- 
pose of  supplying  the  public  schools  of  tie- 
city  with  teachers.  The  proportion  of  female 
teachers  in  the  schools  is  so  large — 9f>  per  cent — 
that  no  provision  has  been  made  in  the  normal 
school  for  the  education  of  males.  The  number  of 
pupils  is  limited  to  2(1.  They  must  have  been,  before 
entering,  pupils  in  the  female  grammar  schools 
of  the  city,  and  at  least  17  years  of  age.  The 
course  of  study  is  one  year  in  duration.  The 
number  of  pupils  who  received  certificates  last 
year  was  20  ;  the  number  who  received  diplomas. 
11.  At  the  normal  department  of  Howard 
University,  7  students  were  graduated. 

Secondary  Instruction.  Onlyone  high  school 
is  in  existence  in  Washington;  namely,  that  for 
colored  children,  in  the  north-western  section  of 
the  city.  About  120 private  and  denominational 
schools,  and  academies  are  reported  in  the  Dis- 
trict, situated  principally  in  the  cities  of  Wash- 
ington and  Georgetown  I  If  these  schools.  1  in  are 
for  white  children,  and  L0  for  colored.  The  Wash- 
ington Business  College  furnishes  instruction  to 
persons  of  all  age  and  both  sexes,  who  desire  to 
enter  mercantile  life. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  colleges  and  uni- 
versities are  as  follows  : 


lME 


Columbian  Univ, 
Georgetown  Colli 
Qonzaga  College 
Howard  Dniversi 


I       i 


1866 


Di 


I  la]. list 
B.C. 
R.  C. 

Neii-see. 


ashlligtnli 

eorgetown 

ashin^tnn 
..sliui^toli 

Profession  id  and  Scientific  Instruction.  -- 
Schools  of  law,  medicine,  and  theology  exist  in 
connection  with  colleges  and  universities:  and 
scientific  instruction,  also,  is  to  a  certain  extent 
given,  but  no  special  institution  for  the  last 
exists.  Instruction  in  theology  is  given  to  colored 
students  preparing  for  the  ministry  by  the 
Wayland  Institute  established  by  the  colored 
Baptists.  The  National  University  Law  School  has 
3  instructors,  and  100  students.  The  National  Col- 
lege of  Pharmacy  was  organized  in  1872. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Columbia  Institu- 
tion for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was  founded  bj 
Amos  Kendall,  and  was  chartered  by  Congress 
in  1857.  Its  sources  of  revenue  are  tuition  fees, 
congressional  appropriations,  and  voluntary  con- 
tributions. In  addition  to  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment, it  has  a  collegiate  department— the  only 
college  for  deaf-mutes  in  the  world,  n  >;,<„>■■ 
extends  over  11  years — 7  in  the  preparatory  de- 
partment, and  4  in  the  college. 


234 


DISTRICT   SCHOOLS 


DISTRICT  SCHOOLS.See  Public  Schools. 

DITTES,  Friedrich,  a  German  educator, 
was  burn  Sept.  23.,  1S2I),  at  Irfersgrun  near 
Zwickau.  After  studying  at  the  university  of 
Leipsic  and  obtaining  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Philosophy,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
teachers'  seminary  at  Gotha,  and  at  the  same 
time  "  Schulrath "  (school-councilor).  In  1863, 
lie  accepted  a  call  as  director  of  the  Pcedago- 
gium  of  Vienna,  which  had  just  been  established 
by  the  municipal  government  of  that  city.  In 
this  position,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  all  educational  questions  in  Austria aud 
Germany.  In  1873.  the  city  of  Vienna  elected 
him  a  member  of  the  lower  house  of  the  Aus- 
trian //'  ichsrath,  in  which  he  formed,  with  only 
four  other  members,  the  "democratic"  (radical) 
party.  Dittcs  is  one  of  the  chief  representatives 
of  the  pedagogical  views  of  IV-ieke  l<|.  \  I.  which 
he  explained  and  defended  in  a  number  of  works. 
The  most  important  are  the  following:  Gruncl- 
rissder  Erzieh /-     n  I  Unt  rrichtslehre  (4th 


(Le 


undue, 

Schule 

live  wo 

ence  of 


0)1111 

the 


lion  and  instruction.     He  has  also 
edited  the   /Y/./,/c/c„//xr/,e  .hihrrsbericlU. 

DIVERSION'S.  An  important  part  of  the 
education  of  youth  consists  in  affording  them  an 
opportunity  for  natural,  unrestrained  diversions, 
in  which  they  may  have  free  scope  to  exercis3 
mind  and  body,  particularly  the  latter,  accord- 
ing to  their  inclinations.  During  the  early 
period  of  childhood,  no  tasks  can  be  or  need  be 
imposed  to  guide  or  accelerate  the  natural  devel- 
iment  of  the  mental  and  physical  faculties : 
of  humanity  open  of  themselves,  if 
their  condition  is  normal,  and  their  growth  is 
not  arrested  by  injudicious  interference.  At 
first,  nature,  as  a  wise  educator,  trains  through 
the  pleasurable  emotions;  for  the  impulses 
which  she  inspires  are  all  to  varied  activity,  and 
activity  is  delight  when  nerves  and  muscles  have 
the  spring  of  health  and  vital  energy.  A  few 
lessons  in  conscious  restraint  are  all  that  this 
period  requires  or  admits.  They  are  purely 
negative,  checking  the  violence  of  natural  im- 
pulse, not  urging  the  child's  activity  in  any  par- 
ticular direction.  This  is  the  education  of" home 
and  parents,  when  presided  over  by  love  and 
good  sense,  during  the  first  years  of  the  child's 
existence. — a  period  of  continous  diversion.  "A 
child,  before  its  fifth  year,"  says  Isaac  Taylor, 
"and  even  later,  if  in  perfect  health,  does  not 
know  that  the  day  is  long  ;  for  the  infant  mind 
glides  down  the  stream  of  moments,  conscious 
only  of  the  present,  and  altogether  without  | 
thought  of  periods,  intervals,  and  measured 
seasons  of  duration ;  the  infant  mind  has  no 
weariness    nor  disquietude  connected  with  the 

slow  numbering  of  hours,  days,  weeks,  n ths." 

When  the  age  for  serious  application  begins,— 
the  season  for  labor,  or  occupation  under  con- 


DIVERSIONS 

straint,  the  educator  should  strive  to  make  the 
transition  as  easy  and  gentle  as  possible.  Fre- 
quent diversions  should  be  intermingled  with 
formal  exercises;  and  much  will  be  gained  if 
those  exercises  be  made  to  partake  of  the  nature 
of  diversions,  by  having  the  characteristics  of 
novelty  and  variety,  and  by  stimulating  the 
child's  curiosity.  As  the  age  of  the  child  in- 
creases, passing  into  youth,  the  times  for  regular 
occupation  and  for  recreation,  or  diversions,  be- 
come more  distinctly  separated.  The  bov  or  the 
girl  is  gradually  led  to  feel  that  there  are  du- 
ties to  be  performed,  as  well  as  sports  to  be  en- 
joyed ;  and  that  the  pleasure  received  from  the 
latter  will  be  greatly  increased  by  the  feeling 
that  it  has  been  earned  by  a  conscientious  de- 
votion to  the  former.  Hence,  under  no  circum- 
stances, should  youth  be  deprived  of  their  op- 
portunities for  free  and  innocent  recreations,  ex- 
cept as  a  penalty  for  misdoing  or  neglect  of 
duty.  Tile  office  of  diversions  is  twofold, — re- 
j  creation  and  exercise.  The  former  is  absolutely 
essential  after  studious  employment,  to  refresh 
the  mind;  and  the  latter  is  needed  to  give  health 
and  rigor  to  the  body.  Those  sports  are  the 
best,  therefore,  which  combine  cheerful  relaxa- 
tion of  the  one  with  the  due  employment  of  the 
other.  ••  Among  the  Jesuits,"  says  Disraeli,  "it 
was  a  standing  rule  of  the  order,  that  after  an 
application  to  study  for  two  hours,  the  mind  of 
the  student  should  be  unbent  by  some  relaxation, 
however  trifling."  Boys,  if  left  to  themselves, 
will  take  violent  exercise,  and  thus  develop  their 
physical  powers  and  promote  their  growth  ;  and 
girls  will  select  sports  of  a  lighter  character. — 
such  as  are  adapted  to  their  different  physical 
constitution.  It  is  a  serious  error  on  the  part  of 
parents  to  keep  their  boys  under  painful  re- 
straint, and.  from  solicitude  for  their  safety, to 
debar  them  the  enjoyment  of  diversions  com- 
mon to  their  age.  because  attended  with  some 
degree  of  danger.  Excessive  maternal  tender- 
ness and  care  thus  exercised  must  result  in  ren- 
dering boys  effeminate,  and  unfit  to  cope  with 
the  dangers  and  trials  of  .subsequent  life.  The 
only  need  of  restraint  is  to  keep  boys  from 
vicious  actions,  low  company,  petulance  and  a 
contentious  spirit  in  their  sports,  and  from  too 
daring  and  perilous  feats  of  agility  and  strength. 
Gymnastic  exercises  may  also  be  made  a  recrea- 
tion, and.  when  carried  on  with  some  system, they 
constitute  an  important  part  of  a  regular  physical 
education.  (See  Gymnastics.)  What  may  be 
[■ailed  athletics, — rowing,  swimming,  riding,  ball- 
playing,  cricket,  etc'.,  are  greatly  to  be  encour- 
igecl  in  the  maturer  periods  of  youth,  not  only 
their  effect  in  developing  physical 
use  they  keep  those  who  actively 
i  from  those  vicious  indulgences 
it.'  the  great  peril  of  that  age. 
d.Maxime  ho?c  aHas  a  libidinir 
it  arcenda,  in  labore  corporis  i  ■cercenda. 
i  strongly  recommends  tins.-  active  exer- 
cises  in  Ins  tractate  Of  Education,  and  Locke  in 
Thoughts  concerning  Education  especially  en- 
joins  •■exercises  of    manual  arts."      As  for  the 


vigor. 
engage 

which 


Mill 


•11   sa 


DOANE  COLLEGE 

more  quiet  in-door  pastimes,  they  should  be  en- 
couraged with  moderation.  ( Ihess  aud  draughts 
may  be  permitted  ;  but,  in  these  games,  particu- 
larly in  the  former,  there  is  great  dangerof  ex- 
cess; and  it  has  never  been  demonstrated  that  a 

good  chess-player  is,  on  that  account,g I  for 

any  thin-'  but  to  play  chess.     Thesameof  bil- 


higher  English  anil  modem  languages,  ami  S.l  in 

the  common   English  branches.    These  charges 


should  be  encourage 

its  fascinating  characi 
their  attention  from 


ot  society  m  which  th 
accomplishments,  ami 
inent  of  a  combative 
diversions  involve  ch 
body;  but  there  arc  others  which  require  the 
exclusive  application  of  the  mind.  Such  were. 
in  former  times,  the  Ludi  Leibniliani, including 
the  Ludus  Finium,  the  Game  of  Ends  (uses  and 
purposes),  and  the  Ludus  Remediorum,  the 
(lame  of  Remedies  (expedients).  These  are 
briefly  described  by  Knox  in  Liberal  Edna  it  ion 
thus  : 

••  One  asks,  what's  the  use  of  this  or  that  >  as,  for 
instance,  what's  the  use  of  a  hat '   the  other  is  to  liii.l 


lerate    but    ranee  oi  the  English  language  i ften  consti- 

itheryouth  tutes  a  barrier  to  all  Christian  activitj  in  their 
because  of  behalf.  There  are  (1876)  3  instructors  and  58 
icytodraw  students,  nearly  all  in  the  preparatory  depart- 
ment The  institution  lias  Urn  in  charge  of  1 1. 
B.  Perrj  from  its  organization. 
DOCTOR.  See  Degrees. 
DOEDERLEIN,  Ludwig,  a  noted  German 
philologist  and  teacher,  was  born  at  Jena,in  1791, 

and  died  in  1863.     He  was  a  s f  the  eminent 

German    Protestant  divine  and   critic,  Johann 
Christoph    Doderlein.       He   studied   at    several 


The  old-fashioned 

ting  had  much  to 
longed  to  a  state 
deemed  useful  as 
iged  the  develop- 
These  games  and 
■   exercise    of    the 


l>lll 


38),  with  a  supplement,  Die  lateinische  Wort- 
bildung  (18381;  ffandbuch  der  lateiniscken  Eh,- 
mologie  (1841);  Homerisches  Ghssarium  (1850). 
All  these  works  were  published  at   Leipsic.     He 

also  edited  several  classical  works. 

DONALDSON,  John  William,  an  eminent 


l,m,l 


making  Bhift,  is  thus  played:  Difficult  situations  and 
circumstances  are  contrived,  aud  the  answerer  is  to 
devise  means  to  extricate  himself,  or  to  find  suc- 
cedanea  for  wants— as,  how  will  yon  write  without 
iuk?  etc.*' 

Sports,  however,  that  have  for  their  express 
purpose  the  combining  of  recreation  with  mental 
improvement  rarely  succeed  in  their  object; 
since,  as  soon  as  the  novelty  wears  oft',  they  are 
felt  as  a  task,  and  hence  abandoned.  See  D  Is 
haki.i.  Curiosities  of  Literature,  s.  v.  Amuse- 
ments of  the  Learned. 

DOANE  COLLEGE,  at  Crete,  Saline 
county.  Nebraska,  was  chartered  in  1872.  The 
first  freshman  class  wss  formed  in  1873.  It  is  un- 
der the  control  of  the  General  Association  of 
Congregational  Churches  of  Nebraska,  and  is 
designed  for  the  education  of  both  sexes.  Its! 
permanent  buildings  are  to  be  erected  on  a  high 
plateau  overlooking  the  city,  the  Dig  I'.lne  River, 
and  a  wide  reach  of  prairie  beyond,  which  to- 
gether present  a  scene  of  beauty  .seldom  sur- 
passed. The  college  is  out  of  debt  and  has  the 
following  assets  ;  818,785  in  interest  bearing 
notes;  $1,578  in  non-interest  bearingnotes  and 
subscriptions;  200  acres  of  land  in  Polk  county; 
600  acres  adjoining  the  city  of  Crete.  320  of 
"which  are  broken;  58  city  lots  in  Crete:  also 
the  academy  building  and  the  block  on  which  it 
stands,  valued  at  $8,000.  The  college  year  is 
divided  into  three  terms ;  the  cost  of  tuition  per 
term  is  87  in  the  full    classical   course,  $5  in 


don,  Ji 

Trinity 
at  the! 
office  o 


class  book.  lie.  subsequently,  held  the  office  of 
head-master  of  the  grammar  school  of  Bury  St. 
Edmonds,  which  be  resigned  in  1855, 'and  de- 
livered a  course  of  lectures  at  Cambridge  on 
Latin  synonyms.  In  1839,  the  first  edition  of 
the  New  Oralylus  was  issued,  a  work  of  pro- 
found erudition,  embodying  the  principles  of 
comparative  philology  as  established  by  the  re- 
searches of  Iiopp.  the  brothers  (irinini. and  other 
German  scholars.  This  work,  as  enlarged  and 
improved  in  the  edition  of  18"ii).  is  still  the 
standard  English  work  upon  the  subject  of  winch 


«h; 


tions  wen-  edition-  of  some  of  the  classics,and 
several  theological  works— among  the  latter, 
Christian  Orthodoxy  i  London.  1867). 

DRAWING   has  been  defined  as  the  expres- 
sion of  thought  by  means  of  lines,  or  as  a  i  isible 

presentation  upon  a  surface  of  OUT  coneep A 

a  form.  Hence  its  usefulness  in  every  depart- 
ment of  mechanical  science  or  effort  :  since  each 
of  these  departments  is  based  upon  the  concep- 
tion of  forms  and  their  realization  in  material 
products.    Drawing  is  thus  supplementary  to 


236  DRA\ 

ordinary  language,  the  function  of  which  is  to 
recall  ideas  to  the  mind  by  their  abstract  repre- 
sentatives in  words  ;  but  words  can  recall  con- 
ceptions of  form  only  to  a  very  limited  extent, 
and  scarcely  at  all  those  of  an  irregular  or  com- 
plex character.  On  the  contrary,  drawing,  by  a 
combination  of  the  simple  elements  of  lines, 
of  various  kinds  and  in  various  relations  to 
each  other,  can  transfer  from  one  mind  to  an- 
other the  most  complicated  conception,  whether 
it  be  that  of  an  actual  object,  or  the  creation  of 
the  imagination.  Thus,  the  machinist  has  be- 
fore him  an  exact  representation  of  the  piece  of 
mechanism  which  he  is  to  construct ;  the  archi- 
tect delineates  the  elevations  and  plans  of  the 
edifice  which  the  builder  is  to  erect,  and  the 
industrial  draughtsman  represents  the  designs 
which  are  to  embellish  the  varied  fabrics  of  the 
loom.  In  short,  the  uses  and  applications  of  this 
beautiful  and  expressive  form  language  are  in- 
finite, stamping  it  as  one  of  the  most  indispen- 
sable accomplishments  of  civilized  man,  and,  con- 
sequently, one  of  the  most  important  elements  of 
his  education.  The  value  of  drawing  as  a  de- 
part incut  of  general  or  popular  education,  has 
been  pretty  fully  treated  in  the  article  on  Art- 
Education,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for 
information  on  this  point.  In  the  present  article, 
it  is  designed  to  present  a  brief  outline  of  the 
relation  of  drawing  to  the  various  grades  of 
education,  with  practical  suggestions  as  to  the 
methods  of  teaching  it. 

Drawing  may  be  divided  into  two  distinct  de- 
partments, instrumental  and  free-hand,  the  for- 
mer being  principally  employed  in  the  mechan- 
ical, engineering,  anil  architectural  branches  of 
industry ;  the  latter,  by  artists,  designers,  and 
others.  The  two  divisions  are  sometimes  re- 
ferred to  as  scientific  and  artistic,  because  the 
subjects  coming  under  the  first  group,  are  based 
on  scientific  principles,  and  the  results  obtained 
are  capable  of  demonstration  by  geometry; 
whilst  free-hand  work,  either  in  imitation  or 
original  design,  employs  the  perceptive  rather 
than  the  reasoning  faculties,  and  its  results  have 
to  be  judged  by  the  standard  of  taste,  in  all 
features  which  do  not  involve  a  question  of  fact. 

Instrumental  Drawing. — The  group  of  sub- 
jects which  come  under  this  division  may  be 
classified  as  elementary  or  applied;  the  first 
teaching  methods  of  obtaining  accuracy  of  form, 
and  its  appearance  under  given  conditions  ;  the 
second,  applying  this  power  of  drawing  to  prac- 
tical purposes,  in  the  arts  of  planning,  construc- 
tion, and  design. — The  elementary  subjects  are  : 
(1)  Plane  geometrical  drawing ;  (2)  projection 
of  solids,  (a)  radial  or  perspective,  (b)  parallel 
or  orthographic ;  (3)  projection  of  shadows. 
(<«)  radial  or  perspective,  (b)  parallel  or  ortho- 
graphic and  isometric. — The  applied  subjects 
are:  (1)  Architectural  drawing  and  building 
construction  ;  (2)  machine  drawing, construction, 
and   design ;    civil    and    military   engineering ; 

(3)  surveying  and  topographical  drawing;  and 

(4)  ship  draughting,  and  marine  architecture. — 
The  elementary  subjects  teach  the  student  how 


to  draw  the  forms  of  lines,  planes,  or  solids,  either 
as  the  eye  sees  them  by  perspective,  or  as  they 
actually  exist,  by  orthographic  or  isometric  pro- 
jection. The  forms  usually  employed  in  teach- 
ing, are  regular  geometric  planes  and  solids,  con- 
veying, by  the  instruction  given,  the  principles  of 
representation  by  lines,  on  planes  of  delineation, 
when  the  objects  are  seen  in  space,  or  in  a  de- 
fined position  in  relation  to  the  eye.  The  study 
of  the  elements  of  instrumental  drawing  is  ne- 
cessary, therefore,  because  by  it  we  learn  how  to 
draw,  as  a  science,  which  is  obviously  required 
before  we  can  apply  it  to  purposes  involving  a 
knowledge  of  the  science.  The  elementary 
branches  may  thus  be  considered  purely  educa- 
tional, whilst  the  advanced  or  applied  divisions 
may  be  described  as  industrial. — Jn  the  applied 
subjects,  a  knowledge  of  plane  and  solid  geom- 
etry prepares  the  architectural  draughtsman  to 
make  working  drawings  for  the  builder,  the 
carpenter,  the  mason,  and  other  mechanics  em- 
ployed in  the  erection  and  construction  of 
buildings  ;  displaying,  by  geometrical  drawings 
made  to  a  regular  scale,  the  true  forms  and  di- 
mensions of  all  parts  of  the  fabric ;  enabling 
the  builder  to  calculate  exactly  the  quantity  of 
materials  required  in  its  construction,  and  each 
artisan  to  prepare  his  share  of  the  work,  so 
that  it  shall  truly  fit  its  place.  The  science  of 
projection  and  perspective  is  the  basis  of  the  lan- 
guage by  which  the  architect  expresses  his  de- 
sign for  the  whole  structure,  displaying  his  ar- 
rangement of  the  plan,  his  design  for  the  eleva- 
tion, the  true  form  of  the  building  in  its  several 
aspects,  and  the  appearance  of  the  whole  by 
means  of  a  perspective  view. — Again,  in  mechan- 
ical engineering,  the  designer  of  a  machine  must 
be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  projection  as  a 
science,  before  he  can  express  on  paper  his  do- 
vices  for  securing  the  sliced  and  power  required 
for  his  purpose.  Working  drawings  have  then 
to  be  made  of  the  several  parts  and  details, 
to  furnish  accurate  information  to  the  model 
maker,  by  which  he  may  make  each  part  of  the 
machine  in  wood,  to  the  molder  who  has  to  cast 
it  in  metal,  and  for  the  guidance  of  the  fin- 
isher and  fitter  who  complete  the  work  and  erect 
the  machine.  So,  also,  in  surveying  and  topo- 
graphical drawing,  the  actual  features  of  a  coun- 
try or  estate  are  ascertained  through  the  appli- 
cation of  plane  and  solid  geometry,  and  reduced 
from  the  natural  size  to  a  plan  which  is,  in  all 
respects,  like  the  true  plan  of  the  original, 
although  on  a  different  scale.  By.  the  use  of 
such  scale  drawings,  railways  are  planned  and 
executed,  cities  and  towns  are  laid  out;  and,  by 
civil  and  military  engineers,  who  employ  the 
same  means  of  delineating  their  work,  cities  are 
drained,  supplied  with  water,  or  fortified  and 
protected,  bridges  are  built  to  span  the  river,  and 
piers  made  to  encroach  upon  the  sea,  tunnels  made 
to  cut  through  hills  and  mountains,  and  embank- 
ments and  viaducts  to  fill  the  inequalities  of  val- 
leys.— The  marine  engineer  or  naval  constructor 
is  equally  dependent  upon  his  knowledge  of  pro- 
jection, in  laying  out  the  lines  of  his  ship  or  boat, 


in  displaying  its  capacity  for  freight  and  model- 
ing its  shape  for  speed.   All  these  features  of  his 


design  is  the  same  as  a  conipnsiti.ui  or  essay  on 
a  given  theme.    The  artist  uses  the  expression 


bear  so  important  a  relation  to  modern  ,-i\  ili/a- 
tion,  and  employ  so  vast  a  number  of  persons, 
are  all  dependent  upon  drawing  for  the  initiation 
of  their  schemes.  At  the  foundation  of  siieee.ss- 
ful  work,  in  any  and  all  of  their  departments, 
lies  a  knowledge  of  elementary  drawing,  which, 
regarded  as  a  language,  is  of  such  a  character, 
that  it  may  be  efficiently  taught  in  the  common 
schools  of  America,  bythe  regular  teachers  em- 
ployed to  give  instruction  in  general  subjects, as 
soon  as  this  practically  useful  subjecl  tonus  a 
part  of  all  normal-school  education.  Pure  ge- 
ometry may  be  considered  the  study  of  all  these 
sciences  in  the  abstract,  and  this  is  successfully 
pursued  in  the  schools  and  colleges;  scientific  or 
instrumental  drawing,  under  the  headings  called 
elementary  subjects,  would  be  the  concrete  ap- 
plication of  geometry  to  the  needs  of  practical 
education,  to  be  applied  at  a  future  time  to 
actual  industry. 

Frff-lLtinl  Driiiriin/.  —  As  the  name  implies, 
this  kind  of  drawing  is  the  expression,  by  the 
unassisted  hand,  of  what  the  eve  perceives,  or 
the  mind,  or  imagination,  conceives.  It-  results, 
therefore,  are  dependent  upon  the  truthfulness  of 
observation  or  p  iwer  of  c  inception  possessed  by 
the  draughtsman,  and,  in  some  measure',  upon 
his  manipulative  skill  as  a  workman.  As  a  rule, 
however,  the  power  of  chawing,  or  expression,  is 
equal  to  the  perceptive  power,  and  imperfect  or 
faulty  work  proceeds  generally  from  a  lack  of 
clear  understanding  of  the  subject  rather  than 
want  of  hand  skill. — As  in  instrumental  draw- 
ing, free-hand  drawing  consists  of  two  groups  of 
subjects,— elementary  and  applied,  the  first  being 
educational,  and  the  second,  industrial  or  pro- 
fessional. In  the  elementary  division,  are  all 
those  branches  of  study  or  exercises  which 
develop  the  imitative  faculties,  embracing  all 
kinds  of  copying  from  Hat  examples  or  round 
objects,  including  also  the  subjects  of  geometrical 
drawing  and  perspective,  by  which  alone  the 
truthfulness  of  expressed  form  can  be  tested. 
In  applied  drawing,  the  language  of  form  is  em- 
ployed to  embody  new  ideas,  either  as  original 
designs  for  industrial  art  and  manufactures,  or 
to  express  the  ideal  of  fine  art,  the  work  of  the 
imagination.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that 
both  scientific  and  artistic  drawing,  by  instru- 
ments or  by  the  free  hand,  have  a  common 
characteristic;  they  both  involve  a  knowledge  of, 
and  skill  in,  drawing  as  a  language,  before  the 
language  can  be  employed  for  original  purposes. 
To  continue  the  analogy,  ami  regarding  drawing 
as  the  language  of  form,  its  alphabet  consists  of 
two  letters,  the  straight  line  and  the  curve. 
Simple  combinations  of  these,  by  elementary 
practice,  produce,  as  it  were,  words  of  one  syl- 
lable; the  grouping  of  .several  objects  in  a  drawing, 
may  be  described  as  a  sentence  ;  and  an  original 


the  sort  of  picture  making,  of  a  noudcsciipt  kind. 
which  was  then  called  drawing,  could  only  be  es- 
timated, as  it  deserved,  as  a  useless  waste  of  time, 
that  might  have  been  wisely  employed  to  better 
purpose.  Experiments,  in  several  European  coun- 
tries, upon  large  classes  of  children,  and  even 
in  whole  grades  of  schools,  demonstrated  the 
proposition  that  every  one  who  could  learn  to 
write  could  learn  to  draw.  In  the  schools  of 
the  Society  of  Friends  in  Kngland.  drawing  had 
long  been  taught  to  every  child,  before  the  above 
conclusion  had  been  arrived  at:  and  there  was 
no  more  inequality  of  ability  displayed  bythe 
children  in  that  subject  than  in  any  other.  In 
England,  whose  display  of  industrial  art  in  1851 
was  little  less  than  a  national  humiliation,  the 
government,  seeking  after  a  remedy,  took  coun- 
sel of  the  teachers  in  the  common  schools,  and 
requested  some  of  them  to  try  the  experiment 
of  teaching  elementary  drawing,  in  their  classes, 
to  pupil-  consisting  entirely  of  the  children  of 
winking  men.  After  a  year'strial,  a  convention  of 
school-masters  in  London,  about  the  year  L852, 
recorded  as  their  opinion  that  all  children  who 
could  It  am  at  all. could  be  taught  to  draw.giving 
as  the  basis  of  their  conviction  that. during  tin  ir 
year  of  experiment,  "half  of  the  time  previously 
given  to  writing  had  been  given  to  drawing, 
with  the  result, that  the  writing  had  been  better, 
and  the  power  of  drawing  was  a  clear  gain." 
from  this  time,  aided  by  strong  encouragi  n  i  at 

from   the  government,   the   subject   came   n ■ 

and  more  into  favor  amongst  educators,  until  it  is 
now  general  in  the  schools.  Concerning  the 
possibility  of  teaching  all  persons  to  draw,  an 
art  master  of  long  experience  says,  "'linn  are 
but  four  classes  of  human  beings  whom  it  is  not 
found  practicable  to  instruct  in  drawing.  They 
are  the  blind,  the  idiotic,  the  lunatic,  and  the 
paralytic.  Of  the  rest  of  mankind  and  woman- 
kind, exactly  one  hundred  per  cent  can  be 
taught  to  draw."  (Art  Ki/iiru/ioit.  Sclm/ostir 
,t,,t'l  Imlnstriiil:  Huston.  1873.)  The  same  opinion 
is  held  by  those  teachers  who  have  tried  the 
experiment  in  the  public  schools  of  Host  on. 
Mass.— Where  drawing  may  have  failed  as  a 
subject  of  instruction  in  the  common  schools,  it 
has  probably  been  treated  as  a  special  subject, 
taught  by  special  teachers  to  the  oldei  pupils 
only,  in  the  last  year  or  two  of  school  life.  When 


'J3s 


one  of  the  elementary  subjects  of 

general  education,  and  taught  by  the  regular 
teachers,  it  has  never  tailed.  To  ensure  success 
in  teaching  the  subject  in  the  public  schools,  the 
following  conditions  are  necessary  :  ( 1 1  Only 
those  elementary  branches  should  be  taught 
which  are  educational  in  their  influence,  and  the 
knowledge  conveyed  by  them  of  general  use 
(such  as  have  been  described  as  being  at  the 
foundation  of  all  constructive  industry).  (2)  In- 
struction in  drawing  should  begin  with  school 
life,  and  end  only  when  school,  college,  or  uni- 
versity education  is  completed.  (3)  At  the 
basis  of  all  instruction  is  geometrical  drawing, 
which  illustrates  the  facte  of  regular  forms  ;  and 
perspective,  which  determines  the  appearance  of 
those  facts.  (4)  Original  design,  either  element- 
ary or  applied,  should  form  a  part  of  the  reg- 
ular exercises  required  from  pupils,  alternating 
with  other  exercises,  such  as  drawing  from 
memory,  and  dictation,  in  order  to  give  variety 
to  the  study.  (5)  The  principles  of  drawing,  and 
of  shades  and  shadows,  should  first  l>e  taught 
from  regular  forms,  and  with  scientific  method 
and  accuracy,  before  the  pupils  are  allowed  to 
draw  and  shade  irregular  forms,  with  no  guide 
but  their  own  observation.  All  practice  should 
proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from 
the  regular  to  the  irregular,  from  the  fact  to  its 
appearance.  (6)  The  best  preparation  for  truth 
and  beauty  of  design,  is  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  the  greatest  works  of  the  past  and  pres- 
ent, and  a  complete  mastery  of  all  the  methods 
and  vehicles  of  expression  :  so  that. on  the  foun- 
dation of  knowledge  and  with  unhindered  skill, 
the  draughtsman  and  artist,  educated  by  study, 
and  made  powerful  by  practice,  may  impress  on 
their  works  the  stamp  of  originality.  To  illus- 
tiaie  those  propositions,  programmes  of  instruc- 
tion in  drawing  are  here  given  in  outline: 
Primary  and  Grammar  Schools. 
1st  i/enc— The  ntimtv  nf  geometric  terms  anil  lines  ; 
drawing  straight  lines  and  their  combinations  into 
simple  terms;  also,  the  same  forms  from  memory. 
i  All  work  on  the  slate.) 


Iron," 
from 


ith 


nictation  ami  memory  drawing  of  preu- 
■ii- :  simple  .I.  -i-e  r. imposed  ef  straight 
pie  curves.  (Slate  work.) 
Practice  on  paper  of  what  lias  been 
.iiiii.l;  al-u  in  drawing,  with  readiness, 
v  and  dictation,  forms  previously  drawn 

''•signing  new  i iliinatiuns  from  copies. 

-Free-hand    outline    design,    geometrical 


jects  bounded  by  right  lines. 

5th  year.— Drawing  ornaments  and  objects  of  his- 
torical character,  as  Egyptian  lotus  forms,  Greek  vases, 
etc.;  the  same  to  lie  drawn  also  from  memory ;  geo- 
metrical drawing  of  a  more  advanced  character. 

6th,  1th,  and  xth  i/mrs.-Froe-hand  drawing  and 
design,  gcoinetrie.il  draw  ing.  model  drawing  .In mi  the 
solid  object),  and  free-hand  perspective  (developing 
ideas  in  preparation  for  advanced  work),  dictation 
and  memory  drawing;  design  with  half-tint  baci 
grounds.  Botanii  .:  i  imi  tnd  forms.  Colors  and 
the  first  principles  of  Una  harmony. 


-'''en-.     Linear  pors] five,    angular;    design  irt 

harmonious  color.-.,  from  flowers  anil  foliage;  drawing 
from  plants  in  outline  ;  object  drawing  in  one  color,  as- 
fruits  etc.,  from  flat  copies  and  from  easts. 

'.ill.   i/enr.— Linear    perspective,    ohlnpie  ;    painting 

light  and  shade,  from  .opus;  drawing  foliage  from 
plaster  casts ;  applied  design  for  manufactures,  such 

as  carpet-,  i. ice.  paper-hangings,  pottery,  glass,  fresco- 
ing, metal  work,  etc 

Ill,  iii  o/'.— Li--- ens  iii  painting  landscapes,  from  nat- 
ure ;  drawing  the  human  lignre,  from  easts;  lectures 
in  architectural  styles,  a  " 
also. 


The  principle  on  which  every  course  should 
be  arranged  is.  thai  before  attempting  to  draw 
anything,  the  pupil  should  be  made  to  under- 
stand it ;  that  is.  to  have  as  clear  a  conception 
of  it  as  possible.  Hence,  in  the  first  year,  the 
young  pupil  is  considerably  occupied  in  simply 
learning  the  names  of  forms,  in  order  to  impress 
them  upon  his  memory.  When  this  principle  is 
observed,  that  the  cultivation  of  the  understand- 
ing should  precede  draw  ing,  the  latter  will  never 
he  ilillieult  or  uninteresting. 


(-')  ! 


.icing  the  following 
i. metrical  drawing  ; 
d  the  follow  mg  ad- 


II.  Frir-hiiii'l  Ih-iui-huj,  including  the  representa- 
tion of  objects  and  ornament  tnun  both  the  flat  and 
the  round,  the  study  of  light  and  shade,  color,  and 
original  design. 

In  each  of  these  departments,  some  of  the 
knowledge  and  practice  found  in  the  other,  will 
be  beneficial  to  the  student.  The  following 
course  will  be  proper  for  each  : 

Fiiist  Year's  Course. 

1st  Part.— (1)  Freehand  outline  drawing  from 
copies  ami  blackboard,  with  exercises  in  elementary 
design;  ('J)  plane  geometrical  drawing,  from  copies 
and  lilackl.oael. 

2nd  Pari.— (1)  Model  and  object  drawing,  from 
copy  and  solid;  (2)  perspective  drawing  (for  free- 
hand students)  ;  (:i)  projection  (for  instrumental 
students). 

Second  Year's  Course. 

I.  Instntmeittttl  Ih-itirbig. —  (li  Building  construc- 
tion, including  the  following  subjects:  joints  used  in 
carpentry,  door  and  w  mdow  framing,  eon-truction  of 
floors,  partitions,  roofs,  and  stain  a-e-,  bond  in  brick- 


lst  year L 

meat-,  paralle 

loi  modi  I  -I 
half-tint,  cross 

loctiiral  styles, 


'  the  use  of  instru- 
.  with  diagrams  in 
in  light  and  shade. 
Lessons  on  archi- 


and  dictation,  etc.:  {'-)  shading  geometrical 
-.lid-,  -hading  from  the  cast  and  natural  objects,  ap- 
plied de-ign  for  industrial  purposes  and  spec'al  sub- 
jects for  particular  I. ranches  of  business. 

For  a  description  of  the  necessary  fittings  and 
apparatus,  see  Smith,  Art  Education,  Scholastic 
and  Industrial  (Boston,  1873).  See  also  Stet- 
son. Technical  Education  (Boston,  1876);  Mod- 
ern Art  Education,  translated  from  the  German 
of  Langl  (Boston,  L875);  Buisson,  Rapport  sur 
Vinstructum  primaire  etc  (Paris,  1875). 


I » MILL 

DRILL,  a  term  used  in  education,  particu- 
larly in  school  instruction, to  denote  the  strict 
routine  of  exercises  required  either  to  train  pu- 
pils to  the  ready  performance  of  mental  or  phys- 

those  arbitrary  associations  of   facts  or  words 


Thus,  a  certain  amount  of  drill  is  required  in 
teaching  the  arithmetical  tables,  the  paradigms 
and  rules  of  grammar,  the  spelling  of  words,  and 

those  facts  of  geography  that  pertain  to  thi 
location  of  places  (memorizing  maps).  I  Mill  re 
quires  definite  exercises  and   regular  practice  in 


aci|iim 
though 
dated  t 


by 


muscular  action  maybe  ace no- 
performance  of  acts  which  at  first 
seemed  impossible.  This  is  the 
iiindation  principle  of  drill.  (Sec  Rote- 
kachixo.) 

DRURY  COLLEGE,   at   Springfield.   Mis- 
iiiri.  under  the  control  of  the  <  Vngregationalists, 


its 


111.. 


Mich 

! 


cont 

is  under  the  patronage  of  the  American  <  VI- 
lege  Society  of  Boston.  The  institution  com- 
prises a  collegiate  department,  with  five  cour- 
ses of  four  years  each  (classical,  scientific,  Greek 
scientific,  Latin  scientific,  and  ladies'  course): 
a  preparatory  department,  with  classical  and 
English  courses  of  three  years  each:  a  normal 

department  of  two  years:  a  model  scl I  of  three 

years;  and  the  Missouri  Conservatory  of  Music, 
chartered  in  1875.  Both  sexes  are  admitted  to 
all  the  departments  and  courses  on  the  same 
terms,  except  that  the  ladies' course  (equivalent 
to  that  of  the  best  female  seminaries)  is  designed 
for  such  young  ladies  as  do  not  desire  to  pursue 
the  severer  college  courses.  The  library  contains 
2,000  volumes;  the  beginning  of  a  cabinet  of 
mineralogy  and  geology  has  been  made,  and  a 

number  of  specimens  of  natural  history  have  I n 

secured.  The  college  year  is  divided  into  three 
terms.  The  regular  charge  for  tuition  per  term 
is  $15  in  the  college  classes.  $12  in  the  prepara- 
tory classes,  $H  in  "the  model  school,  and  $6  in 
the  normal  department.  These  charges  are  re- 
mitted in  favor  of  the  children  of  ministers  of 
any  denomination  who  are  in  active  service. 
and  some  aid  is  extended  to  other  deserving 
students.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  11  instructors: 
the  students  were  distributed  as  follows  :  college 
classes,  35  ;  normal  class.  '-'7  ;  classical  prepara- 
tory, 75  ;  English  preparatory,  74  ;  music,  draw- 
ing, and  painting. 'J.'!:  model  school.  M  ;  total, 
deducting  repetitions,  220.  There  were  5  grad- 
uates at  the  commencement  of  1 875.  The  Bev. 
Nathan  J.  Morrison,  D.  D.,  has  been  the  presi- 
dent from  the  commencement  of  the  institution. 

DUBLIN  UNIVERSITY.     Sec  Ireland. 

DULL  SCHOLARS,  or  Dullards,  a  class 
of  pupils  found  in  every  school  and  class,  whose 
perceptions  are  deficient  in  rapidity,  and  whose 


DUPANLOUP  239 

mental    powers  are  sluggish.      Such  pupils   need 

especially  the  spur  of  encouragement,  and  should 


chemist  Liebig  are  often  mentioned  as  examples 
of  this  fact. 

DUNCE,  a  term  applied  to  a  pupil  who  is 
dull,  or  slow  in  learning.  The  word  is  supposed 
to  be  a  corruption  of  the  name  of  Joannes 
Duns  Scotus,  a  very  learned  man,  who  lived  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  thirteenth  century  died  in 
1308).  Kr<an  his  keen,  analytical  intelleci  and 
acute  logic,  he  was  styled  doctor  subtiln  the 
subtle  doctor.  The  name  of  this  greal  scholar, 
according  to  sonic,  was  applied  to  a  dullard  in 
derision,  just  as  we  often  ironicallj  call  a  stupid 
fellow.-,  Solomon,  or  a  bully  a  Hector.  Trench, 
however  thinks  it  became  a  term  of  scorn  ap- 
plied to  the  adherents  of  the  old  school-men  by 
the  disciples  of  the  new  learning,  as  the  latter 
gained  ..round  during  the  middle  ages.  Bence, 
the  expression,  "You  are  a  Owns,"  was  a  reproach, 
dvocate  or  supporter  of  obsolete 
pinions.       Butler,   in    Hudibras 


as  iniplyi 
and  cxpl 
thus  pun: 


DUPANLOUP,  Felix  Antoine  Philippe, 
shop  of  Orleans  and  the  foremost  Catholic 
ritcr  of  France,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  on 
litcatioiial  subjects,  was  bom  at  St.  Felix. 
ivov,  Jan.  3.,  1802.     lb-  was  ordained  priest 


in  1849,  bishop  of  Orleans.  His  chief  attention 
has  ever  since  been  devoted  to  the  educational 
interests  of  the  Catholic  Church.  The  petit  semi- 
naireof  I  Means  entered  into  a  lively  competition 
with  the  state  schools;  in  his  own  episcopal 
palace,  heopeneda  new  school,  and  he  took  an 
active  part  in  all  the  educational  controversies  of 
the  time,  lie  continued,  with  great  energy,  the 
defense  of  the  "  liberty  of  instruction."  which  the 
Catholics  of  France  demanded  in  opposition  to 
the  I'nivcrsitv.  and   in  which  he  had  zealously 


eluding  the  pagan  classics  from  Christian  schools 

(see   Classics,   Christian),  and  was 

violently  attacked  by  the    Univers.    The  con- 


240 


DTJKSOB 


troversy  was,  for  some  time,  continued  on  both  I 
sides  with  considerable  severity,  until,  at  length, 
the  Pope  imposed  silence  upon  both  parties.  He 
was  consulted  in  the  framing  of  the  law  of  March  J 
15.,  1850,  concerning  the  reorganization  of  public  ; 
instruction;  and.  after  the  promulgation  of  the 
law,  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Conseil  de 
Vinstrwiion  publique.  He  withdrew  from  this 
position  in  1852.  In  the  National  Assembly 
which  met  in  1871, after  the  proclamation  of  the 
third  republic,  he  was  the  recognized  leader  of 
the  opposition  against  the  liberal  views  of  Jules 
Simon,  the  minister  of  public  instruction.  The 
Assembly  appointed  him  president  of  the  com- 
mittee selecte  1  to  examine  and  report  on  the  bill 
in  favor  of  compulsory  primary  instruction,  which 
had  been  drafted  by  Simon';  and  he  not  only 
emphatically  declared  against  the  ministerial  bill, 
but  presented  a  counter-project  in  favor  of  the 
"  free,  religious,  and  gratuitous  instruction  of 
the  poor."  In  1875,  he  secured,  in  the  National 
Assembly,  the  adoption  of  a  Mil  in  favor  of  the 
'■freedom  of  superior  instruction."  the  chief  ob- 
ject of  which  was  the  establishment  of  free  I  lath- 
olic  universities,  in  the  subsecpieut  organization 
of  which  he  was  the  acknowledged  leader  of  the 
bishops.  (See  France.)  Having  been  elected,  in 
1854,  a  member  of  the  French  Academy,  he  re- 
peatedly prevented  by  his  influence  the  election 
of  several  decided  opponents  of  ( 'at  he  die '  loet  lines 
When,  in  1871,  Littre  was  admitted  to  the 
Academy  in  spite  of  his  opposition,  he  resigned, 
on  the  ground  that  he  was  unwilling  to  belong 
to  a  society  which  admitted  atheists ;  but  Guizot 
and  other  friends  prevailed  upon  him  to  with- 
draw his  resignation.  The  most  important  edu- 
cational work  of  Dupanloup  has  been  published 
under  the  title  De  TlZducation  (3  vols.,  1855—7). 
It  treats  of  education  in  general,  of  authority 
and  respect  in  education,  and  of  superior  in- 
struction, entering  very  fully  into  the  discussion 
of  all  the  educational  controversies  of  the  day. 

DUR3CH,  Martin  Georg,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic writer  on  education,  was  born  at  Deggingen 
in  the  kingdom  of  Wurtemberg,  Nov.  11., 
1800;  studied  philosophy  and  theology  at  the 
university  of  Tubingen,  and  Oriental  languages 
at  Paris,  became  on  his  return  professor  at  the 
gymnasium  of  Ehingen,  and.  in  1850,  pastor  and 
dean  at  Rottweil.  His  work  on  pedagogics  or 
Christian  education  [Pddngogil  ■  I  •  Wissen- 
schaft  der  christlichen  Erziehmuf,  1851  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  best  on  this  subject  from 
the  Catholic  point  of  view.  He  advocates  the 
co-operation  of  church  and  state  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  public  school,  and  asserts  that,  with- 
out this  co-operation,  the  aim  of  the  public 
school  to  improve  and  purify  human  society  can 
never  be  attained. 

DURTJY,  Victor,  a  French  historian,  au- 
thor, and  educationist,  born  in  1811.  lie  was 
professor  of  history  at  Reims,  and  afterwards 
at  Paris,  in  the  Lycee  Napoleon.  In  1853,  he 
received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Letters.  He 
successively  served  as  inspector  of  the  Academy 
of  Paris,  inspector  general  of  secondary  instrue- 


DWIGHT 

tion,  and  minister  of  public  instruction  (1863). 
In  the  latter  position,  which  he  rilled  till  18G9, 
lie  attempted  many  innovations  which  were 
much  opposed  ;  he  effected,  however,  some  im- 
portant reforms.  His  chief  historical  publica- 
tions are  Histoire  des  Grecs,  2  vols.,  Histoiredes 

Remains,  4  vols.,  Introducti jinerale  a  Vliis- 

ioirede  France,  1  vol.,  Cours  dkistoire,  7  vols., 
and  Eisioire  de  France,^  vols.  These  works 
have  been  very  popular,  and  have  attained  an 
extensive  circulation.  M.  Duruy  has  also  pub- 
lished valuable  reports  on  the  progress  of  litera- 
ture and  science  as  shown  in  the  Exposition  Uni- 
rersrlh-oi  18(17. 

DWIGHT,  Francis,  noted  for  his  efforts  in 
behalf  of  popular  education  in  the  state  of  New 
York,  and  as  the  founder  and  editor  of  the 
District  SchoolJournal  of  that  state,  was  born 
in  Springfield,  Mass.,  March  14.,  1808,  and  died 
in  Albany,  N.  Y..  Dec  15.,  1845.  For  several 
years  he  acted  as  county  superintendent  of 
schools  for  the  city  and  county  of  Albany,  and 
was  successively  member  of  the  school  board  of 
Albany,  and  of  the  executive  committee  for  the 
eare  and  government  of  the  normal  school  in 
that  eitv  the  first  in  the  state.  The  District 
School  Journal  was  commenced  in  1840,  and 
edited  by  him  till  bis  death.  This  journal  was 
aided  by  the  patronage  of  the  state,  and  was 
supplied,  at  the  expense  of  the  common-school 
fund,  to  every  school  district.  Its  tone  and  in- 
fluence were  highly  commended  by  the  distin- 
guished educators  of  the  time.  It  survived  him, 
however,  only  a  few  years. —  See  Barnard, 
Auirriatit    Trttrlirrs  mill   Eihiotltirs. 

DWIGHT,  Timothy,  a  celebrated  Ameri- 
can theologian  and  scholar,  was  born  in  North- 
ampton, Mass..  May  14.,  1752,  and  died  in  New 
Haven,  Ct.,  Jan.  11..  1817.  His  mother  was 
the  daughter  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  After  grad- 
uating at  Yale  College,  in  17G9,  he  taught  a 
grammar  school  in  New  Haven  for  two  years, 
and.  during  the  next  six  years,  was  a  tutor  in 
Vale  <  ollege.  1  luring  a  part  of  the  Revolution- 
ary war,  he  served  as  chaplain  in  the  army,  dis- 
tinguishing himself  by  the  patriotic  fervor  of  his 
addresses,  and  by  the  stirring  songs  which  he 
composed.  He.  subsequently,  performed  the  du- 
ties of  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church  and 
principal  of  an  academy,  in  Greenfield,  Ct.  In 
L795,  he  succeeded  Dr.  Stiles  in  the  presidency 
of  Yale  College,  which  position  he  held  till  his 
death.  He  was  a  teacher  of  great  ability,  an 
impressive  pulpit  orator,  and  an  excellent  divine. 
His  presence  was  commanding,  and  his  manners 
affable  and  genial.  1 1  is  writings  were  numerous, 
but  confined  to  the  departments  of  theology  and 
general  literature.  One  who  had  been  connected 
with  him  as  a  student  in  Yale  College. thus  bears 
testimony  to  his  character  as  a  teacher  :  "  After 
the  lapse  of  forty  years,  and  after  much  oppor- 
tunity of  associating  with  many  eminent  instruc- 
tors, President  Dwight  is  ever  present  to  my 
mind  as  the  Great  Model  Teacher."— See  Deni- 
sonOlmsted,  Timothy  Dwight,  as  a  Teacher,  in 
Barnard's  American  Teachers  and  Educators. 


241 


EAR,   Cultivation  of  the. 

ological  researches  appear  In  ten 


Recent  physi-  ,  office,  since  language,  (lie  most  oflici, ■., 
■  Imt  little  rea- |  all  education,  depends  upon  iis  cvrei  .,•       Moral 


waul,  tl 
only  a 
their  gfi 
ternal  ii 

and  soeii 


bin 


cation  of  the  senses  is  more  orlesseffii 
cording  to  the  time  at  which  it  begins  al'b 
In    the    lighl    iii    in"  lei  a   • 
sidered  by  some  extremely  doubtful  whetl 
is  really  any  rase  of  actual   conger)      I 


doubtle 
fection, 

tub,-  ,,l 


malfi 

and 


r  touch,  or  both  tli 

i'  infant  begins  to 
-usually  after  tin 
the  words  are  aeci 
eulation.eare.-houl 


which 
ill  be 


om  th 
pie  Ian 
i.  espe 

lilnii'ix 

a  aegli 
ial    tli. 


families.     This  is  an   importanl    l  ic1 .     i    i 

serves  to  correct  the  notion,  so  generally  enter- 
tained, that  good  speakers  and  dingers  musl  be 
horn  .sneli.  and  that  there  are  but  few  persons 
thus  naturally  endowed.  There  is,  without  doubt, 
considerable  diversity  in  the  sensuous  endow- 
ments of  different  individuals;  but.  at  the  same 
time,  it  is  impossible  to  fix  a  limit  to  the  im- 
provement of  which  every  organ  of 
ceptible  by  continuous  and  proper  education,  and 
particularly  by  a  cultivation  carried  on  through 
several  successive  generations.  As  regards  the 
the  ear,  this  may  be  considered  as  historically 
established  :  since,  but  three  centuries  ago.  there 
were  but  an  exceptional  few  persons  who  showed 
an  ability  to  appreciate,  and  a  still  smaller  num- 
ber who  were  able  to  reproduce,  musical  melody 
and  harmony.  Of  all  the  ancient  nation-,  the 
Greeks  alone  seem  to  have  been  able  to  enjoy  the 
diatonic  scale  (but  not  the  chromatic),  and  to 
give  it  expression  in  their  music,  other  nations 
never  having  any  other  than  the  scale  of  five 
notes  (barbaric  scale).  The  progress  of  musical 
art  among  modem  civilized  liati.uis  and  partic- 
ularly the  diffusion  of  musical  taste  among  the 
people  are  striking  illustration-  of  car  culture, 
since  this  progress  could  noi  be  effected  without 
an  organic  as  well  as  an  esthetic  improvement. 

The  sense  of  hearing  is  the  eat  lies!  to  be  devel- 
oped in  infancy,  and.  at  the  approach  "t  death, 
seems  to  lie  the  last  to  be  extinguished  .    it  is  al.-o 

the  last  to  be  overcome  by  sleep,  and  the  first  to 

be  aroused  on  awakening.  In  reaching  objects 
at  a  distance,  its  power  is  next  to  that  of  sight. 
In  the  earliest  stages  of  intellectual  development, 
the  sense  of  hearing  performs  a  most   important 


children  cither  never,  or  with  \ cry  great  dillicul- 
ty  acquire  a  distinct  articulation.  It  is  a  great 
erroi  quite  common  in  some  families  and  com- 
munities, to  repress  the  natural  vociferations  of 
children,  and  to  insist  on  the  constant  use  oi  kra 
tones  in  speech.  Nature  dictal  ■  .:  i  al  di  d  ol 
crying,  shouting  etc.,  in  order  that  the  lungs 
and  vocal  organs  may  be  fully  developed ;   but, 

i.l    i  m;u  ill    excess    should    lie    re.-t  rained,  .-nice 

the  habit  of  yelling  and  shouting  in  the  open  air 
will  not  only  injure  the  delicate  organs  of  the 
voice,  but  will  have  a  bad  effect  upon  the  moral 
development  of  the  child,  besides  incapacitating 
him  for  the  perception  and  appreciation  ,,t  tine,. 
delicate  distinctions  of  sound  upon  which  musical 
li;i:inoii\  and  melody  depend.  To  what  an  ex- 
tent this  nice  perception  and  discrimination  of 
sound  may  be  cultivated,  appears  from  the  fact 
that,  in  good  kindergartens,  a  child  will  learn  to 
distinguish  blindfolded  the  voice  of  any  one  ot  a 
hundred  comrades,  to  tell  by  what  w 
one   of  a    hundred    different    noises   is   produced. 

and  to  estimate  with  tolerable  accuracy  the  dis- 
tance of  the  source  of  any  well-known  sound. 
Very  young  children  may  also,  b\  suitabli  i  :er 
cises,  readily  acquire  the  ability  to  distinguish 
the  intervals  of  musical  notes,  and  their  position 
in  the  scale.  By  similar  kindergarten 
even  eases  of  constitutional  difficulty  in  hearing 
may  be  considerably  alleviated.  Thus  such  a 
child  maybe  shown  how.  by  closing  the  mouth 
and  nostrils,  the  air  may  be  forced  into  the 
Kustachian  tubes,  until  the  well-known  explosive 
sound  of  each  tympanum  follows.  After  every 
such  exertion,  the  hearing  will  be  found  to  be- 
come somewhat  better,  until,  by  frequent  repeti- 


242  EARLHAM  COLLEGE 

tion,  its  improvement  will  be  quite  decided;  be-  j 
cause  the  fine  blood-vessels  of  the  organ,  in  which  ; 
the  circulation  hail  become  stagnant,  are  ren- 
dered active  ;  provided,  of  course,  there  is  no  mal- 1 
formation  or  incurable  physical  defect  in  the 
organ  itself.   (See  Sknsf.s,  Education  of.) 

EARLHAM  COLLEGE,  at  Richmond, 
I, id.,  is  controlled  by  a  board  of  managers  ap- 
pointed bythe  [ndiana  Yearly  Meeting  of  Friends 
(orthodox).  It  was  chartered  in  L857  :  but  a 
hoarding-school  for  instruction  in  the  higher 
branches  had  been  in  operation  in  the  same 
building  for  several  years  previous.  The  college 
is  supported  bythe  income  from  an  endowment 
of  s.Vi.i ioi i.  by  tuition,  and  by  the  proceeds  of  a 
farm.  There  is  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course, 
each  of  four  years.  The  preparatory  school  has  a 
course  of  two  years.  Students  may  pursue  si  lected 
studies  at  the  discretion  of  the  faculty,  but  no 
degree  is  given  except  on  the  completion  of  one 
or  the  other  of  the  regular  courses.  The  degrees 
are.  A.  B.  for  the  classii  i]  and  B.  S.  for  th 
scientific  course.  Graduates  may  receive  the 
second  degree  (A.  M.or  M.  S.  according  to  the 

previous  course)  either  on  continuing  year 

at  the  collide  iii  the  satisfactory  prosecution  of 
post-graduate    studies,  or.  in   regul 
the  end  of  three  years    on  passin 


examination  in  soon-  -elected  studies,  or  on  the 
presentation  of  a  satt-t  iet.,ry  t  Ii-  -~i  ~.  The  college 
has  libraries  containing  over  l.niio  volumes  :  an 
observatory  supplied  with  an  equatorial  telescope, 

a  transit  instrument, and  an  astroi ical  clock; 

and  a  museum  of  zoology,  comparative  anatomy. 
geology,  archaeology,  etc.    There  are  from  ten  to 

twelve  instructors,  including  six  professors  and  a 
principal  of  the  preparatory  depai  tm  ri  The 
number  of  students  at  present    L876   ranges  from 

220  to  230  per  year,  about  -thirdof  whom  are 

college  students.     The   nuiiiber  of  gi. 
1875"  was  79.  The  first  president,  Prof.  Barnabas 
('.  I  Ioblies.  was  appointed  in  1  S('.."> :    he  held  the 
of  flee  two  years  and  was  succeeded  by  the  present 
incumbent,  Joseph  Moore.  A.  M. 

EAST  TENNESSEE  UNIVERSITY 
and  State  Industrial  College,  at  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  non-sectarian,  was  chartered  in  1807.  It 
received  a  grant  of  land  from  the  United  States 
through  the  state  legislature,  from  which  about 
$40,000  was  derived;  and  a  further  endowment 
was  obtained  from  the  property  of  Blount  Col- 
lege, which  was  merged  in  it  on  condition  of  its 
establishment  at  Knoxville.  It  was  suspended 
during  the  civil  war.  and  the  college  property 
was  occupied  by  the  Tinted  States  army,  and 
greatly  damaged.  Exercises  were  resumed,  in 
1  Si;*!,  in  the  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  In 
181i!h  the  institution  received  the  Congressional 
land  grant  to  the  state  for  the  e-taMi-liuient  ot 
an  agricultural    and   m-ehaiiieal  college   and    the 


of  '_'i;n  acres  i<  about  a  mile  from  the  buildings. 
The  libraries  contain  about  1,000  volumes.  The 
cabinets  of  geology,  mineralogy,  and  /.oology  have 


ECUADOR 

been  recently  commenced,  and  are  constantly 
receiving  accessions.  A  chemical  laboratory  has 
been  established  The  value  of  the  grounds,  build- 
ings, and  apparatus  is  8150,000;  the  amount 
of  productive  fund-.  $396,000.  It  has  a  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate  department.  The  col- 
li -jiate  studies  extend  over  a  period  of  four  aca^ 
demic  years,  of  ten  months  each,  and  comprise 
three  distinct  courses,  as  follows:  (1)  The  agri- 
cultural course,  in  which  prominence  is  given  to 
the  sciences  pertaining  to  agriculture;  (2)  The 
mechanical  course,  in  which  the  principal  stud- 
ies are  those  which  relate  to  the  mechanic  arts  : 
(3)  The  classical  course,  iii  which  the  Latin  and 
<  ireek  languages  are  taught .  Students  c<  >n iplet  i  i ig. 
with  credit,  the  classical  course,  receive  the  de- 
gree of  Bachelor  of  Arts:  those  completing  the 
agricultural  or  mechanical  course,  that  of  Bach- 
elor of  Science  The  students  are  organized  into 
a  battalion  ;  and  military  drill  and  inspections, 

mulct  tin  directi >f  tie  professor  of  military 

t :.- t i  -  t  ike  place  daily.  The  whole  college  is 
under  military  discipline.  All  able-bodied  stu- 
dents must  perform  a  small  amount  of  labor; 
but  this  is  principally  required  of  the  freshman 
and  sophomore  classes.  Those  who  wish  addi- 
tional labor,  are.  to  a  limited  extent,  furnished 
with  work,  for  which  they  are  remunerated. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  $36  a  year  in  the  college, 
and  $30  in  the  preparatory  department.  Free 
tuition  is  given  to  students  nominated  by  mem- 
bers of  the  state  legislature,  each  senator  having 
the  right  ton inate  two,  and  each  represen- 
tative three.  Free  tuition  is  also  given  to  young 
men  who  intend  to  prepare  for  the  ministry, 
and  who  bring  a  certificate  to  that  effect  from 
some  church  organization.  In  1874 — 5,  there 
were  IS  instructors,  and  101  Collegiate  and  I'll 
preparatory  students.  The  Rev.  Thomas  William 
Humes.  S.'T.  I>..islls7li)  the  president. 

EAST  TENNESSEE  WESLEYAN 
UNIVERSITY,  at  Athens.  Tenn..  under  the 
control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
was  chartered,  in  the  winter  of  1860 — 7,  as  the- 
East  Tennessee  Wcsleyan  College.  The  name 
was  changed  at  the  next  session  of  the  legisla- 
ture. It  was  opened  in  September,  1867.  The 
main  college  building  is  a  substantial  brick  struc- 


ture. 70  by 
libraries  contain 
is  an  academic,  v. 
department, the  la 
tine  course.  Then 
the  cost  of  tuition 


three  stories  high.  The 
1.500  volumes.  There 
aratory,  and  a  collegiate 
ing  a  classical  and  a  scien- 
wo  terms  in  the  year,  and 
from  $6  to  $22  per  term, 


according  to  the  department.  Deductions  are 
made  in  favor  of  ministers  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  < 'hiirch.  In  187  1 — 5,  there  were  7  in- 
st motors.  D!  collegiate  students,  35  preparatory. 
:;m  academic  and  I '.'  inu-ic  scholars,  making  a 
total,  deducting  repetitions,  of  86;  the  number 
of  alumni,  up  to  that  time,  was  27.  The  Rev. 
John  P.  Spence,  A.  \l„  is  (1876)  the  president. 

ECONOMY,  School.    See  Set t.  ECONOMY. 

ECUADOR,  a  republic  of  South  America, 
having  an  area  of  248,400  sip  in.,  and  a  popula- 
tion estimated,  in  1ST...  at  L,850,000.     Of  these, 


55  per  cent  were  whites;  42percenf  Indians;  the 
remainder,  negroes  and  half-breeds.  The  inhabit- 
ants speak  the  Spanish  language  and  belong  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  form  of  worship 
of  which  is  the  only  one  tolerated  in  public. 
After  the  conquest  of  the  empire  of  the  [ncas,the 
kingdom  of  Quito  wasmade  a  presidencyof  the 
viceroyalty  of  Peru.  It  remained  under  Spanish 
rule  up  to  L822,  when  it  became  a  part  of  the  re- 
public of  Colombia:  Mini,  in  1831,  became  an  in 

dependent  republic  under  the  Hi i  oi    I    oa  lor 

Since  then,  it  has  I n  the  Bcene  of  numerous 

revolutions  and  want  with  the  neighboring  re- 
publics.   The  schools  of  all  grades  have  beenand 

still  are  under  tl ntrol  of  the  church,  which,  in 

this  republic,  lias  generally  wielded  a  greater 
power  than  iii  any  otherpart  of  South  America, 
[t  was  especially  the  aim  of  the  conservative  pres- 
ident Moreno  die  I  L875)  to  place  the  entire  de- 
partment oi  instruction  under  the  immediate  di- 
rection of  the  eluuvh.   In  lsi',1   ii  \\  i.  i  ;    lived  to 

erect  a  number  of  n<\\  3  tiool    to  1 luctedby 

the  Brothers  of  Christian  Doctrine.     Vb    d A 

councilors  were  empowered  to  raise  in  advance 
a  part  of  the  taxes  for  the  support  of  these 
schools.  At  the  same  time,  an  agreement  was 
entered  into  between  the  government  and  the 
Society  of  Jesus,  according  to   which   the   latter 


How    littl luca  ion 

from  the  fact  that  the  es 
cation,  according  to  the 
to  only  about  20,000  pe 
Instruction 


EDUCATION 


ature,  Latin.  Creek,  law,  medicine,  etc     Special 
instruction  is  imparted  in  the  following  scl Is: 


,f, 

1  conservatory  of 

music,  with  s 

39   students.     Ii 

1872,    a    pro- 

led  for  a  school  of 

obsti  11  ii     .H'.l 

sculpture,  to  be  0 

ened  in  Quito, 

rofessors.     An 

ts    and    sciences    \ 

as     als I.e 

to.    and    the    adv 

ntages  of  the 

mal    Scl 1     were 

to  be  extended 

ell.        See    SclIMin, 

Encyclopadie, 

lamerika;  Wapp 

Ei  s.  Handbueh 

■  mid  Statistik,  v. 

1.  1:   Report  0/ 

EDGEWORTH,    Me 


Richard  Lovell 

rated  both  as  an 

to  some  extent, 

inual 

s  (1  peso=$0.96.5). 


The    schools    are    at- 
lvbv  the  whites,  the  half- 


TV, 

tended  aim 
breeds,and  the  mulattoes;  while  the  Ind 
compose  tin-  laboring  classes  in  the  citii 
enjoy  the  advantage  of  any  education  at 
number  of  public  schools,  in  \>',:,.  \va. 
private  schools.  1  T < "> :  and  the  number  1 
supported  by  corporations  was  1 1,  ma 
total  number  of  primarj  si  hools  131.  'I 
her  of  pupils  111  the  public  schools  was  I  '1 
number  in  private  schools  3,966,  audi 
837,  making 


Early  Lessons  (1815),  published  originally  by 
bis  daughter  in  1810.  In  1822,  Maria  Kdgeworth 
published  Rosamond,  a  sequel  to  Early  Lessons, 
which  was  followed   by  Harry  /  Lucy,  the 


and  Frank, -su] 
appeared  in  C, 
People.     It  was 


course  of  instrue- 
•c  mi  prises    reading. 


,/  In 


supported  by  corporat 
number  of  pu 
tion   in   the 

writing,  arithmetic,  and  religion. 
Secondary,  Superior,  and  Spt 
— There  were,  in  1873,  six  colleges  colegiosna- 
donales)  with  59  professors  and  757  students, 
and  one  female  college  with  t  profe-^ois.  and  \:>:\ 
students.  The  University  of  Quito  comprises 
four  colegios,  the  Colegio  de  San  Gri  ?<  1 
founded  in  L586  by  the  Society  of  Je.-u-.  and 
invested  with  the  privileges  of  Salamanca  in 
1621;  the  Colegio  de  Santo  Tomas  de  Aquino, 
belonging  to  the  Dominicans;  the  Colegio  Mayor 
with  which  a  seminary  is  connected,  and  the  '  '"- 
/  jiode  San  Fernando.  The  revenue  of  the  uni- 
versity a mi-  to  from   1,000  to  5,000  pesos. and 

tic -..I  in  .  0j   >i,     professors  to  3,950  pesos.     In 

the  e.,',  ,,  ,„■,  fchi irse  of  -1  udy  embrai  e    Latin 

and  sometimes  <  'reek,  in  addition  to  the  branches 
taught  in  the  primary  schools.  The  university 
course  comprises  the  Spanish  language  and  liter- 


hction 
fame. 
larity. 


impossible  to  read  ten  pa Lie-  in  any  of  her  writ- 
ings, without  filling,  that  not  only  as  a  whole, 
but  that,  in  every  part,  they  were  intended  to  do 
good."  "  Sh,  is  the  author,  said  Kdward  Everett, 
"  of  works  never  to  he  forgotten  :  of  works  which 
can  never  lose  then-  standard  value  as  English 
Classics."  In  L820,  she  completed  a  Memoir  of 
ber  father  (commenced  by  him),  who  died  in 
]slT.      There  are   several    editions  of  her  works. 

which  still  tiime  to  be  reprinted. 

EDINBURGH,  University  of.    See  Scot- 

EDUCATION  (Lat.  educaiio),  a  g 
comprehensive  term, including  in  its  signification 

every  thing  that  pertains  to  the   brin 

children,    and    il pcration    of    influi  in  1      end 

agencies  designed  to  stimulate  and  direct  ihe  de- 
velopment of  the  faculties  of  youth  by  training 
and  instruction,  and  thus  to  control  the  forma 
tion   of  their  character.      Hence,  education   has. 


244 


EDUCATION 


been  divided  into  several  departments, according 
to  the  class  of  faculties  in  the  development  and 
improvement  of  which  il  is  directed,  including 
(]  i  Physical  Education  (q.  v.).  or  the  education 
of  the  bodily  powers:  |2)  /„/<■//,  vtmil  /■;/».,,/„,„ 
(q.  v.),  that  of  the  mind  or  intellect ;  3  U 
Education  (q.  v.), — of  the  propensities,  senti- 
ments, will,  and  conscience;  (4)  Esthetic  Educa- 
tion,—oi  the  taste,  musical,  artistic,  or  literary, 
that  is.  cmi.rcliendin"-  the  sphere  of   the  iimmi- 


which  concern  only  the  -  tul  as  a  spiritual  and 
immortal  essence,  and  it  n   lations  to  the  1  Ireator, 

the  ll.lilille  Spirit.  (See  l:,:  [Qioi  -  I. in  CATION.) 
I  'dm  ai  em  is  also  distinguished  into  Imiw  or 
domestic  education  [a.  v. ),  and  public  or  common- 
srlmul  riln r.iiiun  (see  lYia.te  Sen ,s).  or,  con- 
sidered as  a  means  for  the  general  enlightenment 
of  the  people,  popular  education;  also  into  pri- 
vate     din,/,    that    i-     -iippoited    by   private 

funds,  ind  n  Ui  ma  edit  ation, — provided  for  by 
the  sf  it  i.    (Si  e  \  vtm\  il  Education.) 

Scl 1  education,  generally  called  instruction, 

on  account  of  the  more  limited  character  of  its 
scope  and  the  sphere  of  its  operations,  is  distin- 
guished, according  to  it-  -lade,  into  i  I  )  /><-, tn,i,-i/ 
instruction,  that  is,  the  instruction  given  in  ele- 
HMutdjy  schools  (sm-li  as  th immon  scl Is, 

til       | I'll'V   schools  of   eitie-    ropre-elithrg  ulilv  a 

lowei  -nli  Ini-ionot  primary  instruction);  (2)  sec- 
""'I  -,-■■■.,  „/,  —  as  given   in  academics, 

high   -'  h  ■  ils    mid  lie  schools)  ;  (3)  superior  in- 


the  growth  and  development  of  mind  and  body, 
and  which  especially  constitute  the  theory  of 
education,  or  pedagogics,  as  sometimes  called. 
This  ain.le  «ill  embrace  only  the  general  con- 
sideration oi  [)  the  history  of  education,  and 
II  the  theory  of  education,  with  a  reference  to 
sub-titles  for  fuller  information  in  regard  to  sub- 
ordinate topics. 

I.   History  of  Education. — Thehistoryoi  edu- 
cation is  the  history  of  the   institutions,  prin- 
ciples, and   method.-  by  means  of  which  children 
and  youth  of   both  sexes  have  been  educated, 
from  the  earliest    period  oi  historic  times  to  the 
present   day.     It   embraces  within  its  scope  an 
account  of    the   peculiar  character  which  edu-  t 
cation  has  assumed  among  the  several  nations  of 
the   globe,  of  the    rise   and   development  of    t  he  2 
different  methods  of  instruction,  of  the  systems  «J 
and  labors  of  prominent  educators,  of  the  divi 


classes  of  schools,  and  < 
v  conflii 


he  rival  and 


(4) 


,-cbnok  medical  schools,  military,  naval  or  nau- 
tical schools,  theological  seminaries,  schools  of 
architecture,  etc..  for  information  in  regard  to 
which  sec-  the  respective  titles. 

Education  is  to  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
instruction,  the  Litter  being  only  a  subordinate 
part  of  the  great  scheme  of  controlling  and 
eutding  the  development  of  a  human  being.    To 

this  department   of  education  ti,     •    r v  s 

(from  the  Greek  word  SiSavneiv,  to  ■  i  is  often 
applied.  (See  Didactics  and  Instruction.)  In- 
struction is  addressed  to  the  intellect  or  under- 
standing: while  education  comprehends  the  whole 
nature  of  man  and  the  various  agencies  by  means 
of  which,  ill  itsfonnativestate.it  may  he  affected. 
Its  primary  object  is  to  form  the  character  either 
by  stimulating  its  development  in  the  normal 
direction,  or  correcting  tendencies  to  morbid 
growth.  In  respect  to  the  scientific  principles  by 
which  its  practical  operations  should  be  guided, 
education  is  a  science  ;  in  relation  to  the  proper 
mode  of  performing  those  operations  so  as  to  ren- 
der them  as  effective  as  possible,  it  is  an  art.  The 
science  of  education  is  a  very  complex  one.  inas- 
much as  its  principles  must  be  drawn  from  many 
different  departments  of  science:  superadded  to 
which,  as  its  own  peculiar  sphere  of  investigation, 
there  is  the  great  body  of  truths  which  concern 


and  the  object  of  this  genera)  article  can,  there- 
fore, only  be  to  preset  it  a  briet  'jetieral  view,  in 
outline. of  the  subject. so  as  to  show  more  clearly 
the  relation  oi  it-  si  vera]  departments  and  topics. 

Theearlit  si  scl Is  which  have  any  claim  to  a 

[Haee  in  a  bistorj  of  education  are  met  with  in 
Egypt,  <  hina,  India  and  Persia.  In  all  these 
countries,  it  was  the  aim  of  the  instructor  to  train 
the  young  so  that  they  might  become  homogeneous 
members  of  the  community  to  which  they  be- 
longed, the  institutions  of  which  were  to  be  pre- 
served and  continued  by  them  unchanged.  The 
claims  ol  individuality  were,  at  that  early  period, 
unknown:  and  the  principle  of  blind  and  slavish 
Mil  mn— ion  lo  i  he  constituted  authorities  was  the 
basis  of  all  education.    There  are,  however,  some 

mailed  points  of  difference.  In  China,  the  dis- 
tinctive features  of  education  characterize  it  as 
family  education,  in  India  as  caste  education,  in 
Persia  as  state  education,  and  in  Egypt  as  priest- 
ly education.  In  (  hina.  every  child  is  reared  in 
absolute  obedience  to  the  bead  of  the  family, 
ami  .'very  family  submits  as  a  child  to  the  com- 
mon father  of  till,  the  Emperor.  The  excessive 
veneration  of  ancestry  makes  the  character  of 
the  people  essentially  stationary,  and  education 
assumes  pre-eminently  the  character  of  mechanical 
training.  In  India,  every  child  belongs  by  his 
birth  to  one  particular  caste:  and  the  foremost 
aim  of  the  instruction  given  is  to  teach  him  the 
rights  and  duties  of  the  caste.  The  leading  prin- 
ciple of  Indian  education  is  habit.  In  Persia, 
every  kind  of  power  and  authority  centers  in  the 
king  ;  the  children  belong  more  to  the  state  than 
to  their  parents,  and  the  germs  of  a  strictly  na- 
tional education  may.  therefore,  be  found  in  the 
institutions  of  that  country.  In  Egypt,  the 
priest  is  the  chief  representative  of  education 
and  the  only  teacher.  (See  China,  Egypt,  India, 
and  Persia.) 

The    classic    nations  of    the   ancient   world, 
Greece  and  Rome,  began  a  new  period  in  the 


story  of  education.     While  the  oriental  child 
as  taught  to  become  a  docile  member  of  the 


EDUCATION  245 

nf  conquered   <  !r v  revealed   t..  the  Ro- 

a  progn  ss  in   .in    science,  and  literature, 

i  they  as  yel    bad   uol   even  i :eived,  and 

awaken  .1 .1  thirst  foi  highi  1  literal-}  culture, 
lolitical  and  social  system  of  the   republic 


Highi 

I  -In, 


he  tl 1  of  corruption   which  finally  over- 

ned    the    free    institutions  oi    Rome.     The 
ot    I  [orace,  so  often  quoted,  have  thus  an 


Solon  as  lawgivi 

•rs,   Pythagora 

practical  educah 

■1-    an  1   !'l  ito 

writers  on  educat 

tun.  propound 

to  circulation  a  1 

lumber  of  new 

not   only  did  <ii 

e  oldi  1-  tiatioi 

wuii  1  have  until 
remained  among 

th.i  most  1,  .t  • 

progressive  edui 

'".'   '  r ■" 

ful  individuality 

was,  to  the  « 

life,  and  the  idea 

,  oi  .■  luci n 

the  word   « 

••  ...  ,..   the    li 

guild.    The  Spa 

ttati   system  1 

stitute  I, to  a  con 

si  lerabledegr 

this  general  cha 
The  Roman's  att 

mtion.from  h 

was  directe  1  in 

the  affairs  oi 

which  was  n  instant  Iv  «  1  i_r- 1_< •■  i 

who  reared  him 

naturally  desig 

a  practical  man. 

Thedevelopn 

individuality  became  tin-  aim 

tion.     1..--  time 

was  found  for 

felt    in.  tin- st  11  i 

f  ..I  science  a 

was  a  notable   | 

irotrress  in   r  I  ■< 

1 i-  i-  hi' 

involving  a 

marriage  and  foi 

a  tnoredignii 

Sltion  of  woman  111  society.  In  even 
the  mother  was  to  begin  and  the  fathei 
titntc  tin-  work  of  chu-atioii.  which  cat 
looked  upon  as  a  part  of  parental  duty 


Under  the  1  mpire,  tl li 

1  landmarks  of  na- 

m'.'ii't'Yi',- 

tional    education    were    ent 
Greek  tutors  ami  Greek  bigl 

11. -Iv   swept    away. 
1  schools,  at    Athens 

th  which 

lli-llest     instill. Hoi,  ;     Imt     lb, 

lected  to  supply  the 

was  no  longer  able  to  gras] 

1  the  ideal  ot  a  nin- 

es in  1I1  ' 

versa!  higher  education,  and 

th.'  Roman  Kmpire 

beauti- 

oi    the  West  was  destroyed 

by   the  barbarians 

■  aim  of 

without  having  developed  ai 

iv  systems  or  forms 

essed  bv 
and    the 

nl  Ihood, 

of  education.     As  Romi 

foundation  of   th    -  ■••.  to  1 

...  ;.  1    Ron  ■   1        r  produced 

lucation.   from   the 
he  downfall  of  the 
tly  utilitarian  char- 
1    on  edu- 
lato  :  yet  the  works 
Seneca  and   Quin- 

inwealth 

tilian,  contain  ma   j 

ons  oi   great    prac- 

id  those 

tical   value. 

ake   him 

A     peculiar    position    is 

occupied    by    the 

Hebrews,  the  only  theocratic 

Their  children  were  to  1 

family  or  caste,  not  for  the  s 
distinction   in  ait   ami   litera 
obedient  servants  of  the  G01 

people  uf  antiquity. 

ueateil.  i,.,t    for  the 
tate  or  for  personal 
hire,  but   to  be  the 
1  of  israel.     AsJe- 

>.iil  for 

hovah  was  represented   to  t 

be   people   as  their 

-u\,  reign,  so  he  was  their  on 

I3  teai  her.     Rduca- 

r  tocon- 

tion  wasa  corollary  of   religii 
family  was  both  it-  teacher  1 

m.     1  he  head  ..1  a 
ui.l  priest,  and  gave 

part  ..I   the  educat which   the 

received  under  the  parental  ro  >i 
to  become  a  useful, honest, and  ill 
of  the  commonwealth  Under  t 
the  will  was  more  developed  tl 
emotional  nature  or  the  intellect, 
ences  which  interested  the  Roma 
exclusively  those  oi  a  strongly  mi 
ter,— rhetoric,  Roman  history,  an 
ence;  since  every  noble  and  1 
aspired  to  become  a  lea  ling  politi 
L'eiieral.  The  characteristic  virtu. 
Romans,  before  the  decline  oi  the 
stern  and  inflexible  integrity  in 
but  all  their  intellectual  and  mi 
were  circumscribed  by  the  nar 
their  own  nationality,  and  a  .In.  1 
outside  of  it  appears  to  luce  bei 
them.     When  an  acquaintance  w 


d   as  a  bun 

sect. 

Theenew 

wen   so  gn  atlj 

iv  oral, 
he  Jew- 
instruc- 
II.-  ages 
lutation 
lucated. 
at  turn 
in  1  less 
For  a 
ir  from 
ited  and  wealthy 
ding  a  high  rank 
lie  •  'hrisl  ian  ■  ap 
int.  and  despised 
stians  themselves 
effort  to  live  up 


this 


246  EDUCL 

to  the  requirements  of  their  religion,  and  to 
develop  the  constitution  of  their  church,  that 
but  little  attention  seems  to  have  been  devoted 
to  the  cause  of  education.  They  had  no  literary 
institutions  of  their  own.  and.con.-eqiinitly.  their 
children  were  often  sent  to  pagan  schools  for  sec- 
ular instruction.  The  first  Christian  schools 
were  founded  to  instinct  the  catechumens  in  the 
doctrines  of  Christianity,  and  to  enable  them  to 


schools,   that   ot    Alexandria     i.-ee    Ai.kn  \\i,i:i  \x 

So .;.  gradually  developed  into  the  first  school 

of  Christian  theology.  Its  jjreat  teachers,  espe- 
cially ('lenient  and  Oriecn,  not  only  freed  <  'hris- 
tianity  from  the  chaise,  until  then  very  common, 
of  being  the  faith  of  the  ignoranl  and  iffiterate, 

but,  hv'coneeivinu  the  idea  ot  demonstrating  the 

agreement  of  Christian  doctrines  with  Platonic 

ideas  of  the  Greeks,  the  most  advanced  in  ante- 
Christian  times,  and  to  resume  the  work  of  edu- 
cational development  where  the  great  masters  of 
ancienl  Greece  had  left  off .  This  attempt,  how- 
ever, fail- 1  in  consequence  of  the  passionate  op- 
position ma  le  to  it  by  another  school  of  Chris- 
tian theologians,  who  saw  in  the  world  outside  of 
the  Christian  revelation  nothing  hut  darkness 
and  sin.  and  did  not  believe  that  any  good  could 
be  derived  from  the  study  of  pagan  literature. 
Tertullian  rejected  any  connection  between 
Christianity  and  philosophy  with  the  harsh  re- 
mark, "What   have  Athens  and  Jerusalem,  the 


life,  but  also  children  who  were  sent  there  by 
their  parents.  In  the  East,  the  attention  of  the 
monks  was.  however,  so  completely  absorbed 
in  subtle  metaphysical  questions  and  controver- 
sies, that  little  was  accomplished  deserving  a 

mention  in  the  history  of  education.  Ill  the 
west.  Benedict  and  his  followers  cave  to  monas- 
tic  education  a  more  practical  basis,  and  com- 
bined agricultural  anil  mechanical  occupations 
with  the  study  of  theology.  The  importance  of 
these  convent  schools  (q.v.)  greatly  increased  when 
the  barbaric  tribes  overpowered  western  Europe, 
and  rudely  destroyed  the  last  remnants  of  I  to- 
man civilization.     The  convents  then  became  al- 


were  those  of  Ireland  and  England,  which  not. 
■  ml \  sent  the  greatesl  number  of  missionaries 
for  the  conversion  of  the  pagan  portions  of 
Europe, but  also  educated  the  best  teachers.  The 
most  vigorous  impulses  given  to  the  progress  of 

ceed  from  any  monk  or  convent,  but  from  the 
greal  monarchs  in  the  ninth  century,  Charle- 
magne (q.  v.)  ami  Alfred  (q,  v.).  who  by  wise 
laws,  greatly  increased  the  number  of  schools 
and  improved  the  course  of  studies,  which  were 
divided    into    the    Irivium    and    quadrivium. 


deeline.aud.  subsequently,  in  the  tifthceiitun 
extinction,  of  the  Alexandrian  school.  \\\ 
the  study  of  the  literature  of  ancient  G 
ceased,  ami  the  treasures  which  are  containi 
the  educational  works  of  Plato  and  Axis 
were  for  a  lone'  time  hidden.  The  only  SC 
to   be    met  with    at    that    time   in    the  Chri. 


of 


to 


work  of  the  greal  emperor.  The 
towns  ami  rural  districts  did  not 
..■  value  of  education,  and  a.  large 
■  clergy  looked  with  disfavor  at  the 
Itivate  in  schools  the  language  of 
the  expense   ot   the  l.atiu.  the    inli- 


ne ;  their 
rge  extent 
lurch  and 


.lioll  WO.lld 

controlled 

by  the  su- 
the  church, 


their  faith  and  the  depth  of  their  reli-iou.,  fed-  chained,  the  pupil.-  endeavoring  to  reproduce,™ 
ing.       The    organization    of     Christian    schools     literal   recitations,  the  explanations  and  lectures 

other   than  those  of  a  theological  character  is    of  their  teachers.   Scl I  discipline  was  not  only 

chiefly  due  to  the  monastic  orders.  Both  in  the  severe',  but  often  cruel,  and  corporal  punish- 
es i  in  I  in  the  west  provision  was  made  for  ment  was  generally  approved,  and  frequently  ap- 
instructing  not  only  the  candidates  for  monastic  |  plied.   The  first  departures  from  the  educational 


methods  of  the  church  schools  are  met  with  in 
the  education  of  young  nobles,  and  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  town  schools,  hi  neither  case  was 
there  anj  formal  denial  of  the  authority  of  the 
church,  but  very  great  attention  was  given  to 
certain  features  of  education  which  not  only 
found  no  place  in  the  church  schools,  but  were 
l'lvcjnnitly  c-.'ii-iiiv  1    I iv   t In-    representatives   of 

those  sel Is  as  dangerous  innovations.     Thus. 

the  attention  given  to  gy astic  exercises  in  the 

education  nf  young  noiiles,  and  the  worshipful 
attention  shown  to  noble  women,  gave  to  the 
aristocracy  of  the  middle  aps  a  training  c|iiite 
« I i tt  •  1 . ■  1  it  from  wdiat  it  would  have  received  in 
the  church  schools       The  i -tabli-linr-nt  of    town 


tion  of  such  knowledge  as  was  in  ist  needed  bythe 
business  man  and  mechanic,  especially  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic,  the  |.  a  ling  object  of 
instruction.  They  were  sometime-,  called  writing- 
schools,  as  they  aimed  at  fitting  their  pupils  for 
writing  letters  and  business  compositions.  Tho-e 
schools  not  only  served  to  develop  the  idea 
of  secular  instruction  in  the  place  of  merely 
ecclesiastical  education,  but,  when  town  mag- 
istrates were  the  patrons  of  the  schools,  led  to 
the  appointment  of  lay  teachers,  and.  gradually, 
cause  I  teaching  to  be  regar  le  1  as  a  sp  icial  pro- 
fession. The  beginning  of  this  prole— ion  was 
sufficiently  humble.  Even  at  the  close  of  the 
mid  lie  ages,  special  school-houses  could  be  found 
in  only  a  few  towns.  Instruction  was  generally 
given  in  sonic  building  usd  for  ecclesiastical  or 
municipal  purposes,  or  in  hired  rooms.  Winn 
magistral  -  had  the  control  of  a  sclm  il.  they  en- 
gaged a  sei,  ,  .;  ...  ;.  ,  ...  ,_,.  |,  rally  for  the  term  of 
one  yea  1  h  -1.  i  il-master  chose  his  own  as- 
sistants, and.  it  hi.-  contract  was  not  renewed, 
ma.-ter  and  as-istant  traveled  from  town  to  town, 
until  they  found  a  new  engagement.  They  were 
sometimes  accompanied  by  crowds  of  boys  and 
youths  (see  Bacchants),  whose  vagrant  habits 
were,  however,  by  no  means  calculated  to  in- 
crease the  reputation  of  school  e  lucation. — The 
greatest  among  the  educational  achievements  of 
the  Christian  world,  during  the  middle  ages, 
was  the  establishment  of  the  universities,  in 
which  every  department  of  .science  was  to  be 
developed  to  its  highest  perfection.  The  plan 
of  these  institutions,  which  wen  to  be  the  centers 
of  the  literary  labors  ol  the  entire  I  Ihi  istia 
world,  and  in  which,  therefore,  the  progress 
made  in  any  one  science  was  to  benefit  all,' was 
in  itself  an  immense  progress.    The  development 

of  the  universities   was   givailypr ted  b\   ihe 

re\ival  of  classical  studies  dp  v.),  which  began 
in  Italy  in  the  14th  century,  and  by  the  discov- 
ery of  the  art  of  printing  in  the  lath  century, 
which  greatly  facilitated  a  general  diffusion  of 
every  kind  of  knowledge.  The  foremost  rep- 
resentatives of  this  new  period  of  intellectual 
activity  were  Erasmus.  Eeuchlin,  and  Melanch- 
thon.  A  striking  feature  in  the  educational 
history  of  Christian  Europe,  from  the  rise  of 
Christianity  to  the  end  of  the  middle  ages,  is  the 


EDUCATION  247 

with  in  i  controlling  influence  of  a  universal  church,  with 
i"  esiab-    one  visible  head,  the  Pope,  and  one  literary  lan- 

•ase  was    guagc the  Latin.   In  ancient  Egypt,  China, India, 

vol  the     Persia,   Greece,    Rome,   and    ;    the  dews. 

riven  to  t  the  aim    of   education    had    alwaj 

iot   only  J  national  bearing,  and   (he  same  wool  was  gener- 


ally used   to 
hostile,     clin 

of  the  i; ai 

empire  had  1 
tion.  soon  wil 


the  lifted 
lurks.  Mi 
in  existenci 
the  predoi 
Asia  and  J 


lied 


the  Mohammedan  Imd,  ,cl„,ol,oi  .-pan,  not  onlv 
attracteda  large  number  of  students  from  <  hris- 
tian  countries,  but  in  many  sciences,  as  mathe- 
matics, philosophy,  and  natural  history,  became 
the  tcaehcis  of  all  Europe.  In  the  twelfth  cent- 
er) .  llr  -e    sel U    bee, III    ,n    decline;    and.    from 

that  time  to  the  present,  education  in  the  entire 
Mohammedan  world  has  been  in  a  most  depie.-sed 
condition. 

At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  and  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  a  series  of  remarkable 
events  indicated  the  entrance  of  mankind  into  a 
new  period  of  it.s  history.  One  of  special  im- 
portance in    regard  to  the  progress  of  education 

large  portion  of    Europe.      As  Luther,  Zwingli, 


CaTvii, 


lunch 


ii  1  laws  which  were  intended,  after 
tile  example  of  Charlemagne,  to  bring  the  entire 
population  under  educational  influences.  In  this 
way,   education    became    more    widely   diffused 

than  it  had  ever  1 n  in  the  middle  ages:  and  it 

remained,    henceforth,    to  a   higher   degree    than 


any 


legislators:  but  there  wa-  no  .-ub-ianti.il  change 
in  the  methods  of  instruction,  and  the  subs  1 1  i- 

elley  of  secular  to  theological  c  I :  ic ,  I  |,  ,| ,  remained 

as  complete  as  before.  The  desire  to  preserve 
the  <  'atholic  (  hnreli  from  furl  be]  di  fei  i  ion, 
and   to  recover  the  ground  already   lo  i     led   to 


EDUCATION 


the  establishment  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits, 
who  tried,  for  this  purpose,  to  obtain  a  control 
of  the  education  of  the  higher  classes.  The 
schools  of  the  Jesuits  (q.  v.)  attained  a  great 
celebrity,  a  large  attendance,  and  the  admiration 
Of  many  of  the  most  eminent  Protestants.  In 
consequence  of  the  close  connection  between 
schools  of  every  description  and  the  church,  all 
the  great  religious  movements  were  reflected  in 
education  Thus,  when  the  German  Pietists 
charged   the    Protestant    Church  of   their  time 

and  v,  i  ii  and  rvaluin<*  the  e tional  ele ui  of 

shape  I  as  to  aim  more  at  the  education  of 
practical  than  orthodox  Christians.  (iermany 
is  indebted  to  these  Pietists  for  one  of  its  greatest 
philanthropists  and  most  practical  educators.  A. 
II.  Fraucke  (q.  \-.|.  whose  fame  in  the  history  of 
education  rests  more  on  the  excellent  insl  itutions 
which  were  founded  by  him,  than  on  any  new 
theory  or  literary  work  on  education. 

A  radical  reform  in  education  had,  in  the 
in '.in!  niir.  been  introduced  by  ( 'omeiiius  fij.  v.i . 
a  bishop  of  the  Bohemian  ISrcihivn  and  one  of 
the  greatest  educators  of  all  time.  Influenced 
by  tile  inductive  method  of  Bacon  (q.  v  i.  and 
the  works  of  Ratich  (q.  v.)  on  the  necessity  and 
importance  of  an  independent  art  of  teaching, 
Oomenius  conceived  the  idea  of  a  harmoniou 
development  of  all  the  faculties  of  man.  and 
proposed  a  grand  system  of  popular  education 
which  is  still  admired  by  all  educators  as  a  work 

of  lasting  value.     The    views  of    C inius  on 

vernacular  schools,  on  the  return  from  dead 
books  to  the  live  book  of  nature,  on  intuitional 
teaching  and  the  value  of  analytico  -  synthetic 
methods  met  with  genera!  approbation  and  led 
to  immediate  reforms.  The  movement  begun 
by  Comenius  was  greatly  strengthened  by  the 
writings  of  John  Locke  q.  v  .  who  applied 
Bacon's  inductive  method  to  the  study  of  the 
human  mind  ami  became  the  founder  of  empir- 
ical psychol  ij\  Locke  specially  exceeded  former 
writer-  in  recognizing  the  importance  of  physical 
education:    his  ideas   in   regard  to  this  subject 

have  exercised  a  marked    influeni u    modem 

school  legislation.  The  new  principles  thus  devel- 
oped were  wel led  by  the  powerful  opposition 

which,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  arose  in  the 
literary  world  againsl  the  influence  of  both 
orthodox  Protestantism  and  the  Catholic  Church 
ii] society,  and  which  had  its  chief  represent- 
atives in  the  French  Free-Thinkers,  the  English 
Deists,  and  the  German  Rationalists.  It  became 
the  general  tendency  of  the  age  to  look  upon 
education  as  one  of  the  most  important  depart- 
ments of  state  administration,  and.  in  most  of 
the  states,  ministries  if  education,  school  boards. 
and  school  commissions  were  appointed.  In 
Germany  and  a  number  of  oth  r  i  ountrii  s,  com- 
pulsory education    was    introd 1      Thi    chief 

difference  a ng  the  leading  educators  concerned 

the  question  whether  instruction  should  chiefly 
aim  at  iuip.irt in-'  positive  and  useful  knowledge, 

or  at  exercising  and  training  the  mental  faculties. 


The  advocates  of  the  latter  principle,  who  were 
called  the  Humanists,  attributed  very  great 
educational  importance  to  the  study  of  the  clas- 
sical languages;  while  those  of  the  former,  called 
Realists,  from  their  utilitarian  point  of  view, 
thought  more  of  natural  sciences,  modern  lan- 
guages, geography,  and  history.  Among  the  writ- 
ers   iducation  in  the  eighteenth  century,  none 

became  so  famous  as  Rousseau,  an  enthusiastic 
idealist  who  looked  upon  the  entire  civilization 


he  nor  any  of  his  ad- 
s  radical  theories  into 
3  ideas,  especially  on 
cultivation  of  the  in- 
i-  correct  by  all  edu- 

the  father  of  the  an- 
luc.nioii  which  insists 


I'hi 


thropists  isee  I  mi.  wnmopuM,  attempted  to 
establish  mod,']  boarding-schools  on  the  basis 
of  the  ideas  of  <  'omenius.  Locke,  and  I  lousseau. 
The  great  hopes  which  they  raised  were  never 
reali  ed;  but  many  of  their  pupils  have  risen 
to  consid   1  ible  eminence. 

Hi''  -i    famous  and  influential  of  modern 

educators  was  Pestalozzi.  The  eminent  position 
which  he  occupies  in  the  history  of  education  is 
not  so  much  due  to  a  |  erfect  method  of  instruc- 
tion,to  a  superior  talent  of  organization  and  man- 
agement, or  to  the  foundation  of  great  educational 
institutions,  for  in  all  these  respecte  Pestalozzi 
has  been  exci  lied  bj  othet  educators  ;  but  he 
u-  se  hi.  d  the  admiration  of  all  time  by  his 
fervid  enthusiasm  in  the  cans,' of  education.'  He 
gave  a  greater  impulse  to  the  improvement  of 
popular  education  than  any  of  his  predecessors  : 


all,' 


Many  of  the  eminent  philosophers  of  theeight- 

the  great  problems  of  pedagogy  ;  and  conflicting 
as  their  views  may  1 n  many  important  ques- 
tions, the  principle  that  education  should  be  a 
natural  and  harmonious  development  of  inde- 
pendent   individualities   is  ecu, rally   recognized. 

Of  special  interest  for  educators  are  the  systems 
of  Herbart,  Beneke,  and  Herbert  Spencer. 
Ilerhart  (q.  v.)  rejected  the  traditional  view  of  a 
number  of  different  powers  constituting  the 
human  soul,  which  on  the  contrary  is  regarded 
by  him  as  a  simple  entity  and  as  not  subject  to 
any  change  in  its  quality.  Beneke  (q.  v.)  pro- 
posed a  system  oi  education  wholly  based  on 
psychology,  to  which  he  attributed  the  character 


EDUCATION 


of  a  wholly  empirical  science.  FTerberl  Spencer 
(q.  v.)  claimed  for  the  developmenl  •  ■!  the  soul 
an  organic  growth  subject  to  the  ordinary  laws  of 
organic  development,  and  made  psychology  striet- 


•nt  of  educational  ideas,  as  it 
.•IK-  traced, Loul Ilv  shows, 


249 
this 


verb  educo,  to  lead  out  ;  but   it  never  has 
literal  sense,  and   il   i.-  extremely  unlikely  that 

the  R ans  c :cted  the  idea  of  drmn'vg  out 

with  that  of  educatio.  In  order  to  gel  al  a  true 
idea  of  education,  we  must  look  at  the  circum- 
stances of   tlie  case       We  pro©  "I   by   way  of 


r,  behind   it    the  means  of  .-. 
ies.     Within  certain  limits,  t 


mend  and  promote  o 
lion  of  children?   (Se 


schools?    (See    Denominational  Sci .-.;     All 

these  questions  are  hi!l\  treated  of,  in  this  work, 


Wlll.-ll   it. 

n  is  like 

111  st  lives 

hrough  a 


attain  an   ideal  of  t 

The  differei betwi 

is,  that  the  limits  oi 


Dittes 

brcvhl 


itO 


The  word  education  is  used  in   a   variety  of 

senses,  < nected  but  not  always  i  ompatible  with 

the  true  idea.     Thus  man  is  viewed  as  being,  in 

his  earliest  stage,  a   kind  of  i .pressed  mass  of 

faculties, and  education   is  the  ,1,-aui,,..  ,,,t   of 


L844—  L85 
lation   in  I! 


23 

transl 
Tfo   i 

*•/„■■/, 
(2  vol 


md   des    Unt 


,  /;/.,.  ution.  -  The  won]  educa- 
tion isderived  from  the  Latin  verb  educo  which 
is  prnpi  rlv  used  to  .lr.~i.j-n.ili-  the  snstenaiiee  ami 
ran-  bestowed  bya  nurse  on  a  child;  and  it  is.no 
iloubt,  connected  etymologicahy  with  the  Latin 


t,and  that   no  act   is  truly  educative  which 

does  not  help  I to  strive  afteractions  that  are 

becoming  to  his  nature,  or,  to  express  it  object- 
ively, to  strive  ait.  r  what   is  g I,  beautiful,  or 

true. 

But,  in  thus  stating  the  work  of  education  in 
a  general  proposition,  we  have  done  very  little 
towards  explaining  its  true  nature.  I  duration 
sets  I.,  fore  it  an  ideal.  I  low  are  we  to  form 
anything  like  an  adequate   conception    of   this 


•250 


EDUCATION 


ideal?  Only  by  a  minute  and  careful  study  of 
human  nature;  and,  therefore,  every  educator 
must  necessarily  devote  a  great  deal  of  his  atten- 
tion to  the  phenomena  ol  body  and  mind,  and 
to  man,  the  combination  of  both.  The  ideal  is 
a  unity,  but  it  is  a  composite  unity,  made  up  of 
the  perfect  accomplishment  oi  endless  detailed 
actions,  and  we  must,  therefore,  examine  all  the 
details  before  we  can  attain  lo  a  clear  notion  of 
the  whole. 

The  subject  may  be  viewed  in  another  light. 
Every  portion  of  man  is  made  or  preformed  for 
a  special  function  or  functions.  Thus  the  eyes 
are  made  for  seeing,  the  hands  for  grasping,  the 
skin  for  touch.  For  what  is  the  whole  body 
made  '.'  For  what  is  man.  body  and  soul,  made  .' 
It  is  the  work  of  the  educator  to  help  him  whom 
he  educates  to  discharge  the  functions  for  which, 
as  man,  he  has  been  made  or  preformed.  Ac- 
cordingly, most  of  the  definitions  of  education 
which  have  been  given,  have  been  based  on  the 
answer  to  the  question,  what  in  the  chief  end 
the  sunn  bonum  the  destiny  of  man'.' 
This  was  a  question  which  occupied  the  atten- 
tion of  the  ancients  much,  and  I  llemens  Alexan- 
drinus  has  gathered  together  a  large  number  of 
the  answers  which  ancient  philosophers  gave  to 
the  1 1 1 < 1 1 1 i i  v- .  These  are  interesting  to  the  edu- 
cator, because  they  suggest  different  points  of 
view  from  which  to  look  at  the  problem.  In 
mole  modem  times,  the  form  which  the  answer 
has  most  frequently  taken  is  the  state, n.:ii  iha, 
it  is  the  work  of  education  to  pro  In  i,  ..  I  ir  ..- 
it  can,  an  equable  and  barmoniousd  i  ilo]  i  i 
of  all  the  powers  of  man.  Berbarl  and  1  - 
school  object  to  this  way  of  expressing  the  aim 
of  education.  The  term  powers  is  api  to  mis- 
lead. There  are  no  separate  and  special  faculties 
in  mans  mind.  All  the  best  psychologists  admit 
that  these  faculties  are  fictions ;  and.  therefore. 
the  aim  of  education  must  be  denned  apart  from 
the.-.e.  I  lei  hart  himself  defined  the  aim  of  edu- 
cation to  be  morality ;  but  he  used  the  word  in  a 
truly  philosophical  sense,  in  which  it  is  not  un- 
derstood  by  the  masses,  and.  therefore,  he  pre- 
ferred to  state  the    object   of    education  to  lie,  to 

produce  a  well-balanced  many-sidedness  of  in- 
terest.    The  emphasis   laid  on  iiih-rt-st  has  been 


eh  fruit  in  educational  in- 
but,  practically, 
the  same  as  the 

ned  to  a  series  of 

i ie    with   the 

in  harmony  wi  h 
is  we  may  call  it, 
rial  ions   from  it. 


productive  of 
vestigation  an 
Herbari  -  defi 

other.      Man  is 

activities  closi 

other.    These  i 

bis  nature,  or  1 

or  they  may  hi 

The  business  oi   the  educate]    is  to  prevent  the 

aberrations,  and   to  help   thos  ■   actn  iti    -    v,  hi  b 

are  in  harmony.     Those  activities  which  at     in 

harmony  find  their  sphere  in  nature,  i an, in 

God.  h  is  important  thai  all  these  activities 
come  into  play.  Man  does  not  pursue  his  ideal 
course,  if  they  do  not  come  info  play.      lie  must 

be  fully  developed.     But  if  Ins  activity  c s 

into  play  on  these  subjects  according  to  the  light 
method.    Ins    interest    in    them    is  awakened   and 


becomes  stronger  and  stronger :  for  all  pleasure 
is  the  accompaniment  of  the  vigorous  discharge 
of  some  function,  and  all  pain  is  the  accompani- 
ment of  the  weak  discharge  or  hindrance  ol 
Borne  function.  If  the  organ  which  discharges 
the  function  is  exercised  too  powerfully,  as  may 


lth 


lower 


ly,  and  then  tl 
pain.  And  t 
arise  from  th 

functions,  win 


higher 


s  the  healthiness  of 
may  be  permanent- 
tivity  is  followed  by 
at  may  arise,  may 
what  we  call  lower 
egle'eted.  Thus  the 
lazy  man  desires  true  pleasure,  as  far  as  it  goes, 
from  the  vigorous  exercise  of  his  vital  or  vege- 
tative powers.  But.  whatever  pleasure  does  exist, 
exists  from  the  efficient  discharge  of  function, 
or  in  other  words  from  healthy  activities  of  body 
or  of  mind.  This  pleasure  may  not  be  con- 
sciously  before  the  mind,  as  iii  the  highest  intel- 
leetual  operations  when  the  student  does  not 
feel  how  intense  has  been  Ins  enjoyment,  until 
the  enjoyment  is  over.  This  accompaniment  of 
all  our  healthy  actions  is  cumulative.  It  grows  in 
degree,  in  proportion  as  the  actions  arc  repeated 
in  a  healthy  or  proper  manner.  A  ml.  hence,  our 
interest  increases  with  the  healthy  repetition  of 
the  activities  on  the  objects.  Herbart's  defini- 
tion becomes,  therefore,  nearly  synonymous  with 
the  other,  but  directs  the  attention  to  the  ex- 
ternal side  of  man's  activity, to  the  objects  on 
which  the  mind  works.  Both  sides  must  be 
<  ai  dully  considered  by  the  educator;  for,  in  the 
activity  of  man,  they  itre  invariably  conjoined. 
The  distinction  between  formal  and'  mult  rial  in 
edu  ation  has  to  ]„■  made  with  great  caution; 
and  it  has  always  to  be  remembered  that  form  is 
impossible  without  matter,  and  mallei  impos- 
sible without  form,  that  while  there  can  be  no 
right  activity,  if  the  mind  does  not  act  in  a  right 
manlier,  it  is  equally  true  that  there  can  be  no 
right  activity,  if  that  on  which  the  action  takes 
place  is  not  a  light  object  fur  the  mind  to  act  upon. 
After  having  thus  generally  discussed  the  aim 
of  education,  we  should  now  enter  minutely  into 
particulars,  for  the  general  is  of  slight  use  with- 
out the  particular ;  but  tins  would  lie  to  write  a 
treatise  on  the  laws  if  the  activity  of  the  human 
mind,  and  the  modes  to  be  adopted  by  men  to 
dired  th  at  ivities  aright  in  the  young.  We 
must,  therefore,  i  online  ourselves  to  hints  which 
maj  suggi  .  to  the  reader  the  subjects  which  de- 
serve his  careful  and  minute  examination. 

A  child  gazes  at  an  apple  on  a  tree.  "What 
are  the  operations  of  the  child's  mind?  First, 
we  have  the  exercise  of  the  bodily  organ.  Then 
the  apple  produces  an   imp,, -em  on  th,  child's 

I     'lie-  i,n,„e,,„„,  ucclla  sensa  ion.   The 

child  feelssomt  thing  Some  chat  ge  has  taken 
place  within  him.  Itut.it  this  is  not  the  first. 
impression  which  the  apple  has  made  on  the 
child,  we  can  observe  that  the  sensation  has  at- 
tained ill  its  complexity  to  three  phases:  First. 
the  child  has  the  feeling  of  pleasure  in  seeing  the 
appie,    second,  he   see,-,    that    there   is  an   object 


EDUCATION 


before  him  which  he  calls  an  apple;  and, third,  it',    which  he  may  aim.   The  broadest  di\  ision  which 

„..   „    ~ .;,... : —     I.  .   1...  .  ...    *  .1   1 1      1 !         *    ,1.      .'      i:.       .         :.   .       .1       .         i  .  I  


on  ,a  pre' 
enjoyed  the 
comes  back 


he  h.i^  tasted  apples  and 


various  phases  <>t  man's  activities.     He  is,  first     I  le  feels  pleasure,    lie  performs  annthei  success 
of  all,  a  physical  being;  (hen  he  is  capable  of    fully.    I'he  recollectii f  the  past  pleasure  unites 

feelinir. — lias  an   emotional    nature:    then    he    is     -with    the     present     feeling,    anil     the     feeling    is 


blend  unti 
irward  wit! 


one.      All   the  i 
firs! .  are  distinci 

faCtS    do    not    ex, 

intellectual,  and 


or  the  mastery  over  the  other; 
be,  that  the  mind  will  ulti- 
sht  and  cheerful  mood,  or  in 


.1    the 


IS     I  ll 


ask 


himself.  the 

First,  then,  there  is  pJii/sici/  I'lhiriitiim.     The  stir 

aim  and  end  of  physical  education  is  to  produce  all 

health,  not  strength    in   lull ienlar  oivans.  but  a  I  por 


tuition  into  the  la«>«  hi.  I,  I.  uulat.-  the  gradual 

progress  of  the  mind  from  its  earliest  weak  state 
of  mere  Bensation  til!  n  reach  the  power  of  deal- 
ing with  the  i  abstrai  \  ideas.     (See  Senses, 

Education  of,  and  Instruction.)  Thirdly,  we 
have  the  education  of  the  emotional  nature. 
And  here  we  enter  upon  a  more  difficult  sphere 
— one  in  which  the  educator  has  often  to  grope 
in  darkness:  for  the  emotions  an-  not  directly 
under  his  control,  and  the  movements  of  the 
mind  in  regard  to  them  are  hid  in  such  secrecy, 
that  sometimes  an  influence  which  seems  to  us 
likely  to  produce  one  ei ton,  actually  produces 

love  may  have  for  their  resull  the  production  of 

dislike.  We  shall  here  take  a  short  -lane  al  this 
important  subject. 

The  first  point  to  which   the  attention  of  the 
educator  may  be  directed  is  a  general  result  at 


fection.    Lovt 

from  those  \vl 


lie    sweet,    -enlle.    |..llle 

ho  is  uniformly  kind  to 
ful  influence  on  his  whole 
il  influence  than  they  are 


elief  that  the 

favoi  of  man. 
the   world   is 


i h  greater  than  we  may  suppose,  that  God  is 

working  all  things  to  wise  and  noble  ends,  and 

that  man's  destiny  is  for  virtue  and  love.    When 


252  EDUCV 

we  pass  from  this  general  consideration  to  the  par- 
ticular feelings,  we  find  ourselves  in  a  labyrinth. 

A.  feeling  is  a  phase  of  mind  which  arises  fr 

the  consciousness  of  having  passed  from  one 
.-t:Oe  into  another:  am',  accordingly,  no  mental 
act  can  take  place  without  a  feeling.  Hence,  we 
have  feelings  connected  with  the  body,  feelings 
connected  with  the  intellectual  operations,  and 
feelings  connected  with  the  practical  and  moral 
nature.  Or  we  might  soeak  of  the  f.elings  ac- 
cording to  the  objects  which  give  rise  to  them; 
as  those  that  arise  in  connection  with  nature. 
with  one's  own  self,  with  man.  with  God.  We 
select  out  of  these,  two  classes  of  feelings  that 
especially  deserve  the  attention  of  the  educator. 
'The  first  class  deserve  attention  principally  be- 
cause they  are  in  danger  of  being  neglected,  ow- 
ing to  the  charactei  oi  the  present  age.  Theedu- 
cator  should  awaken  and  keep  alive  the  feelings 
of  admiration  and  mystery.  A  child  naturally 
wonders  and  admires,  and  these  feelings  must 
not  be  allowed  to  die  out.  Moreover,  the  sense  of 
mystery,  closely  eouneeted  with  these,  will  be  a 
source  of  great  blessing  to  him.  The  practical 
man  is  apt  to  look  on  all  things  is  d 
fully  known:  but  the  fact  is,  that  nothing  is 
completely  known.  We  know  neither  the  be- 
ginning nor  the  end  of  any  thing.  The  smallest 
object  and  the  largest  are  equally  invisible  to  us. 
<hir  knowledge  is  limited  by  a  boundary  that  lies 
far  within  the  inlimtesiuiallvgre.it  and  the  iiifin- 
itesimally  small;  and  so  all  knowledge  atti  ined 
points  to  an  infinite  region  the  depths  of   w  In.  h 

e  have  not  sounded.  A  eonsrioii-  ,....,  r 
is  closely  eouneeted  with  a  humble  spirit  and 
true  humility  generally  allies  itself  with  love. 
The  second  class  of  feelings  is  that  whii  h  relates 
to  the  beautiful.  The  sense  of  the  beautiful  is 
the  power  to  feel  the  loveliness  of  symmetry  of 
proportion,  of  harmony.  This  power  is  to  be 
acquired  only  by  the  exercise  of  it.  The  sym- 
metry and  loveliness  exist  in  nature.  They  are 
calculated  to  produce  an  effect  on  the  soul  of 
man.  but  the  soul  of  man  must  be  brought 
into  contact  with  them,  before  it  ran  feel  them. 
Therefore,  in  regard  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
feeling  for  the  beautiful,  the  one  essential  condi- 
tion  is,  that    beautiful   objects  l 


ponderanee  in  the  individuality  of  the  person 
educated.  Such  a  person  becomes  sentimental. 
is  easily  moved  to  joy  or  tears,  is  sympathetic  in 
the   highest    degree,   but    the   sympathy  does  not 

lead  to  action.     Th lucator  has  to  take  care 

that  every  tram  of  feeling  be  strengthened  and 


self 


Naturally  every  one  bestows  a  great  deal  of  at- 
tention  on  himself,  and   there   is   a   tendency  to 

feel  only  when  the  circumstances  relate  t i's 

self.  Here,  again,  what  has  to  be  done  is,  to 
prevent  the  mind's  being  occupied  too  much 
with  self,  and  to  interest  it  in  the  thoughts  and 
circumstances  of  others.  Both  these  cautions 
point  to  the  next  division  of  the  sphere  of  edu- 
cation—that of  the  will  or  of  the  practical 
powers.  The  exercise  of  these  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  intellect  and  the  feelings,  and 
indeed  ordinarily  results  from  them.  Man  is 
naturally  a  striving  or  desiring  being.  He  is 
a   force,    and  by  a   force   we  mean    something 


ell. 


Ac, 


\nd    the  powers  which  he 

Strive  tor  .spheres  of  action. 
ire  in  the  main  determined 
!  a.  lion  of    Ills   iiil.lt.  el  and 

the  feelings.  A  child  does 
ves    urn  pleasure.     He  has 

I  le  turns  to  something  else. 
■  previous  action  '.'  A  recol- 
i  pleasant;  but  the  recollee- 
that   i-  pleasant  excites  the 


tions  arisi 

names,  sir 
honor,   th 


the  person  in  whom   the  sense  i 


simple  to  the  harmonii 
the  grandest  spheres  of 
existences.     I'.ut    it  can 
pupil  in  every  form  at  an  early  Btage,  in  beauti- 
ful pictures,  'in   beautiful    i -     in    beautiful 

landscapes,    in    order,    in    gi  Qtle t   I 

uoble  action,  and  in  many  othi  i  ways,  SO  a-  to 
induce  within  himself  a.  love  of  all  that  is  orderly, 
harmonious   and  pea,  eful. 

Two  eauti i  may  be  specially  urged  in  con- 
nection with  the  cultivation  of  the  feelings.  The 
first  is,  that  it  is  possible  to  render  a  human  be- 
ing too  sensitive,  to  give  feeling  too  great  a  pre- 


..s    groups   oi    desires   or  inelina- 
d  we  call  these  groups  by  general 

ieh   as    the   love  of    in y.   the  love   of 

lie  love  of  fame.  These  desire  ei. .a 
rity  according  to  the  amount  of  time 
Inch  they  are  allowed  to  continue  in  the 

d  the  amount  of  space  they  arc  allowed 
,-in  it.      Add  to  this  fact  that  we  natu- 

a  value  on  the  things  which  we  desire, 
rd  some  as  higher  than  others,  and  we 

region  of  morals.  Two  or  three  func- 
uiind  lie  before  us  which  we  are  able 
rge  at  the  time.  We  weigh  these  func- 
t he  balance.  We  pronounce  one  of  a 
iture  than  the  others.  This  is  the  one 
I  feel  bound  to  perform.  Thus  the  fuiic- 
he  eye  is  a  nobler  one  than  that  of  the 
or  the  taste:  and.  hence,  the  educator 
isthcehild  toseeis  performing  a  nobler 
than  he  who  indulges  a  child's  taste  for 

All   functions   m.,\    I ssary,   hut 

;t  have   its  own  place  in  a  well-arranged 


The    first    essential,  then,  to  a    g 1    practical 

training  is  to  impress  on  the  pupil  the  true  value 
of  all  actions  and  things.  He  is  enabled  to  at- 
tain to  this  only  by  having  a  clear  intellect  anil 
a  right  state  of  feeling,  anil,  therefore,  it  cannot 


be  too  strongly  urged,  that  a  thorough  intellectual 
education  is  an  important  element  in  the  at- 
tainment lit  a  sound  moral  character.  But.  be- 
sides  this,  we  learn  to  act  1  iv  acting.  Tin  re  is  a 
natural  instinct  to  act,  and  this  instinct  must 
not  ben  sisted  or  blunted.  It  is  by  one  action 
that  we  rise  to  the  power  of  doing  a  greater. 
1 1  civ  the  sai  in  kin.  1  of  fiction  as  that  which  we 
have  noti  I  in  the  case  ii  the  mental  faculties 
is  apt  to  mislead.     Man  is  often  spoken  of  as 

.1  H  ill  :   but  man  has  n  it  H  ill.  bu1 

many  wills.  The  word  will  is  used  to  denote 
the  complicated  power  which  man  possesses, 
through  his  original  faculties  ami  ' 
of  them,  to  will  tor  the  future.  L!ut.  if  this 
be  the  ease,  the  strength  of  the  power  to  will 
in  any  particular  case  depends  upon  the  pre- 
vious exercise  which  the  mind  has  had  in  will- 
ing similar  actions:  ami  so  a  man  may  have  a 
strong  will  in  one  direction,  and  a  weak  will  in 
another.  Hence,  the  educator  must  take  rare -to 
bring  into  activity  the  willing  power  of  his  pupil 
in  as  many  directions  as  he  can.  without  impair- 
ing his  strength  of  will  in  the  most  important  di- 
rections. Moreover,  in  action,  we  are  influenced 
strongly  by  the  action  of  others,  just  as  in  feel- 
lii":  li\  I  he  tceling  of  others.  The  teacher  who 
wishes  to  leail  his  pupils  to  action,  must  himself 
act  first.  The  influence  of  example  is  all-power- 
ful in  this  matter.  Ami.  finally,  as  willing  de- 
pends tirst  upon  fixing  an  .appropriate  aim,  and, 
secondly,  on  selecting  the  right  means,  the  pupil 
must  be  trained,  in  all  cases,  to  use  the  right 
means.  The  clear  insight  into  the  true  value  of 
actions,  that  is.  int..  the  aims  which  should  guide 
us,  maj  be  oi  comparatively  little  use,  if  we 
have  not  the  good  sense  to  employ  the  suitable 
means  for  our  purposes  These  arc  t  In-  general 
rules  which  regulate  practical  education.  It 
would  be  impossible  in  an  article  like  this  to  go 
into  the  particular  phenomena  which  must  be 
investigated  before  the  educator  can  have  a 
proper  grasp  of  the  subject,  -lust  as  in  the  case 
of  the  feelings,  desires  and  inclinations  arise  in 
connection  with  all  the  activities  of  man. — with 
the  physical,  the  intellectual,  the  emotional,  and 
the   practical  forms  of   man's  energy  ;  and   they 

embrace  the  same  extent  <>t  objects.     They  < - 

nect  themselves  with  nature,  with  one's  ,  ,w  n  s,.]t. 
with  other  men.  with  <  rod.  But,  they  have  wider 
ramifications,  and  a  more  potent  influence  than 
the  feelings,  and  open  up.  therefore,  a  wider  field 
for  investigation;  and.  in  this  Subject,  the  aber- 
ration- demand  the  closest  attention.  The  edu- 
cator has  continually  to  guard  against  the  fori  na- 
tion and  the  strengthening  of  inclinations  winch 
are  dangerous  to  the  well-being  of  the  individual 
and  the  race. 

Lastly,  there  is  religious  education,  embracing 
within  it  intellectual,  emotional,  and  moral  as- 
pects. Religion  may  be  said  to  arise  in  a  feel- 
ing. \\  e  leel  our  weakness  and  littleness.  We  feel 
that  we  are  limited  in  power,  in  knowledge,  in 
i  n.il  energy.  We  feel  surrounded,  on  every  hand, 
by  powers  that  are  stronger  than  we  are.  and 
hemmed  in  by  irresistible  forces.     If  this,  how- 


ever, were  the  only  feeling  despairwould  lay  hold 
of  us.    But,  wi me  to  feel  that  thi 

forces  arc  not  antagonistic  to  us,  that  we  can 
come  into  harmonious  relations  with  the  super- 
natural,   that,     to     use     the      (1,11    I,,. [,.    ,,f 

thought,  we  can  trust   in  a  God  oi  justice  and 

love.   Ii  I-  «  hen  we  gain  this  feeling  .. 

»•■     .:, hi  to  a  religion.    Hut.  a  religion  a.banccs 

"  ' I  'In    mere   feeling  ;  it   sets  dow  u  God  or 

gods,   as    possessing    a  'certain     «  h.n 
therefore,    enjoining  a   certain   kind   of  urn-hip. 
doe.,    the    Christian    religion    present 
definite  conceptions  as   to  the   ,-hara'i  i.  r  of   Cod. 
and  ,  njoin,  as  the   first   condition    of    worship 

and  ..  thi  ,  .  aiu  of  hie.  love  In  Cod  and 
lovi  to  nan  |  i.  ctically  exhibited.  The  Christian 
reiigi  ai  1 1..1-.  bung,  into  plav  the  feeling-  as  the 
foundation  of  religion,  the  intellectual  powers  in 
apprehending  its   great  truths,  and  the  inclina- 

The  discussion  of  this  subject  belongs  to  the 
article  on  religious  education. 

The  subject   oi    education    is  discusse  I  in  a 
great  variety  ol  treatises.     I  In-  most  satisfactory 

works  of  llcrbart  and  Beneke.     lb 
cational  writings  have  been  collected  and   pub- 
lished recently  in  two  volumes    (Leipsic,   1873 

—  1875)   under    th litorship    of    Otto   Will- 

luami.  U  ucke's  great  work  on  the  subject  is 
Erziehungs-  und  UnterricMehre  (2  vols.,  third 

voted  to  Eduk  u  '■  th  second  to°Si«/,wt 
Oi   the   followers  rbart,  Zillei  s  works  de- 

the  works  of  Dittes  and  Dressier.    The  educator 

w  ill  also  derive  much  good  from  the  siinu  ,,i  i  he 
best  works  on  psychology.  Both  llcrbart  and 
Beneke  have  written  handbooks  ,,i  psychology; 
and,  in  Knglish.  special  mention  ma\  >■■  n.,C.ii 
the  writings  of  Sir  William  Hamilton.  I  >r.  Moid], 
Prof.  Bain,  and  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer,  the  last 
of  whom  has  a  work  speci 
cation     (  EiIih;i{i,,i,  :      I 

l'h,,si<;,l..       See  al.-o    \1M1I 


IsT 


d  de 


ited  to  edu- 
Moral,  and 
undscUze  der 
h  ed.,  1845); 
Jded.,1829), 
Pddagogik 

l.'l)  ;    (JK.EI'E, 

51:  Palmer. 


cation  is  the   E«cy.  'opadi,  d,  ■   , 

Hehungs-    und    Unlerridtisicesem    U    Si  hmid 

(10  vols.,  1859     76).     A  second  edition,  r  rised 

and  enlarged,  of  the    first    volume  was 

lsTi'i.      A  coinpcndniiu   of   this  work    m  '.'  Mils.. 

nii-1.  i    the   title    Pud.i:ii'!/isrhrs  Jlaiidhiirh,  was 

begun  by  the  same  editor  iii    1875.     Th     R 

Encyclopadif  </>*  ErzMimii/s-  mid  Fnterrichia- 

wesens,  by  Roli  i  s  and   Ppisteb  [4  Mils..  2d  ed.. 

1771—5),  has  been   prepared   from  thi    I  atholic 

point  of  view. 


54  EDUCATION 

EDUCATION,  Female.    See  Female  Km  ■ 


ind  Education. 

EGYPT,  a  dependency  of  the  Turkish  em 
pire.  in  N.  E.  Africa:  having, with  its  recent  con 
quests,  an  area  of  869,332  sq.  m.,  and  a  popula 
tion,  in  187:").  ,,f  lli.<|-J2.lKMl.  'I  lie  an  ;.  ot  KM.i 
proper  is  212,601  sq.  m. ;  and  its  population 
5,252,000.  The  principal  races  of  peoplf 
represented  in  Egypt,  are  Arabs  or  Bedouins, 
Turks.  Armenians,  Berbers  or  Nubians,  .lews. 
the  Copts,  who  are  the  recognized  de.-o  ndants 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  Europeans  of  different 
nationalities,  and.' in  the  newly  conquered  prov- 
:.ii  .  The  religion  of  the  large  ma- 
jority of  the  inhabitants  is  Mohammedanism. 
There  are.  besides.  350,000  Copts  or  native 
( 'hristians. and  L'.fo.lllio  others  who  profess  ( Ihris- 
tianity.  Egypt  was.  in  ancient  times,  the  scat  of 
a  wonderful  civilization,  its  history  reaching 
farther  back  than  that  of  any  other  nation. 
After  having  been  ruled  by  a  number  of  native 
dynasties,  and  having  been  part  of  the  Persian 
and  Macedonian  i  mpires,  it  became,  in  30  B.C., 
a  Roman  province,  and  afterwards  formed  part 
ra  i  :  lire  (  hi  i-tianity  was  intro- 
duced during  the  first  century;  and  Egypt,  par- 
ticularly Alexandria,  became  a  noted  seal  of 
theological  learning  and  institutions.  In  683,  it 
was  conquered  by  the  caliph  Omar,  who  intro- 
duced Moham danism.  In  LSI 7,  it  came  under 

the  rule  of  the  Turks,  under  whom  it  has.  actually 
or  nominally,  remained  ever  since.  In  1806,  Me- 
hemet  Ali  was  appointed  pasha  and  governor  of 
Egypt.  He  made  himself  virtually  the  absolute 
ruler  of  the  country,  and  was  prevented  only  by 

the  European  powers  fr proclaiming  his  entire 

independence  of  the  Turkish  sway  Under  his 
successors,  who  continued  to  promote  the  wad- 
tare  of  the  country,  and  to  effect  reforms  in  the 
administration,  the  country  prospered  greatly. 
At  the  present  time,  its  dependence  upon  Tur- 
key is  merely  nominal,  and  the  complete  ever 
ance  of  the  tie  appears  to  be  only  a  question  of 
time.  Immense  tracts  of  land  in  the  south  and 
south-west  have,  of  late,  been  annexed:  so  that 
if  it  were  an  independent  empire,  it  would  now 
(1876)  rank  as  the  seventh  nation  of  the  world 
in  regard  to  area. 

Ki/iiruliimii/  His/nri/. —  This  will  be  treated 
under  two  heads  :  (I)  Ancient  Egypt,  (II)  Mod- 
ern Egypt. 

I.  Ancient  E;i;ipt. — In  respect  to  education. 
Egypt  before  the  Christian  era  occupied  a  pecu- 
liar position.  With  China,  India,  and  Persia 
(see  the  articles  on  these  countries),  it  was  one  of 
the  chid  representatives  of  orientalism.  While, 
in  common  with  the  other  oriental  nations.it 
aime  I  ,i;  a  national  not  an  individual  education. 
it  is  to  be  considered  as  presenting  a  connecting 
link,  in  this  respect,  between  the  extreme  ,  ,  tern 
institutions    and    the    educational    systems    of 

Greece  and  Rome.     To  a  greater  extent  fchi i 

any  other  oriental  country,  national  education 
was  under  the  controlling  influence  of  the  priest- 


hood. The  priests  and  the  warriors  were  privi- 
leged classes;  but,  in  their  education,  the  priests 
enjoyed  several  prerogatives  over  the  warriors. 
There  were  schools  for  priests  and  warriors  at 
Thebes.  Memphis,  and  Heliopolis.  In  these 
schools,  there  were  two  systems  of  instruction, — 
.in  ■  ii-  foi  those  who  were  not  pre- 
pared for  higher  instruction,  and  an  esoterii 
course,  to  which  only  those  youths  were  admitted 
who  belonged  to  the  priestly  caste.  The  instruc- 
tors in  both  i  lass  -  oi  -■  hools  were  priests.  The 
subjects  of  instruction  wire  language,  mathemat- 
ics, geometry,  astr any.  natural  history,  music. 

and  religion.  The  princes  were  educated  by  the 
best  instructors,  and  only  with  the  sons  of  priests, 
who  were  twenty  years  of  age.  and  noted  for 
their  good  maimers,  so  that  the  royal  students 
might  not  come  in  contact  with  any  thing  im- 
pure. The  education  of  other  castes  was  of  a 
very  low  order,  as  was  that  of  females  :  but  com- 
mon institutions  of  lcarnine  were  not  entirely 
wantinc      Plato  tells  us  that  the  children  of  the 


writing,  but  adds  that  all  did  not  enjoy  these  ad- 
vantages but  chiefly  those  preparing  for  a  pro- 
fession. The  common  people,  he  says,  received 
some  kind  of  an  education  from  their  parents. 
In  writing,  the  bark  of  the  papyrus  and  black 
or  red  ink  were  used.  In  writing  as  well  as  in 
reading,  there  seems  to  have  been  a  separation 


t  ni'_. 


the 


country  wnh  great  attention,  ami  tne  metnoas 
employed  in  teaching  these  studies  were  ex- 
cellent.    According  to  Diodorus,  gymnastics  and 

music  were  not  comprised  in  tile  general  plan  of 
education,  because  it  was  believed  that  the  for- 
mer was  dangerous  to  the  youths,  and  that  the 
latter  was  not  only  useless  but  hurtful.  In 
Chemmis,  however,  considerable  attention  was 
given  to  gymnastics,  as  well  as  to  music,  the  lat- 
ter being  devoted  to  religious  purposes.  The 
Egyptians, even  in  the  most  remote  ages.seem  to 
have  had  a  great  regard  for  the  influence  of  edu- 
cation ;  for,  according  to  Diodorus,  the  father  of 
Sesostris  had  all  the  boys  assembled  who  were 
born  on  the  same  day  as  his  son,  and  arranged 
that  all  should  receive  the  same  education,  in  the 
belief  that  those  who  were  educated  together, 
would  prove  the  best  friends  and  comrades  in 
war.  Tin-  physical  training  of  children  was 
very  severe  ;  they  were  obliged  to  go  barefooted 
and  almost  entirely  naked,  and  were  brought  up 
with  such  economy,  that  the  entire  education  of 
the  child  cost  only  a  small  pittance.  The  educa- 
tional system  of  Egypt  was  entirely  remodeled 
when  Psaimnetichus  1670  to  616  B.  C.)  under- 
took a  thorough  reform  by  introducing  Greek 
and  Phoenician  elements  into  the  institutions  of 
the  country.and  for  thai  purpose  formed  alli- 
ances wnh  the  Athenians  and  other  Greeks,  and 
afforded  aid  and  encouragement  to  all  foreigners 
who  came  into  the  country.     He  entrusted  the 


EGYPT  2i 

education  of  Egyptian  children  to  Carians  and    founded  .-it  Cairo  and    Uexandria,  and   bad, 

lonians,   by  whom    they  ffciv  also   instructed    in     one  time,  about  'J.OIIO    pupils,  who  were  both  i 


was  held  in  greater  lion..]-  than  by  the  Ptolemies 
in  Alexandria.  The  museum,  a  royal  palace, 
formed  the  residence  and  seat  of  instruction  for 
the  learned  men  of  Gr< ■•-.  who  had  emigrated 


themselves  to  th 
distinguished  an 


'hi. 


B.  ( 

!.,  and  was  at  the 

rity 

from  -J::-.'  to  30 

cam 

•  a    I!. in provi 

gradually  declined. 

oml 

century.  Alcxum 

of  a 

new  philosophica 

hull 

in.  which  gave  ; 

pl.il 

eophical  and   th 

bow 
dev( 

Mi 


.  hi. 


establishment 


Iniivh  haw  never 
1  in  any  country. 
always  believe  I. 
ling  worth  know- 
and  that  "much 


ity  as  the  state  religion 
ol.l  civilization  were. 
GescMchted  ■  Pdda 
II.  Moder  Egypt 
of  Mohammedanisni  i 
history  has  b  en  subs! 
of  other  Mohammedan 
Schools.)  Insiru  tion 
on  the  Koran,  and  scho 
been  more  intimately  ( 
The  strict  Mohammed 
with  the  Prophet,  that 
tng  is  contained  in  the 

investigation  is  heresy."  The  schools  were  ex- 
clusively intended  for  boys,  and  most  of  them 
were  connected  with  the  mosques;    in  smaller 

places,  private  scl Is  were  frequently  founded 

byfakihs,  or  jurists  of  the  lowest  rank.  These 
schools  were  generally  of  the  most  rudimentary 

character,  the  only  school  1 k  used  being  the 

Koran.  Most  of  the  high  schools  (medrissas) 
whirl,  were  founded  in  the  firsl   years  of   the 

caliphate,  and  at  which   Mohi -'.Ian  theol  igy 

and  law.  philology,  philosophy,  logic,  math  imat- 
ics,  medicine  and  alchemy,  astronomy,  history, 
geography,  ami  rhetoric  were  tau-ht.  have  disap- 
peared in  th,  ••".vs.- of  time  \i  the  beginning 
of  th-  present   .■.ntury.  \|. ■]„■!, ,d    \l,  ,,  ,,".„,„..  | 


1.     The  most 

Refah,  who 


kernel   Ali,  were  al.ol- 
Lbbas   Pasha   (1849 
(1854      I  863).     1 1  rider 


.\  council  ot 
<  'airo,  which 
the  country. 

for  the  news 


asyel  evi  ry  thing  depends  on  the  favorable  dis- 
position of  theactual  ruler.  Only  the  establish- 
ment of  ;i  c iiection   between   the  communes 

and  these  schools  would  he  able  to  place  the  lat- 
ter on  a  firm  basis.  The  new  government 
schools  embrace  primary,  secondary,  and  spei  ial 
instruction.  They  were  first  erected  in  L868, 
since  which  time  tiny  have  made  rapid  progress 

1870,  was  °about  4,000  ;  in  1873,8,000.  They 
received  not  only  gratuitous  instruction,  hut 
support,  inclusive  of  clothing.  Primary  in- 
struction embraces  the  reading  and  writing  of 


\ral 


llm 


and 


bracing,  in  a  three  years'  course,  the  study  of 
Arabic,  Turkish.  Knciish.  French,  Herman, 
mathematics,  drawing,   history,   and   geography; 


He  founded  about  50  primary  schools,  which  | 
were  scattered  over  the  country,  and  contained 
about  5,000   pupils.      Secondary   schools  were  | 


ing  a   course   of    four    years,    m :,\    .  !  in 

Fran  e   I    I  we  m  a  ci\  il  and  a  military  career;  in 
the   former  case,  they  attend    for   two   years   the 


256  EG 

School  of  Administration,  and  then  enter  the 
service  of  the  state  ;  in  the  latter  case,  they  en- 
ter the  military  academy  of  the  Abassieh,  at 
Cairo.  (The  former  of  these  institutions,  in 
1871.  had  7.">  pupils;  the  latter.  7 ."><).  In  1-71. 
the  polytechnic  school  had  80  pupils.)  ('_')  The 
Lou-  Srhiuil,  embracing  a  course  of  four  years,  in 
which,  besides  the  Mohammedan  law,  the  I  toman 
law  and  that  of  the  Christian  nations  in  general 


own;  some  receive  aid  from  the  ministry  of 
finance,  and  some  defray  their  expenses  by  means 
of  subscriptions  and  by  school  money. 

The  university  of  Cairo,  called  El-AsJiar  (the 
blossom)  after  the  name  of  the  mosipie  with 
which  it  is  connected,  was  once  a  really  flourish- 
ing center  of  Arabic  science  and  scholarship. 
At  present,  like  the  other  famous  mosque  high 


Mec 


./   Anlln 


are  taught  ;    (.' 

ical    School,    giving    instruction    in    philology, 

mathematics,   rhetoric,    prosody,   and   drawing; 

it-  The  Sch lof  Arts  and  Induslnj,  in  Balak, 

established  by  Mehemet  Ali.  and  greatly  im- 
proved under  Ismail  Pacha  lit  has  a  curse  of 
three  years, and  had,  in  L871,  about  Inn  pupils); 
(.">)  The.bW/W  Schm,l.  with  75  pupils,  ia   1-71, 


O    ! 


d    1,1 


sell. 


only    one  in   the  Kastl.   with   <!•")  pupils.      (The 

Khedive,  in  L871,  offered  the  , pie  .  .f   Syria    to 

receive  twenty-five  students  from  that  province 

into  the  Medical  School,   irrespective 

religion.  A  large  number  of  candidates  pre- 
sented themselves,  but    there   was   not  one  Mo- 

hammi   I        ig    them,  all   being  Christians) 

■  >'.  I'h.  V  ■  .  s  .',„,/.  in  Alexandria,  with  s.'i 
pupils,  in  |s7t.  In  1*71. the  Egyptian  g..\ern- 
ment  called  to  Cairo  professor  II  on   Brugsch, 

of  the  university  of  '  lot!  ing  a   < blish  i  h 

an  academj  for  archseologj .  an  1,  in  parti  ular, 
for  Egyptological  studies.  I'he  Khodi\c  is  also 
endeavoring  to  eradicate  the  prejudice  existing 
against  female  education;  and.  for  that  purpose, 
has  founded  a  girls'  school  tit  Cairo,  in  which, 
\  m-  an  elementary  education,  the 
pupils  arc  instructed  in  sewing,  washing,  and 
dress-making.  Iu  187.7,  the  Egyptian  govern- 
ment resolved  to  establish  a  teacher's  seminary 
after  the  German  model,  and  applied  to  the 
Prussian  ministry  of  education  for  two  teachers 
to  take  charge  of  the  institution.    The  voluntary 

schools,  in  opposition  to  the  government  .-.■! ]-, 

are  annexed  to  the  mosques,  and  intended  for 
elementary  instruction.  If  the  .statistical  n  p  .its 
can  be  relied  upon,  these  contained,  in  1-7". 
60,000  pupils.and.in  1-7:!,  sl'.oimi  pupils. among 
whom  were  many  adults.  These  figures  would 
indicate  a  rapid  progress  since  the  time  of  Me- 
hcinet  Ali,  when  only  one  in  a  thousand  of  the 
entire  population  received  instruction.  Prom  an 
official  report  on  the  voluntary  school  at  Alex- 
andria, which  was  opened  April  1..  L868,  under 
the  protectorate  of  the  heir  apparent,  Mehemet 
Tcfvik  Pasha,  it  appear  thai  Bis  school, on  the 
opening  of  the  adult  classes  in  April,  numbered 
30  pupils;  in  dune,  70;  in  July,  150 ;  in  No- 
vember, 240;  <>f  the  latter  of  whom  59  were 
Egyptians,  52  Italians,  21  Frenchmen,  20  Greeks, 
-I  I'i'Ji  Innen, 32  Syrians,  etc.  The  elementary 
schools  for  children  were  opened  in  April  1SI.S  ; 
and,  in  November,  the  number  of  pupils 
amounted  to  269.  The  languages  in  which  the 
instruction  is  imparted,  arc  Arabic.  French,  and 
Italian.  Most  of  these  schools  arc  supported  by 
the  mosques,  some  by  the  divan  of  wakufs  (re- 
ligious donations);  some  have  property  of  their 


students  from  Tin k.  \  .mo  \-i.i  Minor,  from  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Africa,  from  Arabia,  and  even 
from  [ndiaand  the  Sunda  Islands.  The  number 
of  students,  in  1871,  was  reported  as  9,668.  In 
the  preparatory  classes,  about  L'.OIMI  pupils  are 
clothed  and  supported  at  the  expense  of  the  mi- 
h-i'fs:  instruction  is  given  by  260  teachers  or 
kattabs,  of  whom  160  are  likewise  supported 
from  the  revenue  of  the  wakufs.  The  students 
in  ihe  higher  classes  are  taught  by  about  -111  pro- 
fessors, most  of  whom,  be-ides.  ho]  1  some  other 
c  i  li  ia  si  ical  or  legal  office.  The  li  turee  in 
givi  ii  gratuitously  At  the  time  oi  its  _..■.  b  si 
prosp  rity,  the  unneisitv  sonatina  -  numbered 
more  than  20,000  pupils.  The  first  .school  for 
the  blind  was  founded  a  few  years  ago  by  Moham- 
med Effendi  Onsy.and  is  conducted  by  him  at 

his  own  expense.      It  is  doing  a  givai    : inn  of 

■_  iod.a-.i  1 .  1 1  j  ■number  ot  persons  lose  the  Use 
of  their  eyes  by  the  so-. ■ailed  Egyptian  disease 
ia  kind  of  ophthalmia  .  The  annua  I  examinations 
held  in  arithmetic,  reading,  and  different  kinds 
of  handiwork,  exhibit  considerable  proficiency  on 
the  part  of  the  pupils. 

3/issiiniiiiy  mill  Fin-i-hjit  Sfhi nits. — The  num- 
ber of  foreign  residents,  in  1.-7J.  was  7'.UI!n'..  of 
whom  47,.'il('.  were  inhabitants  of  Alexandria, 
and  L9.120  of  (airo.  As  they  are  the  wealthiest 
and    be-t-edueated    c]a.-s    of 'the    population,    a 

number  .,t  sc] 1-  1 ... \  ■  been  established  for  the 

.  ducation  of  their  children.  'I  I.  ■  IT  ni  h  School 
Brothi  is  and  l.a/.an-t-  have  dav  and  boarding 
school,;  and  female  schools  are  conducted  by 
French  Sisters  of  .Mercy  and  other  religious 
orders.  With  ..ne  of  these  institutions  at  Alex- 
andria, which  has  from  inn  to  500  pupils,  an 
orphan  house  and  a  foundling  institution  are 
connected.  Instruction  in  these  schools  is  given 
in  the  French  language.  The  Cm  k  Ke.uin  in 
Alexandria  in  1873,  had  70  pupils;  and  the 
I'nlhijii,  hull, an,.  CJII  pupils.  There  are  also 
several  Creek.  Italian,  and  German  elementary 
schools.  Presbyterian  missionaries  from  the 
United  States  have  established  a  number  of 
mission  schools,  as  well  as  an  academy  and  a 
theological  seminary,  both  at  Sioot,  the  leading 
town  in  Upper  Egypt.  See  Stephan,  Das  Jteu- 
tige  Aeqypten  (Leips.,  1-71',;  Adams,  The  Land 
of  the  Nile  (London,  1-71 ,;  Itcoxv,  Statistique 
tlr  t'lltjiiiite  (fifth  annual  publication,  Cairo, 
1875)  ;  la  i  ttke,  Aegypten's  Neue  Zeii  (2  vols., 
Leips.,  L873) ;  Dorr,  L' Instruction  Pitblique  en. 
Egypte  (Paris,  1873). 


ELABORATJ VE  FACULTY 


ELABORATIVE  FACULTY,  a  term 
■often  used,  at  the  present  time,  to  indicate  that 
function  of  the  mind  by  which  it  employs  the 
materials  supplied  by  Bensation,  perception,  con- 
ception, and  consciousness  (or  the  inner  sense), 
and  builds  them  up  into  systems  or  chains  of 
thought  and  reasoning.  The  different  processes 
that,  according  to  this  nomenclature,  are  elabo- 
rative,  are  comparison, abstraction,  generalization, 
judgment,  and  reasoning.  To  these  particular 
processes  the  term  thouglu  is  now  often  restricted, 


1  .oikI.  111.  iii  1800.    His  labors  have  been  specially 


is  rln 


Science,  Phenomena    of    Industrial    Life,  and 

Education  as  a  Means  of  Prevei,  ing  r 
lion   (London,   1851).-   Her    Knight's    English 
Cyclopredia. 
ELOCUTION,  the  utterance  or  expression 

of   thought   in   reading  and   sneaking,  is  an   im- 
portant part  of  a  scholastic  education,  because  of 


descr 
procc 

mind 


into  the  body.  The  building  and  repairing 
systems  take  hold  of  that  which  is  brought  into 
the  system  and  elaborate  it;  they  transform  it. 
and  make  of  it  another  thing.  The  elaborative 
system  does  the  same  thing  in  the  mind.  It  takes 
the  material  given  by  the  preventative  faculty 
[sensation,  perception,  etc.],  and  performs  the 
operations  of  comparison,  abstraction,  etc."  Dr. 
Porter,  in  The  Human  Intellect  (N.  Y.,  1869), 
thus  defines  the  office  of  the  elaborative  faculty: 
"The  thinking  power  has  been  treated  as  two- 
fold, and  been  subdivided  into  two  :  the  elahora- 
tiri'fuenltii,  as  performing  the  processes,  and  the 
re,inl, ttire,  as  furnishing  the  rules,  or  more  prop- 
erly as  prescribing  the  sphere  and  possibility  of 
thought.  These  are  named  also  the  dianoetic 
and  the  noetic  faculty.  By  some  writers  they 
are  distinguished  as  the  understanding  and  rea- 
son, in  a  usage  suggested  by  Kant. but  deviating 
materially  from  his  own.  Milton  and  others 
call  them  the  discursive  and  instinctive  reason." 
(See  Intellectual  Education.) 

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS,  etymolog- 
ically.  schools  in  which  the  elements  of  instruc- 
tion are  taught.  The  name  is  used  in  Germany 
(ElemenUirsehnlen)  sometimes  as  synonymous 
with  public  schools  in  general,  but  more  fre- 
quently and  correctly  to  designate  the  lower  or 
primary  departments  of  the  public  schools.  Some 
writers  think  that  the  name  elementary  instruc- 
tion should  be  only  applied  to  the  lowest  class  of 
a  school.  In  Sweden,  a  peculiar  meaning  is  given 
to  the  word,  as  it  denotes  institutions  of  a  higher 
grade  in  opposition  to  tha  people's  or  lower 
schools.  In  England,  according  to  the  "  New 
Code  of  Regulations",  1876  (Art.  4),  an  element- 
ary school  is  a  school,  or  a  department  of  a 
school,  in  which  elementary  instruction  is  the 
principal  part  of  the  instruction  given,  and  does 
not  include  any  school  or  department  in  which 
the  ordinary  payment  for  tuition,  from  each 
pupil,  exceeds  nine  pence  a  week.  (See  Pri- 
mary Education.) 

ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE.  See  Sci- 
ence, Teaching  of. 

ELLIS,  WILLIAM,  an  eminent  English 
writer  and  educationist,  born  in  the  vicinity  of 


public  life.  The  departments  into  which  this 
subject  naturally  divides  itself  are  the  following: 
ill  Articulation,  or  the  proper  and  distinct 
enunciation  of  the  elementary  sounds  as  usually 
combined  in  words;  (2)  Pronunciation,  as  de- 
pendent upon  a  knowledge  of  the  various  sounds 
represented  by  letters  and  their  diverse  combi- 
nations in  words,  and  upon  accentuation  ;  (3) 
Emphasis,  or  the  placing  of  a  stress  of  the  voice 
upon  a  particular  word  or  words  of  a  sentence, 
so  as  to  bring  out  the  meaning  fully, and  to  give 
life  and  spirit  to  the  delivery  ;  (4)  Voice  inflec- 
tions,— upward,  downward,  or  waved,  also  as  a 
means  of  giving  a  particular  significance  to 
words  or  sentences,  and  as  auxiliary  to  emphasis  ; 
(5)  Tones,  or  those  variations  of  the  voice  in 
pitch,  force,  and  quality,  by  which  it  is  mod- 
ulated to  the  expression  of  particular  sentiments 
and  emotions.  (See  Reading,  Culture  of,  and 
Voice.) 

ELPHINSTON,  James,  a  noted  Scottish 
teacher  and  grammarian,  was  born  in  Edinburgh 
in  17- 1,  and  died  at  1  la  nunc]  smith,  near  London. 
in  1809.  For  many  years,  he  was  the  principal 
of  a  school  at  Kensington,  near  London,  and 
was  an  intimate  associate  of  Dr.  Johnson,  by 
whom  he  was  greatly  esteemed.  1  luring  his  res- 
idence in  Edinburgh,  he  superintended  an  edi- 
tion of  the  Rambler.  His  efforts  to  reform  the 
orthography  of  the  English  language,  by  the  in- 
troduction of  phonetic  spelling,  made  him  noted, 
but  brought  upon  him  considerable  ridicule. 
This  system  he  carried  out  in  a  translation  of 
Martial  (1782),  which  Dr.  Beattie  called  "a 
whole  quarto  of  nonsense  and  gibberish  ;"  and  a 
further  explanation  of  the  system  was  given  in 
Propriety  Ascertained  in  her  Picture  (1786), 
which  was  followed  by  English  Uiilii><//-<i/ihn 
Epitomized  (1788),  and  Fifty  Years'  Corre- 
spondence, Inglish,  French,  and  Laltin,  in 
Prose  and  Verse,  between  Geniusses  on  booth 
Sexes  and  James  ESpMnston  (1794).  Be  also 
published  Education;  a  I'uem  (1763),  and  En- 
qlish  Grammar  reduced  to  Anabm 


See      (  'll  \ 


/?/( 


Meal    I)ii 


of 


Eminent  Sen/amen  ;  I'.osuki.i..  Life  of  Johnson. 
EMERSON,  George  Barrett,"  a  distin- 
guished   American    educator,   bom    Sept.    12., 

1797.  in  what  is  now  Kennebunk,  York  Co.,  Me., 
then  a  part  of  the  town  of  Wells.  In  1817,  he 
graduated  at  Harvard  College;  but  while  pass- 


258 


EM1XEXCK    COLLI*  J  E 


ing  through  his  college  course,  he  employed  some 
of  his  winter  vacations  in  teaching  district 
schools,  in  which  he  gai 1  a  great  deal  of  prac- 
tical experience.  After  his  graduation,  he  took 
charge  of  an  academy  in  Lancaster.  Mass.;  and, 
from  1819  to  18"21,  he  was  tutor  in  mathematics 
and  natural  philosophy  in  Harvard  College.  In 
this  position  he  had  unusual  advantages  for  cult- 
ure, since  he  was  associated  with  some  of  the 
most  eminent  scientific  and  literary  men  of  that 
time,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  IM\  Kirk- 
land.  Prof.  Earrar,  and  Edward  Everett,  then 
Eliot  professor  of  Greek.  In  1821,  he  was  se- 
lected to  take  charge  of  the  English  High  School 
for  boys,  then  called  the  English  Classical  School, 
which  was  established  that  year  by  the  town  of 
Boston,  for  the  purpose  of  affov  ling  the  means 
of  a  higher  education  to  those  \\h  olid  not  intend 
to  pursue  a  college  course.  This  was  the  first 
English  high  school  established  in  the  United 
States.  Two  years  afterward,  Mr.  Emerson 
opened  in  Boston  a  private  school  for  girls  ;  and 
of  this  he  continued  to  take  charge  till  L855, 
when  he  retired  from  the  profession  of  teaching. 
This  school  was  eminently  successful  ;  and  Mr. 
Emerson  showed,  in  the  system  of  instruction 
which  he  pursued,  the  highest  qualities  of  an 
earnest,  conscientious,  and  skillful  teacher.  Li 
1830,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  establishment 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction,  before 
which  he  delivered,  in  I  w.'il ,  a  lecture  on  Female 
Education  :  and,  in  1842,  one  on  Moral  Educa- 
tion. In  L843,he  wrote  The  Schoolmaster,  be- 
ing part  second  of  The  School  and  Schoolmaster, 
the  first  part  being  written  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pot- 
ter, afterwards  bishop  of  Pennsylvania.  This 
work  was  composed  on  the  invitation  of  the 
benevolent  -lames  Wadsworth.of  (ieneseo.  X.  Y., 
who  paid  the  expense  of  printing  and  distribut- 
ing gratuitously  15,000  copies  of  the  work. 
Through  means  afforded  by  Mr.  Brimmer,  of 
Boston,  a  copy  of  this  book  was  placed  in  each 
of  the  district  schools  of  Massachusetts.  The 
object  of  the  work  was  to  afford  information  of 
a  practical  character  in  regard  to  the  various  de- 
partments of  elementary  education,  more  partic- 
ularly in  respect  to  the  organization,  discipline, 
instruction,  and  management  of  common  schools. 
The  style  in  which  it  is  written,  its  tone  of  sen- 
timent, and  the  wisdom  of  its  suggestions  arc 
worthy  of  its  distinguished  authors.  Mr.  Emer- 
son served  for  two  years  in  the  School  Commit- 
tee of  Boston,  and,  from  1848  to  1855,  in  the 
Massachusetts  Board  of  Education.  He  was 
also  a  prominent  member  of  the  Boston  Society 
of  Natural  History,  and  was  appointed  by  Gov. 
Everett  chairman  of  the  commission  to  whom 
was  intrusted  the  making  of  a  zoological  and 
botanical  survey  of  the  state  of  Massachusetts. 
He  has  published  also  a  Report  on  (he  Trees  and 
Shrubs  growing  naturally  in  the  Forests  of 
Massachusetts  (Boston,  1846),  and  a  Manual  of 
Agriculture  ( l>s<il ).  See  Barn  lbd,  Educational 
Biography  (N.  Y.,  1861). 

EMINENCE  COLLEGE,  at  Eminence,  Ky. 
a  non-sectarian  institution,  was  founded  in  1857 


EMORY  COLLEGE 

for  the  education  of  both  sexes.  It  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees.  The  buildings  stand  upon  an 
elevated  site,  and  the  grounds  are  tastefully  laid 
out  and  ornamented  with  evergreens  and  forest 
trees.  The  libraries  contain  about  1,800  vol- 
umes. The  institution  has  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus  and  the  beginning  of  a  min- 
eralogical  and  geological  cabinet.  There  is  apre- 
paratory  and  a  collegiate  course,  the  latter  com- 
prising six  departments:  namely,  ancient  lan- 
guages, mathematics,  physics  and  chemistry, 
mental  philosophy.  Biblical  literature,  and  mod- 
ern languages.     When  a  student  has  undergone 

graduation  in  tlii.t'.l.'^.rtin.'nt  :  'aill'the'po^- 
sion  of  certificates  from  the  various  departments 
of  the  curriculum  entitles  the  holder  to  the  de- 
gree of  A.  B.  The  degree  of  I!.  S.  is  conferred 
on  those  students  who  complete  the  scientific 
part  of  the  course,  and  have  a  certificate  to  that 
effect.  There  is  also  a  special  course  for  females 
similar  to  that  of  female  seminaries,  upon  the 
completion  of  which  a  diploma  is  granted.  The 
regular  charge  for  tuition  is  £25  in  the  collegiate, 
and  S20  in  the  preparatory  course  of  twenty 
weeks.  The  daughters  of  all  regular  preachers, 
and  of  widows  of  limited  means,  are  received  at 
a  discount  of  thirty  per  cent.  Young  men  pre- 
paring for  the  ministry  are  admitted  free  of  tui- 
tion. In  ls74 — 5,  there  were  7  instructors,  126 
matriculates  (58  males  and  68  females), and  125 
n/iiwiii.  The  whole  number  of  pupils,  in  1875 
—6,  was  190.  S.  G.  Muffins  was  the  pri  sident 
from  September,  1857,  to  June,  1858,  since 
which  time  \V.  S.  Giltner  has  been  the  president. 
EMORY  COLLEGE,  at  Oxford,  Xewton 
county,  Ga.  under  the  control  of  the  Methodist, 
Episcopal  Church,  South,  was  founded  in  1837. 
It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  an  endow- 
ment of  $20,000.  The  value  of  its  grounds,, 
buildings,  and  apparatus  is  $70,000.  The  in- 
stitution has  an  academic  and  a  collegiate  de- 
partment, the  latter  comprising  a  classical  course- 
of  four  years  and  a  scientific  course  of  three 
years.  The  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Science  and 
of  English  Literature,  of  Bachelor  of  Arts  and 
Master  of  Arts,  are  the  regular  degrees  con- 
ferred by  this  institution.  The  cost  of  tuition 
in  the  college  is  $25  for  the  fall  term  and 
$35  for  the  spring  term ;  in  the  academic  de- 
partment, it  varies  per  term  from  $15  in  the 
primary  classes  to  $31  in  the  academic  classes. 
There  is  a  fund  of  five  thousand  dollars,  the 
interest  of  which  is  used  in  paying  the  tuition, 
ami.  in  some  cases,  the  board  of  young  men  of 
limited  resources,  who  arc  preparing  for  tin- 
Christian  ministry  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South.  '  The  libraries  contain  about 
7.000  volumes;  the  mineral  cabinet  is  one  of  the 
finest  in  the  South.  In  1873 — 1,  there  were  155 
students,  of  whom  Kill  were  of  the  collegiate 
grade,  including  1  I  in  the  scientific  course;  and 
■  ^i  were  ill  the  academic  department :  the  number 
of  alumni  was  544.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  6 
instructors  and  155  students.     The  presidents  of 


EMORY  AND  HENRY  COLLEGE 

the  college  have  been  as  follows:  Rev.  Ignatius 

A.  Few,   D.  D.,  LL.D.,  1837  to  1839  ;  Rev.  A. 

B.  Longstreet,  LL.  D.,  1830  to  1848;  Rev. 
Geo.  F.  Pierce,  D.  D.,  LL.  1>„  1848  to  1854; 
Rev.  A.  Means,  I).  D.,  LL.  D.,  1854  to  1855; 
Rev.  J.  R-  Thomas,  D.  D.,  1855  to  18(57  ;  Rev. 
Luther  M.  Smith.  D.D.,  1867  to  1S71  ;  ami 
Rev.  ( ).  L  Smith.  D.D.,  tin.1  present  incumbent 

EMORY  AND  HENRY  COLLEGE, 
at  Emory,  Washington  Co.,  Va..  founded  m 
L838,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church,  South.  It  has  no  endow- 
ment, ami  is  supported  by  tuition  fees,  which,  in 
the  collegiate  course,  are  $30  per  term  of  20 
weeks.  The  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  and 
apparatus  is  $125,000.  The  college  library  con- 
tains 1,580  volumes,  and  those  of  the  two  litera- 
ry societies  9,000.  The  college  lias  collections  of 
minerals  ami  fossils,  philosophical  and  chemical 
apparatus,  eta  It  comprises  preparatory  courses, 
the  ordinary  collegiate  course,  and  a  scientific  and 
a  business  course.  Li  1875 — (>,  there  were  <i  in- 
structors, 1G3  students  (80  collegiate,  and  83 
scientific  and  preparatory),  and  332  alumni. 
The  presidents  have  been  the  Rev.  Charles 
Collins.  I).  1).,  1838—52,  and  the  Rev.  Ephraim 
K.  Wilev.  I».  1>.,  appointed  in  1852  and  still 
(1876)  in  office. 

EMOTIONS  are  those  conditions  of  the 
mind  in  which  the  sensibility  is  excited,  so  as  to 
act  upon  the  will,  and  with  the  tendency  to  out- 
ward manifestation  in  bodily  acts.  The  differ- 
ence between  emotions  ami  passions  is  rather 
quantitative  than  qualitative  ;  the  former,  while 
characterized  by  an  intensity  of  feeling,  still  leave 
a  considerable  scope  for  the  exercise  of  reason 
and  ju  Igment  ;  the  latter,  for  the  time  being. 
disturb  the  equilibrium  of  self-consciousness, and 
produce  a  condition  in  which  the  mind  is  over- 
mastered and  controlled  by  the  particular  feel- 
ing, and  is  borne  along  by  its  force,  helpless  ami 
suffering  (hence  the  name  passion,  meaning  suf- 
fering). Of  this,  we  have  illustrations  in  the 
effects  of  extreme  anger,  love,  hatred,  and  re- 
venge. Emotions  are  also  to  be  distinguished 
from  sentiments,  the  latter  being  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent based  on  mental  discriminations,  and  more 
steady  and  durable  in  their  nature.  Thus,  lie 
who  has  cultivated  the  sentiment  of  patriotism, 
cannot  but  feel  an  emotion  of  joy  at  a  victory 
gained  by  his  country  over  her  enemies.  Emotions 
are  likewise  to  be  distinguished  fromfeelings,  or 
the  immediate  sensations  of  the  physical  organ- 
ism, giving  rise  to  mental  perceptions,  or  to 
bodily  pleasure  or  pain.  The  nature  of  children 
is  more  emotional  than  that  of  grown  persons, 
because  the  restraining  principle  of  the  mind  is  less 
active,  ami  the  sensibility  more  fresh  and  more 
acute.  This  is  particularly  true  of  certain  kinds 
of  temperament  and  mental  constitution.  The 
office  of  educat  ion  is  to  recognize  every  principle 
of  the  human  being,  and  to  employ  it  or  appeal 
to  it  in  the  educative  processes.  An  emotional 
nature  should  be  cherished ;  inasmuch  as  one 
who  is  deficient  in  this  respect  is  apt  to  be  cold, 


EMPIRICAL  METHODS 

selfish,  and  unsocial.     The  emotions  are 

e patible  with,  but  necessary  to,  the 

meiits  of  man's  moral  nature ;  and  the 
should  strive  to  connect  them  with  m 
tives.  Habit  has  much  to  do  in  laying 
dation  of  a  rich   emotional   nature  in 


only 
t  ele- 


filial  affection,  etc.  will  awake 
emotions;  and  when  properly  a 
a  means  of  emotional  culture  :  1 
as  far  as  possible.be  permitted 
natural  emotions  to  which  the 
stances  of    their    lives   rive   ril 


feeli 


ill     ill. 


torical  incidents,  or 
ihoni   they  meet   in 


the  conduct   of  thos 
their  daily  lives. 

EMPIRICAL  METHODS,  those  methods 
of  instruction  or  education  which  are  based  not 
on  theoretical  principles,  but  on  the  effects  of 
practical  operations  as  learned  by  experience. 
Hence  the  term  (from  Gr.  ifi-cijua,  experience). 
When  the  application  of  scientific  methods,  or 
those  derived  from  general  principles,  is  possible, 
the  use  of  empirical  methods  becomes  a  cause  of 
reproach,  and  is  to  be  condemned.  The  science 
of  education  is.  however,  too  unsettled  and  in- 
complete to  justify  such  condemnation,  except  to 
a  limited  extent.  '  Methods  that  have  stood  the 
test  of  actual  experiment,  and  have  proved 
effective,  are  not  to  be  discarded  merely  because 
the  principle  underlying  them  is  not  understood, 
or  because  they  seem  to  contradict  some  favorite 
theory.  Such  experimental  processes  are  the 
source  of  much  valuable  experience,  and  the 
facts  thus  obtained  should  be  generalized  so  as 
to  supply  additional  scientific  principles,  or  cor- 
rect those  already  deduced.  In  this  way,  the 
practical  experience  of  educators  may  be  em- 
ployed to  improve  and  extend  tin' science  of  edu- 
cation. On  the  other  hand.it  is  undoubtedly 
true  that  teachers  are  too  apt  to  follow 
empirical  methods  blindly,  without  concerning 
themselves  with  principles.  The  complaint  is 
often  and  justly  made  that  education  is  not  sci- 
entific ;  and,  that,  consequently  old  methods  and 
processes  are  often  employed,  when  the  circum- 
stances render  them  entirely  inapplicable.  This 
would  naturally  be  the  result  of  adhering  to  em- 
pirical methods,  since  principles  alone  can  guide 
to  a  just  discrimination  as  to  practical  processes. 
The  "rule  of  thumb"  may  answer  when  the  oper- 
ator is  confined  to  a  very  narrow  sphere  of  his 
art, and  is  never  obliged  to  depart  from  it:  but  it 
is  entirely  inadequate  to  grapple  with  the  difficul- 
ties presented  in  a  varied  and  enlarged  sphere  of 


260 


EMULATION 


practical  effort,  whatever  the  art  or  profession 
may  be.  This  is  particularly  true  of  education, 
since  the  elements  with  which  it  lias  to  deal  are 
as  innumerable  in  their  combinations  as  the 
phases  of  human  character.  In  proportion  as 
education  emerges  from  this  condition  of  em- 
piricism, and  assumes  a  settled  scientific  status, 
its  practical  operations  will  rise  to  the  dignity  of 
a  profession,  and  those  engaged  in  it  will  receive 
tin-  consideration  which  appertains  to  the  pro- 

EMULATION  (  hat.  wmiihilio,  from  ii'iiuilu.i. 
a  rival),  the  desire  to  excel,  is  a  principle  of 
action  which  has  had  a  very  general  application 
in  practical  education,  being  one  of  the  must 
common  incentives  brought  to  bear  upon  chil- 
dren and  youth  to  induce  exertion  in  study.  The 
various  systems  of  merit  marks,  prizes,  etc.,  are 
based  upon  this  principle,  inasmuch  as  they  def- 
initely recognize  and  reward  superiority  or  ex- 
cellence. 

Scarcely  any  subject  has  been  more  thoroughly 
discussed  than  the  propriety  of  resorting  to  emu- 
lation as  a  school  incentive.  On  the  one  hand, 
it  has  been  held  that  the  human  mind,  partic- 
ularly in  its  immature  state,  needs  the  stimulus 
of  secondary  motives  to  awaken  its  dormant 
energies,  especially  for  the  accomplishment  of 
tasks  in  which  it  takes  only  an  imperfect  inter- 
est. Naturally,  children  are  but  little  prone  to 
study,  their  fondness  being  rather  for  active 
sports  and  amusements  ;  and,  hence,  the  awaken- 
ing of  an  interest  in  the  studies  themselves, 
while  an  important  object  of  the  teacher's  efforts, 
cannot  be  depended  upon  to  incite  the  pupil  to 
continuous  industry.  While  there  are  some 
minds  and  temperaments  that  feel  an  almost  in- 
nate desire  for  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  and 
hence  a  love  of  study,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
great  majority  of  children  have  no  such  desire 
until  it  is  engendered  by  the  force  of  secondary 
motives,  that  is,  by  holding  out  inducements  to 
study  based  upon  the  attainment  of  things  in 
which  they  do  take  an  interest.  All  children 
are,  more  or  less,  prone  to  emulation  ;  they  love 
to  excel  others,  particularly  in  things  that  bring 
commendation  and  honor,  in  this  respect  re- 
sembling those  of  maturer  years;  for  this  prin- 
ciple of  action  has  been  recognize  1  as  leading  to 
eminence  in  every  department  of  human  effort. 
Tims  Cicero  says,  "  Ilonos  alit  artes  omnesque 
inceuduntur  ad  studia  gloria,  jacentque  ea  sem- 
per qu«  apuil  quosque  improbantur."  Hence, 
in  schools  and  colleges,  emulation  is  an  impor- 
tant and  valuable  incentive  which  the  educator 
may,  by  no  means,  cast  aside.  Of  course,  it  is 
not  to  be  allowed  to  degenerate  into  personal 
strife,  animosity,  or  jealousy  ;  nor  is  it  to  be  in- 
dulged in  such  a  manner  as  to  obliterate  the  pu- 
pil's real  interest  in  the  study  pursued.  It  is 
always  to  be  impressed  upon  the  student's  mind 
that  he  is  working  in  a  good  cause,  and  that  he 
should  strive  to  attain  to  the  highest  possible 
degree  of  excellence  in  it. — higher,  if  he  can, 
than  that  which  he  sees  has  been  attained  by  any 
<>f  his  fellow  students.  Thus  what  others  achieve 


becomes  the  measure  of  what  can  be  done  by 
him  if  he  exerts  himself  to  the  utmost,  and  also 
the  standard  beyond  which  he  is  to  go  in  order 
to  obtain  the  prize  of  excellence.  Whewell,  in 
Emjlixh  Viiir.rxiiii  Education,  remarks,  "A 
combination  of  direct  and  indirect  instruction 
appears  to  be  desirable.  The  love  of  knowledge, 
and  the  love  of  distinction  with  the  fear  of  dis- 
grace, are  the  two  main  springs  ,,t  all  education, 
and  it  does  not  appear  wise  or  sate  to  try  to  dis- 
pense with  either  of  them."  Contention,  per- 
sonal rivalry,  and  envy  need  not.it  is  said.be 
the  offspring  of  a  noble  emulation  :  and  no  other 
emulation  than  this  should  be  encouraged  or 
permitted  by  the  educator. 

On  the  other  hand,  an  appeal  to  emulation  as 
a  school  incentive,  has  been  either  wholly  or 
partly  condemned  by  a  numerous  class  of  educa- 
tors of  the  highest  distinction.  Kr.  I  (wight  said, 
'•  Emulation  1  condemn.  I  think  it  is  a  wicked 
passion,  and  the  cause  of  great  evil.  I  wish  to 
see  all  actuated  by  this  desire — to  do  the  best 
they  can  for  the  glory  of  their  Creator.''  But 
he  also  said,  "  On  this  subject  I  have  often  re- 
flected. I  have  attended  to  all  the  arguments  ; 
and,  for  aught  I  know,  impartially.  I  would 
carefully  avoid  emulation  ;  I  would  get  along 
without  it  as  far  as  possible,  and  as  long  as  1 
could  ;  but  how  we  can  prevent  its  existence  en- 
tirely I  do  not  know."  .Miss  ( '.  B.  Beccher  said, 
"  Emulation  always  affects  those  the  most,  who 
least  need  excitement,  and  leaves  unaffected  those 
who  most  require  it.  Another  evil  is,  that  it 
renders  those  who  come  under  the  influence  of 
this  principle,  less  susceptible  of  better  influence." 
(See  Annals  of  Education,  vol.  in.,  p.  28.)  This 
writer  defines  emulation  as  the  "method  of  ex- 
citing others  to  exertion  by  rewards  and  punish- 
ments based  on  comparative  excellence,"  or 
"giving  rewards  to  those  who  are  decided  to  be 
better  than  their  companions,  in  any  of  those 
particulars  for  which  rewards  are  offered." 
S.  R.  Hall,  in  Annals  of  Education,  vol.  n., 
thus  sums  up  the  results  of  his  experience  in 
employing  emulation  as  a  school  incentive  : 
■■  1 1 )  A  small  part  of  the  scholars  applied  them- 
selves to  their  lessons  with  great  correctness ; 
(2)  They  aimed  to  get  the  lessons  for  recitations, 
but  thought  little  of  learning  them  for  the  pur- 
pose of  applying  knowledge  to  the  practical  pur- 
poses of  life  ;  (■'!)  Efforts  were  relaxed  whenever 
the  prospect  of  '  beating '  became  faint ;  (4)  Those 
near  the  head  were  usually  jealous  of  each  other, 
and  not  unfrequcntly  exhibited  envy  and  ill-will; 
(5)  Those  often  obtained  the  prize,  who  were  the 
least  deserving  of  it ;  (6)  Those  who  had  be- 
come considerably  acquainted  with  a  study  had 
greatly  the  advantage  of  others  in  their  class, 
who  had  enjoyed  less  opportunity ;  (7)  Parents 
were  frequently  led  to  take  the  part  of  their 
children,  and  to  believe  they  were  treated  un- 
fairly." Cowper,  in  Tirocinium,  or  a  Review  of 
Schools,  gives  the  following  condemnatory  de- 
scription of  emulation  : 


ENCOURAGEMENT 

That,  with  a  world  not  often  over-nice, 

Hanks  as  a  virtue    anil  is  iuat  a  vice; 

Or  rather  a  gross  compound,  —justly  tried,— 


Most  i't  the  severe  condemnation  passed  upon 
emulation  seems,  however,  to  be  based  upon  a 
definition  of  it  that  includes  too  much  of  per- 
sonal rivalry,  of  the  selfish  desire  for  reward, 
and  of  the  mere  craving  for  approbation,  the 
natural  concomitants  of  which  are  "envy,  hatred, 
and  jealousy;"  whereas,  the  desire  of  attaining 
excellence  in  worthy  things  does  not  necessarily 
include  these  laser  motives,  although,  it  must  be 
confessed,  the  tendency  is  in  that  direction  un- 
less it  is  carefully  regulated.  "  Emulation,"  says 
a  distinguished  educator,  "  is  a  generous  ardor 
which  nature  herself  kindles  and  nourishes. 
There  may  be  minds  so  indolent,  so  unhappy,  as 
never  to  have  warmly  felt  its  influence.  There 
may  be  whole  schools  in  which,  thanks  to  bad 
organization,  the  indifference  of  the  master,  or 
other  circumstances,  emulation  is  only  weakly 
manifested ;  but  in  the  school,  as  elsewhere,  it 
exists  naturally,  and  there  is  less  need  of  excit 
ing  it  than  of  directing  it  aright."  in  this,  as 
in  most  other  respects,  the  educator  has  great 
need  to  watch  the  indications  of  character  in 
his  pupils.  Some  minds,  largely  affected  by  ap- 
probativeneas,  or  having  excessive  self-esteem, 
may  be  greatly  injured  bya  system  that  tends  to 
foster  these  qualities;  others  may  need  the  in- 
centive of  emulation  to  bring  out  their  powers. 
The  prevailing  system  of  treating  all  minds  and 
dispositions  alike  must  often  do  irreparable  in- 
jury. ■•  There  is  no  ground,"  says  <  'urrie.in  The 
Principles  and  Practice  of  Common-School 
Education,  "for  confining  the  application  of 
this  principle  so  exclusively  as  we  do  to  the 
work  of  instruction.  It  is  true  that,  in  school, 
intellectual  occupation  is  the  chief  work  of  the 
pupil,  and  that,  therefore,  to  it  there  must  be  the 
most  frequent  occasion  of  applying  the  principle. 
Nevertheless,  the  teacher  is  supposed  to  have  in 
view  the  moral  training  of  his  pupils,  whilst  con- 
ducting their  instruction  ;  and  if  he  is  only  im- 
pressed with  a  due  sense  of  its  paramount  im- 
portance, he  will  find  many  opportunities  of 
directing  their  attention  to  acts  of  virtue  per- 
formed under  their  observation,  and  of  exciting 
a  spirit  of  emulation  in  this  sphere  of  the  same, 
active  kind  as  that  by  which  he  helps  forward 
their  intellectual  work.  The  application  of  this 
principle  to  moral  actions  ought  to  vindicate  it 
against  the  indiscriminate  condemnation  with 
which  we  may  be  tempted  to  visit  it,  when  we 
think  only  of  its  extreme  exhibition  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  knowledge." 

ENCOURAGEMENT,  as  an  educational 
incentive,  is  of  indispensable  importance  in  deal- 
ing with  a  certain  class  of  minds,  particularly 
with  those  characterized  by  an  excess  of  caution, 
timidity,  and  diffidence.  (See  Dn  i  idencb.)  Many 
teachers  repress  the  exertions  of  their  pupils  by 
failing  to  discern  their  true  character,  so  as  to 
be  able  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  effort  they 
may  have  put  forth  in  order  to  accomplish  an 


ENGLAND 


>6T 


assigned  task,  or  to  avoid  a  temptation  to  do 
wrong.  Adopting  an  arbitrary  standard,  they 
sometimes  condemn  alike  all  who  fail  to  attain 
it,  making  no  allowance  for  diversity  of  talent, 
opportunity,  or  the  power  of  will;  whereas  the 

true  test  of  a  pupil's  merit  is  not  the  aci iplish- 

ment  of  the  task,  but  the  exertion  put  forth  and 
the  selt control  exercised  in  the  endeavor  to  com- 
ply   with    the    teacher's   precepts   Or    directions. 

Encouragement  consists  in  adjust  ing  the  standard 
ot  success  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  and  traits 
of  the  pupil.  If  the  latter  is  dull,  indolent,  self- 
indulgi nt.  feeble  in  will,  and  yielding  easily  to 
temptation,  the  educator  who  recognizes  these 
traits,  accepts  with  satisfaction  the  feeblest  efforts 
at  amendment  which  he  sees  have  been  put 
forth,  and  by  judicious  commendation  induces 
stronger  and  more  persistent  ones,  until  the 
foundation  of  moral  or  intellectual  strength  has 
been  safely  laid.  Timid  children  must  be  en- 
couraged to  lay  aside  their  fears  by  being  shown 
that  they  are  groundless.  They  must  not  be  re- 
pressed by  harsh  words  of  censure,  or  by  those 
forms  of  punishment  which  should  be  the  ex- 
clusive penalty  of  willful  wrong-doing.  On  the 
contrary,  they  should  be  made  to  feel  that,  even 
if  they  have  failed,  they  have  won  their  teach- 
er's approving  Bmiles  by  their  honest  efforts.  All 
the  various  forms  of  encouragement,  within  the 
power  of  a  teacher  of  skill  and  experience,  will 
find  occasions  for  employment  in  dealing  with 
the  endless  diversities  of  character  presented  by 

the    pupils  of   a    large    class   or   scl I.     Home 

minds,  on  the  other"  hand,  need  rather  urging 
than  gentle  encouragement;  and  the  latter,  in 
the  form  of  excessive  praise,  to  talented  pupils 
is  often  a  means  of  flattering  their  vanity,  and 
thus  operates  as  a  kind  of  moral  poison,  destroy- 
ing the  force  of  every  true  stimulus  to  activity. 
The  following  are  the  suggestions  of  practical 
educators  :  -  Kneouragcnieiit  inspires  confidence, 
and  children,  more  than  others,  need  it.  Let  it 
be  given  in  all  eases  where  this  can  be  honestly 
done.  To  a  want  of  this  in  the  discipline  of 
classes  are  to  he  ascribed  the  timidity  and  reserve 
so  often  manifested  among  pupils  by  a  hesitating 
manner,  a  low  voice,  and  a  tone  of  inquiry  in 
response,  especially  to  strangers.  A  proper  de- 
gree of  encouragement  renders  them  confident 
and  spirited,  eager  to  tell  what  they  know,  and 
in  an  audible  tone  of  voice.  Encouragement  has 
a  peculiar  influence  in  promoting  both  mental 
and  moral  improvement."— (flow  to  Teach.'S.Y., 
1873.) 

ENGLAND,  an  important  European  coun- 
try, forming  with  Wales  the  southern  portion  of 
the  island  of  Great  Britain,  and  being  the  prin- 
cipal member  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  It  has  an  area  of  58,320 
sq.  miles,  and  a  population,  according  to  the 
census  of  1871,  of  22,712,266.  On  the  basis  of 
the  official  lists  of  births  and  deaths,  the  popula- 
tion, in  1875,  was  estimated  by  the  registrar 
general  at  23,944.4:>9.  The  last  official  census 
contains  no  information  of  the  number  of  per- 
sons   belonging  to   the   established   Church  of 


England  and  other  religious  creeds.  The  pop- 
ulation connected  with  the  established  church  is 
variously  estimated  at  from  .Vi  per  cent  (Martin's 
Fearb  d     to  77-   per  oeni    [fiavenstein's  Be- 


The  R 

cent  of 

Edu 


at 


!  History. — The  history  of  educa- 
tion in  England  is  a  subject  which  deserves  bet- 
ter and  fuller  treatment  than  it  has  yet  received. 
Probably,  some  system  of  education  existed  in 
Britain,  or  at  least  in  the  southern  portion  of  it, 
before  Julius  ( 'uesar  visited  its  shores.  After  the 
Romans  had  resolved  on  making  Britain  a  per- 
manent addition  to  their  empire,  education  was 
one  of  the  means  which  they  employed  to  render 
their  possession  stable.  Tacitus  tells  us  that 
Agrieola  had  the  sons  of  the  chief  men  instructed 
in  the  liberal  arts,  and  the  result  was.  that  the 
Britons  showed  great  ability,  and  devoted  them- 
selves with  ardor  to  the  new  pursuits.  The  Ro- 
man schools  probably  remained  in  existence 
after  the  Romans  abandoned  the  island.  At  any 
rate,  when  Charlemagne  conceived  the  great  idea 
of  spreading  knowledge  among  all  classes,  it  was 
in  an  Englishman.  Alcuin,  that  he  found  his 
principal  guide,  as  well  as  his  own  instructor. 
It  is  well  known  that  Alfred  the  Great  did  much 
for  the  spread  of  learning  and  for  the  English 
universities,  and  many  of  the  grammar  Bchools 
were  founded  in  the  middle  ages.  Carlisle 
school,  for  instance,  was  established  in  the  time 
of  William  II.;  Derby,  about  the  year  1160; 
.Salisbury,  in  1319;  and  Winchester,  the  oldest 
of  the  so-called  nine  Public  Schools,  in  LIST. 
These  schools  were  generally  connected  with 
cathedrals  or  monasteries.  Their  object  was 
mainly  to  train  either  for  the  priesthood  or  for 
some  lower  service  in  the  church,  as  for  the 
choir.  Speaking  generally,  the  subjects  of  in- 
struction were  grammar  and  music.  Many  of 
these  schools  were  reorganized  at  the  Reformation, 
and  very  many  additional  ones  were  formed. 
The  range  of  instruction  was  considerably 
widened,  and  most  of  them  were  free  ;  but  they 
helped  to  educate  only  a  small  portion  of  the 
community  ;  and.  while  the  universities  and  a 
few  of  the  schools  rose  to  eminence,  most  of  these 
schools  were  neglected.  In  process  of  time,  too, 
the  endowments  of  these  schools  were  greatly 
abused;  and  when  a  commission  was  appointed 
to  impure  into  their  condition  (December  28., 
18641,  matters  were  found  in  an  exceedingly  un- 
satisfactory state.  The  commissioners  excluded 
from  their  examination  the  nine  schools  which 
had  been  already  reported  on.  The  number  of 
schools  which  came  under  their  observation,  and 
Which  they  speak  of  as  endowed,  was  about 
700  ;  but  they  examined  82  other  schools  doing 
similar  work,  so  that  the  entire  number  was 
782,  in  regard  to  which  they  make  the  follow- 
ing statement :  "  The  aggregate  net  income  from 
endowments  of  the  grammar  and  other  sec- 
ondary schools  included  in  our  list  is  £195,184. 
The  gross  income  of  the  schools  and  charitable 
foundations,     including     grammar    schools,    is 


£336,201.  The  annual  value  of  exhibitions  to 
which  the  schools  have  a  claim,  but  which  are 
not  included  in  these  amounts,  is  at  least 
£14,264.  The  total  number  of  towns  of  more 
than  2.000  inhabitants,  according  to  the  census 
of  1861 .  which  have  endowments  for  a  grammar 
or  other  secondary  school,  is  304.  Many  of  these 
endowments  are  now  applied  to  primary  schools 
only.  There  are  228  towns  of  that  size  without 
any  such  endowment." 

The  most  singular  feature  in  the  results  of  the 
inquiry  was.  that,  in  many  places,  the  endow- 
ments had  come  to  be  regarded  and  treated  as 
private  property.  The  school-master  often  drew 
the  income  without  having  a  single  pupil,  and 
many  school-masters  seemed  to  feel  that  the 
fewer  scholars  they  had,  the  more  comfortable 
would  it  be  for  themselves.  We  quote  some  out 
of  the  very  numerous  examples  which  the  Report 
furnishes  :  "  At  Bosworth  (net  income  of  school 
£792  a  year),  the  head-master  taught  three 
boarders  and  no  others  ;  the  under-master  only 
attended  when  he  chose;  the  usher  taught  an  in- 
ferior village  school.  Thame  had  two  masters 
receiving  £300  between  them,  one  of  whom  had 
a  good  house  also.  Mr.  Fearon  found  one  boy 
in  the  school.  A  private  school  close  by  had  80 
boarders  and  40  day  scholars,  paying  higher 
than  the  grammar  school  fees.  At  Witney,  the 
head-master  contented  himself  with  teaching 
Creek  to  one  boy.  Reading  had  three  scholars, 
and  there  was  no  hope  of  the  school's  reviving 
under  the  then  master.  Aynhoe  had  five  schol- 
ars, the  master  having  once  had  a  flourishing 
school  at  Banbury,  and  having  come  to  Aynhoe 
for  retirement.  North  Walsham  (£266)  had 
only  11  pupils,  and  'the  whole  place  wore  an 
aspect  of  decay  and  desolation.' but  the  master 
objected  to  a  new  scheme's  being  procured." 

In  consequence  of  this  report,  an  executive 
commission  was  appointed  to  prepare  schemes 
for  the  improvement  of  these  endowed  schools, 
and  to  see  them  carried  into  effect.  This  com- 
mission worked  with  great  vigor,  and  naturally 
aroused  the  opposition  of  those  who  looked  upon 
the  endowments  as  belonging  to  them  by  vested 
right.  The  present  government  listened  to 
these  complaints  and  introduced  an  Amended 
Endowed  Schools  Bill,  which  transferred  the 
power  of  the  commission  to  the  Charity  Com- 
missioners. But  the  personal  element  in  the 
administration  was  not  greatly  altered,  and  the 
Charity  Commissioners  are  going  on  with  the 
work  of  reformation  in  an  earnest  spirit.  There 
was  much  need  of  it.  These  schools  were  the 
only  endowed  institutions  which  the  country 
possessed  forsecondary  education.  In  consequence 
of  their  failure  to  do  this  work,  proprietary 
and  private  adventure  schools  had  arisen  in  great 
numbers.  The  private  adventure  schools  were 
for  the  most  part  boarding-schools.  They  were 
conducted  by  a  single  person  as  a  money  specu- 
lation; and,  though  some  of  them  were  admirably 
managed,  most  of  them  were  utterly  unfit  to 
educate.  The  Yorkshire  schools  have  been  de- 
scribed with  wonderful  humor  by  Dickens  in  his 


Nicholas  Nickleby :  but  schools  equally  bad 
existed  over  the  whole  country,  and  some  exist 
to  this  day.  The  proprietary  sehools  were  estab- 
lished by  a  number  of  gentlemen  who  combined 
together  in  their  own  districts  to  erect,  maintain, 
and  manage  them.  They  were  much  better.cn  the 


I'll- 


i  k,-.i 


the  two  following  characteristics:  (1)  Whether 
endowed,  proprietary,  or  private,  they  had  no 
connection  with  the  state:  the  state  did  not  con- 
trol, examine,  appoint  masters  for,  or  in  any  way 
interfere  with,  or  take  the  slightest  superintend- 
ence of.  these  schools;  (2)  They  were  to  a  large 
extent  boarding-schools.  The  boys  left  their  par- 
ents' home  at  an  early  age,  ami  live  1  in  houses 
where  only  boys  and  male  masters  lived  ;  these 
schools  were  thus  essentially  monastic  institutions, 
and   tin-   public  opinion   prevalent   in  them  was 

tl pinion    upheld   by  the   majority  or    by   the 

Btrongesl  of  the  boys.  Hence  an  inordinate  love 
of  outdoor  games  and  such  peculiar  customs  as 
that  of  fagging.  These  peculiarities  still  attach 
to  the  schools.  The  state  has  interfered  with 
the  endowments,  and  claimed,  in  consequence  of 
these,  the  right  to  settle  the  nature  of  the govern- 
ing bodies;  but.  after  having  once  settled  this, 
the   State   will  withdraw  and  leave   the    schools 


•nil 


Is  of 


is  I„| 


lie  more  contenteil.it  was  argue  1,  and  would  con- 
fine themselves  to  their  ordinary  toils,  deriving 
ample  happiness  from  these  in  their  humble 
sphere,  if  they  could  neither  read  nor  write,  and 
knew  little  or  nothing  of  theories  of  government, 
laws  of  trade,  and  the  movements  going  on  in  for- 
eign countries.  Knowledge  would  only  make  them 
restless.  This  feeling  has  continued  down  to  the 
present  day.  though  it  is  not  often  that  utterance 
is  given  to  it.  The  first  vigorous  effort  made  to 
educate  the  masses  was  due  to  the  zealot'  Robert 
Raikes  (q.  v.),  who,  in  1780,  established  Sunday 
schools.  The  manner  of  the  commencement  of 
these  is  noteworthy.  The  movement  arose  out 
of  religious  feeling  :   ami    tin's  has  characterize.  1 

English  education   in    an   eminent    degi In 

other  countries,  education  has  gradually  become 
a  subject  of  interest  to  all.  and  governments, 
especially,  have  deemed  their  interference  essen- 
tial. In  England,  on  the  contrary,  the  effort 
to  educate  has  mainly  arisen  with  the  churches, 
and  the  state  has,  even  to  this  day,  obtained 
only  a  subordinate  position  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  schools.  The  entire  history  of  the 
question  will  bring  out  this  curious  aspect  of 
English  education.  It  is  certainly  brought  out 
prominently  in  the  next  stage.  Lancaster  (q.  v.). 
a  man  of  strong  impulse  and  generous  heart,  was 


AND  263 

eager  to  educate  the  masses.     He  made  the  ex- 

peri nt.'and  was  well  supported  in  it  by  the 

community  ;  but  his  success  soon  awoke  suspicion, 
l-aucastcr  was  a  Quaker,  and  sohed  the  religious 
dithVultv  bv  confining  his  religious  instructions 
to  the  reading  of  the  Bible.    S e  saw  in  this 


ot    El 


land:  and  an  et 

ort.  they  felt,  must    be  made  to 

repel  this  iusi.li, 

us  attack.    Lancaster  had  gained 

distinction   by 

li"   adoption   of    the   monitorial 

system.      Anotl 

ir   educationist.   Dr.  Hell  (q.v.), 

laid  claim  to  ha 

ing  practiced  this  system  before 

Lancaster,  and 

i    furious  dispute   arose  on   that 

question,  but  a 
churches.     Dr. 

des  were   formed  according   to 

Bell   was  .-,   clergyman  of    the 

Church  of  Eng 

uid.  and  those  who  were  afraid 

for  the  safety  ot 

that  church  naturally  looked  to 

him  to  organize  an  education  which  should  effect- 
ually oppose  the  Lancastrian  movement.  ( tut  of 
this  antagonism  arose  two  societies, — the  one,  the 
British  and  Foreign  Society,  in  1808;  the  other, 
the  National  Society,  in  L811.  The  National 
Society  was  formed  to  establish  schools  in  which 
the  principles  of  the  Church  of  England  should 
be  taught,  and  over  which  the  church  should  ex- 


followed  Lancaster's  system  of  teaching  reli"ion 
from  the  Bible,  and  the  Bible  only.  These  two 
societies  proved  themselves  active  in  the  work 
which  they  undertook,  and  schools  arose  in  all 
parts  of  the  land.  But  they  were  utterly  unable 
to  cope  with  the  terrible  destitution  that  pre- 
vailed, and  the  number  of  neglected  and  unedu- 
cated children  was  enormous.  The  religious  dif- 
ficulty, however,  always  intervened  to  prevent 


mice  of    the 
Is  Parochial 


\i,l,l 


man  that  attempt ed  to  grapple  with  the  question. 
lb-  in,.. le  tw,,  distinct  efforts,  one  in  1816,  and 
one  in  L820.  Broughams  ideas  were  compre- 
hensive. He  wished  to  see  a  national  system  of 
education,  embracing  the  universities  at  the  one 
end.  and  at  the  other,  parochial  schools  which 
should  furnish  an  elementary  education  fit  for 
the  humblest  of  the  people.'  Hut,  though  he 
labored  with  unremitting  toil  and  with  great 
ability.  Parliament  did  nothing.  Meantime, out- 
side of  Parliament,  there  was  considerable  agita- 
tion in  regard  to  the  subject,  mainly  under  the 
leadership  of  Brougham.  Infant  schools  were 
established.  The  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Useful  Knowledge  ordered  the  circle  of  Readers. 
The  Central  Society  devoted  its  energies  to  the 
circulation  of  sound  opinions  on  education,  and 
gave  information  as  to  the  progress  and  methods 
of  education  in  foreign  countries.  It  was  not. 
however,  until  Is.'i.'i,  that  Parliament  was  in- 
duced to  do  any  thing  for  education,  when  a  grant 
of  CJO. 0110  was  voted  for  distribution  between 
the  National  Society  and  the  British  and  Foreign 
Society,  to  aid  in  the  erection  of  school  build- 


264  ENG 

ings.  During  this  period,  and  for  some  time 
subsequent  to  it,  various  inquiries  were  made 
into  the  educational  condition  of  the  laboring 
classes,  and  the  results  were  found  to  be  unsatis- 
factory in  the  highest  degree.  The  results  of 
the  inquiry  carried  on  by  the  committee  of  edu- 
cation of  1838  were  as  follows  :  (1)  Thatthe  kind 
of  education  given  to  the  children  of  the  working 
classes  was  lamentably  deficient;  (2)  That  it  ex- 
tended, bad  as  it  was,  to  but  a  small  proportion 
of  those  who  ought  to  receive  it;  (3)  That, 
without  some  strenuous  and  persevering  efforts 
on  the  part  of  the  government,  the  greatest 
evils  to  all  classes  might  follow  from  this  neglect. 
The  time  was  ripe  for  further  progress ;  and, 
accordingly,  in  1839,  the  liberal  government 
appointed  an  educational  committee  of  the 
Privy  Council ;  and  the  House  of  Commons 
voted  a  sum  of  £30,00(1,  to  be  distributed  by 
this  committee.  With  this  sum,  little  could  be 
done;  but,  at  any  rate,  there  was  something 
like  a  government  department  for  education. 
The  best  thing  the  committee  did  was  to  appoint 
Mr.  James  Kay,  afterwards  Sir  James  Kay 
Shuttleworth,  to  be  their  secretary.  He  was 
pre-eminently  fitted  for  the  peculiar  position. 
The  committee  arranged  a  system  of  inspection; 
and  if  nothing  more  was  done,  at  least  the  true 
state  of  matters  was  ascertained.  The  committee 
also  attempted  to  found  a  training  college  for 
teachers,  but  they  were  baffled  in  this  effort  by 
the  religious  difficulty.  Sir  J.  K.  Shuttleworth 
resolved  to  set  up  such  an  institution  without 
the  aid  of  government,  and  he  succeeded.  The 
various  religious  bodies  followed  his  example  : 
and,  "within  six  years,  fifteen  training  schools 
were  founded."  The  result  is,  that,  up  to  this 
day,  all  the  training  schools  are  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  churches ;  but  one  body,  the  Inde- 
pendents, took  no  distinct  part  in  the  work  of 
education,  except  in  founding  and  maintaining  a 
training  school  for  teachers;  namely,  Homerton 
College.  In  1846,  the  Committee  of  ( 'ouncil 
made  a  still  greater  advance.  A  elaborate  sys- 
tem of  inspection,  with  grants,  was  established, 
much  encouragement  was  given  to  pupil-teach- 
ers, and  the  profession  of  teacher  rose  in  public 
estimation.  But  each  year,  under  this  system, 
the  grants  increased,  they  amounted,  in  1846, 
to  £100,000;  in  1859,  they  had  increased  to 
£836,920 ;  and  there  appeared  to  be  no  limit  to 
this  increase.  A  commission  of  inquiry  was  | 
again  appointed.  Investigations  of  a  most 
thorough  nature  were  prosecuted,  and  the  report 
was  presented  in  six  volumes.  Mr.  Lowe  was 
at  this  time  vice-president  of  the  Committee  of 
Council  on  Education,  and  was  resolved  to  be 
economical.  The  plan  which  suggested  itself  to 
liim  as  the  most  likely  to  serve  the  purpose,  was 
one  which  he  had  seen  employed  on  the  convicts 
in  Australia.  The  grants  had  been  given  to 
schools,  before  this  time,  on  account  of  general 
efficiency.  The  inspector  reported  on  the  entire 
appearance  of  the  school;  note  was  taken  of  the 
discipline,  and  of  the  success  of  the  pupils  in  all 
departments  ;  but  especial  praise  was  given  when 


|  a  school  seemed  to  be  imparting  a  good  intel- 
I  lectual  and  moral  training.  Mr.  Lowe  thought 
|  that  government  should  pay  only  for  teaching 
I  the  three  It's;  and  the  plan  he  proposed  was  to 
|  devise  various  standards  in  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic,  to  suit  the  progress  which  scholars 
might  be  supposed  to  make  in  one  year,  and  to 
assign  a  money  value  for  each  of  these  subjects, 
paying  to  the  managers  of  the  school  a  sum 
of  money  according  to  the  number  of  passes 
which  the  pupils  had  gained  in  the  examination. 
This  plan  was  followed  by  evil  consequences. 
The  higher  branches  were  neglected,  the  profes- 
sion of  teaching  was  lowered,  and  the  instruc- 
tion became  mechanical,  and  passed  into  mere 
cram  for  the  purpose  of  the  passes.  The  one 
good  feature  in  the  plan  was  individual  exami- 
nation— a  feature  which  had  existed  to  some  ex- 
tent before,  and  coidd  well  exist,  if  the  plan  were 
given  up.  The  essential  peculiarities  of  this 
plan  still  exist,  but  the  details  have  been  modi- 
fied. Every  year  sees  changes  in  the  Code,  the 
name  given  to  the  document  which  contains  the 
regulations  in  regard  to  the  standards  and  the 
passes.  The  higher  subjects  have  received  rec- 
ognition, and  various  other  improvements  have 
been  introduced;  but  the  code  method  must  be 
continued  as  long  as  the  religious  difficulty  bars 
the  way  to  a  completely  national  system.  An 
effort  in  the  direction  of  a  national  system  was 
made  by  Mr.  Forster,  in  his  bill  of  1870.  This 
act  contains  provisions  by  which  local  school 
boards  may  be  established,  rates  may  be  imposed, 
and  compulsory  clauses  enacted.  It  prescribes 
that  the  religious  instruction  shall  take  place  at 
the  beginning  or  end  of  the  school  day,  and  that 
no  catechism  or  religious  text-book  shall  be  used. 
It  was  thus  only  a  half  measure.  The  grants 
were  continued  to  the  denominational  schools. 
The  establishment  of  school  boards,  the  imposi- 
tion of  rates,  the  employment  of  compulsion, 
and  the  teaching  of  religion,  were  all  to  be 
settled  by  the  special  localities.  Many  localities 
have  taken  advantage  of  the  powers  thus  granted 
them,  and  some,  such  as  the  London  school 
board,  have  done  incalculable  good ;  but  there 
has  been  considerable  rivalry  between  the  school 
boards  ami  the  churches,  and  much  display  of 
bitter  religious  animosity. 

_  The  elemental-;/  education  act  of  1873  was  de- 
signed to  supplement,  by  some  essential  provi- 
sions, that  of  1870;  but  more  important  changes 
have  been  introduced  by  that  of  1876.  The  com- 
pulsory attendance  provisions  are  strengthened,, 
the  law  declaring  that  "  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
parent  of  every  child  to  cause  such  child  to  re- 
ceive an  efficient  elementary  education";  and, 
not  only,  as  in  the  previous  act,  are  the  school 
boards  vested  with  the  power  to  make  compul- 
nari/  by-laws,  but  provision  is  made  for  the  ex- 
tension of  this  authority  by  means  of  school- 
attendance  committees,  to  be  appointed,  in  a 
borough,  by  the  town  council,  and,  in  a  parish, 
by  the  guardians.  The  act  of  1\76  also  provides 
for  the  establishment  of  day  industrial  schools, 
in  which  elementary  education,  combined  with 


industrial  training  may  be  carried  on.  the  pupils 
being  supplied  with  one  <>r  more  meals  each  day. 
This  is  designed  to  encourage  and  facilitate  the 
education  of  a  large  class  of  neglected  children 
whom  the  previous  provisions  did  Dot  succeed  in 
reaching.  A  new  Code  of  Regulations  has  been 
issued  in  pursuance  of  this  act. 

The  following  table,  compiled  from  official  re- 
turns relating  to  the  elementary  schools  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  (including  those  of  the  [sle  of 
Man),  gives  a  view  of  the  progress  of  education 
between  the  years  1864  and  1*74. 


Number  of 

Number  of  chil- 

Average  number  of 

inspected 

accommodated 

ance 

1866. 

7,131 

1,510,721 

919.922 

1867 

7.601 

1,605,409 

978,382 

1868 

S.051 

1,724,569 

1,060,082 

1869 

8,592 

1,888,416 

1.153,572 

1870 

8,986 

1,950,641 

1,255.983 

1871 

9.521 

2,092,984 

1,345,802 

1872 

10.751 

2.397,745 

1,445,326 

1873 

11,951 

2,005,467 

1.570,741 

1874 

13,243 

2,982,981 

1.771,143 

Elemi'ntari/  Educittion. —  Nit/ional  St/ste. 
Appropriations  are  annually  made  by  parliament 
for  "  public  education  in  England  and  Wales"; 
and  the  grants  thus  made  are  administere  1 
by  the  Education  Department,  which  consists  of 
the  Lords  of  the  t  'onimittee  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil on  Education.  The  object  of  the  grant  is  not 
to  make  full  provision  for  the  support  of  schools, 
but  to  aid  local  exertion,  under  certain  condi- 
tions, to  maintain   (1)  elementary  schools,  and 

(2)  training  colleges  for  teachers.  Public  element- 
ary schools  must  be.  conducted  according  to  the 
following  legal  regulations :  ( 1 )  Xo  religious  ob- 
servances, or  attendance  at  any  church  or  Sunday- 
school,  must  be  imposed  as  a  condition  of  ad- 
mission to  the  school;  (2)  Religious  observances, 
and  instruction  in  religious  subjects,  must  be 
either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the 
school  session,  anil   must   not   be   compulsory  ; 

(3)  The  school  must  be  open  at  all  times  to  the 
visits  of  the  government  inspectors  ;  but  the  lat- 
ter are  not  permitted  to  take  any  cognizance  of 
religious  instruction.  I'nless  the  school  is  con- 
ducted according  to  the  legal  provisions,  it  can- 
not obtain  any  portion  of  the  parliamentary 
grant;  and  no  grant  is  paid  to  any  school,  except 
on  a  report  of  an  inspector.  These  inspectors 
are  appointed  by  the  Crown,  on  the  recommen- 
dation of  the  education  department.  In  order  to 
obtain  participation  in  the  grant,  the  school 
must  be  placed  on  the  list  for  inspection,  after 
application  to  the  Department  by  the  school 
board  or  other  managers.  The  school  premises 
are  required  to  be  "healthy,  well-lighted,  warmed, 
drained,  and  ventilated,  properly  furnished,  sup- 
plied with  suitable  offices,  and  to  contain,  in  the 
principal  school  room,  and  class  rooms,  at  least 
80  cubical  feet  of  internal  space,  and  8  square 
feet  of  area,  for  each  child  in  average  attendance." 
The  principal  teacher  must  be  certificated.  If, 
on  the  inspector's  report  of  any  school,  there  ap- 
pears to  be  any  serious  objection,  the  grant  may 
be  withheld  ;  but  a  second  inspection,  by  another 


AND  265 

inspector,  is  always  made.  There  must  be  not 
less  than  400  morning  and  afternoon  sessions 
of  the  school  during  the  year.  The  giant  is 
based  on  the  average  at  tendance  and  thepioticicn 
cy  of  the  pupils  in  certain  branches,  that  is, 
so  much  (4  s.)  for  each  pupil  in  attendance,  and 
so  much  for  each  /></.«  in  nailing,  writing,  arith- 
metic, geography,  grammar,  history,  etc.  M  hether 
the  mode  of  examination  shall  be  oral  or  writ- 
ten, is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  inspector. 
The  girls  must  be  taught  "plain  needle-work  and 
cutting  out"  as  a  regular  branch  in  the  day 
schools ;  and  to  show  the  proficiency  acquired, 
specimens  must  be  worked  on  the  day  of  the  in- 
spection. The  evening  schools  must  hold  at  least 
45  sessions  during  the  year,  and  are  similarly 
inspected  and  paid  for.  Attendances  must  not 
be  reckoned  for  any  pupil  in  a  day  school,  under 
3  years  of  age  or  above  18;  or,  in  an  evening 
school,  under  12  or  above  21.  The  standards 
are  six  (from  I.,  the  lowest,  to  VI.,  the  highest), 
and  minutely  prescribe  the  degrees  of  proficien- 
cy to  be  attained  in  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, grammar,  geography,  and  English  history. 
Reductions  are  made  in  the  grants  for  various 
reasons,  including  an  unfavorable  report  of  the 
inspector,  or  the  want  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
pupil-leachers,  who  are  prescribed  as  follows: 
for  the  first  60  pupils,  none  ;  for  any  number 
between  61  and  100,  inclusive,  one ;  between 
101  and  140,  two,  etc.  The  recognized  classes 
of  teachers  are  three  :  (1)  certificated  teachers; 
(2)  pupil-teachers  ;  (3)  assistant  teachers.  Cer- 
tificates are  obtained  on  examination,  which  is 
open  to  (1)  students  who  have  resided  for  at 
least  one  year  in  training  colleges  under  inspec- 
tion, or  (2)  candidates  who  are  upward  of  21 
years  of  age,  and  have  either  completed  satis- 
factorilj  an  engagement  as  pupil-teacher,  ob- 
tained a  favorable  report  from  an  inspector,  or 
served  as  assistants,  for  at  least  six  months,  in 
schools  under  certificated  teachers.  These  exam- 
inations are  held,  in  December  of  each  year,  at 
the  several  training  colleges  under  inspection, 
and  "  at  such  centers  as  may  be  necessary";  and 
the  list  of  successful  candidates  is  published. 
Each  certificate  records  the  relative  proficiency 
of  the  candidate  receiving  it.  Candidates  must, 
after  examination,  serve  as  teachers  under  pro- 
bation, before  receiving  certificates.  The  certifi- 
cates are  of  three  classes ;  and  no  certificate 
above  the  second  class  is  originally  issued :  the 
third  (lowest)  includes  special  certificates  for 
teachers  of  infant  classes.  Good  service  alone 
entitles  any  teacher  to  a  certificate  of  the  first 
class.  Those  of  the  second  class  remain  in  force 
ten  years.  Pupil-teachers  are  boys  or  girls  em- 
ployed to  serve  in  a  school,  under  certificated 
teachers.  They  must  be  at  least  13  years  of  age ; 
and  not  more  than  four  must  be  engaged  for 
every  certificated  teacher.  At  the  close  of  their 
engagement,  these  pupil-teachers  may  become 
assistants,  or  they  may  be  examined  for  admis- 
sion into  a  training  college,  or  be  provisionally 
certificated  for  immediate  service  in  small  schools. 
—  A  training  college  includes  both  a  "college 


for  boarding,  lodging,  and  instructing  candidates 
for  the  office  of  teacher  in  elementary  schools," 

may  learn  the  exercise  of  their  profession  '.  An- 
nual grant.-,  are  made  to  these  institutions  on  the 
same  conditions  as  to  public  elementary  schools. 
Each  college  is  entitled  to  £100  for  every  master, 
and  £70  for  every  mistress,  who,  after  two  years' 
training,  completes  the  prescribed  period  of  pro- 
bation, and  becomes  qualified  to  receive  a  teach- 
er's certificate,  or  who  has  completed  a  like  period 
of  good  service  as  an  elementary  teacher  in  the 
army,  royal  navy,  or  in  the  poor-law  schools,  cer- 
tified industrial  schools,  or  certified  reformatories. 
Examinations  for  admission  are  held  annually, 
and  are  open,  without  restriction  by  the  educa- 
tion department,  to  pupil-teachers,  and  others 
who  intend  bond  fide  to  adopt  and  follow  the 
profession  of  teacher  in  elementary  schools.  All 
candidates,  before  admission,  must  be  passed  by 
the  medical  officer  of  the  college,  who  must  cer- 
tify that  they  are  in  good  health  and  free  from 
serious  bodily  defect  or  deformity.  If  candidates 
are  admitted  in  violation  of  the  rides,  the  edu- 
cation department  refuses  to  grant  them  certifi- 
cates.— Pensions  are  granted  to  teachers  in  cer- 
tain cases,  the  maximum  number  and  value 
receivable  at  one  time,  in  England  and  Scotland 
together,  being  270,  as  follows  :  20  of  £30  each; 
100  of  £25  each;  and  150  of  £20  each;  all  of 
which,  with  special  gratuities  and  donations, 
amount  to  £6,500. 

Besides  the  schools  that  receive  grants  of 
public  money,  according  to  the  Code,  there  are 
schools  that  are  inspected,  but  receive  no  grant, 
and  private  schools,  the  latter,  however,  rapidly 
diminishing  in  number.  The  school  boards,  con- 
stituted under  the  act  of  1870,  consist  of  not 
less  than  5  nor  more  than  15  members,  elected, 
in  the  boroughs,  by  the  persons  on  the  burgess 
roll;  in  a  parish,  bythe  rate  payers,  except  in  the 
metropolis.  Every  voter  may  give  all  his  votes 
to  one  candidate,  or  distribute  them  among  the 
candidates  as  he  thinks  fit.  Boroughs  and  par- 
ishes may  be  united  by  the  education  depart- 
ment so  as  to  form  a  united  sckool-disbriet.  The 
societies  which  have  the  charge  of  the  inspected 
schools,  besides  the  school  boards,  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  (1)  The  British  and  Foreign  .School 
Society,  supported  by  Christians  of  all  denomi- 
nations; (2)  The  National  Society  for  the  edu- 
cation of  the  poor  in  the  tenets  and  observ- 
ances of  the  established  church;  (.'!)  Diocesan 
Boards  of  Education  which,  in  connection 
with  special  dioceses,  look  after  the  education 
given  in  church  schools  ;  (4)  The  Church  of 
England  Education  Soci.tv.  consisting  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Evangelical  party,  which  gives  aid  to 
schools,  but.  does  not  establish  any;  (5)  The  Com- 
mittee appointed  by  the  Roman  Catholics  to 
watch  over  the  education  of  the  poor;  (li)  The 
(ieneral  Committee  on  Education,  appointed  by 
the  Wesleyans,  for  the  first  time,  in  1840.  There 
are  other  societies  of  less  note,  such  as  the  Home 
and  Colonial  Society,  the  London  Bagged  School 
Union,   the  London  Committee   of   the  British 


Jews,  and  the  Voluntary  Society.  The  educa- 
tion furnished   by  the  school-board  schools  ap- 

uE,  a'Lhr...-:',p.v:t:"1''''  i  p;  ■.:;'■:"'  :u"  the 
standards.  The  teachers  of  the  board  schools 
are  better  paid,  and  of  superior  efficiency.  The 
income  of  all  the  schools,  except  the  board 
schools,  arises  from  the  following  sources: 
(1)  voluntary  subscriptions  ;  (2)  fees  :  (3)  govern- 
ment grants  according  to  the  <  'ode.  In  the  board 
schools,  instead  of  the  voluntary  subscriptions, 
there  is  the  rate.  Fees  and  government  grants 
are  common  to  all. — There  are  also  schools  for 
special  classes:  (1)  Ragged  Schools,  (2)  Indus- 
trial Schools,  (3)  Reformatories.  Bagged  schools 
are  supported  entirely  by  voluntary  contribu- 
tions, and  consist,  as  the  name  denotes,  of  neg- 
lected, but  not  criminal  children.  The  industrial 
schools  give  both  intellectual  and  moral  training 
and  instruction  in  the  industrial  arts.  These 
schools  are  subsidized  by  the  government.  Re- 
formatories are  largely  supported  by  the  govern- 
ment, being  intended  for  juvenile  offenders.  There 

are   also    scl Is    connected    with    work-houses, 

schools  for  the  children  of  soldiers,  and  training 
ships,  in  which,  boys  are  trained  for  marine  ser- 
vice.— Speeial  notice  should  also  be  taken  of  the 
Science  ami  Art  Department,  which,  under  the 
fostering    care  of    the   late    Prince    Albert,    has 

done  bo  much  to  spread  a  knowledge  of  science 

and  art  over  tin untiy.  Art  schools  have  been 

established  in  various  cities,  and  prizes  offered 
and  awarded.  Examinations  in  science  may  be 
held  in  any  town  in  which  a  committee  can  be 
formed  ;  certificates  are  granted  to  those  who 
pass,  and  the  teacher  receives  a  sum  of  money 
for  each  pupil  that  passes. 

Edticttlitiittd  Statistics. — The  following  statis- 
tics, for  the  year  1875,  show  what  progress  has 
been  made  in  national  elementary  instruction: 
Expenditure  from  Education  Grants. 


nlinij  In  Object  of  Grant. 

ementary         £       s. 


li 


7.   < Iriranizatinii  "t  ilistrii'ls.  etc 

Total 1,3.311,746  10      5 

Table  II)  —  rl,^.-:,i'inl  m-vm-ilnn/  tn  I'i  iiimnnaUiin. 

On  Schools  connected  with  Church  £        s.     d. 

of  England 822,505     9    5 

On    British,    Wesleyan,     and    other 

Schools 235,887     6    6 

On  Roman  Catholic  Schools 73.8s  1  111    5 

On  Board  Schools 90,231  10  10 

(In  Parochial  Union  Schools 12(1    (I    0 

Administration   (as  in  Table  A) 12(1,11110    5 

Organization  of  districts,  etc 7,001  11  11 

Grants  to   School  Boards 317  10  11 


Total 


1,356,746 


The  number  of  certificated  male  teachers  in 
the  schools  receiving  grants  was  10,221  ;  of  fe- 
male certificated  teachers,  11,731;  of  male  as- 
sistant teachers.  872  ;  of  female  assistant  teach- 
ers, 1,549  ;  of  male  pupil-teachers,  10,886;  and 
•of  female  pupil-teachers,  18,466.  The  number 
•of  schools  actually  inspected  during  the  year 
•ending  August  31..  L875,  and  the  number  of 
pupils,  according  to  the  denominations  that  edu- 
cate, are  given  in  the  following  tables. 

NUMBER  OF  SCHOOLS. 


DENOMINATIONS 

Day 
Schls. 

Night 
Schls. 

Total 

Schools  connected  with  National 
Society  or  Church  of  England .  . 

British    Wesleyan    and      other 

schools  not  iiirrtol  with  the 

ChuiTh.it'  England 

2,034 

598 

1,136 

17 

52 
4 

9,466 
2.0S6 

School-Board  Schools 

1,140 

Total 

1:1.217 

7:; 

13.290 

NUJinr.it  of  ripii.s  in  average  attendance. 


IH.N'i  iMINATIONS 


Schools  connected  with  Na- 
tional Society  or  Church  "1 
England 

lint.  Wt-sl.  and  other  Schools 
not  connected  with  the 
Church  of  England 

Roman  Catholi.'  Schools 

School-Board  Schools 


l'.III..MI2 

53,074 

rjs.i;:;i; 


l:;7.:i7s 
,>a.:i.vj 
'.i.s.iuo 


The  pupils  on  the  school  registers  were  divided 
regard  to  age  as  follows  : 


AGE 

No.  of  scholars 

Per  cent 

lll.-Ui'.l 

0.70 

llCtWocU 

3  an, 

5       '■      .... 

132.1 

K.4H 

297,134 

323,464 

11.7'J 

8        ••      ... 

320,442 

11.08 

324,901 

11.74 

10       •'      .... 

315,496 

11.49 

11     ■• 

12       •'      '.'.'.'. 

292,724 

242,042 

10.07 

172,449 

" 

13     " 

14       "     .... 

65.307 

2.38 

Nl 

,ht  Schools 

Males 

Fema.es 

Total 

Schools    connected  with    Na- 
tional Society  or  Church  of 

23,418 

10,207 

1.7.17 

5,081 

I]l36 
801 

28,499 

12,914 
2,873 
4,096 

Brit.  WYsl.  and  other  Schools 
not    connected     with    the 
Church  of  England 

Roman  Catholic  Schools 

Total 

3S..V.I7 

9,785 

48.3S2 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of 
pupils  on  the  school  registers,  and  the  number 
of  pupils  for  whom  accommodation  is  provided 
at  80  cubic  feet  of  internal  space,  and  8  square 
feet  of  area  per  pupil : 


Scholars  on 

DENOMINATIONS 

the  school 

that  may  be 

registers 

accommodated 

Schools  connected  with  Na- 

of   England 

British  Wesleyan  and  other 

schools     not     connected 

with  Church  of  England. 

492.588 

Eoman  Catholic  Schools.. 

School-Board  Schools 

351,907 

3V7.227 

Total 

2,744.3011 

3.159,479 

Of  the  pupils,  64  per  cent  attended  the  Na- 
tional Society  schools  ;  18  per  cent,  the  British 
Wesleyan  schools;  5.5  per  cent,  Roman  Catholic 
schools;  and  12.5  per  cent,  the  Board  schools. 


Over  14  years |  26,944  i        0.98 

London  School  Board. — Of  all  the  school 
boards  created, by  the  act  of  1870.  that  of  the 
metropolis  had  the  heaviest  task  imposed  upon 
it;  and  it  has,  accordingly,  accomplished  the 
greatest  results.  The  first 'board  (elected  Nov. 
29.,  1870)  contained  many  eminent  members, 
among  them  Prof.  Huxley,  and  Dr.  Elizabeth 
Garret- Anderson.  The  School-Board  district 
embraces  a  population  of  3,400,000,  out  of 
4,200,000  people  inhabiting  what  is  now  called 
Greater  London,  which  covers  698  square  miles. 
The  number  of  school. districts  is  10.  which  are 
represented  in  the  board  by  49  members,  elected 
by  ballot.  The  population  of  London,  in  1871, 
was  3,265,005,  of  whom  681,107  were  children 
between  the  ages  of  3  and  13;  and  of  these,  it 
was  estimated  that  more  than  200,000  needed 
school  provision.  Up  to  November.  1875,  the 
number  of  new  schools  opened  by  the  board  was 
102,  and  33  were  in  course  of  erection.  There 
were,  at  that  time,  under  the  control  of  the 
board,  199  school-houses,  in  436  departments, 
containing  112,90]  pupils.  The  school-houses 
have  been  erected  with  gnat  care  and  upon  the 
most  approved  principles  of  school  architecture. 
(See  Robson's  Scliool  Architecture,  1875,  and  R. 

T.  Smith's  School  B  i is  and  Fit is,  L875.) 

"The  result  of  the  School  Board  action,"  gays 
Sir  Charles  Reed,  the  chairman  of  the  Board,  ••hits 
been  to  add  over  60,000  children  now  (1875)  in 
attendance  at  the  board  schools,  and  about 
45,00(1,  to  the  denominational  schools." 

Teachers'  Associations.  —  The  teachers  of 
England  have  formed  various  associations  at  dif- 
ferent times,  of  which  the  most  effective  is  the 
College  of  Preceptors  (see  Preceptors,  Col- 
leoeof),  which  holds  meetings  and  examinations, 
gives  diplomas,  and  more  recently,  has  instituted 
a  professorship  of  education.  Since  1870,  the 
elementary  teachers  have  formed  an  association 
called  the  National  Union  of  Elementary 
Teachers,  which  is  increasing  in  influence. 

Seviindnri/Eiliiriiliim. — The  schools  for  second- 
ary education  in  England  comprise  the  great 
endowed  or  foundation  schools,  including  the 
nine  so-called  public  schools  ;  the  proprietary 
schools  ;  and  the  Ladies'  Colleges. 

The  ji>ih/ic  schools,  or  colleges,  nine  in  num- 
ber, are  Eton,  Winchester,  Westminster,  St. 
Paul's  School,  Merchant  Taylors'  School,  Char- 
terhouse, Harrow,  Rugby,  and  Shrewsbury.    In 


18G1,  the  government  appointed  a  commission 
to  inquire  into  the  revenues  and  management 
of  these  schools  ;  and  the  results  of  the  inquiry 
were  published  in  four  volumes  (1864)  ;  and,  in 
1868,  a  Public  Schools  .Vet  was  passed,  giving 
the  commission  power  to  frame  statutes  and 
regulations  for  these  schools.  They  were  accord- 
ingly remodeled,  upon  a  new  and  uniform  plan. 
The  chief  features  are  here  presented. — (1)  Man- 
agement.— Before  the  appointment  of  the  com- 
mission, bodies  quite  different  in  character  were 
the  managere.  Thus,  at  Eton,  the  managers  were 
the  provost  and  fellows  of  the  college  ;  at  Win- 
chester, the  warden  and  fellows  ;  but  the  head- 
master had  nearly  absolute  control.  The  Court 
of  Assistants  to  the  Mercers'  Company  were  the 
governors  of  St.  Paid's ;  and  the  Court  of  As- 
sistants to  the  Merchant  Taylors,  of  the  school 
of  that  name.  Harrow,  Rugby,  and  Shrewsbury 
were  governed  by  trustees.  The  new  statutes  of 
the  commission  have  established  something  like 
a  system  in  the  mode  of  electing  the  various 
governing  bodies,  without  entirely  removing  the 
peculiarities  of  each  school.  Thus,  the  govern- 
ing body  of  Eton  is  now  composed  of  (1)  the 
provost  of  Eton,  (2)  the  provost  of  King's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  (3)  one  member  to  be  elected 
by  the  hebdomadal  ci  nuicil  of  ( )xford  University, 
(4)  one,  by  the  council  of  the  senate  of  Cam- 
bridge, (5)  one,  by  the  council  of  the  Royal 
Society,  (6)  one  to  be  nominated  by  the  Lord 
Chief  Justice,  (7)  one  to  be  elected  by  the  head, 
lower,  and  assistant  masters,  (8)  not  less  than 
two,  nor  more  than  four,  to  be  elected  by  the 
governing  body  itself.  The  governing  bodies  of 
the  other  schools  are  constituted  in  a  similar 
manner,  having  regard  to  the  peculiarities 
of  each  locality.  These  managers  have  entire 
control  over  the  endowments,  make  regula- 
tions in  regard  to  the  buildings,  and  elect  and 
dismiss  the  head-master.  They  are  subject  to 
no  supervision  except  that  of  the  Visitor,  who 
is  always  a  person  of  great  eminence.  — 
(2)  Teachers.  The  head-master  appoints  all  the 
masters  and  other  persons  engaged  in  teaching 
in  the  school,  and  all  hold  their  positions  during 
his  pleasure.  The  exercise  of  the  power  of  dis- 
missal by  the  head-master  has,  however.given  rise 
to  several  disturbances.  The  masters,  in  these 
schools,  occupy  a  peculiar  position.  They  are 
keepers  of  boarding-houses,  as  well  as  teachers  ; 
and  their  incomes  are  mainly  derived  from  the 
former.  The  expenses  at  the  various  schools  dif- 
fer.   Those  at  Harrow  are  given  as  a  specimen: 

Public  tuition  and  school  charges  (per  annum), 
£28,  10  s. ;  private  tuition  (per  annum),  £15;  board, 
washing,  etc.,  at  head-master's  boarding-house  (per 
annum),  £68;  entrance  fees,  £12.  The  other  board- 
ing-houses are  divided  into  two  classes,— large  houses. 
in  which  the  annual  charge  lor  board  etc.   is  £1)0,  and 

small  l«»  .«,  in  uliB'h  received  private  boarders 

at  an  annua!  ci  irge  of  £135. 

(.'!)  Instruction. — ( 'lassieal  instruction  has  al- 
ways been  the  pr i i lent  feature  of  these  schools. 

Other  branches,  such  as  mathematics,  geography, 
history,  and  modern  languages  were  formerly 
more  or  less  neglected.     The  methods  of  teach- 


ing were  bad.  The  tone  of  feeling  prevalent 
discountenanced  study.  The  boy  who  wished 
to  gain  the  respect  of  his  fellows,  was  compelled 
to  distinguish  himself  in  the  cricket  field,  or  in 
other  athletic  sports.  If  he  failed  in  these, 
success  in  study  brought  him  into  contempt, 
instead  of  respect.  The  Public  Schools 
Act  has  introduced  great  changes,  and  an  ap- 
proach to  a  uniform  system.  The  following 
subjects  are  prescribed  by  the  statutes  for  Eton: 
religion,  classics,  writing,  arithmetic,  mathe- 
matics, history,  geography,  and  English;  French, 
for  boys  who  have  attained  the  middle  division 
of  the  fifth  form,  but  German  or  Italian  may  be 
taken  instead;  natural  science,  for  all  after  en- 
tering the  middle  division  of  the  fifth  form, 
and  for  every  boy  in  the  school  whose  parents 
desire  it.  After  a  boy  has  come  within  the  first 
hundred,  facilities  are  afforded  him  for  pursuing 
special  branches.-  The  age  of  admission  is  not 
exactly  the  same  at  all  the  schools  ;  but.  on  the 
average,  it  may  lie  said  that  no  one  is  admitted 
below  10  years  or  above  15;  and  no  one  is  al- 
lowed to  remain  beyond  the  age  of  19.  A  pre- 
liminary examination  is-  required.  The  number 
of  classes,  or  forms,  varies  in  the  different 
schools.  Each  school  is  divided  into  two  parts, — 
an  upper  and  a  lower  school.  The  upper  school 
of  Eton  is  thus  divided,  the  Sixth  class  being 
the  highest:  (1)  Fourth,  consisting  of  (1)  Lower 
Remove,  (2)  Middle  Remove,  and  (3)  Upper 
Remove;  ill)  Remove, consisting  of  (1)  Upper 
Remove,  and  (2)  Lower  lam<n-<--  (III)  Fifth, 
consisting  of  (1)  Lower  Division,  (2)  Middle 
Division,  and  (.'!)  Upper  Division  (the  lower 
and  middle  divisions  being  each  subdivided  into 
a  lower  and  upper  remove)  ;  (TV)  Sixth. 

Before  the  commission  sat,  there  was  a  great 
diversity  in  the  numbers  allowable  in  a  division. 
At  present,  the  statutes  strictly  limit  this.  In 
Eton,  there  must  be  not  less  than  one  classical 
master  to  every  100  boys  in  the  school.  In 
Rugby,  there  is  to  be  a't  least  one  master  for 
every  20  boys,  including  the  head-master,  and  no 
class  of  boys  under  instruction,  except  the 
sixth  farm.'  must  exceed  32  in  number,  with- 
out permission  of  the  governing  body.  — 
Annual  examinations  of  these  schools  are  con- 
ducted by  examiners  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ing bodies.  In  all  these  schools,  the  pupils  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  —frnnnhitioiiers  and 
non-foundationers.  The  former,  as  the  name 
implies,  in  some  schools,  receive  their  education 
gratuitously;  in  others,  both  their  education  and 
maintenance.  Often,  they  have  to  gain  admission 
to  a  foundation  by  a  competitive  examination. 
The  others  are  boarded  with  the  master,  and 
sometimes,  as  at  Harrow  and  Rugby,  they  re- 
side with  their  parents.  In  the  masters'  houses, 
the  masters  act  as  tutors.  Fagging  (q.  v.)  is  a 
custom  peculiar  to  these  schools  ;  but  the  right 
to  fag  belongs,  in  most  schools,  to  only  a  small 
number  of  seniors.  At  present,  this  custom  is 
not  wholly  condemned.  Indeed,  the  commission, 
after  a  strict  investigation,  reported  that,  "on 
the  whole,  it  is  a  popular  institution." 


The  location  and  date  of  foundation  of  each 
■of  these  schools  are  here  given: 


NAME 

Location 

founded 

London 

Ktcm    "pp.  Wiinlsi.ri 

llan-ow-ou-tke-Hill 

London 

Rugby 

London 

Shrewsbury 

Westminster 

St.  Paul's 

Shrewsbury 

1512 
1551 

1378 

Christ's  Hospital 


Other  endowed  schoc 
(q.  v.),  DulwicL  Collegi 
of  London,    founded   in    L619 ;    Queen    Kli/.a- 
beth's  School,  at    Ipswich    (1565);    the   Free 

Grammar  School  at  Manchester,  founded  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIII.;  St.  Andrew's  College,  at 
Bradfield,  near  Reading;  the  Tonbridge  Free 
Grammar  School  (1552) ;  Repton  School  (1557); 
King  Kdward's  School,  Birmingham  (1552)  ; 
Wellington  College,  near  Wokingham,  Berk- 
shire, founded  by  public  subscription,  in  honor 
of  the  duke  of  Wellington,  for  the  education  of 
the  sons  of  deceased  military  officers  ;  and  the 
City  of  London  School,  incorporated  in  I  Slit. — 
According  to  the  Grammar  Schools  Act,  gram- 
mar schools  include  all  endowed  schools  main- 
tained for  the  purpose  of  teaching  Latin  and 
Greek,  whether  the  instruction  be  limited  to 
these,  or  extended  to  other  branches,  either  of  lit- 
erature or  science.  The  purpose  of  these  schools, 
as  stated,  is  to  give  "an  education  higher  than  the 
rudiments,  conducted  under  religious  influences, 
"within  the  reach  of  all  classes,  but  with  an 
especial  preference  for  the  poor  boy  who  is  apt 
to  learn,  and  frequently  also  for  some  particular 
locality."  The  amount  of  endowment  of  the 
schools  ranges  from  that  of  Christ's  Hospital,  the 
largest  (over  £42,000  a  year),  to  some  consisting 
simply  of  a  rent  charge  of  about  £5  a  year. 
Usually,  the  school  possesses  a  school-house,  a 
masters  house,  and  an  annual  income.  There  are 
15  grammar  schools  which  have  net  incomes  ex- 
ceeding £2,000  a  year;  13,  at  least  £1,000  a 
year;  55,  at  least  £500  ;  222,  at  least  6100;  and 
the  rest  are  under  £1 00  a  year.  The  date  of 
the  oldest  of  the  existing  endowed  schools  is 
121G  A.  D.  The  endowed  collegiate  and  gram- 
mar schools  are  782  in  number ;  and  other  en- 
dowed schools  number  2,559  ;  but,  including 
those  that  have  small  endowments,  the  total  is 
given  at  4.021.  The  Endowed  Schools  Act 
(1869)  intrusted  to  a  commission  the  task  of  re- 
organizing these  schools,  chiefly  in  the  direction 
of  extending  the  benefits  of  the  endowments. — 
The  proprietary  colleges  and  schools  are  of  the 
same  grade  anil  character,  as  educational  institu- 
tions, as  the  public  schools.  The  most  important 
are  the  following :  .Marlborough  College,  Chel- 
tenham College,  lfailcybury  College,  Clifton 
College,  Brighton  College,  Lexington  College, 
and  Rossall  School,  near  Fleetwood,  I,ancashire. 
Besides  these,  there  are  King's  College  School 
and  the  University  College  School,  at  London, 
which  are  partly  preparatory  schools.  The  gram- 


AND  269 

mar  schools  in  the  Metropolis  are  quite  numer- 
ous, and  some  of  old  foundation,  as  the  Mercers' 
Company's  School,  founded  in  1542;  St.  Sa- 
viour's, Southwark,  in  1562  ;  and  the  Brewers' 
Company's  School,  in  1687. 

Ladies'  Colleges. — Queen's  College,  Harley  St., 
London,  incorporated  by  royal  charter  in  1K;">3, 
was  instituted  for  the  general  education  of 
ladies,  and  for  granting  certificates  of  knowledge. 
Queen's  College  School,  for  children  from  5  to 
14  years  of  age.  is  attached  to  the  college. — Bed- 
ford College,  London,  was  founded  in  1N-19,  and 
incorporated  in  ISti'J.  The  affairs  are  adminis- 
tered by  a  council  of  management,  and  the  lady 
president;  and  the  members  of  the  college  (26 

educationists. —  North  London  Collegiate  School, 
established  in  1850,  is  endowed  by  a  grant  from 
the  estate  of  Alderman  Richard  I'latt.  It  pur- 
sues the  course  of  study  preparatory  for  the  uni- 
versity examinations  for  women.  The  Camden 
School  for  (I iris,  established  in  1S71.  is  under 
the  same  governorship. — The  ( Iheltenham  Ladies' 
:  College  was  established  in  1854,  and  now  num- 
bers 320  pupils.  The  object  of  the  institution  is 
;  "to  provide  for  the  daughters  of  gentlemen  a 
sound  and  religious  education  of  the  highest 
order,  and  on  moderate  terms." — Girton  Col- 
lege, Cambridge  (incorporated  in  1872),  was 
Opened  at  Ilitchin,  in  1869;  and,  in  1873, 
entered  on  the  occupation  of  the  present 
buildings,  which  had  been  erected  by  public 
subscription.  The  capital  fund  is  now  above 
£20,000.  The  college  is  designed  to  hold,  in 
relation  to  girls'  schools  and  home  teaching,  a 
position  analogous  to  that  occupied  by  univer- 
sities toward  the  public  schools  for  boys;  and 
the  promoters  seek  to  obtain  for  the  students 
admission  to  the  examination  for  degrees  of  the 
;  University  of  Cambridge,  and  to  place  the  col- 
i  lege  in  connection  with  that  university.  The 
I  course  occupies  about  three  years,  half  of  each 
year  being  spent  in  the  college. — The  Ladies' 
College.  Southampton,  was  established  by  the 
Ilampkin  Association  for  promoting  female 
education,  with  the  view  of  raising  the  tone 
of  female  education  in  the  south  of  England. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  The  universities  of 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  long  stood  alone  as 
university  representatives  of  higher  education. 
(See  Cambridge  and  Oxford.)  The  growing 
wealth  and  importance  of  the  provinces  how- 
ever, and  the  increasing  demand  on  the  part 
of  the  prosperous  middle  classes  for  the  more 
advanced  education,  from  which  they  were 
practically  shut  out  by  the  exclusiveness  and 
expensiveness  of  the  great  seats  of  learning, 
have  led  to  the  establishment  of  colleges  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country.  Indeed,  the  old 
universities  have  begun  to  recognize  the  neces- 
sity for  an  extension  of  their  own  influence  and 
usefulness.  Iu  1873,  the  Cambridge  senate  organ- 
ized a  scheme  of  local  lectures ;  and,  at  the  end 
of  1873,  and  again  at  the  beginning  of  1874,  a 
session  of  twelve  weeks  was  held  in  Nottingham, 
Derby,  and  Leicester ; — the  subjects  taught  be- 


270 


ing  political  economy,  physical  science,  constitu- 
tional history,  and  English  literature,  and  the 
number  of  students  ranging  from  30  to  .Mill.  In 
1874,  the  scheme  was  extended  to  Bradford, 
Halifax.  Keighley.  and  Leeds;  and,  in  1874 — 5, 
applications  were  received  from  Derby,  Not- 
tingham, Leeds,  Bradford,  Halifax.  Keighley, 
Liverpool.  Birkenhead.  New  Brighton.  Leicester, 
Burslem,  llanley,  Ncwcastle-under-Lyne,  and 
Stoke-upon-Trent.  Three  conditions  were  in- 
sisted on  :  (1)  a  standard  of  excellence  to  give 
definiteness  an  1  thoroughness  to  study  ;  (2)  reg- 
ular and  systematic  class  teaching  ;  and  (3)  a 
.system  of  examination,  regulating  the  granting 
of  certificates.  The  reports  of  the  examiners 
were  highly  satisfactory. 

The  University  of  Durham  was  instituted  in 
L 832,  under  an  act  of  parliament  empowering 
the  dean  and  chapter  of  Durham  to  appropriate 
an  estate  at  South  Shields  for  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  a  university  in  connection 
with  the  cathedral.  The  management  was  in- 
trusted, under  the  bishop  as  Visitor,  and  tin; 
dean  ami  chapter  as  Governors,  to  the  warden, 
a  senate,  and  a  convocation, —  the  senate  being 
composed  of  the  warden,  the  professors  of  Greek, 
mathematics,  and  divinity,  the  two  proctors, 
and  five  other  members  of  the  convocation. 
The  convocation  originally  consisted  of  gradu- 
ates of  Oxford  and  ( 'amhridge,  who  are  now  re- 
inforced by  the  graduates  of  the  university  it- 
self. The  office  of  warden  is  permanently  an- 
nexed to  the  deanery  of  Durham;  and  a  can- 
oncy  in  the  cathedral  to  each  of  the  professors 
in  divinity  and  Greek.  University  College  was 
formed,  at  the  openingof  the  university,  for  the 
purpose  of  uniting  a  system  of  domestic  disci- 
pline with  academical  instruction.  The  Castle 
of  Durham  is  held  in  trust  for  the  University, 
its  hall  being  used  as  a  college  hall,  and  its 
chapel  as  a  college  chapel.  To  extend  the 
benefits  of  residence  to  persons  of  limited  means, 
Bishop  Hatfield's  Hall  was  founded  in  lK4(i; 
and  Bishop  Cosin's  Hall,  in  1851 ;  the  students 
of  the  latter,  however,  were  transferred  to  the 
former  in  1864  The  general  academical  in- 
struction is  similar  to  that  of  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge ;  and  the  B.  A.  degree  examination  is  held 
at  the  end  of  two  years,  of  26  weeks  each.  There 
is  a  special  course  of  theological  study,  and  a 
License  in  Theology,  granted  on  examination; 
and  in  the  theological  faculty  alone  is  there  any 
religious  test  or  subscription.  In  ls70,  the 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne  College  of  Medicine. 
(founded  in  1851  i  became  the  Durham  University 
College  of  Medicine,  and  its  students  are  mem- 
bers of  the  University.  To  obtain  a  license  in 
medicine  or  in  surgery,  a  student  must  spend 
four  years  at  some  approved  medical  school, 
(one  of  the  years, 'it  Ic-.-t .  at  this  college  I.  ami  pass 
two  professional  examinations.  The  College  of 
Physical  Science,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  was 
founded  in  1871,  and  incorporated  with  the 
University  of  Durham,  in  1874.  The  endowment 
of  the  college  was  provided  partly  by  the  uni- 
versity, and  partly  by  the  leading  landed  proprie- 


tors, employers  of  skilled  labor,  etc.  in  the 
North  of  Kngland.  There  are  chairs  of  pure 
and  applied  mathematics,  chemistry,  physical 
and  experimental  philosophy,  geology,  and 
biology  and  physiology;  and  lectureships 
h,  Germa     " 


l-'relicl 


English  literature,  and 
mechanical  drawing.  The  course  lasts  two  years, 
and  successful  students  graduate  as  associates  in 
physical  science.  The  general  government  is  in 
the  hands  of  17  members,  partly  ex  officio,  and 
partly  elected  ;  and  the  ordinary  administrators 
arc  a  council  of  IV  elected  out  of ,  and  by,  the 
governors.  In  1875,  Codrington  College.  Bar- 
bados, was  affiliated  to  the  University.  '  I  Iwens 
College,  Manchester,  opened  in  1851.  (See 
Owens  College.)  The  Yorkshire  College  of 
Science  was  established  in  1*74,  to  supply  in- 
struction in  those  sciences  which  are  applicable 
to  the  manufactures,  engineering,  mining,  and 
agriculture  of  the  county  of  York,  and  in  the 
■arts  and  languages  thereto  cognate".  There  is 
a  board  of  governors,  life  elected,  and  representa- 
tive; and  a  council  oi  21  members,  elected  from 
and  by  them,  foi  the  administration  of  the  college 
affairs.  There  are  chairs  of  mathematii  s  and  ex- 
perimental physics,  chemistry,  geology  and  min- 
ing, biology,  and  civil  and  mechanical  engineer- 
ing: and  an  instructor  in  textile  industries.  The 
title  of  Associate  in  Physical  Science  is  conferred 
on  students  who  attend  classes,  in  not  less  than 
three  departments,  for  each  of  two  entire  sessions, 
and  who  pass  a  special  examination  in  each  class 
at  the  end  of  their  course.  These  departments 
are  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  geology,  bi- 
ology, and  civil  and  mechanical  engineering.  In 
the  session  of  1875 — 6,  there  were  85  day  students 
(of  whom  28  were  students  of  chemistry  belong- 
ing to  the  Leeds  School  of  Medicine),  and  246 
evening  and  occasional  students. — University 
College.  Bristol,  was  instituted,  in  1876,  to  sup- 
ply, lor  persons  of  both  sexes  above  the  ordinary 
sejiool  age,  the  means  of  continuing  their  studies 
in  science,  languages,  history,  and  literature, 
and  more  particularly  to  afford  appropriate  in- 
struction in  those  branches  of  applied  science 
which  are  employed  in  the  arts  and  manufact- 
ures. There  are  both  day  and  evening  lectures 
and  classes ;  and  medical  education  is  provided 
by  the  Bristol  Medical  School,  which  is  affiliated 
to  the  college. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction.-  The 
institutions  for  theological  instruction  are  very 
numerous  including  those  of  the  various  denomi- 
nations :  (1)  Church  of  England,  as  follows:  St. 
Aidan's  College,  Birkenhead  (founded  in  1846); 
the  Missionary  CollegeofSt.  Augustine,  Canter- 
bury (founded  as  an  abbey  in  605  A.  D.,  sup- 
pressed in  1538,  restored  in  1848)  j  Chichester 
Theological  College  (l.s.'iT:  Citddcsdoii  Theolog- 
ical College.  \\ 'heatley. Oxfordshire  (1854);  Lon- 
don Collet,,  of  llivinitv,  St.  John's  Hall,  High- 
burv(lsr.3|;  Lichfield  Theological  College  (1857); 
Cloucestcr  Theological  College  (1st;:));    St.  Bees 

( 'ol lege,  t  'uinlicrland  (1816) :  Salisbury  Theolog- 
ical College  (I860)  ;  Wells  Theological  College 
(1840);   St.    David's    College,  Lampeter  (1822: 


ENGLAND 


271 


chartered,  1828),  which  prepares  for  the  civil 
service  and  other  professions,  as  well  as  holy 
orders;  The  Queen's  I  lollege,  Birmingham  (facul- 
ty of  theology,  founded  in  Is.VJ);  ami  Church 
Missionary  College,  Islington.  (2)  IIVs/i;i/h»  : 
•Manches- 


WesleyanTheolog 
ter  (1834)  :    Wed 

cal  Institution, 
•van   Theologii 

1 Is     186 

-    :     R 

chmond    CoHe 

istTheologi 
United  Met 
statute  (18" 
College  (18 

al  Ins 

iinlist 

2).      ( 

v  students;  Pri 
itute.  Sunder! 
Free  Church  ' 
3)    Congregate 

College.'Bii 
Forkshin 

ringh 

mills:!]  1;  Rotl 

New  College,! 

Lancashire 
(181(5);  and 
in    1842. 

St    1  ,.i,i    a 
furnish  a  ill 
based  on  th 

lldepe 
Bala 
(4)     / 
id   Pi 

sprint 

ident  College.il 
Independent  C 

ul,  Bath  Msi',7 
ucation  forthf 
iplesoftheB, 

course   in 

phy   and  theol, 

School. —  Scientific  instruction  is  given  in  the 
Science  and  Art  Department  of  the  Committee 
of  Council,  South  Kensington,  which  administers 
a  sum  of  money  voted  annually  by  parliament 
to  promote  instruction  in  science,  especially 
among  the  industrial  classes.  Science  schools  or 
Classes  may  be  formed  in  any  locality  under  the 
management  of  a  local  committee.     The  aid  is 


annually,  in  whu 
instruments  are 
n  £1  to  £4  per  st 
I'es,  on    the    res 


isp, 


i  of  1  looks 
payments 
■rs  or  com- 
ninations ; 
|    building 


KS;  and  in  Ireland, 
4,559  classes,  and 
ils  of  art  in  the 
mbered    136,  with 


mvli.  its 
nbracing 
:".  years;  St.' Marv's  College.  Birmingham  (17!i:!), 
which  affords  a  .-la-ic-d  ,-diicatioii.  as  well  as 
professional  instruction:  and  St. Bruno's  College, 
St.  Asaph,  designed  exclusively  to  prepare  candi- 
dates for  the  priesthood.  (5)  Baptist:  New  Col- 
lege, London  (1810)  ;  North  Wales  Baptist  Col- 
lege, Llangollen  (lstl'J)  ;  Baptist  Theological  In- 
stitute, Pontypool,  Monmouth  (1807);  The  Bap- 
tist. College.  Haverfordwest  (1839);  Pastor's 
College,  instituted  at  Camberwell  in  1856,  re- 
moved to  Metropolitan  Tabernacle,  in  1861  ; 
Bristol  Baptist  College  (1770) ;  General  Baptist 
College.  Cliilwell.  near  Nottingham  (1797) :  and 
Bawdon  College,  near  Leeds  (1804).  (6)  Pres- 
hiilii-i.in:  Carmarthen  Presbyterian  College 
(1719)  .  and  Theological  College'.  London  (1844). 
(7)  Unitarian:  The  Unitarian  Home  Mission- 
ary Board,  Manchester  (1854).  (8)  Caloinistic. 
Methodist:  Trevecca  College,  near  Talgarth, 
Wales;  (9)  Fnv  Rr/i<ii<ins  'limn, fid:  Manchester 
New  College  (178G). 

There  are  four  Inns  rf  Court,  qualified  to  call 
students  to  the  Bar  :  (1)  Lincoln's  Inn,  (2)  the 
Middle  Temple.  (3)  the  Inner  Temple,  and 
(4)  Gray's  Inn.  Each  of  these  nominates  two 
benchers,  and  the  eight  benchers  constitute  the 
Council  of  Legal  Education.  The  council  appoints 
five  readers,  who  deliver  lectures  in  each  term, 
and  guide  the  professional  studies  of  young  men 
preparing  for  the  Bar. — There  are  medical  schools 
connected  with  the  universities:  also  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians,  the  Royal  I  'ollege  of  Sur- 
geons, the  Society  of  Apothecaries;  Metropolitan 
hospitals  and  schools  of  medicine  :  St.  Barthol- 
omew's,  Charing   Cross.   Guv's,    King's  College, 

Middles  sx,  St.  I  ;,,„ fa,  St.  Mary's,  St.  Thomas's, 

Universitv  College;  and  the  following  provin- 


(1 )  the  Agricultural  I  ollege,  (  Srencester,  founded 
in  1842,  which  has  a  farm  of  500  acrefi  The 
teaching  staff  comprises  professors  of  agricult- 
ure, chemistry,  veterinary  surgery,  natural  his- 
tory, mathematics  and  surveying,  and  drawing. 

(2)  The  Royal  School  of  Mines,  founded  in  1851, 
having  grown  out  of  the  Geological  Survey  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  commenced  in  1834,  by 
the  late  Sir  Henry  de  la  Bcehe.  its  first  professors 
being  the  officers  of  the  Survey.  There  are  vari- 
ous exhibitions,  scholarships,  and  free  admissions 

j  attached  to  the  school.  (3)  The  Royal  Academy 
of  Arts,  founded  in  1768,  removed  to  the  Na- 
tional Gallery,  in  1838, and  to  Burlington  Home, 
in  1869.  (4)  The  Royal  Academy  of  Music, 
founded  in  1822.  receives  an  annual  parliament- 
ary grant,  (5)  The  Royal  Military  Academy,  at 
Woolwich,  founded  in  1745,  and  the  Itoyal  Mili- 
tary College,  at  Sandhurst,  in  1799.  also  the 
Royal  Military  Staff  College.  (6)  The  Royal 
Naval  ('ollege  at  Greenwich,  founded  in  1873, 
and  (7)  Eastmans  Royal  Naval  Academy,  South- 
sea,  founded  in  1851.-  See  Sir. I.  K.  Shuttle- 
worth,  Public  Education,  3  vols.  (1853)  ;  Four 
Periods  of  Public  Education  (1862)  ;  and 
77>oin///ts  nnil  Siu/t/estioi>s  on  I'crtoin  Socio/ 
Problems  (1873) ;  Ernest  Wagner,  VolksschuU 
wesen  in  England  (1864) ;  Donaldson,  Lectures 
Prussia  and  England  (1874). 


on  Education  i, 
In  regard  to  se 
of  Her  Mqjestj, 
inquire  into  tke 
certain  Colleges 
Return— Publu 
by  order    of   tli 


Ek*»mm  and  Mancgem  v.7  f 
and  Schools,  etc.,  4  vols.  (1864); 

Schools  (statutes,  etc.),  printed 
e  House  of  Commons  (1876); 
MoNTrcei.   J),  lenseiqnementse- 


to!  Medical  Si  hool  ;  Cambridge  Medical  School; 
Leeds  School  :   Liverpool   Royal   Infirmary  and 

School;    .Manchester  Royal  School ;    Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne   (Durham)  ;     and  Sheffield  Medical 


Maxwell,  A  History  of  Eton  Collegi  (18751; 
Turner,  Educational  Legislation  (Loud..  1876); 
Pascoe,  A  Handbook  /o  tke  Schools  of  England 
(Lond..  1877).  (See  also  Cambridge,  and  Oxford.) 


272 


ENGLAND 


ENGLAND,  Church  of.     See  Episcopal 

( 'mniii. 

ENGLISH,  The  Study  of.  The  mother- 
tongue  has  peculiar  relations  to  education.  Lan- 
guage has  a  twofold  nature, — on  the  one  side, 
voice,  on  the  other,  thought.  Early  thought  is 
almost  all  stimulated,  gun  led  and  supported  by 
the  mother-tongue.  All  early  acquisition  of 
knowledge  may  be  regarded  as  the  study  of  the 
mother-tongue;  and,  even  in  civilized  nations,  few 
persons  ever  advance  beyond  the  knowledge  stored 
up  for  them  in  their  native  speech.  The  mother 
speech  is  also  the  means  of  communicating  with 
others,  and  of  influencing  them  ;  so  that  the 
study  of  it  as  an  art,  includes  the  study  of  rhet- 
oric and  oratory,  and  of  the  art  of  poetry. 

It  would  seem  then  that  there  are  four  chief 
direct  uses  in  studying  English:  (1)  To  under- 
stand what  is  spoken  or  written  in  that  language; 
^2)  To  speak  it  well;  (3)  To  write  it  well ;  and 
(4)  To  master  English  literature.  And  there  are 
three  remoter  ends  :  (1)  To  master  the  language 
scientifically;  (2)  Toacquire  the  knowledge  of 
language  in  general ;  and  (3)  General  culture. 

Early  study,  in  infant  schools,  kindergartens, 
ninl  primary  schools. — The  availing  of  words 
is  the  first  thing  children  1  ■am  of  languages.  The 
names  of  a  few  familiar  objects  and  acts  are  re- 
peated in  connection  with  the  objects  and  acts 
themselves  so  often,  that  the  infant's  thought 
passes  promptly  from  the  sound  to  the  thing. 
Thus  papa,  mamma,  kiss,  laugh,  make  the  child 
think  of  the  person  or  act  before  it  can  speak 
any  words.  Many  words  are  also  attached  to 
thoughts  by  being  often  heard  connected  with 
other  words  in  discourse.  Such  knowledge, 
raughl  by  the  child  rather  than  taught  to  it,  is 
for  the  most  part  very  indefinite  and  inexact, 
but  no  part  of  education  is  more  important. 

The  objects  named  should  be  objects  worthy 
of  thought.  Good  and  bail  qualities  should  be 
marked  by  such  tones  and  manner  as  will 
give  their  names  correct  and  powerful  associa- 
tions. The  means  of  expressing  the  affections 
should  be  carefully  taught.  In  the  kindergarten 
or  other  infant  school,  care  should  be  method- 
ically taken  to  teach  the  words  which  accurately 
name  the  objects  and  processes  that  the  children 
learn;  unnamed  objects  anil  processes,  however 
amusing  or  ingenious,  enter  little  into  thought 
and  contribute  little  to  culture.  A  leading  pur- 
pose in  all  object  teaching  should  be  to  give  val- 
uable ideas;  but  that  is  the  same  as  giving 
familiarity  with  good  words.  Teachers  of  infant 
schools  need  good  books,  containing  classified 
lists  of  important  words,  with  directions  how  to 
teach  them  by  means  of  well-chosen  object 
lessons,  and  amusing  occupations.  See  Kinder- 
garten, and  Object  Teaching.)  For  children  of 
a  larger  growth,  we  have  a  great  number  of 
Spellers  and  Definers,  and  small  dictionaries 
which  teach  the  meaning  of  English  words.  The 
latter  should  be  constantly  used. 

The  study  of  meanings  in  such  manuals  is, 
however,  of  little  worth,  unless  supplemented  by 
object  teaching  on  the  one  hand,  and  by  the 


ENGLISH 

study  of  discourse  on  the  other.  Manuals  of 
object  teaching  arranged  for  the  purpose  are 
wanting.  Object  teachers  often  contrast  the 
study  of  words  with  the  study  of  things,  and 
condemn  the  study  of  words,  instead  of  teaching 
them  through  their  exercises.  There  are  many 
books  made  up  of  progressive  selections  of  dis- 
course, intended  to  introduce  young  pupils  to 
words.  Most  Primers  and  Readers  attempt 
something  in  this  way.  and  some  are  skillfully 
prepared  with  notes  and  exercises  for  this  pur- 
pose.    (See  Primer,  and  Reading.) 

To  speak  well  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
meanings  of  words  and  of  the  combinations  in 
which  they  arc  actually  used,  of  the  meanings 
and  uses  of  grammatical  prefixes  and  suffixes,  and 
of  the  exact  sounds  wdiich  are  made  by  good 
speakers.  Speaking  must  go  on  at  a  certain 
speed  ;  and,  therefore,  thoughts,  words,  and  the 
movements  of  the  vocal  organs  must  be  closely 
associated,  so  as  to  follow  one  another  without 
effort  and  with  great  rapidity.  Much  practice 
in  speaking  is  necessary  in  order  to  speak  well ; 
and,  in  general,  practice  in  the  very  kind  of 
speaking  in  which  the  excellence  is  desired.  In 
the  early  stages  of  education,  this  must  be  almost 
wholly  imitative  practice.  Children  catch  and 
use  the  sounds  and  forms  which  make  the  live- 
liest impression  on  them,  and  which  they  hear 
oftenest ;  to  use  a  form  or  sound  once,  makes  it 
most  likely  to  occur  to  the  mind  again.  Teachers 
should,  therefore,  train  by  inducing  imitation  of 
their  own  speech.  Exercises  may  be  used  in 
repeating  after  the  teacher  the  elementary 
sounds,  and  afterwards  difficult  words,  and  then 
familiar  dialogues,  and  finally  passages  of  poetry, 
or  elevated  prose,  which  the  teacher  likes  and 
can  repeat  with  feeling.  Incorrect  articulation 
and  bad  grammar  should  be  constantly  corrected, 
not  by  repeating  and  caricaturing  what  is  faulty 
but  by  substituting  the  correct  expression.  Chil- 
dren should  also  be  encouraged  to  talk,  at  proper 
times,  to  repeat  the  explanations  of  the  teacher, 
not  verbatim  throughout,  but  yet  with  a  con- 
stant, close,  and  correct  use  of  the  technical 
terms  or  important  words  ;  nor  is  it  unscientific 
to  commit  to  memory  formulas  of  permanent 
importance,  to  be  fully  comprehended  afterwards; 
such  as  the  multiplication  table,  catechisms  of 
moral  and  religious  truth,  and  noble  utterances 
which  it  does  men  good  to  have  fast  in  the 
memory.  The  youth  should  be  led  on  by  lan- 
guage faster  and  farther  than  his  own  thoughts 
could  have  gone  alone.  Practice  of  this  kind 
will  naturally  go  along  with  reading. 

Learning  to  read  should  begin  early.  The 
monstrous  spelling  of  the  English  language  makes 
this  much  more  difficult  than  to  learn  to  read 
German  ;  and  teaching  the  names  of  the  letter, 
and  the  sounds  of  the  syllables  as  if  made  up  of 
them,  has  a  mischievous  effect  on  the  reason  of 
the  learners.  Several  methods  are  used  in  our 
schools  to  overcome  the  difficulties.  The  word- 
method  (q.  v.)  is  one.  In  this,  children  are  taught 
to  recognize  words  as  wholes  before  learning  the 
letters.     In  skillfully  prepared  books,  with  pic- 


ENGLISH  273 

tonal   illustrations,  children  learn  to  read  very  |  arithmetic  ;  and  tlie  preparation  and  explanation 

grammar  lesson 


rapidly  by  this  method,  but  not  so  aecuratelj  ; 
and  it  is  very  hard  to  teach  them  to  spell.  Skill- 
ful teachers  will  use  a  judicious  combination  of 
the  two  methods.     Books  are  also  prepared  with 


vork  should  lie  the 
early    years.     This 


same  sound. 


spelt  in  the  phonetic  alphab 

and  gradually  passing  to  our 

These  have   been  use  I  for  .-< 

Fork,  Boston,  St    Louis,  an  I 

reported  to  save  one  half  of  tl 

voted  to  Learning  to  read.  Tin 

movement  for  the  reform  of  our  spelling  which 

it  may  be  hoped  will  save  the  next  generation 

much  time  and  toil.      (See  Orthography,  and 

Phonetics.)     Books  of   this   kind   are    I    egh's 

edition  of  various  elementary  reading-1 ks;  also 

Davis's   American    Primer,    Doi  u  -    B    ia  i 
Phonetic  Primer,  Longli  i  .-  .1  i   /'      u 

Primer,    Sheldon's    New    Phot  Primer, 

SlIEARKR's  ('nmhin,  li,'<:.     •".  '.    \      ■     .1:1  iV's    I'lm- 

nelic  Firs/  Reader.  Primary  cards  and  charts 
to  aid  in  this  early  instruction  are  to  bo  ha  I  in 
good  variety.  Practice  in  writing  is  one  of  the 
best  aids  in  learning  to  read  and  spell,  and  hence, 

copying  choice  extracts,  and  then  writing  them 
down  from  memory,  is  quite  useful.  Soon  after 
lessons  in  penmanship  begin,  grammar  should  lie- 
taken  up. 

Grammar  is  often  used  as  a  name  for  the 
whole  science  of  language  and  the  art  of  using 
it;  but  by  masters  of   the  science  of  language,  it, 

into  parts  of  s] ch,  according  to  their  uses  in 

disc .  ili  ■  description  and  exposition  of  the 

changes  of  form  called  inflections,  and  the  uses 
of  these  in  the  correct  construction  of  sentences. 
There  would  be  some  advantage  in  dropping  the 
old  traditional  definitions,  which  lead  teachers 
and  pupils  to  expect  that  the  study  of  bn-ii-h 
grammar  will  make  them  able  to  speak  ami  write 
the  English  language  correctly.  It  Is  only  one  of 
the  helps  to  correctness  in  speaking  and  writing. 
The  attempt  by  makers  of  school  grammars  and 
by  teachers  to  do  too  much  is  one  reason  why  the 
study  is  so  much  neglected  and  abused.  Descrip- 
tive grammar  consists  of  definitions  of  the  parts 
of  speech,  paradigms,  and  rules  of  syntax.  With 
children,  a  careful  selection  of  simple  and  typ- 
ical matter  should  be  made,  just  as  in  botany  or 
in  any  other  science.  This  matter  should  consist 
of  definitions  and  rules,  stated  in  accurate  sci- 
entific language,  but  simply  and  briefly;  and  of 
selections  of  words  and  sentences,  also  simple  and 
clear,  and  suited  to  illustrate  the  definitions  and 
rules.  This  matter  should  be  managed  by  the 
teacher  so  as  to  use  mere  verbal  memory  as  little 
as  possible,  and  to  train  the  pupil  to  see.  hear, 
and  think  as  much  as  possible.  The  definitions 
and  the  rules  should  be  learned  like  rules  in 
arithmetic,  but  the  main  work  should  be  the  ap- 
plication of  them  to  examples.  The  scholar 
should  every  day  hand  in  written  grammar 
work  on   the  slate  or   on   paper,  like  sums  in 


1  spelling. 

ber  of  our  In 

ra  in  New 

method,  many 

•e.  and  are 

ing,  day  by  da 

usually  de- 

to  remember,  a 

wan  active 

to  be  classified 

l-o  proposing  trials 
ords  and  sentences 

oks  are  often  \\  hol- 


ly condemned  by  tin  -e  teachers,  who  collect,  year 

by  year,  in  their  own   note-1 ks,  or  i ories, 

a  store  of  happy  questions  and  examples,  as  well 
as  can  lulls  considered  definitions  and  rules:  and 
it  would  obviously  be  a  great  help  to  young 
teachers,  as  well  as  to  pupils,  to  get  a  good  note- 
book of  this  kind,  neatly  printed,  and  there  are 
some  bonks  for  beginners  v\  Inch  are.  in  substance. 
such  note-books;  we  mention  ,1  Parser  and 
in  \y  rfor  Beginners  with  diagrams  and 
suggestive  pictures,  by  P.  A.  March  (New- 
York),  and  Greene's  Analysis  (Phila.).  (See 
Analysis,  Grammatical.) 

Advanced  Stud//  in  High  Sclook  and 
Co/fiyps.  —  Students  entering  the  high  school 
should  have  been  taught  general  descriptive 
grammar  thoroughly,  so  as  to  be  able  to  apply 
its  del  mil  ions  and  rules  promptly  and  accurately 
to  sentences  which  they  understand,  and  which 
have  no  strange  idioms.  They  should  also  have 
mastered  some  sy.-tem  of  notation  to  se1  forth 
their  grammatical  knowledge  in  writing.  .They 
should  have  also  been  trained  in  articulation  and 
in  the  idioms  of  common  conversation,  and  should 
have  had  some  practice  in  writing  compositions. 
The  study  of  English  will  now  be  directed  to 
acquire  skill  in  speaking  and  in  writing,  and  a 
mastery  of  English  literature,  and  the  philos- 
ophy of  speech.  Each  of  these  demands  special 
study  and  practice. 

I.  Skill  inSpeaking.  —  This  should  be  cul- 
tivated in  various  ways  :   (1)  By  free  conversa- 

topies  at  set  times,  when  the  teacher  may 

act  as  a  model  and  censor;  (2)  liy  the  declamation 
"i  elect  m  t standard  authors;  (3)  By  trans- 
lating from  foreign  languages,  the  student  being 
required  to  give  the  thought  of  the  author  in  his 
own  English  with  the  common  rapidity  and  in- 
flections of  his  own  discourse  :  (4)  By  recitations 
by  topics.  (In  all  studies  which  admit  of  it,  the 
scholar  should  be  made  to  stand  up,  face  his 
audience,  and  speak  to  them  on  the  topic  on 
which  he  is  to  recite.  This  is  probably  the  most 
efficient  means  of  giving  power  of  connected  dis- 
course.) (5)  By  debates  on  assigned  topics  ;  (G) 
By  the  study  of  grammar.  Some  larger  gram- 
mar which  gives  a  minute  exposition  of  all  the 
idioms  of  the  language  should  be  taken  up.  A 
historical  and  scientific  grammar  is  the  best.  But 
for  immediate  use  in  speaking,  correct  and  clearly 


274  BNG 

stated  generalizations  of  the  facts  of  the  language 
are  what  is  wanted.  A  knowledge  of  these  is 
necessary  to  correct  speaking.  It  is  a  great 
mistake  to  suppose  that  if  one  never  heard  bad 
English,  he  would  always  speak  correctly.  In 
the  mother-tongue,  every  one  generalizes  instinct- 
ively. The  child  makes  all  its  plurals  in  s,  and 
says  mouses  for  mice,  mans  for  men  :  so  it  says 
buyed  for  bought,  and  tin-  like,  making  its  in- 
stinctive and  incorrect  generalizations  continu- 
ally. This  process  is  active  with  every  speaker 
until  accurate  generalizations,  i.  e.,  grammatical 
knowledge,  are  substituted  for  the  instinctive 
work  of  association.  The  subject  usually  pre- 
cedes a  verb;  hence,  the  instinctive  talker  uses 
who  for  whom  before  the  verb.  The  object  usually 
follows  a  verb;  the  instinctive  generalization 
suggests  it  is  me,  for  it  is  I.  In  the  households 
of  educated  people,  a  continual  correction  of  the 
young  folks  is  kept  up,  until  they  learn  the  most 
common  words  and  phrases  pretty  thoroughly ; 
but.  in  the  less  common  literary  style,  in  which 
abridged  constructions,  tropical  expressions,  and 
relics  of  obsolescent  forms  occur  continually,  no 
one  ever  speaks  with  uniform  correctness,  un- 
less he  studies  grammar  carefully.  The  greatest 
geniuses  are  no  exceptions.  ( 'haiicer,  Ben  Jonson, 
Milton,  and  Addison  for  example,  wen' careful 
students  of  grammar.  The  text  of  Shakespeare's 
plays  has  to  be  corrected  like  a  school  boy's 
theme.  Moreover,  all  of  us  hear  much  bad 
English,  and  need  carefully  and  intelligently  to 
study  the  laws  of  the  language,  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish the  good  from  the  bad.  This  kind  of 
study  should  be  constantly  applied  in  the  criticism 

of  the  speech  and  writing  of  pupils  at  scl Laud 

of  printed  matter.  A  knowledge  of  descriptive 
grammar  is  also  needed  for  intelligent  conversa- 
tion upon  the  meaning  of  obscure  sentences. 
Among  the  many  good  descriptive  grammars  of 
modern  English,  we  may  mention  Brown's,  Bul- 
lion's, Butler's,  Clark's,  (.Well's,  Few-smith's. 
Greene's,  Hart's,  Kerl's,  Murray's,  Pinneo's, 
AVeld's.  t^uackenbos's,  Vickroy's,  and  Whitney's. 
We  shall  mention,  farther  on,  works  in  which  a 
inmar  is  presented. 
Is  practice  in  writ- 
ing the  high  school 
:en  and  carefully. 
[  is  to  dream.  Be- 
itical  exercises  as 
ve  their  future  oc- 
rained  in  the  writ- 
.  Future  business 
men  should  practice  the  writing  of  imaginary 
business  letters,  answers  to  advertisements  in  the 
newspapers,  and  the  like.  Any  student  may 
keep  a  journal,  may  write  descriptions  of  build- 
ings, machines,  scenery,  persons,  meetings,  con- 
versations,!  ks  :   may  prepare    reports  on  such 

matters  as  arc  examined  by  committees  for  pri- 
vate corporations,  or  public  meetings.  They 
should  also  write  in  connection  with  their  stud- 
ies, preparing  careful  statements  upon  assigned 
topics,  notes  of  lectures,  written  examinations 
on  general  subjects,  and  the  like.     Then  there 


histone.,1  view  of  Engli 
II.  Skill  in  writing  i 

ing.      from  the  time-  of 

the  studenl   should  wr 

To  study  without  pen  ii 

side   the   writing  of   g 

above  described,  those  w 

cupation  decided,  shouli 

ing  needed  in  that  ;u' 

are  more  elaborate,  ornate,  rhetorical  perform- 
ances, and  elegant  essays,  and  metrical  compo- 
sition. 

Two  periods  may  be  mentioned  in  the  mastery 
of  language.  In  the  first,  the  ruling  idea  is 
imitative,  the  writer  seeks  to  fashion  his  speech 
after  that  of  the  authors  or  persons  whom  he 
admires.  He  aims  to  have  every  expression  bear 
the  current  stamp,  and  will  reject  every  phrase 
not  familiar  in  good  books.  Most  writers  never 
pass  out  of  this  stage.  The  source  and  model  of 
good  writing  to  them  is  an  intimate  acquaint- 
ance with  literature.  But  great  writers,  original 
thinkers,  learn  that  the  current   phrases  do  not 


to  invention  according  to  their  own  ideals.  Vital 
signs  should  not  be  neglected  even  in  school 
■  lays;  it  is  by  following  these  that  the  most  per- 
fect mastery  of  the  language  is  to  be  attained: 
but  school  work  will  be  mostly  in  the  first  stage. 
Active  ami  careful  practice  in  writing  is  generallj 
the  best  stimulus  and  help  to  the  thorough  study 
of  English.  Imitative  work  has  its  value.  Fix  in 
the  memory  the  thought  of  an  admirable  passage 
in  a  classic  author,  then  write  it  as  well  as  pos- 
sible, and  compare  the  result  with  the  original. 
There  are  some  good  books  prepared  as  aids  to 
the  young  writer:  Abbot  &  Sum'.  English 
Lessons  (N.  Y.)  ;  Swinton's  Langm  I  -.  res 
(N.Y.);  Abbot's  How  to  Write  clearly  Boston  : 
Crosby  A  Lr in, mi  a  First  Lessons;  Day's  Foung 
Composer,  English  Composition,  and  other 
works  (N.Y.i  :  Parkek's  Aids  to  Composition 
(N.  T.j;  QrjACKEKBOs's  First! n  Compo- 


of 


irague. 


Blair,  Hay.  Si-knokk's  J'h, /,,*„/,/,,/  „f  »,/,., 
Shedd,  \\  liately.  and  the  like.  A  great  part  of 
the  writing  should,  however,  be  the  record  of 
thought  and  research  in  the  study  of  English 
literature. 

111.  The  philological  study  of  English  is  the 
study  of  the  language  as  used  in  literature,  i.  e., 
as  shaped  by  the  idea  of  the  beautiful.  The  lan- 
guage of  literature  is  an  ideal  language  of  men 
of  genius.  It  is  to  be  studied  in  their  writings. 
The  main  object  of  the  study  is  to  rethink  their 
thoughts.     Every  classic  language  contains  in  its 

literature  the  n d  of  the  noble  thoughts  and 

acts  of  thousands  of  years, expressed  in  thousands 
of  happy  and  harmonious  phrases,  the  invention 
of  thousands  of  men  of  genius.  This  is  the 
richest  inheritance  of  a  cultured  race.  Youth 
who,  if  they  had  no  classic  speech,  could  do 
nothing  better  than  watch  birds  and  bugs,  to 
snare  and  kill  them,  can.  by  means  of  speech, 
rise,  almost  in  childhood,  to  the  highest  thoughts 
of  all  the  ages  before  them.  The  "study  of  these 
masterpieces  of  literature  may  be  carried  on  by 
two  methods.  One  is  rapid  reading,  enjoying 
and  emphasizing  special   beauties,  and  making 

occasional  esthetic  and  explanatory  criticism, 
but  avoiding  all  minute  researches,  especially  nil 
grammatical  and  scientific  labor,  which  might 
give  a  distaste  for  the  lesson  and  the  author. 


The  other  method  is  that  of  giving  minute  and 
profound  study,  linguistic  and  philosophic,  to  the 
representative  pa-sages  of  representative  works. 
The  first  method  gives  a  delightful  occupation 
to  sympathetic  pupils,  ami  proves  especially 
valuable  in  the  education  of  women.  The  un- 
sympathetic and  hard-headed  are  unaffected  by 
it;  and  it  is.  at  its  best,  but  an  introduction  to 
the  authors,  leaving  tin-  tval  philological  mastery 
of  them  yet  to  be  attained.  Thiseomes.if  itcome 
at  all.  from  long  dwelling,  and  much  study,  line 
byline,  word  by  won  1.  such  as  is  bestowed  on 
the  noble  passages  of  Greet  or  Latin  writers.  In 
studying  the  literature  of  the  mother-tongue,  it 


through  the  mind,  and  delude 
with  the  impression  that  he 
stands  them.  There  is  a  fatal 
porizing  the  lessons.  This  «litl 
by  making  the  text  the  foul 
study,  and  by  requiring  writ* 
ever  is  necessary  to  compreher 
and  allusions,  matters  of  h 
mythology,  geography.  phy> 
theologj  and  the  like.  will,  o 
fully  looked  up.  The  history  i 
is  being  studied,  should  also  b 
to  it.-  growth  in  the  mind  of  t 


JSH  275 

grammatical  forms  are  concerned,  is  a  develop- 
ment of  the  Anglo-Saxon:  in  its  vocabulary, it  is 
a  mixed  language,  made  up  originally  oi    biglo 


Thi 


i.-kri 


nl   I  (igh  i  lerman  on  the  one 
tin.  leading  on  to  I  tn  ek  and 


•I,.-., 


as  essential  to  a  comprehension  of   his  work  and 
speech,  so  as  to  see  the  man  as  a   representative 

man.   and    the    work   as    a    representative    work. 

The  rhetorical  laws,  and  the  principles  of  poetic, 
epic,  and  dramatic  art  should  be  applied  word  by 
word,  line  by  line.  Then  there  is  the  study  of 
the  words,  their  exact  meaning  and  associations 
in  the  mind  of  the  writer,  to  be  learned  partly 
by  gathering  up  his  different  uses  of  them,  an 
easy  and  delightful  labor  in  those  authors  for 
whom  a  concordance  has  been  made,  as  Shake- 
speare, Milton.  Pope.  Tennyson  :  it  implies  also 
a  study  of  the  general  usage  of  the  time  of  the 
writer.  The  study  of  synonyms  also  comes  in, 
ami  of  derivations,  as  a  guide  and  aid  in  fixing 
the  exact  meaning  of  words.  Written  analyses, 
derivation  paper-,  synonym  papers,  and  tables  of 
rhetorical  figures,  will  make  sure  that  the  work 
is  done.  Happy  phrases  ami  notable  sentences 
may  be  learned  by  heart:  and  by  studying  many 
works,  the  knowledge  of  English  a.s  a  record  of 
tained.  which  is  the  purpose 


culture  ma 

of  classical 

IV.  Con 


ratine  philology,  a&  the  science  of 
language  is'  often  called,  suggests  still  further 
study,  It  sets  bi  fore  us  I  Dglish  as  a  member  of 
a  great  family  of  language-,  having  a  history. 
and  laws  of  growth,  and  made  up  of  wordsand 
phras  9,  each  of  which  has  its  own  history,  to  be 
understood  in  view  of  the  laws  of  thought  and 
voice.  It  calls  for  the  study  of  the  physiology  of 
the  organs  of  speech  as  the  basis  of  the  classifica- 
tion of  the  vocal  sounds  made  in  English,  and  for 
the  study  of  psychology  to  explain  the  meanings 
of  the  sounds.     The  English  speech,  as  far  as  its 


Phonology  gives  a  history  and  exposition  of 
the  sounds  of  English.  It  shows  that  the  present 
sounds  of  most  words  are  changed  from  earlier 
ones,  and  it  seeks  the  laws  which  govern  the 
changes.  It  also  points  out  and  explains  the  re- 
lations of  these  sounds  to  those  in  other  lan- 
guages. The  fullest  discussi f  historic  pho- 
nology in  any  available  text-1 k-  for  schools  is 

in  Match's  Comparative  '■  an  n  tr  of  the  Anglo- 
Sax Ellis's  Early  E  g    *    Pr icialion 

(London),  still  incomplete,  is  the  great  store- 
house of  facts.  Sweet's  History  of  English 
Sounds  (London),  and  the  historical  grammars 


we  add  s  to  form  the  possessive  John's, 

form  the  past  loved;  we  change  a  to  e  to 

the  plural  men,  o  to  e  to  form  the  past 

When  we  follow  these   words  back  to 

o-Saxon.  we  find  that  our  monosyllables  are 
■  polysyllables,  and   many  of  them  obvious 


kin. 


lllable 


which  is  an  obscure 

Saxon,  in  (iothic  show-  h-iiha  d,  a  reduplicated 

root.    The  Gothic,  however,  often  fails  to  solve 

the  problem,  but  it  generally  serves  to  identify 
the  forms  with  some  like  form  in  Latin  and 
Greek,  which  may,  perhaps,  give  the  key.  or.  if 
not,  lead  ns  on  to  the  Sanskrit,  where  so  large  a 
number  of  inflection  forms  and  affixes  of  deri- 
vation, are  seen  to  be  compound  words,  that  the 
philologist  works  on  the  theory  that  they  all  arc. 
ami  thus  make-  large  progress  in  their  solution. 


are  at  hand, 

the  titles  of  which  see  the  artii  les  on  thi   i    ' 

giiages.      Icelandic,  or  (  IH  Norse,  i.-  also  ol   great 

aid    in   studying  the  forms  of   English,  especially 

in  the  transition  period  from  Early  Anglo  3a 

All   these  the  earnest  scholar  may  study.     The 

High  (ierman  also  has  been  much  w 

and  strengthens  the  inductions  man. 

nearer  kin.  occasionally  throwing  light  on  a  doubt- 


276  ENG1 

ful  point.     The  comparative  study  of  derivation, 

syntax,  and  prosody  leads  through  the  same 
historical  course.  Parallel  with  the  external  his- 
tory of  the  forms,  runs  a  history  of  their  mean- 
ing, a  history  of  thought,  and  its  laws  of  change 
and  progress  in  connection  with  language.  The 
science  of  language  does  not  stop  with  the  Indo- 
European  family,  but  for  a  perfect  understanding 
of  English  compares  it  with  the  other  great  lan- 
guages of  the  world,  —  with  the  Semitic,  the 
Chinese,  and  the  aboriginal  tongues  of  America. 
It  seeks  to  determine  its  relations  to  all  lan- 
guages, and  to  an  ideal  form  of  speech. 

How  much  of  this  study  should  be  attempted 
in  our  schools  and  colleges,  and  in  what  method, 
are  mooted  questions  with  educators.  <  Germany 
has.  heretofore,  been  the  chief  seat  of  fchi  li  aim- 
ing, and  it  has  been  given  in  lectures  to  select 
classes  in  the  universities.  It  is  gradually  work- 
ing its  way,  through  our  best  grammars  and 
teachers,  especially  of  Greek,  into  the  common 
stock  of  linguistic  knowledge  and  teaching.  A 
considerable  number  of  the  American  colleges 
give  a  few  lectures  on  the  subject  in  the  senior 
year,  or  study  Whitney's  "Language  and  the 
Study  qf  Language.  In  1855,  a  department  of 
the  English  language  and  comparative  philology 
was  established'  in'Urfayctte  <  'ollege.  and  an  ar- 
rangement of  all  the  iinguistic  studies  of  the 
college  attempted,  by  which  the  topics  of  com- 
parative philology  might  be  gradually  introduced 
to  the  .-indents,  in  connection  with  the  recitations, 
in  reading  the  ela.-s-ic  authors  of  each 

PI |i  gy  is  taken  up  the  first  term, 

in  the  pronunciation  of  Latin,  Greek,  or  other  lan- 
guages, are  given. with  the  history  of  the  sounds, 
and  the  laws  of  letter  change.  Then. at  the  daily 
lesson  in  leading. attention  is  called  to  such  illus- 
trations of  these  laws  as  occur  in  the  text,  and 
the  facts  of  each  language  are  compared  with 
English.  A  special  examination  in  these  mat- 
ters is  held  at  the  end  of  the  term,  in  suc- 
cessive terms,  the  etymology  of  the  verb  and  the 
noun,  derivation,  syntax,  and  prosody,  are  taken 
up  in  the  same  way.  from  the  point  of  view  of 
comparative  philology,  with  daily  application  to 
the  text.  The  languages  arc  studied,  in  the  clas- 
sical course,  in  the  following  order:  Latin  and 
Greek,  French,  German,  Anglo-Saxon,  English. 
In  the  scientific  course,  the  early  work  i  through 
a  comparison  of  words  in  English,  French,  and 
German;  then  come  Anglo-Saxon  and  higher 
English.  It  goes  on  in  connection  with  a  literary 
andcritical  study  of  the  authors,  and  ends  with  a 
synoptical  general  course,  including,  in  one  term, 
the  science  of  language,  and  in  another  a  sum- 
mary of  English  literature.  This  courst   has  I t> 

very  successful  at  Uifayctte  < 'ollege.  ;m<l  ha-  been 
introduced,  in  its  application  to  Lnglo  Saxon  and 
English,  into  some  other  institutions, and  has  at- 
tracted interest  and  commendation  in  Europe. 
Perhaps  no  study,  certainly  no  linguistic  study, 
has  grown  more  rapidly,  within  the  la-i  I.'  war,-, 
than  that  of  English.  Previous  to  that  time,  there 
was  then  hardly  an  attempt  at  the  Scientific  his- 
torical study  of  it  in  England  or  America.  There. 


were  no  text-books,  —  historical  grammars  or 
other  histories  of  the  language,  nor  good  etymo- 
logical or  historical  dictionaries,  nor  editions  of 
classic  English  authors  with  philological  ap- 
paratus for  study.  Now,  all  our  good  colleges 
and  universities,  and  many  of  our  best  high 
schools  and  academies,  attempt  a  course  of  En- 
glish, and  a  fair  supply  of  text-books  of  every 
kind  is  to  be  had.  Of  these  the  following  is  a. 
summary:  Method  of  Philological  Study  qf  ike 
English  Language,  by  Francis  A.  March, 
(New  York,  1865).  This  gives  minute  directions 
for  carrying  out  a  course  of  study  like  that  above 
described.  It  begins  with  Bunyan, and  sets  forth 
topics  for  an  introductory  essay  on  his  life  and 
works,  with  bibliographical  references.  Then  it 
gives  an  extract  from  The  Pilgrim's  Progress, 
and  references  to  parts  of  the  grammar  to  be  stud- 
ied, accompanied  by  questions  applying  the  mat- 
ter to  the  text,  given  in  full,  like  a  verbatim  report 
of  a  recitation."  six  pages  of  questions  on  twelve 
lines  of  text.  Synoptical  questions  and  topics 
for  essays  follow.  Milton  comes  next,  and  then 
follow  Shakespeare,  Spenser,  and  ( 'haucer,  treated 
in  the  same  way.  but  with  a  progressive  series  of 
grammatical  and  philological  topics.  This  method 
has  been  used  in  several  high  schools  and  col- 
leges with  g I  success.     The  work  is  also  to  be 

had  bound'  in  one  volume  with  Fowler's  Gram- 
mar, to  which  frequent  references  are  made. 
Sprague's  Masterpieces  of  English  Literature 
(New  York)  is  prepared  for  the  same  kind  of 
study;  it  contains  selections  from  < 'haucer.  Spen- 
-i  r.  I'.acoii,  Shakespeare.  Milton,  and  Bunyan, 
with  notes  for  progressive  grammatical,  phil- 
ological, and  rhetorical  study,  beginning  with 
phonetics  in  connection  with  I 'haucer.  and  end- 
ing with  comparative  philology  in  connection 
with  Bunyan.  Day's  Introduction  to  English 
Literature  (New  York)  is  of  similar  content 
and  method.  Graik's  English  <>/'  Sholresjieare. 
(London  and  Boston)  consists  of  the  text  of 
Julius  Gcesar,  prepared  with  copious  notes  on 
philological  matters  suggested  by  the  text,  and 
other  apparatus  for  t  lion  mgh  study ,— an  excellent 
book.  To  these  maybe  added  C  mix's  Studies 
in  ike  English  of  Bunyan  (I'hila.);  and  Car- 
penter's English  oftkeXIV.  Century  (Boston). 
From  American  editors,  we  have  the  following 
series  of  classics  prepared  for  school  use,  with 
more  or  less  annotation:  Boyd's  Series  [New 
York  .  inch,,!.;-  Cm  er  /  isl  Hi  ton's  Para- 
dise Lost,  PoMoks  Courst  of  T*ime,  Thomson's 
Seasons.  Vi, ii,i,/'s  Sight  Thoughts,  and  Bacon's 
Essays;  Eudson's  Series  (Boston)  a  valuable 
one;  the  notes  and  other  apparatus  are,  in  the 
main,  directly  explanatory  or  critical,  primarily 
for  rapid  reading;  it  includes  plays  of  Shake- 
spean  ;  .1  Texthbook  qf  Poetry,  consisting  of 
selections  from  Wordsworth.  Coleridge,  Burns, 
Beattie,  Goldsmith,  and  Thomson;  .1  Text-hook 
of  I' r,,se,  containing  selections  from  Burke, 
Webster,  and  Bacon  ;  Iioi.iKs  Series,  New  York, 
including     Shakespeare's     Merchant     of    Venice, 

The  Tempest,  Henry  17//.,  and  Julius  Ccesar; 
and  Goldsmith.     (See  English  Literature.) 


KNIiUSH    IJTKUATUUE         277 


From  the  Clarendon  Tress.  Oxford.  England. 
are  issued  for  students  of  English,  Chaucer,  by 
W.  W.Se  m  :  S i  ns  of  Early  EnalishM 


guage,byG.  P.  Marsh  New  York);  Hadley's 
Ussays,  Philological  and  Critical  (Ne*  fork); 
Whitnei  -     Oriental    /    Linauisti,     Studies 


Willi  i  n )    /'    -*   toe   Plowman,   by 

\V.  W.  Ski  m  :  Shakespeare,  Ha  n  el  bj  W  .G 
Clark;  7%e  '/;,»,, s/.'  by  W.  Aldis  Wrighi  ; 
ffiwo  Lrar.by  W.  Aldis  Wright;  Milton,— Thi 

Areopagitica,  by  J.  W.  Hales ;   Aftifi -Se- 

Aw,.,.-  from  •/,  Sbectator.byT.  Arnold;  ZW 


s£    (New  Vo 
(New  York, 


m  nsof  Lowland  Scot  h  ana  Vor      ■     I   ■  ■ 
by  J.  A.  H.  Murray;  also  a  seriesof  English  clas- 
sics tor  students. especially  for  ladies'  scl band 

middle  class   scl Is.  under  the   Mipcrintendence 

of  Rev.  .1.  S.  Brewer,  M.  V.  professor  of  En- 
glish literature  at  King's  College,  I. Ion,  in- 
cluding Parts  of  Cha  "i  s,  tser's  Faeriel 
Queene,  Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  Book  i. 
Shakespeare's  Merchant  of  Venice,  Richard 
the  Secorad,and  Wa>  '■  <h;  Bacon,— Advancement 
of  Learning,  and    Essays;    Milton,— Poems ; 

parts   of    Dryden,    Bunyan,    Pope,    Johns 

Burke,  ma  Cowper. 

Grammars,  Historical  and  Comparative,  for  ' 
the  earliest  period  are:  March's  Comparative] 
Grammar  .New  York)  (see  Anglo-Saxon); 
Hadley's  Brief  History  of  >'■■  En  !  Lan- 
guage (Springfield);   Compend      i     f  th<    Com- 

Schleicher, translated  by  11.  Bendale  i  1 Ion); 

.1  C ma    h   Grammar  of  the  Teutonic  Lan- 

auaaes,  l.v  J.  Helfexsteis    London  :   Historical 


,/  /■:, 


don);  Changes  in  the  English  Language  be- 
tween the  publication  of  Wiclifs  Bible  and  (hat 
of  the  authorized  Version,  A.  D.  1400  to  A.  1). 
1600,  by  II.  T.  W.  Wood  (London);  English 
Writers,by  B.  Morley  (London);  History  of 
English  Sounds,  by  11.  Sweei  (London). 

ENGLISH  LITERATURE.  To  know 
the  writings  and  the  lives  of  the  best  English 
authors,  to  learn  what  past  or  foreign  literature 
influenced  their  minds  and  culture,  to  be  able  to 
a  i  rtain  development  of  thought  and  style 
from  the  period  of  the  Beowulf  down  to  the 
tm f  Tennyson   and    Browning,   to  know  a 


(London  ;  /     nenl    ■ 

Shakespearian  Gran 
irate  some  of  the  difft 
and  Modern  Englis 
(London);  Handbook 


iliole  of  our  great  literature,  is  a  large 
i.  which — like  many  other  ambitions- 
-ong  tendency  to  "overleap  itself."  But, 
begun  a1  school,  and  followed  out  with 
he  university,  it  is  found  to  be  a  kind  of 


Language  (New  York  ;     Haldesian  -    /'    ,  • 
Affixes  (Phila.)  The  great  German-English  grai 

mars  are  M.kiznkk's.  now  translated  in  Londc 
and  Koen's.tor  which  see  Anglo-Saxon. 
Bid tries.      Webster's   Un  ibn  to   I  D 


(Berlin  and  London,  1! 
ary  of  Archaic  and  P 
.1  Dictionary  of  th 
Vlth—Ulh  Centuries, 


he  whole  circle  of  the  sciences,  still  less  by 
'oung  people  at  school.  The  impossibility  of 
chieving  the  whole  task   being  seen,  two  ques- 

ioiis  at  once  arise  :  (1 J  What  shall  we  teach  and 
i hat  leave  untaught?  and  (2)  How  shall  we 
each  it  i. 

In  attempting  to  answer  the  first  of  these 
uestions,  we  can  find  some  guidance  from  an - 
|,,v:   and    the  seho,  ,1  suhjeet '  which  appears,  in 


Dicti try  of  Americanisms  (Boston). 

Further  aids  are:    Lectures  on  the    English 

Lang i-    (New    York);     and     Lectures    on 

the  On, in,  and  History  of  the  English  Lan- 


bur'den  the  attention  and 
>f  our  pupils  w i tli  the  in- 
s  of  small  towns,  insignifi- 
e  lakes,  and  unimportant 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE 


headlands ;  but  we  take  only  the  most  prominent 
and,  as  it  weir,  the  centra]  features  of  the  world, 
and  round  these  we  group  the  knowledge  which 
is  intended  to  abide  with  the  pupil,  and  toserve 
as  a  nucleus  for  his  subsequent  accumulations. 
In  the  same  way.  there  are  certain  names  which 
the  sifting  of  time  lias  caused  to  stand  out  with 
always  increasing  clearness;  there  are  certain 
hooks  which  have  been,  and  which  continue  t<>  lie, 
forces  in  the  development  of  civilized  humanity  ; 
and  it  is  with  these  authors  and  with  these 
hooks  that  the  teacher  should  make  the  pupil 
acquainted.  Thus  stated,  the  path  seems  to  he 
plain  —  so  plain  that  no  good  teacher  can  miss 
it.  Hut  there  are  two  dangers  —  two  besetting 
sins,  which  await  the  teacher  in  his  attempts 
toward  the  systematic  treatment  of  a  subject  so 
large;  and  these  are  the  vices  of  encycloposdism 
and  abridgment.  Linked  at  more  closely,  both 
these  vices  are  seen  to  be  only  two  sides  of  the 
same  central  error — an  error  which  pervades  all 
kinds  of  teaching,  and  which  is.  indeed,  the  most 
prevalent  educational  error  of  the  present  day. 
By  encyclopadism, is  meant  the  desire  to  include 
too  many  facts — and,  in  the  present  instance, 
too   many    authors — within    the    range  of  the 


English  essayist  :  Milt 
Reformation,  and  the  m 
rhythms  in  the  languag 
the  most  elaborate  of 
(in  parts)-  as  the  ant; 
Taylor— as  the  sweet 
seventeenth  century;   / 


pupil's  mental  vision  ;  and  the  i 
pressure  which  results  in  an  </'./■/»/.// 
closest  kind — an  abridgment  in  whic 
said  uf- no  facts  are  given  about- 
hiit  when  he  was  born,  and  when 
the  name  of  his  best-known  book, 
that  such  knowledge  is  no  kn.>\\  ledg 
is  of  ii"  more  value  than  an  acquai 
the  street  directory.  The  desire  t 
much  ends  in  achieving  too  little  : 
to  learn  everything  results  in  in 
sides,  the  pupil  must  have  a  livi 
terior  knowledge  of  English  literati; 
a  dead  and  external  acquaintance  \\ 

husk,  appendages,  and   ehcuinstaiiccr 


as  the  poet  of  the 
if  the  must  sublime 
1  in  his  prose  works 
ice-makers;  Bvilei 
oi  Milton  :  Jeremy 
irose  writer  of  the 
i  —as  the  herald  of 
a  new  and  more  •  popular  '  style  :  Pope — as  the 
culmination  ot  the  most  polished,  clear-cut.  and 
sparkling  English  :  Swift  as  the  most  powerful 
intellect  of  hi>  time;  Johnson  as  the  representa- 
tive of  the  massive  common-sense  of  his  coun- 
try, too  ponderously,  though  characteristically . 
expressed  :  Goldsmith  —  as  the  most  charming 
|  writer  of  his  generation  :  Burke — as  the  most 
brilliant  rhetorician  that  the  modern  world  has 
seen:  Cowper — as  the  transition  and  the  link 
between  the  age  of  Pope  and  the  nineteenth 
century;  Wordsworth— as  the  dawn  and  the 
bright  shining  of  the  new  day  of  English  liter- 
ature .  and  Tie  Quincey,  as  the  most  wonderful 
prose-writer  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

(2)  But  it  is  evident  that  all  the  works  of 
these  writers  cannot  be  read   in  school ;  and  a 
.selection  from  them  is,  therefore, necessary.  Here 
ipute  comes  to  our  aid  and  ma]  is 


irse  to 


-In.., 


I'mln 


lie  tn 
I  haue 
worth 


tin 


teacher  must    have  settled  with   himself   what  is 
to  be  done. 

(1)  Let  us  suppose  that,  seeing  the  impossibil- 
ity of  embracing  all  the  details  of  so  large  a  field, 
lie  has  resolved  upon  making  a  selection  of  the 
best  writers  in  prose  and  verse  in  each  epoch. 


Dicti 

smitl 
and 


nus,  the  Hymn 
nor  works,  with 

,„/,se     Last;     il. 

■  Hudibras;  in 
f  the  Holy  L,r- 
irvden.  the  Ah- 

Mac  Flecknoe; 
and  the  Essay 

two  or  three  of 

Preface  to  the 
lelas;  in  Gold- 
i  the  Traveller 
i.ke.  the  Reflec- 

andoneof  his 
Progress  of 

minor  poems. 
1,  were  it  only 

the  best  of  his 
bev,  Laodamia, 


the  type  of  the  ehivalric  period  of  English  Liter- 
ature; MandeviUe— as  the  "Father  of  English 
Prose;"  Spenser— as  the  richest  poet  of  the 
Elizabethan  era;  Shakespeare  as  the  greatest 
dramatist  of  the  period  when  the  drama  was  at 
its  highest ;  Hooker— as  the  type  of  the  ornate 
and  elaborate  prose  style  of  the  sixteenth  century; 
Bacon — as  the   most   compact  and   thoughtful 


•df  of  the  5th  century- 


sion  of 

ndweU 

first  is 
agview 
s,  from 

which. 


like   the   Iliad,  existed   only  in  the  memory  and 


EXCEISH    LITERATURE 


270 


not  in  a  written  form,  for  several  hundred  years 
—  down  to  Caedmon,  Beda,  and  King  Alfred,  to 
the  Saxon  Chronicle  and  Chaucer.  This  ought  to 
be  done  orally  by  the  teacher,  who  should,  at 
the  same  time,  write  upon  the  blackboard  short 
characteristic  extracts  from  the  works  of  these 
authors,  ami  explain  ami  illustrate  the  growth 
of  the  oldest  English,  with  its  highly  inflected 
tonus,  into  our  present  English.  The  second 
thing  to  be  done  is,  to  connect  every-where  the 
appearance  and  the  work  of  a  writer  with  the 
social  condition  and  the  political  events  of  the 
age  in  which  he  lived,  and  to  show— as  far  as  this 


can  I  >._■ 

inline: 


sense  of  indescribable  completeness."  (This 
might  l.r  at  first  discussed  in  tin-  class-room  :  and 
then  the  line  of  argument  and  the  results  would 
be  given  in  the   form  of   an  essaj    oj    paper 

many  others  which  will   naturally  occm   to  khi 

The  steady  purpose  to  be  kept  in  view  in  this 
instruction  is  to  deposit  in  the  pupil's  mind  a 
few    nuclei    of    thought,    and    to   collect    around 

these  nuclei  as  large  an  accretion  of  cognate 
ideas  from  different  writers  and  from  different 
a-vs  as  possible.      The  existence  of   these   nuclei 


tion— adiffic 

tltvwit 

twhii 

constantly  to 

fight,  i 

nd  a 

will  have  at  e 

erv  moment 

to  his  pupils 

onclusi 

ons  tl 

not   been  giv 

■n.  and 

critic 

which  have  ii 

•ver  lie 

n  tak 

selves.     Ther 

•  1-  not 

ling  i 

young  mind 

-nothii 

harmonious   £ 

rowth, 

as  th 

fill  child  the  father  of  the  wise  and  instructed 
man.  And.  from  the  point  of  view-  of  intel- 
lectual training,  they  will  enable  him  to  keep 
true  to  the  central  principle  of  repetition   with- 

The  study  of  English  literature  is   incomplete 
unless  it  include  a  view  of  the  works  of  Amer- 


growrn.  ;,s  me  presence  within  it  of 
ready-made  thoughts,  of  alien  ideas,  and  of  too 
easily  accepted   results.      The   pupil  m.i \   seem  to 

be  in  possession  of  such  ideas  and  conceptions, 
but  he  is  not  :  they  may  seem  to  be  the  fruit  of 
his  own  mind,  but  they  are  really  dead  artificial 
apples — the  witnesses,  not  of  a  vigorous,  sponta- 
neous life,  but  of  mental  poverty  and  death.  The 
second-hand  is  the  deadly  foe  of  original  life. 

A  large  part  of  the  benefit  of  a  course  of 
literature  will  be  lost  to  the  pupils,  if  they  arc 
not  required,  always  and  every-where.  to  react 
with  their  own  mind  upon  the  material  they  re- 
ceive.and  the  forms  which  they  are  asked  to  con- 
template. This  view  demands  that,  accompany- 
ing everystepof  the  course,  there  should  be  a 
well-selected  and  judiciously  chosen  set  of  exer- 
cis  s    Such  exercises  might  include  the  following: 

1 1  I  An  account  of  a  poem  such  as  I  lhaucer  3 
Prologue,  in  the  pupil's  own  words, — always 
avoiding  the  vile  practice  of  -paraphrasing."  (2)  A 
short  life  of  an  author,  from  memory.  (3)  An 
abridgment  of  an  important  chapter  from  some 
prose  work.  (4)  The  turning  into  modern 
English  of  a  passage  from  a  writer  of  the  1  lth  or 
12th  century.  (5)  A  critical  comparison  be- 
tween the  treatment  of  the  same  subject  by  two 
different  writers.  [Thus  Autumn  has  been  treated 
both  by  Keats  and  Shelley:  the  Nightingale  by 
-Milton.  Keats,  and  Matthew-  Arnold  :  the  Death 
of  a  Friendhj  Spenser — in  Iris  Astropkel — and 
by  Shelley —  in  his  Adoncas  ;  an  Escape  by 
.Shelley — in  his  Fm/ilinv,  and  by  Campbell,  iii 
hisXord  OUin's  Daughter.)  (6)  The  discussion 
of  separate  literary  dicta — like  the  following  by 
Russell  Lowell  :  ••  Style,  like  the  grace  of  perfect  ', 
breeding,  makes  itself  felt  by  the  skill  with  which 
it  effaces  itself,  and  masters  us  at  last  with  a 


.  Willis, 
riticised. 
s  of  En- 


host  of  others,  claim  attention.  The  principles 
and  methods  suggested  in  regard  to  English 
authors,  in  this  article,  are  equally  applicable  to 
the  American  literature  of  the  English  lan- 
guage. 

.Many  valuable  books  of   reference   have  been 
published   on   this  subject   which    the    teacher 


Gycbp^dFalj 
—4);  Aminos 
Literature  (3 
History  of  /-. 
(London,  1861 


English  Li 


glish  Literature,  full  of  lessons  useful  to  young 
pei-sons:  Collier,  A  History  of  English  Liter- 
ature (X.Y.,  1807),  a  brief  and  useful  manual; 


ENTHUSIASM 


llri/i*h 


;ind  English  Literature  of  the  Nin 
ury  (Phil.,  18521,  also  Compendia 
ir.ni   Lit  rut'irr  I  I'hila..   I  M.~>«) )  ;    l*x 

i /■„,</- /:,„,/,■  ,,f  '£,„//;*?<  Litmiti,, 
Authors  (l«.st, m.  L871),and  Ameri 
(Boston,  1872);  Duyckinck,  Cydopcedia  of 
American  Literature  (2  vols.,  N.  F.,1856).  Of 
series,  the  following  may  be  mentioned  :  The 
Clarendon  Press  Series,  one  of  the  best  pub- 
lished, is  edited  by  men  who  know  the  En- 
glish language  ami  understand  their  subject  : 
Chaucer,  by  li.  Morris,  is  one  of  the  most  care- 
fully edited  books  iii  any  language  ;  the  Shake- 
speare Plays  arc  also  well  done.  Storr's  Series 
is  also  excellent ;  many  of  the  books  are  edited 
by  teachers,  who  understand  best  where  pupils 
arc  liable  to  meet  with  difficulty.  Of  the  London 
Series,  only  ,,nc  book  has.  as  yet,  appeared— 
Bacon's  Essays,  edited  by  E.A.Abbott.  This  is, 
however,  a  model  of  its  kind,  showing  how  a 
work  like  the  Essays,  full  of  weighty  thoughts 
and  precious  English,  ought  to  be  edited. — See 
also  Mabsh,  The  Origin  and  History  of  the 
English  Language  (N.  Y„  1862);  and  Reed, 
Lecture  ,,„  Em/iiith  L/tmi/mv  (I'hila.,  135.5). 

ENTHUSIASM  is  an  emotion  of  so  strong 
a  kind  as  to  beget  self-forgetfulness,  and  to 
awaken  the  most  powerful  energies  of  the  mind. 
When  made  to  rest  upon  an  admiration  of  the 

good,  the  true,  and  the  beautiful,  it  be, ies  an 

educational  stimulus  of  a  very  useful  and  effect- 
ive character:  it  must  not,  however,  be  per- 
mitted to  supersede  the  exercise  of  conscience. 
or  the  sense  of  what  is  right,  and  thus  de- 
generate into  moral  weakness.  Earnestness, 
rather  than  enthusiasm,  should  be  the  , plai- 
ns  inspired   bv  the  educator;  and   this  is  to  be 

effected  through  the  for f  example,  because  the 

sympathetic  influence  of  the  true  teacher  upon 
the  mind  of  his  pupil  is  .almost  without  limit. 
Especially  should  that  spurious  kind  of  enthusi- 
asm be  repressed  which    is  characterized  by  a 

habitual  excitement  about  ,verv  thing  that  is 
new.  and  which  tend-  to  destroy  every  thing 
that  is  rational  and  stable  in  the  character.  En- 
thusiasm is  an  exceeding!}  important  quality  in 
the  teacher  as  well  as  in  the  pupil;  indeed,  a 
teacher  can  scarcely  meet  with  any  true  success 
in  his  profession  who  is  not  enthusiastic  in  his 
devotion  to  it.  While  this  is  true  of  those  en- 
gaged in  any  vocation,  it   i-  peculiarly  the  case 

with  the  educator;    since  tl ffectivene  !  of 

his  work  depends  so  largely  upon  bis  rersonal 
zeal.  The  best  results,  perhaps,  of  bis  labors  are 
those  which  he  accomplishes  by  what  has  been 
aptly  called  unconscious  tuition. 

EPEE,  Charles  Michel,  Abbe  de  1',  a 
noted  French  teacher  of  , leaf-mutes,  and  the 
founder  of  the  system  of  instructing  the  deaf  and 
dumb  by  means  of  a,  lan-mc..-  ,,|  -i-ju  -  \\.,  born 
at  Versailles,  Nov.  25.,  1712,  and  died  in  Talis, 
Dec.  23.,  L789.  He  was  at  first  an  ecclesiastic, 
but  was  suspended  fr the  priesthood  in  conse- 
quence of  his  .lansenist  opinions.     While  living | 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 

a  life  of  literary  leisure  in  Paris,  he,  in  1755 
chanced  upon  two  deaf-mute  sisters  whose  edu- 
cation had  been  commenced  by  Pere  Vanin,  but 
who  were  then,  in  consequence  of  his  death, 
without  the  means  of  instruction.  De  l'Epee 
took  so  great  an  interest  in  their  condition,  that 
he  determined  to  undertake  the  task  of  teaching 
them.  He  at  first  continued  the  method  of 
Vanin.  that  of  pictures,  and  then  tried  articula- 
tion; but  being  dissatisfied  with  these  methods, 
he  conceived  the  idea  of  using  a  system  of  signs. 
He  succeeded  so  well  that  he  took  others  under 

his   instruction,   and   s ,   organized    a  school 

which  he  continued,  at  his  own  expense,  till  his 
death.  It  is  said  that,  even  in  his  76th  year,  he 
deprived  himself  of  fuel  in  order  to  support  his 
school.  Joseph  II.  of  Austria  and  ( 'atherina  II. 
of  Russia  offered  him  royal  gifts,  but  he  declined 
them  ;  as  his  great  wish  was  to  obtain  the  royal 
endowment  of  an  institution  for  deaf-mute  edu- 
cation. His  desire  was  not  realized  till  after  his 
death.  A  bronze  statue  lias  been  erected  at 
Versailles  to  the  memory  of  De  l'Epee,  and  a 
bas-relief  placed  by  citizens  of  Sweden  in  the 
church  of  St.  Sulpice.  In  1855,  the  centennial 
anniversary  of  the  establishment  of  his  school 
was  celebrated  at  Paris  by  a  large  concourse  of 
persons,  moulding  delegations  from  many  of  the 
countries  of  Europe.  He  wrote  a  work  entitled 
Institution  des  sourds  el  muets  (2  vols.,  Paris. 
1774).  which  was  revised  and  republished  under 
the  title  of  La  veritable  maniere  d'inslruire  les 
sourds  et  muets  (Paris,  17s  I,.  F.  Bertbier,  a 
deaf-mute,  wrote  his  biography  [L'Abbe  de  l'E- 
pee, sa  Fie,  son  Apostolal,  etc.,  1852).  —  Sec 
also  I.  Valette,  Vie  deT Abbe  de  l'Epee  (Paris, 
1857);  and  Bebian,  Eloge  de  G.  M.  de  l'Epee 

EPISCOPAL    CHURCH,    in    the    wider 

ing  an  episcopal  form  of  government  In  a  nar- 
rower sense,  it  is  coi nl v  used  as  the  collective 

name  of  the  clmiehe,  which  had  their  origin  ill 
the  English  Reformation  under  Henry  VIII.  The 
i.io-t  important  oi  these  bodies  are  the  Church 
of  England,  the  Church  of  Ireland,  and  the 
I'rote-tant  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United 
States.   The  Church  of  England  and  the  church 

the  Act  of  Cnion  between  En-land  and  Ireland 
was  passed,  until  .Ian.  I  .  1-71.  when  the  Church 
of  Ireland  was  disestablished,  only  one  body 
under  the  name  of  the  United  Churchqf  Eng- 
land and  In  land.  Now  each  of  these  churches 
is  an  independent  body,  as  arc  also  the  Scotch 
Epi.-copal  Church  and   the  Protestant    Episcopal 

c eh  of  the    United   States      In    L867,  the 

bishops  of  all  these  churches  assembled  in  a 
Pananglican  Coin,,,!,  undei  the  presidency  of 
the  Ajchbishop  of  Canterbury,  to  deliberate  on 
t ommoi,  interests  oi  these  bodies.     We  shall 

I.  Tlie  Church  of  England. — The  parent 
body  is  the  Church  oi  England.  When  its  con 
nection  with  the  see  of  Rome  was  severed,  under 
Henry  Ylll.,  the  avowed  intention  was  to  return 


EPISCOPAL   CHURCH 


281 


to  the  purity  of  the  primitive  church  and  to  re- 
tain its  creed  ami  its  discipline.  The  doctrinal 
standards  of  the  church  are.  after  the  Scriptm  >s. 
the  Book  of  Homilies,  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles, 
and  the  Prayer-Hook.  There  are  within  the 
church  three  widely  differing  schools,  known  as 
the  High  Church,  the  Low  church,  and  the 
Broad  Church.  The  High  Church  men  regard 
the  apostolical  succession  in  the  three  orders  of 
the  ministry  as  a  divine  institution  :  the  Low 
Church  men  generally  look  upon  episcopacy  as 
not  essential  to  the  being  of  the  church,  and 
recognize  the  claims  of  dissenters  to  he  members 
of  Christ's  body.  The  Broad  Church,  which  is 
of  more  recent  origin,  is  tolerant  of  doctrinal 
difference;  and.  while  its  own  tendency  is  toward 
what  is  called  liberal  Christianity,  it  would  keep 
the  platform  of  the  church  sufficiently  broad  to 
have  room  also  for  the  high  and  low  church 
parties.  The  Church  of  England  is  the  established 
church  in  England  and  Wales. an  1  the  king  is  its 
supreme  head  on  earth.  England  as  an  ecclesi- 
astical territory  is  divided  into  two  provinces, 
Canterbury  and  York,  with  an  archbishop  in 
each  and  2a  bishops  Each  province  has  a  pro- 
vincial synod,  called  a  convocation  and  consist- 
iug  of  two  houses,  the  upper  house,  which  com- 
prises all  the  bishops  of  the  province,  and  the 
lower  house,  which  comprises  the  deans,  arch- 
deacons, proctors  of  chapters,  and  proctors  for 
the  parochial  clergy.  The  convocation  is  .sum- 
moned by  tin'  archbishop  at  the  command  of  the 
king,  and  its  decisions  have  no  legal  force,  since 
the  regulation  of  all  church  affairs  belongs  to 
Parliament  \~  no  religious  census  is  taken  in 
England  a  id  Wales,  there  are  no  official  state- 
men'-    ii  ili-   mi  :i  irical  strength  of  the  churi  b  : 

the  populatio limited  with  it  is  variously 

estimated  at  from  50  to  TT  percent  of  the  entire 
population.  As  the  Church  of  England  is  estab- 
lished by  law.  most  of  the  great  institutions  of 
learning,  including  the  national  universities  of 
Oxford.  Cambridge,  and  Durham,  and  King's 
College.  London,  are  under  its  control.  All  the.-e 
four  institutions  have  a  number  of  theological 
chairs,  ami  until  recently  (1856)  academic  de- 
grees were  conferred  by  them  only  upon  candi- 
dates who  had  subscribed  to  the  thirty-nine  ar- 
ticles. All  the  Great  Public  Schools  and  the 
large  majority  of  Grammar  Schools  are  under 
ili  ■  in  in  evinont  of  clergymen  of  the  Church  of 
England.  The  study  of  theology  can  now 
be  pursued  at  any  of  the  universities  which 
have  been  named,  or  in  one  of  the  theological 
seminaries  which  have  been  founded  by  the 
bishops  since  the  beginning  of  the  pre  enl  centu 
iv.  Vvording  to  the  ••  Kalcndar  of  the  Church 
of  England  for  1876,"  the  Church  of  England 
had.  in  ls7.">,  theological  seminaries  at  Birken- 
head (St.  Aidan's,  founded  1846),  Birmingham 
ftheologicaJ  department  of  the  Queen's  College), 
Canterburj  St.  bigustine's  Missionary  College, 
foumle  i  in  no.'i  ~iii ,| ,i,  — ,-,1  in  l.Y'!>,  restored  in 
L848,  to  educab  ministers  for  the  distant  depen- 
dencies of  the  empire  :  Chichester  (1859);  Cud- 
desdon (1854);  Cumberland (StBees,  181 6); Lam- 


peter (St.  David's  College,  incorporated  1-22,. 
Lichfield  (1857);  Salisbury  (1860);  Wells  (1840). 
There  were  in  the  same  year,  under  the  control 
of  the  Church.  23  colleges  and  schools  for  the 
training  of  school-masters  and  school-mistresses. 
The    educational    so.aotCs    connected    with    the 


N; 


and  missionary  dioceses  oi  1 1n  Church  of  Eng- 
land has  rapidly  increased  during  the  present 

century,  and  in  connection  with  them  a  large 
number  of  educational  institutions  have  been 
established.  The  first  colonial  sec  established 
was  that  of  \ova  Scotia,  in  1 7*7.  In  ls7a. 
the  whole  number  of  dioceses  was  60,  of  which 
5  were  in  India.  6  in  the  West  Indies.  12  in 
Africa,  16  in  Australasia,  ami  L5  in  North 
America.  For  further  information  in  regard  to 
the  Bchools   of  the   Church  of   England  in  the 

e  ilo the  articli  -  on  'he  sevi  ral  provinces 

of  Cas  uja,  on  India,  and  on  Australasia. 


rated  from  the  Church  of  England  in  point  of 
administration  since  its  disestablishment,  in 
1871,  it  fully  agrees  with  it  in  doctrine.  The 
Church  has  two  archbi>hop>.  at  Dublin  and  at 
Armagh,  and  ten  bishops.  It  is  governed  by  a 
general  synod,  meeting  annually  in  Dublin,  and 
consisting  of  a  house  oi  bishops  and  a  house  of 
clerical  and  lay  delegates.  The  population  con- 
nected with  the  Church  was.  according  to  the 
census  of  ls71.  fiS.'i.2!C.  or  over  I '2  p,  i  cent  of 
the  total  population.  The  largest  a  ml  richest  edu- 
cational institution  of  Ireland,  the  University  of 
Dublin,  also  called  Trinity  College,  is  in  close 
connection  with  the  Church  of  Ireland,  to  which 
its  officers  and  professors  belong.  As  religions 
tests  ha\e  been  abolished,  the  Ceneral  Synod 
has  resolved  to  establish,  under  the  direct  man- 
agement of  the  Church,  a  new  divinity  school. 
The  college  of  St.  Columha,  at  Rathfarnham, 
near  Dublin,  was  founded  in  1843,  to  afford  a. 
good  English  education,  and  to  inculcate  the 
principles  of  this  church.  The  education  com- 
mittee of  the  General  Synod  specially  designs 
"  to  add  to  the  secular  training  of  teachers  in 
the  central  school  of  the  National  Hoard  of  Edu- 
cation, as  efficient  religious  instruction  as  they 
can  impart  in  the  very  limited  time  at  their  dis- 
posal." 

"       slant    E,. 


in 

United 
of  Bng 
indepei 

plctcd 

had  b, 

necticu 


al  Church  in  the 
ition  of  the  "Church 

nited  States  into  an 

ody  was   ii.it    e 

v  this,  Dr.  Seabury 
iseopalians  of  ( 'on- 
md  had  been  conse- 


•JS2 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


crated.  Nov.  14.,  1774,  by  three  Scottish  bishops. 
The  doctrinal  standards  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land were  retained,  and  in  the  few  alterations 
which  were  made  in  the   English  formularies,  it 


intendine.  to  depart  from  tin-  I  lunch  of  .England 
sential  point  of  doctrine,  discipline,  or 
worship,  or  further  than  local  circumstances  re- 
quire." The  dioceses  formerly  corresponded  in 
number  and  extent  with  the  states  ;  but,  in  1834, 
a  division  of  the  state  dioceses  began.  Each 
i  a  diocesan  convention,  which  meets 
ii.l  i>  composed  of  the  bishop,  clergy, 
tes  chosen  l.v  the  laity.    The  General 


annually 
and  dele 

Convention,  which  meets  t 
of  all  the  bishops,  who 
house,  ami  tour  clerical  ; 
from  each  diocesan  convi 
the  lower  house.  The  li< 
missioner  of  Education 
following  universities  and 
the  control  or  influence  of 
pal  Church:    College  of 


:,ll\. 


bia  '  lollege,  in  the  city  of  New  York,  i 
in  1754  under  the  name  of  Kind's 
Trinity  College.  Hartford,  ft.,  lS->3 
College,  Geneva,  X.  Y..  1824  :  Cenyon 
Gambier,  0.,  1826;  Norwich  (Jniversit 
field,  \'t-.  L834;  Burlington  College,  Bt 
N.J.,  L846;  St.   Pauls  College,   Palm 

1848;   Racine  College,  Ri ,  R  isc., 

Stephens  College,  Anandal  tf.  "5  .  1  - 
braska  <  lollege,  Nebraska  Citg  Neb 
Lehigh  University,  S.  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  1; 
sionary  < lollege  ol  St.  Lugustine,  Beni 
1868;  Universitj  of  the  South,  Suwam 
L868.  Columbia  College,  NT.Y.,  which  is 

ated  in  this  list,  has  not.  however,  it  st 
nominational  character,  as  different  rel 
nominations  are  represented  in  the 
trustees;  buf  the  majority  of  the  boari 
presidents  of  the  institution  have  always 
to  the  Pro!  stanl  EpiscopaJ  Church.  Bei 
institutions,  I  I  schools  for  the  superior  it 
of  womenare  classifiedas  Protestanl  I 
with  i siderable  aumber  of   acade 

seminal  '.-.-        The  oMe-t   ll logical  sell' 

church   is  the  General  Theological  Set 

New  York  City,  which  was  organized  in  L820, 

and  is  under  the  immediate  control  ot  the  I  h-neral 

Convention.     The  board  of   trustees  gists  of 

all  the  bishops  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  of  one  trustee  from  each  diocese,  ot  one 
additional  for  every  eight  clergymen,  of  onemore 
trustee    for   every  S'J. I  Mil  I   contributed,  until   the 

same  : ants  to  $10,000;    and  one  for  every 

additional  810,000  contributed.  Since  the,,.  9 
other  schools  of  theology  have  been  organized. 

The  Sunday--! Is  of  thechurchhad.il]  L875, 

235,943  sch  lars  taughtl  2  1,448  teachers.  The 
denominational  societies  for  edui  ational  purposes 

(rang  liea!  knowledge;  (2)  The  I'.  E.  Evangel- 
ical Education  Society;  (3)  The  General  P.  E. 
Sunday-School  Union  and  Church  Book  Society. 


ERASMUS 

The  General  Convention,  at  its  triennial  meet- 
ings,   regularly  appoints   a  joint  committee  on 

Christii lucation. 

EPISCOPAL  METHODIST  COLLEGE, 
at  Lewistown,  111.  an  institution  for  the  edu- 
cation   of    both  sexes,  is  under  the  control  of  the 

Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  It  was 
opened  in  1-7.;.  and  incorporated  in  1875.  It 
has  a  preparatory,  an  academic,  and  a  collegiate 

music,  drawing,  painting,  and  book-keeping,  for 
which,  except  the  last,  an  extra  charge  is  made. 
The  regular  tuition  fee  varies  from  &20  to  $50 
per  year.  For  the  special  business  course,  pur- 
sued separately,  the  fee  is  Sill  a  year.  In  L874 
— 5,  there  were  <i  instructors  and  89  students 
(35  preparatory,  '27  academic,  13  collegiate,  and 
14  in  special  branches).  W.  S.  McKinney  is 
(1*711)  the  president. 

|       EQUATION.     See  Aloebra. 

'  ERASMUS,  Desiderius,  was  born  in  Rot- 
terdam, Holland,  Oct.  28.,  1467,  and  died  in  Basel, 
July  12.,  L536.  His  original  name,  Gerard, he 
translated    into   its  supposed   Latin    and   Greek 

united  to  form  the  new  name  which  he  after- 
wards a.-sumed.  In  the  convent  school  of  Deven- 
ter,  when-  hi- was  educated, he  distinguished  him- 
self so  much,  that  even  then  it  was  predicted 
that  be  would  become  the  most  learned  man  of 
the  age.    After  the  death  of  his  parents,  his  tutors 

sent  him  to  a  scl 1  at   Bois-le-Duc  to  prepare 

himself  tor  th<-  priest! 1:  and,  in  1  186,  a  friend 

persuaded  him  to  enter  a  convent  near  Gouda. 
In  L492,  the  bishop  of  Cambray  took  him  into 
his  service,  and  he  was  ordained  to  the  priesthood. 

live  veal-  later,  he  lett  for  the  I'niversity  of 
Paris;  and  thenceforward,  he  lived  in  France, 
Fii.dand.the  Netherlanils.and  Italy,  for  the  most 


i  ,.*■,.,„  I. 
lies  and 
,1  of  the 
inary  of 


.     lie  acted  as  a  private  teacher  here  and 
ml  was  for  a  short  time  professor  of  theol- 
1  Greek  at   Cambridge;   but  he  soon  re- 
signed, and  avoided  after  thai  any  fixed  position. 
The  fame  of  his  learning  spread  throughout  the 


,  ,_\ 


civilized  world,  and  hon 
ferred  upon  him  by  sei 
ly  attacked  Scholastic  i 

powerfully  to  revive  cla 


ere  cou- 
ebold- 
1  most 
he  did 
and  by 
ud  rid- 

lastics. 


in  sympathy  with  them,  buf  he  soon  separated 
from  them  and  was  even  involved  in  a  literary 
conflict  with  Luther.  In  personal  character,  he 
was  egotistic,  timid,  and  undecided.  —  faults 
which    became    especially    prominent    at    that 

period   of    the    Reformation.     He   , tributed 

little  to  the  profound  thinking  of  his  time,  but 
was  a  critic  and  a  scholar  rather  than  a  phi- 
losopher; nevertheless.  Ins  unbounded  powers  of 
satire  served  to  wrench  men  violently  out  of 
their  accustomed  mode  of  thinking,  and.  in  this 
way.  he  acted  as  a  powerful  ferment,  especially 
in  'the   revival  of   classical    studies.     His   great 


acquaintance   with    classical    authors    and    his  I  be  reached   only  through    language.     The   first 
mastery  of  the  Latin  language  made  his  ridicule    thing  to  study  is  Greet  and  Latin  grammar,  for 


i: 

and  tli. 


id    lo 


int.  at  the  same  time,  is  fi 

nuiiks.  a  cloister  life,  pilgri 
ik  was  condemned  by  t 
in  France,  burned  in  Spa 
Rome  to  all  Orristendoi 

vorks  exerted   a  tremeiido 


i.lvor  lan-na....  si 
iding  than  by  leai 

should   proceed 

ire  should  be  tab 
.I  the  best  means 


Adages) 
{Of' the 

.  publ 
Orde 

1   in   1 
'  Stua 

,M      1 

.'.(id;   De  Ea 

Instiluti 
Christia 

"  P™ 

Hstiani  (Mi 
516.     In   1-V. 

lished  a 

book 

up 

an   (  1 

nistian    niati 

last  sed 

ion   ol 

wJ 

iieh  tr 

the   best    fruit  may  be 
important   means  of 


similar  instruction 
irding  to  many,  he 


or  skill  in  our  dailv  labors 
a  knowledge  of  the  ameniti 
This  division,  however,  was 
i  ii  ed  by  him.  I  fe  regard 
marriage  as  of  the  highest 
proper  culture  of  children, 
partly  medical  and  partly 
in  which  matrons  should] 
the  bes!  results  for  their  eh 


IllllO- 

:    and 


»Tal  education.  The  multitude  holds  it  to  be 
illy,  but  wise  men  know  that  nothing  is  more 
h.ini.iu.oiis  to  the   morals  of  women  than  ex- 


works  of    Erasmus  was 
•ath.  by  Rhenanus,  at  Basel 


never  tired 
The  greates 
ol  teachers 


i  vols.,  l.'Ht — 111:  a  m. ire  complete  edition 
as  published  by  Le  Clerc,  in  Leyden  (10  vols., 
.1..  1  To:;  — -  C.i.  l'.ioLiTn).!iics  ol  l.i.iMims  have 
■en  published  in  English  by  Jortin,  Cnight, 
harles   Butler,  and   K.   B.  Drunimond   (2  vols., 

ERIGENA,  John  Scotus,  one  of  thegreal 

;t   lihlloMiplie,  -.-,,,.  I    -.  hol.M-   of  the  middle  affS, 


should  not  fail  to  teach  their  children  so 
trade.  The  study  of  language  should  prea 
the  study  of  things,  as  a  knowledge  of  things  < 


•_'S4 


ERNESTI 


srj/ahr.  Tli.s  instruction,  which  was  confined 
chiefly  to  philosophy  and  the  classics,  gave  a 
great  impulse  to  the  progress  of  philosophical 
studies.  As  his  own  philosophical  views  re- 
Bembled,  in  some  respects,  those  held  by  the 
Neoplatonisfcs  of  Alexandria,  he  has  been  called 
the  last  of  that  school ;  at  the  same  time,  he  is 
regarded  as  the  first  forerunner  of  the  Scholas- 
tics. Special  works  on  Kriuvna  have  been  written 
by  Staudenmaier  (1834),  Taillandier  (1843), and 
lluber  (1861  |. 

ERNESTI,  John  August,  a  German 
philologist  and  educator,  born  August  4..  1707.  in 
Tennstiidt,  Thuringia;died  September  11..17S1. 
In  17:il,  he  became  connected  with  the  Thomas 
School  at  Leipsic;  and.  in  1712,  he  was  made 
professor  at  the  university  of  the  same  city,  in 
which  position  he  remained  until  his  death.  His 
chief  fame  rests  upon  his  philological  studies  and 
writings.  He  edited  a  great  many  classical  works, 
and  was  a  mosl  enthusiastic  Humanist.  His 
work  on  the  interpretation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (InstUuiio  tnterprelis  Novi  Teslamenti, 
3d  edit.,  1775;  English  translation  by  C.  II. 
Perrot.  Edinburgh,  2  vols..  1833— 43)  opened  the 
way  to  a  freer  exegesis  of  the  Scriptures,  and  is 
regarded  as  a  forerunner  of  the  later  rationalistic 
criticism.  The  sum  of  all  culture  lay.  for  him. 
in  the  classics.  "They  unite  beauty  of  content 
with  beauty  of  form  ;  and  out  of  them  one  wins 
political  sagacity,  practical  wisdom,  and  moral 
culture'  According  to  his  method,  less  weight  is 
placed  upon  grammatical  rules  than  upon  diligent 
reading,  which  he  thought  the  best  way  to  learn 
to  read  and  write  Latin  fluently.  This  reading, 
too,  should  be  rapid,  taking  in  whole  books  in  a 
short  time:  this  he  thought  .1  better  way  of  acquir- 
ing the  spirit  of  a  language  than  spending  weeks 
upon  single  sentences  with  grammar  and  diction- 
ary. Literal  translation  he  banished,  and  in- 
sisted upon  an  acquaintance  with  the  public  life 


ESTHETIC  CULTURE 

1  There  is  a  preparatory  course  of  two  years,  and 
a  collegiate  course  of  four  years.  In  1874 — 5, 
there  were  .".  professors.  77  students  (5G  collegiate. 
13  preparatory,  and  8  irregular),  and  35G 
alumni.  The  Rev.  W.  M.  Grier,  D.  D.,  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

ESTHETIC  CULTURE.  Esthetics  (Gr. 
aim'h/Tihur,  from  ninHannlini,  to  perceive),  the 
science  which  treats  of  taste  and  its  object .  the 
beautiful  in  nature  and  art.  has  been  recog- 
nized, since  the  middle  of  the  last,  century,  as 
an  independent  branch  of  philosophy.  Depend- 
ing, as  it  does,  upon  the  exercise  of  a  special  fac- 
ulty of  the  mind,  it  forms  a  part  of  the  basis  of 
a  complete  and  harmonious  education.  How- 
ever well  the  intellect,  the  will,  or  the  conscience 
of  an  individual  may  have  been  trained,  if  es- 
thetic culture  is  wanting,  he  must  continue  rude 
and  unrefined;  and,  hence,  in  a  comparison  of 
nations  which  arc  csthdically  cultivated  with 
such  as  are  deficient  in  this  respect,  we  find  a 
marked  difference  in  the  degree  as  well  as  in  the 
general  character  of  the  civilization  which  they 
respectively  present.     The  esthetic  element. how- 


of   the 

right 

piil, I 


•der  to  understand  them 
tlassical  works,  Ernesti 
the  elements  of  various 


Solidioris).  It  treats 
of  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  the  elements  of 
philosophy.  These  are' divided  into  five  parts  : 
(1)  Metaphysics,  embracing  ontology,  psychology, 
and  natural  theology;  (2)  Dialectics;  (3)  Morals, 
embracing  ethics  and  the  law  of  nature;  I  I) 
Politics;  1.',)  Physics.  The  high  estimation  in 
which  Ernesti  was  held  in  Saxony,  is  shown  by 
the  fuel  that  bis  system  was  adopted  by  the 
state  Latin  schools  in  177.'!.  and  remained  almost 
entirely  unchanged  until  1835. 

ERSKINE  COLLEGE,  at  Due  West,  Ab- 
beville Co.,  S.  ('..  under  the  control  of  the  Re- 
formed Presbvterians  (the  Associate  Reformed 
Synod  of  the  South),  was  founded  in   1839.     It 


lias  fir-, 


apparatus  ;  toge 
refracting  telesc 
which  affords  a 
The  amount  of 


s  buildings ;  libraries, 
s  ;  a  well-selected  ge- 
iphical  and  chemical 
a  excellent  eauatorial, 


feel  an 
uncoutl 


scicntioti.lv 
proper  stand. 

rf    of    reditu 

■-ion    that    a 

same   niaiitici 

the   esthetic 

ciple  iii  their  minds,  in  its  uncultivated  and 
partly  undeveloped  condition.  Their  percep- 
tions of  the  beautiful  are,  like  their  thought-  and 
their  reasonings  processes  unregulated  and  mis- 
directed.    They  have.  also,  the  moral  sense      the 

to  distinguish  right  from  wrong,  they  often  con- 
•h.  judged  by  a 
ire  reprehensible 
fence  is  only  the 
inction  between 
lower  to  discrim- 
I  wrong.  In  the 
tic  principle  is  the  sense 
by  which  the  mind,  in  a  general  way.  distin- 
guishes between  what  is  beautiful  anil  what  is 
ugly  ;  lint  it  does  not  teach  specifically  what  ob- 
jects are  beautiful.  Hence,  however  advanced 
persons  may  be  in  esthetic  culture,  they  will  still 
differ  to  some  extent  in  this  specific  discrimina- 
tion. This  diffi  rence  we  attribute  to  .-,  divi  r-itv 
of  taste,  the  word  last  being  used  to  designate 
the  esthetic  principle  or  faculty  of  the  mind. 
We  find,  also  the  same  diversity  in  the  exercise 
of  the  moral  sense,  in  the  absence  of  a  settled 
standard,  some  persons  regarding  as  worthy  of 
approbation  the  same  ad  that  others  look  upon 
as  decidedly  sinful. 

The  aim  of  esthetic  education  must,  therefore, 
lie  to  cultivate  the  sense  of  the  beautiful,  i.e., the 
taste.  (1  I  by  showing  v,  hat  the  elements  of  beau- 
ty tire. and  thus  establishing  in  the  mind  a  propel 
standard  of  the  beautiful:  il'i  by  present  in-  to 
the  mind  simple  forms  of  beauty,  for  the  purpose 


KST11KT1C  CL'LTUUK 


of  illustrating  this  analysis  of  the  elements,  and 
also  impressing  them  deeply  upon  the  mind,  as 
the  foundation  of  esthetic  culture;  and     ■    b\ 


285 

sense.  —  a   discriminative   consciousness   of   tlie 
beautiful   in  thought  and  action,  which  the  rhet- 

a.  1. 1 1  .•>.-.'  in  their  Several  spheres  of  ncmW' Thai 


either  of 


bei 


taught.     To  illustrate,  we  d t.  in   elementary 

scho  ils,  teach  estlielics  as  such  ;  but  we  strive  to 
cultivate  the  esthetic  faculty  by  instruction  in 
drawing,  painting  music,  etc.  (See  Art-Educa- 
tion, Drawing,  and  Music.)  In  this  d  ipartmeni 
of  teaching,  the  practical  value  if  the  subjects 
themselves  is  a  consideration  of  greal  importance, 
but  the  development  of  tin-  pupil's  i  1-1  i-  in- 
dispensable to  any  true  progr  b,  and  therefoi  ■ 
diiiiiu  the  earlier  stages  at  lc  ■>•:.  1.1.1-1  lie  tin-  jiri- 
mai-v  aim  of  the  educator.  When  th  miu  I  has 
become  enriched  with  trari    I  forms  of  beauty,  tlie 


even  from  its  earliest  years,  should  be  accus- 
tomed to  hear  only  chaste,  pure  e\piv.->ioiis:  and 

the  >t    familiar  colloquialisms  should  be  en- 

tirely  free  from  whal  is  coarse  and  vulgar,  and 
especially  from  slang.  The  esthetic  element  in 
poetry  cannot  be  addressed  until  an  advanced 
stage  of  culture  has  been  reached.  Poetry  is 
the  expression  of  the  beautiful  by  means  of 
wools  .  it  embraci  -  rhetorii  al  I"  auty,  and  the 
beauty  of  thought  and  action,  as  well  as  of  ex- 
ternal tonus. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  quite  ob- 
\ioiis  ih;ii  teachers  tin  niselves  should  possess 
esthetic  culture,  and  should  fully  understand  the 
peculiar  function  of  this  department  of  educa- 
tion in  a  harmonious  development  ot  the  human 
mind.  Nothing  with  which  the  young  pupil  is 
brought  in  contact  should  he  of  such  a  i  haraeter 
.»   to  offend    the    finest    taste.     What   may   be 


drawing  should   have  a  si  rid    refi  t  i  ■  I ' 

principle;  that  is  to  say,  the  pupils  should  be  re- 
quired  to  delineate   not    uncouth    figures,   but 

simple  forms  of  beauty.  The  hand  and  the  ey  • 
may  be  trained,  it  is  true,  by  practice  in  drawin  ; 
any  forms,  whether  beautiful  or  not  ;  but  the 
taste  is  to  be  developed  and  cultivated  as  well  ; 
and,  therefore,  only  such  forms  as  appeal  to  th  ; 
esthetic  sense  should  he.  at  first,  presented.  The 
elementary  forms  of  the  script  letters  are  illus- 
trative of  the  esthetic  principle  ;  and.  hence. 
writing  is  a  means  of  esthetic  culture.  The  let- 
ters themselves  being,  however,  complex  forms, 
it  is  held  that  rudimentary  dravving  should  pre- 
cede writing.  "The  experience  of  many  good 
teachers,"  says  Wickersham,  "  seems  to  prove 
that  pupils  should  receive  instruction  in  the  ele- 
ments of  drawing  before  they  begin  to  write, 
and  that  such  lessons  arc  better  calculated  than 
any  others  to  aid  the  pupil  in  attaining  the 
power  of  conceiving  forms  correctij 

Esthetics  is  not  only  concerned  in  the  beauty 
of  forms;  it  embraces  the  objects  of  every  bodilj 
sense,  and  also  of  what  may  be  called  the  inner 


pictures,  hi!  •  ■  Ma]  -  globes,  and  other 
school  apparatus,  kept  in  good  order,  and  ar- 
ranged   in  these! I  m    in  a    proper  maimer 

and  ready  for  use.  will  have  a  pleading  and  happ> 
effecl  on  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  'I  he  following 
are.  the  observation.-,  ol  a  practical  teachei  who 
has  evidently  learned  to  apply  the  esthetic 
culture  of  her  own  mind  to  the  simple  purposes 
of  district  school  instruction  :  •■  Much  can  be 
done  toward  making  a  room  pleasant  by  a  skill- 
ful seat  ing  of  pupils.  There  are  harmonies  of 
proportion  and  color  to  be  observed.  A  girls' 
school  always  seems  brighter  than  a  boy  si  Bool 
The  colors  of  the  dress  of  girls  give  warmth  to 
the  room  in  winter,  and  the  light  clothing  of 
summer  gives  an  air  of  freshness  and  roolnc.-s. 
The  eye  requires  that  the  pupils  shall  In  graded 
from  rear  to  front  according  to  size.  A  hap- 
hazard arrangement  in  this  regard  is  never  satis- 
factory....  But,  after  all.  the  soul  of  the  teacher 


286  ETIENNE 

has  greatly  to  do  with  the  beauty  of  the  school. 
A  light  glows  in  the  face  of  the  conscientious, 
gentle,  sympathetic  teacher,  which  illuminates 
all  the  room  with  its  brightness.  In  the  reflec- 
tion of  her  own  character,  she  sees  in  the  seats 
truthfulness,  confidence,  respect,  and  love;  and 
s<>  the  spiritual  beauty  sanctifies  and  glorifies  all 
the  beauty  secured  by  ornamentation,  by  any 
and  every  device  in  material  tilings. 

Lmong  the  foremost  writers  on  esthetics,  are 
[l.nuiiL'.-n  1,11.  who  first  established  the  claims  of 
esthetics  to  lie  classed  as  a  separate  science.  He- 
gel, Schiller.  Vischer,  Carriere,  in  Germany; 
Cousin,  Jouffroy,  and  Taine,  in  France;  Dugald 
Stewart.  Hutchison,  Alison,  Utile  v.  and  Payne 
Knight,  in  Kngland  ;  and  llenrv  -V.  Day  (T/ie 
Science  of  Esthetics,  New  Haven.  1872)  and 
Bascom  I  Lectures  on  Esthetics,  New  York,  1872), 
in  the  United  States.  A  critical  history  of 
esthetics,  from  Plato  to  the  present  times,  has 
been  written  by  Schuster  (Kritisehe  Geschichte 
,/rr  Arxlhclih;  l'ierlin,  1*72). 

ETIENNE,  or  Estienne,  Henry  and 
Robert.     See  Stephens. 

ETON  COLLEGE.     See  England. 

ETYMOLOGY  (tir.  irr,:,.?,r  m.  from  erv- 
ftm,  the  true  meaning  of  a  word),  a  depart- 
ment of  philological  science  which  explains  the 
derivation  of  words  and  their  literal  meaning. 
This  is  historical  etymology.  (See  English, 
Study  ok.  and  Philology.)  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  that  part  of  grammar  which  relates 
to  the  classification  of  words  as  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, ami  their  various  inflections,  used  to  in- 
dicate their  relations  to  one  another,  or  modifi- 
cations of  the  general  ideas  which  they  express. 
This  is  grammatical  etymology.  (See  Gramm  \a  i 
As  a  branch  of  elementary  instruction,  it  teaches 
the  component  parts  of  words, — root;  prefix,  and 
suffix,  and  I iv  explaining  the  primitive  meaning 
of  the-e  parts  ill   the   language   from    which  they 


EVENING   SCHOOLS 

be  substituted  for  the  Latin  of  the  scientific 
and  the  academic  course.  The  college  year  is 
divided  into  three  terms,  and  the  tuition  fee 
per  term  is  as  follows  :  preparatory  course,  18  ; 
Bible,  free;  college.  $10;  normal,  $10.  In 
1874 — 5,  there  were  6  professors,  215  students 
in  the  college  department.  27  in  the  Bible  de- 
partment, 68  in  the  commercial  department, and 
47  in  the  music  department;  total,  deducting  rep- 
etitions, 234,  of  whom  1!C,  were  males  and  88 
females;  the   number  of   „/„//,„/  was   74.     The 


iws:  Wi 


M.  i: 


w. 


nison. 


took  its  rise  in  Pennsylv; 
labors  of  the  Rev.  Jaco 
to  reform  the  German  el 


EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION,  a  re- 
ed States,  which 
300,  through  the 

:ht.  who  desired 
lurche-  in  eastern  Penn- 
,n  of  faith  and  the  polity 

dlarto  that  of  the  Meth- 

.  that  it  has  sometimes 
been  called  tie  German  Methodist  Church.  Like 
theMethodists.it  has  annual  conferences  and  a 
general  conference,  which  meets  every  four  ycare. 
The  form  of  government  is  episcopal,  but  its 
bishops  are  elect, •(!  onlv  for  a  term  of  four  years, 

Dot,  as  a gthe  Methodists,  for  life.     For  25 

years,  the  church  had  to  struggle  against  violent 
opposition;  but  since  then  it  has  made  rapid 
prooress'  so  thai  in  1875,  if  bad  19  annual  con- 
ferences with  B36  itinerant  preachers,  519  local 
i.i.i.l.,  i     95.253    members,  and   1,233  churches. 


body.     Two  of  t 
side  of  the  Unit 


No; 


peaking 
Lire  out- 
( 'anada. 
allege  of 
was  or- 
361,  and 


are  , 


the  words.     (See  Words,  Analysis  of.) 

EUREKA  COLLEGE,  at  Eureka,  Wood- 
ford county.  111.,  under  the  control  of  the 
Church  of  "the  Disciples,  was  founded  as  an 
academy  in  1849,  and  chartered  as  a  college  in 
1855.  The  college  campus  is  in  a  spacious  grove 
of  forest  trees.  There  are  two  substantial  brick 
buildings.  The  endowment  fund  is  nearly 
$50,000,  only  about  naif  of  which  is  now  avail- 
able. The  institution  has  libraries  containing 
2,500  volumes,  apparatus  for  the  illustration  of 
the  physical  sciences,  and  a  museum  of  geology 
and  natural  history.  It  comprises  five  depart- 
ments; namely,  college,  Bible  (preparatory  to 
1 1 .- 1 1 .  business,  and  music.  The 
t  comprises  a  preparatory,  a 
lilar  to  the  ordinary  college 
fie,  and  an  academic  course. 
se  differs  from  the  baccalaure- 
be  i  rreek  and  one  half  of  the 
[emic  course  omits  the  Greek, 
atin,  two  terms  in  algebra,  an- 
alytical geometry  and  the  calculus,  and  adds 
French  or  German.     French  or  German   may 


Pa 


III 


the    II 

eolle, 

bare; 


Latin, 
one  half 


tin 


gani/.cl  at  Plainfield,  Will  0 
received  a.  charter  in  1865 
was  removed  to  Naperville, 
and  has  now  an  endowment  fund  of  $100,000. 
Its  annual  expenditures  amount  to  about  $14,000. 
(See  North-western  College.)  A  theological 
school.  The  Union  Biblical  Institute,  has  been 
established  in  connection  with  the  college,  at  the 
same  place,  having  an  endowment  fund  of 
$30,000.  Other  educational  institutions  under 
the  control  of  the  church  are  the  Union  Semi- 
nary, at  New  Berlin,  Pa.,  and  the  Ebenezer 
Orphan  Institution,  at  Flatrock,  Ohio.  Great 
attention  is  given  to  the  Sunday-school  cause. 
The  number  of  schools  of  this  class  was  re- 
pair,!, at  the  General  Conference  of  1875,  as 
L,509,  with  16,875  officers  and  teachers  and 
90.090  scholars. 

EVENING  SCHOOLS,  or  Night  Schools, 
have  been  established  in  many  countries,  gener- 
ally in  large  cities,  as  a  part  of  the  public-school 
system,  for  two  purposes  :  (1)  to  give  to  those 
of  the  school  population  who  cannot  avail  them- 
selves of  the  advantages  of  the  day  school,  an  op- 
portunity to  obtain  an  elementary  education; 
and,  (2)  to  enable  adults 


,ho  have   finished  the 


eyenino  schools 


course  of  instruction  in  the  public  day  school,  to 
acquire  additional  knowledge,  especially  on  sub- 
jects relating  to  their  particular  occupations  or 
professions.  In  England,  France.  Italy,  and 
Germany,  there  arc  elementary  evening  schools 
for  children  employed  in  factories;  in  the 
I  oited  States,  a  large  portion  of  the  pupils  of 
evening  schools  consists  of  persons  who  have 
passed  the  school  age.  In  most  eases,  the  school 
regulations  exclude  all  rhildivn  below  a  certain 
age.  and  also  provide  that  no  pupils  shall  be  ad- 
mitted who  are  not  engaged  in  a  useful  occupa- 
tion during  the  day.  In  tin  »c  countries  «  li lu- 

cation  has  been  made  compulsory,  the  evening 
schools  are  almost  exclusively  schools  for  adulN. 
being  chiefly  intended  to  give  to  young  apprentices. 
mechanics,  clerks,  or  peasants  an  opportunity  to 
continue  their  school  education.  'See  Am  us. 
Schools  fob.)  In  Germany,  the  Sunday-schools 
long  served  for  this  purpose  (see  Sund  it-Schools), 
the  spreading  of  evening  schools  being  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin.  But  wherever  even- 
ing schools  have  been  established,  they  are  pre- 
ferred by  a  large  number  of  pupils.  In  some 
countries,  the  Sunday  school  and  the  evening 
school  are  combined,  the  pupils  being  taught  in 
some  subjects,  such  as  drawing,  on  Sundays,  ami 
in  others  on  the  evenings  of  the  week  days.  Even- 
ing high  schools,  which  offer  instruction  in  the 
higher  branches  of  study,  or  afford  technical  in- 
struction to  artisans  and  others,  are  compara- 
tively rare.  Such  are  the  Evening  Ilie.li  School 
and  the  schools  of  the  Cooper  I'uion  q.  \.  .of 
the  City  of  New  York,  the  Maryland  Institute 
Art  Night  Schools  in  Baltimore, and  the  0  I'd 
Ion  Polytechnic  Institute  of  St.  Louis.  In  some 
of  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  foreigners 
derive  very  great  benefit  from  the  evening. schools, 
in  the  instruction  afforded  in  the  English  lan- 
guage by  teachers  who  speak  the  language  of 
the  students.  Free  evening  drawing  schools 
are  quite  numerous  in  many  parts  of  the  United 
States  as  well  as  in  some' of  the  countries  of 
Europe.  For  statistics  in  regard  to  the  evening 
schools  in  the  different  cities.  ,,,  their  respective 
titles.  In  England,  according  to  the  "  New  Code 
of  Regulations,"  of  l>7ii.  the  managers  of  an 
evening  school  which  has  held  not  less  than  forty- 
five  sessions  in  the  course  of  a  year,  may  claim  a 
government  grant.  Special  provisions  regulate 
the  examination  of  each. of  these  schools.  The 
number  of  night  schools  in  England,  in  1875, 
was  T.'i,  with  38,597  male  pupils,  and  8,785 
females.  In  Wurtemberg,  local  magistrates  are 
authorized  to  enforce  the  statutes  by  which  all 
mechanics  who  have  attained  the  16th  year  are 
required  to  attend  the  technical  complementary 
evening  schools,  thus  making  evening  school  in- 
struction compulsory.  In  the  city  of  St.  Louis, 
evening  school  pupils  are  rewarded  for  regular 
and  punctual  attendance,  good  behavior,  and  at- 
tention to  study,  by  a  years  free  membership  in 
the  public  library.  More  than  1,000  of  these 
pupils  have  obtained  this  award  during  a  single 
term  by  attending  sixty  evenings  out  of  the  sixty- 
four. 


In  the  organization  and   management  of  even- 
ing schools,  great  can-  should  l«-  taken  to  adapt 


l.elhods  which    ,,, 


.st  of  the 

i dated 

istastctul 


add 


dies  i 
in  the 


of  teachers,  none  but  those  of  superior  tact,  ex- 
perience, and  skill  being  appointed  to  this  work. 
They  should  also  be  of  mature  yens  and  char- 
acter. A  young  man  or  a  young  woman  who 
attends  school  with  an  earnest  desire  for  self 
improvement,  is  not  willing  to  submit  to  trivial, 
perfunctory,     or    formal    school-teaching;    and 


ely 


■  teaching 
will  take 
on   Of  the 


institutions  unless  especially  organized  for  that 
purpose.  In  the  Report  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Schools  of  the  City  of  New  York  for  1871, 
then-  is  found  an  enumeration  of  the  difficulties 
experienced  in  conducting  the  evening  schools  of 
that  city,  probably  experienced  also  in  most 
other  ,,1'ace,.  These  are,  briefly,  as  follows  :  (1 ) 
The  difficulty  in  obtaining  for  these  schools 
teachers  of  the  requisite  capability  (the  super- 
intendent remarking,  that  "teachers  of  mature 
judgment,  extensive  general  information,  tact  in 
management,  and.  above  all,  an  earnest  spirit, 
are  especially  needed ;  (2)  The  imperfect  organ- 
ization of  these  Bchools,  owing  to  the  haste  with 
which  pupils  arc  admitted,  and  the  consequent 
inaccuracy  of  their  classification  ;  (.'!)  Pupils  are 
adiuitte,!  at    too  early  an  age;  very  young  boys 

and  girls  (under  L2)  do  great  injury  to  the scl 1. 

being  generally  in  a  physically  exhausted  con- 
dition, and  so  unfit  for  any  mental  exercise  as 
to  be  often  found  asleep  at  their  desks:  besides, 


of  elementary  education,  are  willing  to  devote 
themselves  laboriously,  during  the  winter  even- 
ings, to  obtain  it ;   (5)  The  absence  of  instructive 


288  EVERETT 

and  interesting  lectures,  calculated  to  make  a 
deep  impression  upon  the  minds  of  the  pupils, 
enkindling  an  ambition  lor  excellence  and  a  love 
of  rectitude  and  truth.  This  statement  of  defi- 
ciencies may  very  well  serve  to  show  what  con- 
ditions and  characteristics  are  requisite  to  insure 
efficiency  in  this  class  of  schools.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  such  schools  constitute  an  essen- 
tial part  of  every  common-school  system,  partic- 
ularly in  large  communities,  in  which  many  chil- 
dren are  obliged  to  leave  the  day  school  before 
they  have  acquired  even  the  rudiments  of  an 
education.  The  office  of  te<  hnieal  schools,  while 
different,  is  no  less  important,  since  an  increase  of 
skilled  labor  in  any  community  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  elements  of  its  wealth  and  pro  }>•  no 

EVEBETT,  Edward,  an  illustrious  Vmer- 
iean  orator  and  statesman.  di-tiirjjii-hed  f,  <v  his 
advocacy  of  common  schools;  and  his  libei  d  and 
eulighteiie  [  views  in  regard  to  e  lucation  in  gen- 
eral, lie  was  born  in  Dorchester,  Mass.,  April 
11.,  1794,  and  died  in  Boston,  dan.  15.,  1865. 
\l  i  In'  ii'lvageof  1  «,  he  graduated  at  Harvard 
College,  with  the  highest  honors,  and  became  a 
tutor  in  that  institution,  at  the  same  time  pur- 
suing divinity  studies.     In  1813,  he  was  settled 

as  pastor  of  a  church  in  Boston,  and  soon  bee,-, 

distinguished  for  the  eloquence  of  his  sermons. 
Subsequently,  he  was  for  several  years  Eliot  pro- 
fessor of  ( ; reek  in  Harvard  College.  His  public 
life  b  i  :  ui  182  f.  when  h  ■  was  elected  to  '  Ion 
gress,  in  which  he  served  continuously  for  ten 
years.  In  1835,  he  was  elected  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  and  was  three  times  re-elected.  In 
1840,  he  was  appointed  minister  plenipotentiary 

to   England;  and  in  this  position.  , ',!.  ,1 

to  perform  very  important  services  for  the  Uni- 
ted States.  On  his  return,  in  1845,  he  was 
elected  president  of  Harvard  College.  In  ls.V_>, 
he  was  appointed  to  succeed  Daniel  Webster  as 
secretary  of  state. on  the  decease  of  that  eminent 
.statesman,  and  served  during  the  last  four 
months  of  Fillmore's  administration.  The  nevi 
year,  he  was  elected  to  the  Cubed  States  i  nam: 
but,  in  consequence  of  ill  health,  he  resigned  his 
seat  the  sear  after.  In  1860,  he  receii  I  the 
nomination  of  vice-president  of  the  I'nitcd 
States.  ,,n  the  ticket  with  John  Bell  of  Tennessee 
us  president.  His  oration  on  Washington,  re- 
peated about  150  times  in  various  parts  of  the 
I  ii  it.  ,  i  States,  added  greatly  to  his  i 
orator  as  well  as  a  patriot,  inasmuch  as  the  pro- 
ceeds from  its  delivery  were  in  the  main  con- 
tributed to  the  Mount  Vernon  fund.  During 
the  civil  war,  Everett  adhered  strongly  to  the 
cause  of  the  Cnion,  which  he  benefited  by  many 
eloquent  and  patriotic  speeches.  In  1863,  he 
delivered  the  address  at  the  consecration  of  the 
national  cemetery  at  Gettysburg,  Pa.  I  lis  last 
address  was  delivered  in  Faneuil  Hall.  l',ost,,n, 
in  behalf  of  the  suffering  people  of  Savannah, 
only  a  few  days  before  his  death.  It  is  not  in- 
tended here  to  give  more  than  a  brief  reference 
to  his  career  as  a  statesman;  as  an  orator,  he- 
was  distinguished  for  dignity  and  elegai in  de- 
livery ;    and   his   published   orations,  which    fill 


EXAMINATIONS 

four  large  volumes,  contain  an  amount  of  intel- 
lectual wealth  of  priceless  value,  still  further  en- 
riched by  a  style  of  unsurpassed  elegance.  In 
relation  to  education,  the  nest  valuable  of  these 
addresses  are.  The  Education  of  Mankind,  de- 
livered  in  1833 ;  Educationfavorabh  to  Uh  rty, 
Miirnls.  mill  Knoirli'il'ii'.  ill  \K\.i  ;  Sn/„'i-iiir  inni 

Popular  Education,  in  1837;  Education  ike 
Nurture  of  the  Mind,  in  1838;  Importance  qf 


necessity  oispecit 

teachers  ;    /  ninT. 
ililiiius   if    ,i  Got 


instruction,  and  advocated. 

t  and  eloquent  manner, the 
raining  and  instruction  for 
Education,  in  L846;  Con- 
■School,m  1851;  Education 
i  1852;  and  Academical 
Education,  1857.  His  various  utterances  in 
regard  to  education  have  been  collected  and  pub- 
lished in  a  single  volume.  A  full  collection  of 
his  Unit;, ins  and  Speeches  on  Various  Occa- 
sions has  been  published  in  four  volumes 
(Boston,  1869). 

EXAMINATIONS  constitute  an  important 
part  of  the  educator's  work  in  order  to  test  the 
result  of  what  has  already  been  accomplished, 
and  to  incite  his  pupils  to  additional  efforts. 
While  it  is  perfceth  true  that  the  best  effects  of 
educational  training  can  lie  but  imperfectly,  if  at 
all,  tested  by  any  personal  examination:  yet, 
there  is  no  other  ready  and  definite  method  of 
ascertaining  the  efficacy  of  the  teacher's  work 
and  the  proficiency  of  the  student.  Examina- 
tions, moreover,  are  of  great  educative  value,  if 
tiny  are  conducted  on  sound  principles.  The 
judicious  examiner  who  is  master  of  the  subject, 
v,  hile  aso  n  lining  what  the  student  has  learned. 
necessarily,  to  some  extent,  shows  him  what  he 
has  failed  to  learn,  either  in  consequence  of  tin 
imperfect  method  of  study  or  a  lack  of  attention 
to  certain  important  parts  of  the  subject.  Thus 
he  is  taught  how  to  make  his  future  efforts  more 
successful;  and.  further,  by  coming  in  contact 
with  a  mind  more  mature  in  its  operations  and 
attainments,  he  obtains  views  of  the  subject 
which  no  amount  of  study  of  his  own  could  im- 
part. On  this  account,  examination  and  recita- 
tion should  go  hand  in  hand,  the  student  show- 
ing, in  the  first  place,  what  he  litis  learned  of  the 
in  id  to  him.  and  the  teacher  then,  by 
skillful  examination,  demonstrating  to  him  his 
ignorance  on  certain  points,  and  in  this  waj  in 
structing  him  in  such  things  as  ma\  bebeyond 
the  grasp  of  his  unaided  research.  Examinations 
of  this  kind  form  an  indispensable  part  of  in- 
struction itself;  those  which  occur  at  the  end  of 
certain  periods,  either  for  promotion,  or  for  grad- 
uation.have  in  view  the  exclusive  aim  of  testing 
the  actual  progress  of  the  pupil.  Indirectly. 
however,such  examinations  being  anticipated  b\ 
the  student,  guide  and  stimulate  his  efforts,  both 
in  acquiring  and  remembering.  The  considera- 
tions to  be  presented  in  this  article  will  be  dis- 
tributed under  (I)  Examinations  of  Schools; 
(Ih  Ki-umi, •!, ill, ins  <f  Ti-iirln-rs;  (HI)  College 
null  University  Examinations. 


EXAMINATIONS 


I.  K.riniiiiiiitiiiim  of  Scliocth 
(1 1  examinations  for  classifical 
tion.  in  which  the  merits  of  ii 
are  to  be  can  1II3  asc  rtained 
with   a  certain    standard   of    a 

1  i  cxamiual  ioim  t'nl'  otlicial    sup 

ject  of  which  need  be  only  t 
methods  and  skill  of  the  teach 
eral  efficacy  of  his  work,  the  reL 
the  differed  pupils  of  a  grade  1 


-This  includes  I 


a  ] >r.  x-rus-t ..111   standard   liv  which  the 
I  defects  of  all  who  present  them  elves 


le  state. 
(  itirffxitil  Ki'iiiiiiiniliDii.i.  - 

llliolls    of 'learning,   periodical 


and,ol  c< 
beemplo; 

promote 


tcacl 
or.  lei 


of  children  are  to  k  educated. 
ie,  a  greal  number  of  teachers  to 
fortiie  following  reasons:  1  1    They 


hunter,  referring  to  the  rapid 
3   tern  oi  si  holastic  inquiry, 


of  instruction  and  the  method  of  the  examiner. 
It  is.  thus,  not  only  a  means  of  supervising  the 
teacher's  work,  but  also  of  instructing  the  teach- 
ers themselves.  "The  teacher," says  Beale,"may 
be  very  earnest,  but  an  experienced  critic  of  In  I 
work  may  he  alile  to  point  our  where  and  why  he 
has  tailed,  an  I.  from  a  larger  experience,  to  Mis- 
tiest improved  methods."     [See  St  peevision.) 

II.  Examinations  iff  Touvhrrs. —  As  a  prelim- 
inary to  their  employment  in  public  schools, 
teachers  are  required  bylaw  to  be  licensed  or 
certificated.  The  license  is  the  legal  permission 
to  teach  ;  the  certificate  is  the  written  or  docu- 
mentary evidence  that  such  pen ii   s been 

given  by  the  properly  constitute  1  authority. 
(See  License,  Teacher's.)  This  permission  is 
granted  usually  after  an  examination  in  certain 
proscribed  branches  of  study.  The  examination 
is  generally  conducted,  in  the  different  states  of 
the  Union,  by  th  ■  -tato  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  the  superintendents  or  boards  of 
education  of  1  ities,  or  the  county  commissioners 

are  appointed  at  certain  (ami  .and  all  who  desire 
to  obtain  the  certificate,  attend  as  candidates. 
In  such  cases,  the  examination  is  generally  not 

competitive,  but  only  qualifying,  all  who  show 
the  degree  of  scholarship  prescribed  obtaining 
certificates.  The  methods  of  conducting  these 
examinations  are  almost  as  various  as  tin-  indi- 
viduals conducting  them.  AVheii.  as  is  some- 
times the  case,  particularly  in  the  rural  districts, 
the  licensing  officer  has  no  technical  knowledge 
of  education  or  of  schools,  the  kind  of  examina- 
tion (generally  oralj  is  far  from  being  such  as  is 
required  to  test  properly  either  the  teachers 
knowledge,  professional  training,  or  special  skill. 
Perhaps  some  peculiar  vagary  or  conceil  of  the 
examiner,  who  may  be  a  lawyer,  physician,  hut- 
■chant,  or  perhaps  a  farmer  or  mechanic,  is  made 


1  oral  examinations  : 
qualifying  exauiina- 
nating  and  marking 

tal s. 

reed  that  there  are 
h  the  examination 
in  all   systems  that 


distinction, 
Whewell,"; 

cation,  and  i 


nerally  be 
t  previous 
hence  the 
■  indirect 
he  love  of 
ee,"    says 


without  making  the  love  oi  knoi  I  Ig  ■  nothing." 
Examinations,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  are 
only  a  means  to  an  end  :  namely,  a  good  educa- 
tion, comprehending  a  sound  liberal  culture  of 
till  ilie  mental  faculties:  ami.  consequently,  ex- 
aminations cease  to  be  a  benefit  when  theyinter- 
fere  with  this  object.  On  this  point.  Whewell. 
in  English  University  Education,  remarks  as 
follows:  •■  Kxaminations.  or  .something  equiva- 
lent, must  exist  in  a  university;  but  when  they 
are  considered  as  the  only  means  of  university 
education,  it  is  easily  seen  that  the  education 
must  lie  bad.  For  their  requisitions  must  be 
lowered  to  the  level  of  the  average  power  of 
mind  and  of  application  which  young  men  pos 
sess,  in  order  that  university  degrees  maybe  the 
general  mark  of  a  liberal  education  ;  and.  hence, 
the  substance  of  such  examinations  cannot  be 
sufficient  to  exercise  and  improve  the  quicker 
and  more  capacious  intellects.  Moreover,  for 
reasons  already  stated,  the  knowledge  which  is 
acquired  for  examinations  operates  less  as  cult- 
ure, than  that  which  is  obtained  under  other  cir- 
cumstances. And  when  the  examination  is  a 
compulsory  one,  there  is  a  servile  and  ignoble  in- 


200 


EXAMINATIONS 


fluence  breathing  about  it,  since  it  acts  not  on 
the  hopes,  but  on  the  fears  ;  and  holds  disgrace 
and  degradation  before  the  eyes  of  the  candidate. 
Such  examinations  may  be  necessary,  but  they 

can  never  be  more  than  a  n sssaryevil;  and 

that  system  would,  indeed,  be  unworthy  of  a 
great  and  highly  civilized  nation,  in  which  the 
machinery  of  education  was  all  of  this  structure." 
In  the  same  connection,  Toilliiintcr  remarks,  "  It 
is  easy  to  refine  and  elaborate  our  examination 
machinery;  but  the  results  will  scarcely  repay 


the 


<!'■■' 


liture   of 


We  cannot  by  our  examinations  create  learning 
or  genius;  it  is  uncertain  whether  we  can  in- 
fallibly discover  them  ;  what  we  detect  is  simply 
the  examination-passing  power  of  the  candidates. 


the  number  of  candidates  is  too  large  to  admit 
of  a  thorough  and  impartial  examination  (the 
oral  method  being  used);  (4)  that  a  large  share 
of  the  examiners  lack  the  requisite  skill  in  ex- 
amining: and  (5)  that  the  result-  are  unreliable, 
because  the  students  so  eivatlv  differ  in  disposi- 
tion, temperament,  etc.,  a  bashful,  though  ex- 
cellent student,  being  likely  to  fail,  whSe  the 
confident  one.  with  less  merit,  comes  off  tri- 
umphantly. Most  of  these  objections  are  ob- 
viously weak,  and  are  satisfactorily  answered  by 
Von  Raumer  [German  Unirerxi/itv,  English 
translation,  by  Barnard). 

('J)  The  comparative  value  of  written  and  oral 
(or  rirn  voce)  examinations  as  tests  of  profii  iency 
has  been  much  discussed  :  of  course,  for  the  pur- 


ple and  l.-scostlvpr --'■     This  remark  can 

have  but  little  application  to  the  "local  examina- 
tions" recently  founded   by  the   English   univer- 

the  "  examination-passing  power"  of  the  candi- 
dates, also  ascertain  their  special  scholarship  : 
ami.  besides,  operate  as  a  powerful  stimulus  to 
studious  exertion,  in  the  case  of  thousands  of 
persons  anxious  to  obtain  certificates  of  learning, 
as  well  as  the  things  to  which  they  are  a  passport. 
They  also  exert  a  very  important  influence  on 
education  at  large,  and  tend  to  elevate  the  qual- 
ifications of  teachers.  Indeed,  it  was  for  this 
express  purpose,  that  these  examinations  were 
established   in    1858;    and   it   is  acknowledged, 

that  they  have  1 n  highly  successful  "  in  raising 

the  tone  of  middle-class  scl Is.  as  well  as  in 

widening  the  area  of  the  influence  of  the  uni- 


are  usually  some  written  tests  as  well.  A  skillful 
examiner,  who  is  master  of   the  subject  under 

consideration,   can    by   a    few    judicious,    well- 


of  both  . sexes  underwent  (he  local  examinations 
of  Cambridge,  and.  in  June,  L876,  2,1  II  those 
of  i  Ixford.  "The  local  examinations,"  says  Beale 
(University  Examinations  for  Women,  Lon- 
don, L875),  "have  been  very  useful,  especially 
in  girls'  schools,  bringing  them  into  relation 
with  the  national  centers  of  education.  The 
old-fashioned  parrot-learning,  and  slovenly,  in- 
exact work  have  been  shown  to  be  worthies, 
and  a  better  curriculum  has  been  introduced." 
Of  the  higher  university  examinations  in  Eng- 
land, several  are  open  to  women  over  eighteen 
years  of  age.     (See  Female  Education.) 

In  the  German  universities,  less  resort  has 
been  had  to  examinations  than  in  the  United 
States  or  England,  more  dependence  being  placed 
on  the  lecture  system,  or  on  the  Greek  mode  of 
teaching  by  dialogue.  University  examinations 
have  been  emphatically  condemned  by  some  dis- 
tinguished  German   educators;    but   by  others 

they  have  1 n  advocated  as  necessary  to  check 

idleness  on  the  pari  of  the  students,  many  of 
whom.it  was  found,  failed  to  attend  the  lectures, 
and  others,  although  present.gave  little  or  no  at- 
tention to  them.     Against  ill  se  examinations  in 

been  urged;  as,  (I)  that  they  d i  incite  to 

tic  right  kind  of  study  :  (2)  that  they  are  for 
school-boys,  and.  therefore,  it  is  an  indignity  to 
subject  university  students  to  them ;    (3)  that 


meiit.  on  the  part  of  the  examiner.  In  the  ex- 
amination of  teachers,  where  there  is  so  much 
besides  mere  scholarship  to  test,  the  oral  method 
ought  not  to  be  entirely  excluded.  The  objec- 
tions urged  against  oral  examinations  may  be 
briefly  stated  as  follows:  (1)  They  are  wanting 
in  fairness  and  thoroughness,  because  they  are 
necessarily  very  brief  and  hurried,  and  when 
classes  are  examined  the  questioning  is  uneven, 
so  that  a  poor  student  may  pass  while  a  meri- 
torious one  fails,  particularly  if  the  latter  is  dif- 
fident and  timid:  (2)  The  questions  cannot  be 

perfect  tests;  and  (3)  The  candidate  has  no  time 

for  proper  deliberation,  and  therefore  must  often 
fail  to  show  what  his  real  attainments  are.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  advantages  of  a  written  ex- 
amination are  the  following:  (1)  The  same 
questions  are  given  to  each  candidate,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  test  is  even:  (2)  The  candidates 
are  left  entirely  to  themselves,  without  sugges- 
tion or  aid  from  the  examiner:  i.'l.i  The  < (in — i  ions 
can  be  more  carefully  prepared;  (4)  The  candi- 
date has  more  time  for  deliberation  in  answer- 
ing;  and  (5)  The  examiner  has  a  better  oppor- 
tunity to  consider  the  answers,  and  to  form  a 
just  conclusion  as  to  the  meritsof  the  candidates. 
The  question  of  written  or  rir,i  voce  examina- 


this  connection.  Todhunter  remarks,  "I  will 
acknowledge  that  if  only  two  or  three  candidates- 
have  to  be  examined,  and  we  have  the  command 


EXAMINATIONS 


EXAMPLE  291 


of  unliniiteil  time  and  of  adequate  examining  I 
force,  then  whatever  may  be  the  subject  of  ex- 
amination, the  viva  voce  method  may  be  not  on- 
ly allotted  Inn  <mni,lv  recommended.     We  may 


ignorance    and    incapacity    as    to    demand    some 
re  decisive  c lemnation  than  simple  want  of 


what  he  k: 
whether 
pcwa 
subjects  o 

stances    in 

l,e     s 

3tm, 

f  the 
ider 

and  wh 
hows    ei 

on    the 
examin 

whirl, 

ridence   o 

whole.    ( 
ations    an 
they   occu 

'onsii 

d  th 

r.    hi 

prefers  thi 
in<  isl  authi 

;r 

s  both  ii 

irks  aire- 

!lod.   whicl 

i  theorj  a 

nly  made  ! 

ndpi 
ifford 

materials 
importano 

judgme 
wmpetiti 

ve  and'qu 

he  co 

nations. 

The 

ami   of 

the   exam 

inati 

oi  differen 

ididates; 

l.iu  whei 

l     SUI 

parison    is 

nee, 

ssary,  il 

lere  is  m 

i  don 

.ondon.  Is7:;):    Beale,  University  Examina- 
ms  for  Women  (London,  1875). 
EXAMPLE,  the  Influence   of.     This  de- 


!""'!" 


the  e, 


more  than  the  mere  accuracy  of  the  knowle 
of  the  candidate.  There  should  be  consider! 
diversity,  some  of  the  questions  requiring  o 
brief   statements  of   facts;    while  others,  o: 


th,' minds  of  all 
of  children.     It 

by  the  existene, 
Which     Would      1 

early  childhood 


am   is  shown 
is.  prejudices, 


firs!  ,  and  (4)  that  they  should  not  require  more 

time  than  is  to  be  given  to  the  particular  ex- 
ercise, so  as  to  make  the  candidate  feel  hurried 
and  nervous. 

(5)  The  manner  of  estimating  and  marking 
the  results  of  written  examinations  requires  a 
careful  consideration.  The  value  of  each  ques- 
tion as  a  test  should  be  exactly  estimated,  and 
the  character  of  the  answer  given  marked  ac- 
cordingly. Any  scale  may  be  adopted,  but  that 
of  UMl  is  the  most  convenient  and  the  most  gen- 
erally chosen.  Whatever  number  may  be  an- 
nexed to  each  question  as  its  specific  value,  the 
result  can  lie  readily  reduced  to  a  per  cent,  which 
will  thus  show  the  absolute,  as  well  as  relative, 
value  of  every  paper.     The  system  of  negative 

give   marks   for  correct   work,  and  to  subtract 

marks  for  errors.  The  justice  of  this  method 
he  illustrates  as  follows:  "Suppose  that  one 
candidate  has  solved  twenty  questions  all  cor- 
rectly ;  and  suppose  that  another  has  also  solved 

twenty  question.-  all  correctly,  and  ha-  at  tempt  oil 
four  more  and  failed  completely  in  them;  then. 


•  ileiu- 

th  v  ar.  I'lin  Th     \ 

li\    a   kind   of  "un 
their  children  simp 

ranged 

placed 

son  haw  a  respect 

himself  have  a  gra 

ima  debetur  p     , 
him  imitate;"  and 

uid  most  effi- 


of  those  things  which  you  would  hi 
or  avoid.  . . .  The  beauty  or  uncomelinessof  many 
things,  in  good  and  ill  breeding,  will  be  better 
learnt,  and  make  deeper  impressions  on  them,  in 

instructions  that   can   be  given  about    them.'' 
(See    77, ,h/s   Concerning   Education.)      The 


in  tin 


portant  principles  tor  tile  learner 
and  employ.  But  it  is  in  moral  & 
the  force  of  example  has  its  ch 
activity.  In  it  is  comprehended 
mean  by  the  personal  influence  of  I 
I  lis  ma  liners,  his  modes  of  action  ai 
expiv-sjon  of  his  countenani  i 
las  voice,  all  are  constituent  elcinei 


292 


EXCHANGES 


inn-,.,, 


fluence.  This  personal  power,  it  has  been  well 
sail  1.  is  an  "emanation  flowing  from  the  very 
spirit  of  the  teacher's  own  life,  as  well  as  an  in- 
fluence acting  insensibly  to  form  the  life  of  the 
scholar." — Sec  Unconscious  Tuition,  by  Prof. 
Huntington,  in  Bakxakij's  Jnnnml  of  Edu- 
cation. 

EXCHANGES,  Educational.     See  Hol- 

BEOOK,  JoSIAH. 

EXHIBITION'S,  School,  are  arranged  for 
the  public  display  of  some  of  the  ornamental  ac- 
complishments of  the  pupils,  such  as  music,  rec- 
itation, ami  declamation,  and  of  other  exercises 
that  admit  of  a  ready  performance  in  public 
and  run  be  made  attractive,  such  as  reading, 
composition,  calisthenics,  etc.  Exhibitions  of 
this  kind  are  given  for 

the  scl 1  before  the  p 

Many  parents  take  great  delightin  seeing  then- 
children  participate  in  these  public  exercises; 
and,  hence,  they  generally  attract  a  large  audi- 
ence. While  the}'  are.  in  some  respects,  valuable, 
their  general  tendency  as  they  are  usually  -uvn. 
is  injurious.  They  pervert  not  only  the  regular 
order  of  exercises  of  the  school  into  a  special 
preparation  for  display,  but  also  the  proper  aim 
of  the  pupils,  which  should  be  to  make  progress 
in  their  studies,  not  to  gratify  their  vanity  by 
the  exhibition  of  superficial  accomplishments. 
Children  whose  special  talents  lie  in  this  direc- 
tion, are  apt  to  be  greatly  injured  by  excessive 
praise  for  these  efforts  at  display,  ami  are  in 
this  way  unfitted  for  any  steady  exertion.  Many 
teachers,  on  this  ao  mnt,  entir  ily  avoid  giving 
public  exhibitions  or  receptions.  Besides,  an 
exhibition  does  not  present  the  best  results  of 
the  instruction  given,  but, chiefly,  such  accom- 
plishmcnts  asare  showy.  The  reading  oi  .-ays 
and  other  compositions,  it  is  true,  shows  sonic- 
thing  of  tin-  culture,  intelligence,  and  power  of 
expression  of  the  pupils:  but,  in  elementary 
schools,  this  must  be  very  limited.  In  college 
commencements,  the  essays  being  of  a  higher 
character,  show  to  a  greater  extent  the  students' 
intellectual  development;  but.  still,  they  do  not 
at  all  exhibit  their  special  scholastic  attainments. 

upon   which    their   time    and    study   have    1 n 

principally  expended,  tin  this  account,  some 
educators  have  endeavored  to  devise  a  method  of 

showing  these  attainments   in  scl I  exhibitions. 

and  in  some  cases  with  considerable  success. 
"When  the  classes  arc  so  well  trained  that  they 
can  be  presented  in  public  with  an  invitation  to 
any  competent  person  in  the  audience  to  examine 
them,  the  effect  is  very  interesting,  and  quite 
satisfactory,  because  every  suspicion  of  unfairness 
is  prevented.  The  following  is.  in  part,  the  sug- 
gestion of  a  teacher  as  to  the  method  of  giving  a 
school  exhibition:  (I)  Kngage  a  large  hall,  or 
use  your  school  room  if  necessary  ;  (2)  Spread 
out  upon  tables  a  portion  of  the  work  of  the 
pupils  (specimens  of  penmanship,  written  ex- 
ercises in  arithmetic,  etc.)  ;  (3)  Place  upon  the 
walls  the  maps  and  drawings,  herbariums,  etc..  of 
the  pupils,  in  charge  of  suitable  persons  to  ex- 
plain ;   (4)  lx.'t  the  pupils  exhibit  cabinets,  plulo- 


.  EYE 

sophical  apparatus,  etc..  of  their  own  collection  or 
construction:  (5)  During  the  exhibition  have 
the  pupils  display  their  musical  attainments  by 
singing, etc.;  (6)  Intersperse  dialogues,  recitations. 
declamations,  etc.  or  class  examinations,  of  a 
suitable  character.  In  this  way  an  exhibition 
may  be  made  not  only  interesting  to  an  audience 
but  a  useful  incentive  to  the  pupils. 

ties  and    Public   Scl Is,   is  used   to  denote  an 

allowance,  or  bounty,  paid  to  the  students,  under 
certain  conditions,  for  their  maintenance  while 
pursuing  their  studies  in  the  university.  Hence, 
such  students  arc   called  exhibitioners.      (See 

EXPULSION  is  often  resorted  to  in  schooLs 
in  the  ease  of  pupils  who,  by  their  willfulness, 
insubordination,  reckless  and  disorderly  conduct, 
or  general  depravity,  cease  to  be  amenable  to  the 
ordinary  regulations  of  the  school,  or  are  likely 
io  contaminate  the  manners  and  morals  of  the 
other  pupils.  It  is  an  extreme  measure  ;  and,  in 
public  schools, should  not  be  taken  until  all  other 

employed  :  because  it  generally  deprives  these 
'  pupils  of  all  opportunity  of  receiving  the  educa- 
tion for  which  the  laws  of   the   state   provide. 

the  pupil  i-  iiltclv  uncontrollable  by  any  of  the 
ordinary  means  of  school  government :  (2)  That 
the  i lepra vcl  character  oi  the  pupil  is  such  as  to 


Punishment.)  In  view  of  the  fact  that  the  ex- 
pulsion of  incorrigible  pupils  must  be  occasion- 
ally necessary  under  all  circumstances,  it  would 
appear  that  a  reformatory  institution  constitutes 
an  essential  part  of  every  public-school  system. 
(Sec  Refobm  Schools.) 

EYE,  Cultivation  of  the.  The  sense  of 
sight  is  capable,  of  an  almost  incredible  improve- 
ment by  culture;  of  this,  modern  scientific  in- 
vestigations leave  no  doubt.  We  see  improve- 
ment in  this  respect  not  only  in  individuals  but 
in  the  general  visual  capacity  of  whole  nations. 
There  can  be  no  question,  for  example,  that, 
3,000  years  ago.  when  the  civilization  of  the 
I  'hiiicsc  came  to  a  stand-still,  they  were  very  de- 
ficient in  the  power  of  seeing  perspectively ;  so 
that,  in  spite  of  all  their  skill  in  drawing  and 
painting,  their  pictures  show  all  objects  on  the 
same  plane,  without  any  variation  of  size,  or  of 
light  and  shade,  in  order  to  represent  the  dis- 
tances and  relative  positions  of  the  objects  de- 
picted. Many  proofs  might  be  adduced  to  show 
that,  in  the  course  of  centuries,  the  human  eye 
has  improved  in  power.  The  aim  of  education 
in  this  respect  is  twofold:  (1)  To  improve  the 
physiological  conditions  of  sight,  by  removing  any 
causes  of  a  morbid  state,  or  by  strengthening  the 
physical  organ  of  vision:  (2)  To  cultivate,  by 
judicious  practice,  the  sense  of  sight,  so  as  to 
render  it  more  observant,  and  able  to  receive 
more  full  and  accurate  impressions  of  the  objects 


which  pass  before  it.  This  is  of  special  impor- 
tance, as  of  all  the  senses  that  of  sight  is,  with- 
out doubt,  the  must  far-reaching,  and  leads  to 
the  most  numerous  ami  \  i\  id  conceptions. 

Thecultivat E  the  eve  should  begin  soon 

after  birth,  and,  for  a  few  weeks,  should  be  con- 
fined to  keeping  the  infant  from  all  excessive 
glare  of  light;  but,  at  the  same  time,  allowing 
it  sufficient  light  properly  to  excite  the  nervous 
activity.  I  Ihildren,  like  plants,  need  a  great  'leal 
of  sunlight,  which,  provided  it  is  not  dazzling.is 
the  most  important  agent  of  both  bodily  ami 
mental  growth.  At  the  first,  it  should  be  a  re- 
flected, diffuse,  and  mild  light,  direct  Bunlighi 
being  admitted  only  after  several  weeks,  ami 
then  gradually.  Weak  eyes  may  also  be  caused 
bv  surroundings  of  but  one  color.  particularly 
if  decidedly  brilliant.  Hence,  it  is  well  to  re- 
lieve the  impression  made  by  a  single  color,  by 
alternation  with  its  complementary.  Bed  or  blue 

throw  their  tinge  upon  the  infants  eye;  but,  as 
a  rule.  Mil.  luel  colors  shoul  1  be  preferred.  The 
power  of  distinguishing  both  outlines  and  shades 
of  color  is  susceptible  ol  cultivation  by  means  of 
the  slow  movement  oi  bo  lies  ,,f  different  hue. 
before  the  child's  eyes  This  isan  exercisewhich 
is  employe  1  in  Froebels  nursery  education,  and 

is  very  properly  accompanied  by  singing,  1 ause 

the  sense  of  hearing,  having  an  earlier  develop- 
ment, is  well  adapted  to  excite  the  action  of 
sieht.     After  the  second  or  third  mouth,  when 


rE  293 

ai uni  .that  Froebel  invented  that  well-arranged 

system  of  kindergarten  occupations,  h\  which 
the  free  self-act ivit v  of  the  child,  stimulated  by 
agreeable  intercourse  with  those  of  his  own  age, 
learns  how  to  employ  his   sensed  sigh!    in  an 


(Se 


1   morally. 

HIV,. J 

aid,  the 

any  of  his 

eof  color- 
hat  cannot 

xact    color 

Teachers  should 
stoop  while  engaged 
ing :  since  this  tend 


equal  degree  of  perfection  espLkUy 
ig,  writing,  and  drawing.  Then,  if 
ie  tired  at  a  given  angle  of  sight,  it 
nine  its  work,  without  injury  or  dis- 
t  a  smaller  or  larger  angle,  and  thus 
,1  to  do  more  work  without  detri- 
be  sight.     Many  of  the  ordinary  school 


order  bo  correct  thi 
eye.  Various  conn 
for   this    pui] lose,   a 

woo  len  -lob  i  ami  i 


language  fixes,  at  t 
impressions  of  the 
meaning  to  every  w 
expressions  when 
When  language   hi 


reich (SchoolLife  in  its  Influence  on  SigM,lxm- 
don,  L8T2),  ■•  is  developed  almost  exclusively 
during  school  life;  rarely  afterwards,  and  very 


.1.  or  has  school 


short-;,,.  .|ltc,  |    ,■],,!, 


j  such  arrange- 
light,  or  admit 


s  constant  exercise.  Thus 
oiuer  is  able  to  notice  the 
if  light,  which  the  ordinary 


observe,-   nttei 

j   1    i!     to  i 

ite  t.     On   the  other 

hand,  the  eye 
ception.  the   i 

habitually  to 

.aze  at   obj. 

organs  ol  sense-per- 
■    it    it    is    p  rmitte  I 
:ts  without  any  i i- 

prehensive  or  discriminative  view  ol   their  pecu- 
liarities and  less   obvious  details.      It    is  on  this 


far  as  possible,  from  above.     The  children  ought 

to  sit  straight,  and  not  have  the   I I-    nearer   to 

the  eye   than    ten    inches  at    the   least.      Besides 

the.  lie-  book  Ought  to  be  raised  '-'0'    : 

and  about    Ml-   for  reading.  -    See  V  wicnf.i:,   The 

Child  and  the  Desk.     (See  Hygiene,   School, 
and  Senses,  Education  of.) 


FACTORY  SCHOOLS 


FACTORY  SCHOOLS  are.  as  the  name 
indicates,  elementary  schools  for  the  instruction 
of  children  employed  in  factories.  Tiny  are 
established  in  the  factory  buildings,  and  gener- 
ally supported  by  the  owners  of  the  factories,  in 
proportion  as  legislators,  in  modern  times,  have 
become  desirous  to  extend  the  benefit  of  edu- 
cation to  all  the  children  of  the  state,  the  school- 
ing of  factory  children  has  attracted  their  atten- 
tion; and  the  question,  what  can  and  should  be 
done  to  secure  to  these  children  the  benefits  of 
education,  now  often  engages  the  attention  of 
the  legislatures  of  civilized  states.  With  the 
recent  development  of  the  factory  system,  the 
employment  of  children  in  factories  has  assumed 
large  dimensions.  They  have  been  found  to  be 
useful  helpmates  in  many  mechanical  pro, v»c.-.. 
in  some  even  indispensable  ;  and  they  have  b  ten 
employed  to  a  large  extent  in  house  industries. 
mining,  pottery,  agriculture,  as  well  as  in  all 
kinds  of  factories;  and  nowhere  more  than  in 
Great  Britain,  where  formerly  children,  some  as 
young  as  six  years  of  age.  were  severely  employed 
sometimes  for  12, 14,  16,  or  L8hoursa  day.or.by 
a  relay  system. during  all  the  night. and  frequent- 
ly at  very  exhaustive  work,  under  unwholesome 
conditions  and  in  morally  dangerous  surround- 
ings, while  no  time  for  school  or  home  education 
was  granted.  The  inhumanity  and  the  dangerous 
effects  of  this  practice  began  to  be  publicly  dis- 
cussed more  than  a  century  ago;  but  ii  led  to 
no  concerted  action,  until  the  abolition  of  the 
conspiracy  laws  against  the  coalition  of  laborers 
in  England, in  1813.  The  first  efforts  to  counter- 
act these  baneful  influences  were  made  by  asso- 
ciations of  English  laborers,  and  by  their  repeated 
petitions  to  Parliament,  which  led  (1819)  to 
enactments  regulating  children's  factory  labor. 
These  were,  however,  entirely  disregarded,  no 
agency  being  ordained  for  their  enforcement, 
against  the  greed  of  profit  on  the  part  of  em- 
ployers, and  the  necessities  of  poor  families.  A 
constantly  repeated  agitation  by  the  workmen 
brought  about  a  parliamentary  commission  of 
inquiry  and  the  enactment  of  the  law  of  1833. 
This  related  only  to  factories  in  a  very  narrow 
sense,  confined  the  work- lav  within  the  hours  of 
6J  A.M. and  9J  PM.,  and  the  Hoiking  time  of 
persons  from  Li  to  Is  year.--  of  age  to  I-  hours, 
of  children   from  9  to  13  years  of  age  to  8  hours, 


could  be  easily  circumvented  like  the  rest  of  I  b 
law;  yet  it  was  stricken  out  in  a  new  enact 
nieiit  (Sept.  10.,  1844),  which  allowed  only  II 
hours  as  a  work-day  for  children  above  Li.  am 
from  6k  to  9  hours  for  those  below  13  year. 
of  age.  "This  law  would  again  have  remained  a  I  every  factory 


dead  letter  but  for  the  appointment  of  factory 
inspectors,  with  very  restricted  powers,  among 
whom  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  merit,  Leonard 
Horner  (1833—59),  who,  together  with  the 
trade  unions  and  some  few  philanthropists, 
worked  with  untiring  energy,  to  accumulate,  in 
his  reports  to  I  'arliament.a  huge  mass  of  evidence 
in  relation  to  the  abuses  of  the  factory  system. 
and  especially  its  direful  influences  on  women 
and  children.  Liter  legislation  gradually  ex- 
tended the  benefit  of  the  factory  laws  to  chil- 
dren employed  in  most  kinds  of  industry,  and 
slightly  restricted  their  laboring  time,  chiefly  by 
confining  it  within  the  hours  of  the  day  (Chil- 
dren's Employment  Act  of  1867)  :  but  the  factory 
schools,  being  dependent  on  the  school  fees  of 
parents,  voluntary  private  donations,  and  denom- 
inational Sunday-schools,  continued  to  be  of  the 
most  inadequate  character  down  to  the  new 
school  act  of  L870  ;  and  this  still  left  much  to  be 
desired  in  respect  to  working  children. 

The  legislation  of  all  the  other  countries  in 

'  which  modern  industry  is  largely  developed,  is, 
more  or  less,  a  copy  of  the  English,  with  hardly 
a  single  feature  of  improvement  upon  the  latter 
as  regards  the  restriction  of  children's  employ- 
ment, ami  with  the  disadvantage  that  there  is 
either  no  board  of  factory  inspectors  provided, 
or  where  there  is,  or  was  (in  France  it  litis  been 
abolished),  that  the  inspection  is  of  no  value.  In 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium,  however,  a 
sufficient  provision  exists  for  schools  which  are 
accessible  to.  or  even  compulsory  on,  every  facto- 
ry child,  thus  affording  a  sel ling  facility  \\  hicli 

extends  from  the  earliest  childhood  up  to  the 
adult  age,  or  is  about  being  so  far  extended. 
Prussia  was  the  second  state  to  regulate  the 
hours  of  children's  labor  in  factories,  with  the 
view  to  afford  opportunity  for  school  attendance. 
The  laws  of  1839,  mere  copies  of  the  English  act 
of  L833,  were,  in  1853,  so  far  improved  as  to  ex- 
clude from  factories  all  children  below  12  years 
of  age.  permitting  those  below  14  to  work  only 
6  hours  in  each  half  day,  under  the  condition  of 
.'!  hours'  attendance  tit  "school.  The  law  of  the 
new  German  Empire  (Xov.  10.,  1871)  is,  in  all 
essentials,  the  same.  France  followed  Prussia 
with  a  law  (March  22.,  1841)  which  entirely  ex- 
cluded children  below  eight  year.,  and  required 
all  below  13  to  prove  some  attendance  at  school  1 

I  but  the  law,  having  no  enforcing  clauses,  was 
altogether  disregarded.  The  Austrian  factory 
law  approves  of  the  labor  of  children  above  Hi 
years  of  age;   and  thence   up  to  I4.it  allows  an 

ascending  scale  from  six  to  10  hours,  and  be- 
tween L4  and  Hi  years,  12  hours;  exceptionally, 
I  I  hours.  The  legislature  of  the  Netherlands 
adopted,  in  1875,  a  law  akin  to  the  modern  En- 
glish law,  but  without  any  enforcing  provisions. 
In  Belgium,  there  were,  according  to  the  latest 
reports,  900  factory  schools,  comprising  158,060 
children  of  till  ages,  ami  schools  connected  with 
I  every  factory  in  which   young   children,  to  the 


FALK 


295 


number  of 
ulates  the  a 
sentially  res 
ment.  An 
council  of  1 
failed,  as  ti 


Massachi 
the  law 

of   12  v. 


ted.  The  law  reg- I  cine  were  added.  The  division  into  four  facul- 
but  does  nut  es-  ties  was  transferred  from  the  University  of  Paris 
i  time  of  employ-    to  the  German   universities;  the  faculty  of  arts 


I  had  t. 
i.  Bel{ 
tate  la1 
ent  of 
neral  I 
■■  No 


.  be  discontinued  after 
num  is  the  only  coun- 
w  has  made  proi  ision 
Eactoi  |  schools.  In 
statutes,  1863,  ch.  12), 
child  under  the  age 
ployed  in  any  manu- 
more  than  10  hours 
labor  statistics  of  that 
tw    is.  almost    every- 


nerican  universities  and  colleges,  the  faculty 
isists  nt'  thr  body  of  professors,  with  the  presi- 
it  at  its  head,  and  lias  the  power  of  conferring 


forms  (classes)  perform  certain  personal  services, 
for  those  of  the  higher.  These  services  are  either 
due  to  a  particular  student— the  special  master- 


vised  Statutes  of  Rhode  Island  (1857,  ch.  39) 
say:  •■  No  minor  who  ha-  attained  the  age  of  L2 
years  and  is  under  the  age  of  15  shall  be  em- 
plove  1  mure  than  11  hours,  nor  before  .">  A.  M.. 
nor  after  7.  30  P.M."  The  enactments  of  other 
states  are  similar;  but  there  is  nowhere  an  effi- 
cient provision  for  tin- enforcement  of  the  laws. 
The  legislationof  most  other  states  only  requires 
that  factory  children  should  attend  school  for  a 
specified  length  of  time.  It  is  easy  to  see.  and 
is  generally  admitted,  that  factory  ehildren  are 
not  so  situated  that  they  can  avail  themselves 
of  the  public  schools.  Their  attendance  at  th  ■ 
day  schools  will  always  be  irregular  and  of  short 
duration.  The  larg  a  chil  Iren  may,  to  some  ex- 
tent, enjoy  the  advantage  of  evening  schools  and 
Sunday-schools  ;  but,  as  long  as  chil  Iren  are  em- 
ployed in  factories,  th 


■  lueation  in  schools  esp 
wants.      Many  schools 


attend  at  the  games,  in  cricket,  for  example, 
standing  behind  the  wickets  to  eateh  the  balls. 
and  other  such  minor  services.  While  many  of 
these  services  appear  to  be  of  a  menial  character, 
they  ate  not  considered  such,  inasmuch  as.  with- 
out a  fag,  the  boy  would  be  obliged  to  perform 
them  for  himself*.  The  system  of  fagging,  like 
pennalism,  in  the  German  universities,  has  been 
the  means  of  great  abuse  and  tyranny  exercised 
upon  the  younger  students,  yet  it  has  strenuous 
defenders,  as  being,  on  the  whole,  beneficial. 
(See  England.) 

FALK,  Johann  Daniel,  a  I  ierinaii  educator 


in  Rant/ 


70,  and 


established  by  the 

of  which  the  best  known,  in  Europe,  are  those 
connected    with    the    Krupp    establishment     in 

Essen,  with  thatof  Dolfuss  in  M  ulhauscn.  Ak , 

and  that  of  Greg,  Co.  of  Chester,  England.  The 
latter  is  a  fair  example  of  most  of  the  schools. 
The  proprietors  of  the  factories  assume  the  entile 
care  of  the  children,  chiefly  orphans  and  poor- 
house  pupils,  clothe,  feed,  a  i id  lod-e  them,  and  edu- 
cate them  ill  special  schools. — See  Von  Plexer, 

The  English  Factory  Legislaii English  trans., 

with  Intiod.by  A.J.  Mundelk  (London);  Huber, 
Reisebriefe  aus  Englandim  Sommer  (1854). 

FACULTY  (Lat.  facultas),  a  term  originally 
applied  to  a  body  of  men  to  whom  any  partic- 
ular privilege  or  right  is  granted;  hence,  in  a 


wrote  an  essay  on  common  schools  [Ueber  die 
Grenzender  Volks-  und  Gelehrtenschtde,  1821), 
which  is  still  highly  valued.  In  an  appeal  to 
the  diet  of  Saxe-We'imaraiid  the  entire  ( Iennan 


college 

up. 


■sity.the  faculty  consists  of  those 


education  with  pop 
tion  (Falkisches  I. 
In-  death   by  his  w 


coii.-i.-tine  ,.f  a  body  of  teacher-,  or  prole--. a--,  in 
some  particular  department  of  knowledge.  At 
first  the  European  university  (that  of  Paris) 
comprised  but  two  faculties.-  that  of  arts  (q.  v.) 
and  that  of  theology,  to  which,  in  the  13th  cent- 
ury, those   of  canon  and  civil  law  and  of  medi- 


t   took  charge  of  it.— See  A. 
Liebe,  Leben,  und  Leiden  in 


FALK,  Paul  Ludwig  Adalbert,  Prassii 


man.  He  received  bis  first  education  at  Schweid- 
nitz   and   Landshut.  attended   the   F?-iedrich,s- 


Gtiiit/Ktxium  at  Breslau.  iinil.  a  ft  it  graduation, 
studied  for  the  legal  profession  at  the  university 
at  the  same  city,  aJso  paying  great  attention  to 
history  and  natural  philosophy.  I  le  entered  the 
Prussian  state  service  in  1847,  received  the  de- 
greeoi  LI..  D.,in  the  same  year,  and,  after  having 
abandoned  his  original  intention  of  preparing 
himself  for  a   professorship  in  laws  and   pas  ed 

through  the  i >it  liate  stations  •■!   In-  .  areer, 

lie   obtained,  successively,  the   at ttment    of 


that  of  state  attorney  at  l.vk.  In  1858,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Prussian  Chamber  of  Deputies 
and  acted  as  a  member  of  the  Committee  on 
Petitions.  Budget,  and  Military  affairs  during 
the  legislative  period  of  1858—61.  In  1861,  he 
was  appointed  state  attorney  at  the  Kammerge- 
richt  in  Berlin,  and.  in  the  following  year  (1862), 
councilor  of  the  court  of  appeals  in  Ologau, 
Silesia.  During  this  time,  he  took  part,  with 
other  eminent  jurists  in  the  edition  of  several 
standard  works  on  law.  Although  not  engaoed  in 
practical  politics,  which  he  studiously  avoided  in 
consideration  of  his  judicial  office,  he  was  elected 
(1867)  to  represent  the  district  of  Glogau  Sile- 
sia) in  the  provisional  Parliament  of  the  North 
German  Union,  but  peremptorily  declined  a  re- 
election, in  1868,  he  was  appointed  privy 
councilor  of  justice  [Qeheimer  Justiz-Rath)  and 
Referent  in  the  state  ministry  of  justice,  in  which 
position  he  took  a  very  important  part  in  the 
new  codification  of  laws  for  the  North  German 
Onion,  and,  subsequently,  for  the  German  Em- 
pire. In 

of   the  re 

Council  I 
man  Pari 

I  lie  enlHIl 

dered  vei 
tion  of  tl 

to  the   n. 
January, 

Stale  for 


kingdom,  should  he  the  sole  prerogative  of  the 
state:  that  all  officials  or  corporations  charged 
with  such  supervision  should  he  considered  as 
state  commissioners;  anil,  filially,  that  this  law 
should  not  affect  the  co-operation  in  the  super- 
vision of  such  institutions,  on  the  part  of  com- 
munities   and    their   constitutional    organs,    as 

In  .i  rescript,  dated  March  13.,  1872,  and  pub- 
lished m  the  official  Geniralblatt  fur  die  Dnter- 
richtsverwaltuiig,   f'alk    explained    the    radical 

chance  which  the  new  law  effected  in  the  rela- 
tion of  thepublicscl Is  to  the  state  churches. 

"  Heretofore."  the  minister  savs.  'the  inspection 
of  schools  was  immediately  vested  in  the  church 
officers,    the  pastors  of  the  united  Evangelical 

•'lunch  and  ot  the  R an  Catholic  Church,  these 

being  inspectors  of  schools,  iii  virtue  of  their 
offices.  By  the  operation  of  the  new  law,  the 
right  of  inspecting  schools  I iclongs  exclusively  to 
the  state:  and  all  authorities  and  olheers  to  whom 


sated  nearly  all  the 

towns  ami  ■'■circles" 
mt.  to  guard  against 

irge  of  their  former 
1.  however,  that  no 
emain  in  this  office, 


igW'i 

ham  ; 

afh,o 

rjppi 

Zl 

■.ai  pi 

the  state  were,  moreover,  expected  to  take  special 
care  that  the  teaching  of  the  German  language 
was  not  neglected.  This  law  has  since  been 
gradually  carried  into  practice,  and  the  number 
of  lav  school  inspectors  who  take  the  place  of 
clergyn     i  has  steadily  increased. 

The  Catholic  bishops  made  a  determined  op- 
position to  the  new   policy  of  the  government. 


Mi. 


affairs    resigned    his  office,    ami    Falk 
pointed  his  successor  by  King  William.  1 

of  his  a  In 


verj  beg 
energel 

manage 
state  • 
himself 


rati. , i 


at  that  time.  Iieset  his  department,  arising  from 
the  differences  between  the  authority  of  the  state 
and  the  church  in  regard  to  the  supervision  of 
the  schools,  public  and  private  a  conflict  which 
had  alreadj  Btrongly  manifested  it-  li  during  the 

February,  L872,  Minister  Falk  introduced  a  \m 
which  was  passed  March  11.  oi  the  same  year, 
according  to  which  the  supervision  of  all  schools 
was  declare  I  to  he  the  exclusive  prerogative  of 
the  state.  This  lavi  was  carried  against  the 
united  efforts  of  the  Catholic  ami  Conservative 
Protestant  parties  of  the  Prussian  parliament. 
It  provided  thai  the  Bupei  \  i- t  all  educa- 
tional institutions,  public  or  private,  in  opposi-  I 
tion  to  the  laws  of  some  of  the  provinces  of  the  \  i 


school  inspectors  without  previously  consulting 
the  diocesan  bishop;  and,  in  a  memorial  ad- 
dressed to  the  government,  they  solemnly  de- 
clared that  t In  \  regarded  this  law  as  an  incroaeh- 
nieiit  up,,,,  the  inalienable,  holy  right  of  the 
Church  as  to  the  public  schools,  and  that  they 

expected  from  It  disastrous  c,  .u.-e,|llel,ccs  both  to 

church  and  state.  Falk,  however,  continued,  by 
a  number  of  measures,  to  assert  the  exclusive 
rmlit  of  the  ,-tate  lo  legislate  ill  all  school  affairs. 
A  rescript  of  dune  15.,  1S7*J.  excluded  members 
of  ecclesiastical  orders  ami  « eregations  from 


sitions  in  me  puDiic  sci i- ;  a  aecree 

j  4.,  abolished  the  so-called  Mariana- 
>ii-,  ami   forbade   the   pupils  of  state 

■irv.  1-7.:.  Minister  falk  proposed  and 
nact  in  relation  to  the  scientific  rc- 
■  exacted  l>\  the  -t.it.-  for  the  admis- 
ididates  to  i i-i.  rial  fum  tions,  re- 
examination oi  maturity  tr a  gym- 
academic  triclinium,  ami  a  scientific 
ination  of  candidates,  with  proper  ex- 
also  conferring   upon  the  state  the 


FA  KM  Kir*  CULLKGK 


iii.l   became  a    lav?  by 


ng  him   perpetually   to   the  education   of  a 

il  free  (if  charge  for  tuition.     The  holders  of 
v   .-.i  mi.  .n.-s   elect    ti-i.Mini.-illv    l"i   of   their 


famoi 
the  p 

of    til 


s;:i.    It  is  the  first  of  t 
Other  difficulties  antee 


1 1 . .  1 1 . 


tional  institutions  in  which  the  German  language 
was  ordinarily  used,  religious  instruction  should 
likewise  be  imparted  in  German.  Archbishop 
Ledochowski  of  Posen  instructed  his  subordi- 
nates to  disregard  this  decree,  and  to  use  the 
Polish  language  exclusively  in  religious  instruc- 
tion. The  government,  at  tir>t.  did  not  proceed 
against  the  prelate  directly,  but  suspended  a 
number  of  Catholic  clergymen  and  instructors 

rr.il  s  to  the  ministerial  decree.  The  persistent 
opposition  of  the  archbishop  led  to  further 
lasures   against    him,  and.  ultimately,   to   his 

t  for  two  years 


and  38 

del  .art- 


being  sentenced  to   impri 
(Febr.3.,  1874).     Before 

in  Minilar  pro,'- lines  a._a 

of  the  king  1 all  of   whi 

and    the    l.i-hop-T  «|,..    11. - 

bishop  of   Posen  into  pris 
Trevesand  the    Lrchbisho 

.severe  measure,  follow.  .1. 
Posen  was  deposed    April 
L874,  the  Prussian  chaml 

latin-  the  administration 
rics  which  may  be  vacated 

the  college  was  closed. 

FEAR,  a    sense  of  danger,  the  apprehension 
of  cuniing  injury,  or  the  anticipation  of  pain,  is 


thi 


r   means  of   pcrsua 
ho  kinds  of  gover 

that  of  force  ;   and 


ml.. 


legal  decisions.  The  contest  between  the  state 
and  church  authorities  is,  however, not  ye1  ended 
(1876). 

\\  hile  substituting  fur  the  former  cooperation 

of  Btate  and  church,  in  the  inspection  of  the 
public  schools,  the  sole  right  of  the  Btate,  Talk 
also  conceived  the  plan  of  a  total  re-organization 

of  th.-   sc] 1   system.     Twenty  prominent  men. 


ave   failed.      There 
that  of  influence 

.cause  it  addresses 
a  permanent  effect 
latter  can  be  only 
will   of  a   child  is 


dispositions,  however,  need  to  be  restrained  by 

brought  to  bear  upon  them.  Many  children  are 
inconsiderate,  rash,  and  impulsive,  and  accord- 
ingly yield  at  once  to  their  propensities.  Phys- 
ical punishment    seems  tube  Heeded  111  order 'to 

produce  any  conscientious  observation  of  their 
own  conduct  :  but.  without  great  care  on  the 
part  of  the  educator,  m   inflicting  pain  for  this 


basis  of  its  deliberations,  the  minister,  Oct.  15., 
L872,  issued  general   regulations  concerning  the 

public  schools  and  teachers'  seminaries.  These 
regulations  were  intended  as  a  forerunner  to  a 
new  school  law:  and  they  were  regarded  as 
modifying,  in  very   many  essential  points,    the 

principles  on  which  the  former scl 1  regulations 

of  Prussia  were  base  I.  ami  as  requiring  a  return 
to  the  educational  principles  advocated  and 
practiced  by  I  'estal    ■ 

FARMERS'  COLLEGE,  at  College  Hill, 
Hamilton  I  '....( >hio.  near  Cincinnati,  was  char- 
tered in  L846.  it  is  supported  by  the  interest  of 
a  fund  of  about  $67,000.  The  institution  belongs 
to  the  contributors  to  its  funds:  each  contributor 
to  the  amount  of  §100  receives  a  certificate  en- 


stead  of  exhibiting  to  you   hi-  whole  cons is- 

ness.  he  conceals  from  you  as  much  of  II  as  ho 
can;  or  he  deceptively  presents  to  you  some 
counterfeit  of  it.  instead  of  the  genuine.  No 
frighted  water-fowl  whose  plumage  the  bullet  of 
the  sportsman  has  just  grazed,  dives  (pricker  be- 


lse  of  the  school- 


neath  the  surface  than  a 
your  eye  when  you  have 
ment  of  fear."  This  is 
dispositions;  and,  hem 
should  not  1"-  made  w 
crimination.  Hecker,  n 
Education  (N.  Y..  1868 
is  too  large  seek  to  influ 
his  affections.  Fear  wil 
To  make  this  faculty  i 
dominant,  the  teacher  d 
the  child,  and  he  can  ti 
make  fear  an  int  illigent 
idea  of  school  governn 
that  of  absolute  tyrani 
the  teacher,  and  unthi 
pupil.enforce  1  by  the  gn 
ment.  Dr.  Johnson,  in  I 
master  I  tastie,  said,  "  I  1 
able,  can  be  governed  oi 
tors  do  no 

conscience,  and.  therefore,  the  proposition  was 
too  sweeping.  When  Boswell  repeated  to  John- 
son the  following  sentence  of  a  speech  of  Lord 
Mansfield:  '  My  Lords  severity  is  not  the  way 
I.,  govern  eith  :r  boys  or  m  sn,"  he  replied,  "Nay, 
it  is  the  way  to  govern  them.  I  know  not 
whether  it  be  the  way  to  m  ./-/them."  But  no 
school  government  can  be  approved  that  is  not 
intended  to  amend  as  well  as  to  control.  Chil- 
dren should  be  made  to  fear  to  do  wrong ;  and 
thisshould  be  brought  about  as  much  as  possible 
by  what  Herbert  Spencer  calls  the  method  of 
mitiiiv.xhat  is,  liy  making  punishment  the  neces- 
sary consequence  of  the  wrongful  act,  on  the 
principle  involved  in  the  maxim,  "The  burnt 
child  dreads  the  tire."  This  eliminates  the  i  r 
sonal  element  in  the  fear  implanted  in  the  mind 
of  the  child  He  does  not  fear  the  teacher,  but 
he  fears  to  offend,     to  do  wrong.     The  a ■ 


irts  from  j  himself  with  the  new  real  school  of  that  city  and 
the  senti-    the  tabular  and  literal  method  of  Hahn  (q.  v.). 

ii  certain     As  the  result  of  this  visit  was  entirely  sitisfae'ory 


"i  ears   war.  In 


node!  schools  ;  he  also 
if   instruction,  and   on 


nl,  ■■  I  lull  li'<-ii  being  not  reason- 
rue  1  only  by  fear  :"  but  educa- 
:U1  children  without  reason  and 


personal  safety,  leading  to  meanness,  cunning, 
and  deception  as  a  means  of  self-protection,  but 
sin. ul. 1  In-  akin  to  that  feeling  which  Solomon 
referred  to  w  hen  he  -aid.  "  The  fear  of  the  Lord 
is  the  beginning  of  wisdom."  This  is  not  incon- 
sistent with  a  constant  appeal  to  the  higher 
motives  and  finer  feelings  of  human  nature,  but 
may  be  made  a  means  of  their  development. 
which  is  the  true  end  of  all  moral  education. 

FELBIGER,   Johann  Ig-naz  von,  one  of 
the  fore s1  reformers  of   the  public-school  svs- 


of  school  books,  ulueh  were  printed  at  his  own 
printing  establishment,  and  obtained  a  very  large 
nirulatii.il.  Hahn's  method  became,  through 
his  efforts,  predominant  in  all  Silesia,  and  was 
often  called  after  him  Felbiger's  or  the  Sagan 
method.  In  1771.  he  was  appointed  by  the 
Empress  Maria  Theresa  chief  director  [Ober- 
director)  of  the  German  schools;  and,  Dec.  6., 
177  k  the  empress  sanctioned  the  general  regula- 
tion for  the  German  model,  head,  and  trivial 
schools  which  had  been  drawn  up  by  Felbiger. 
This  regulation  marks  the  beginning  of  a  new 
period  in  the  history  of  Austrian  schools.  It  be- 
gins  with   the   following   significant    sentence: 

•  'Hi lucation  of  youth  oi  both  sexes  is  the 

most  important  basis  of  the  true  happiness  of 
nations.'  Though  it  did  not  make  education 
compulsory,  it  expressed  the  expectation  that  all 
children  of  both  sexes  who  did  not  receive  pri- 
vate instruction,  would  attend  the  German 
school  for  six  or  seven  years,  beginning  with  the 
sixth  year  of  age.  Public  education  was  treated 
as  a  state  affair ;  the  methods  oi  instruction  and 
discipline  and  the  course  of  instruction  were 
regulated,  a  proper  elas.-itieatiou  introduced,  and 
provision  made  for  the  erection  of  school  houses, 
for  cheap  and  good  school  books,  and  for  the 
better  education  and  compensation  of  teachers. 
In  regard  to  salaries,  the  provisions  wi  re,  how 
ever,  far  from  being  satisfactory,  as  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  tact  that  the  regulation  expressly 
allows  teachers  to  work  in  their  leisure  hours  as 
book-binders,  joiners,  shoe-makers,  tailors,  and 
weavers.  They  were,  however,  absolutely  for- 
l.idden  to  keep  taverns.  In  order  to  elevate  the 
school-teachers  to  a  higher  Bocial  position,  the 
regulation  assigned  to  them  a  comparatively 
high  rank  among  public  functionaries.  As  re- 
gards the  different  classes  of  thecommon  schools, 


each  town,  marke 
receive  a  trivial  sc 
teacher,  and  impart 
writing,  arithmetic, 
culture.  In  each  cil 
IRauptsehule)    was 


and  d|. 


entered  the  order  of  St.  Vugustme,  and,  in  1 7.». 
became  abboi  of  the  house  of  his  order  in  Sagan, 
Silesia.  In  this  position,  it  was  hi-  duty  to 
superintend  the  churches  and  schools  of   Sagan 

and  some  of  the  neighboring  villages.  The  wretched 
Condition  in  which  he  found  the  schools,  induced 
him  to  visit  P.erlin  secretly,  in  older  to  acquaint 


parish  was 
eh  had  oiik  one 
etion  in  reading. 
elements  of  agri- 
st  one  head  school 
stablished,  which 
•e  teachers,  and  a 
ie  subjects  of  the 
osition,  drawing, 
|,hy  especially  of 
iie  elements  of  the 
Latin  language.  Wherever  circumstances  would 
allow  it.  female  schools  were  established,  besides 
the  head  schools  for  boys.  Every  province  was 
to  have  at  least  one  normal  school,  which  was 
to  combine  the  character  of  a  model  school  and 
of  a  teachers'  seminary.     The  course  of  instruc- 


In.-t. 


„l  a  l,-i  i 


n;i.i;n;i:i; 


FEMALE  EDUCATION 


'2W 


tion  embraced  all  the 

.•in. I.  besides,  natural  : 

the    liistm-y    "I     arts    ami    ti 

and  mechanics.    The  establish 

school  k  publishing  office, 

the   Vienna    Normal    Scl I 


sof  the  head  school,  i 
and  physics,  Latin, 


nientof  Bern  had  presented  tohim.aspecial school 
of  agriculture,  with  ulii.li. in  \.808,a.pliilantkropin 
for  children  of  wealthy  pat-mis  was  connected. 
This  s,l I.    in    l.s-.'.-i.  had  eighty  pupils,    tan-lit 


Vm. 


pi i-l.  much,  an. I  dii 
wrote  a  number  of 
explaining  bis  met! 

,/•;,,„-    ,,-....  ir 

rechtschafetu  r  Sch 
of  Felbigeris  fount 

FELLENBERG,   Philipp  Emanuel 


i  of  the  empress  put 
1    labors.     The   plan 
te  had  drawn  up,  was 

tended  for 

sja 1  La 

middle  class 

in taut  SChO! 

original  scl 1  of  Hofwyl, chiefly  in- 

he  i r.     In   L830,  a  real  school,  de- 
he  education  of  the  children  of  the 
•s.  wusestalili.-lied.and  still   later  an 
1.     As  the  education  of  teachers  had 

.nl.lt,    instruction   in 

1 ks,  and  a  manual 

lenberg,  »i 
called   turn 
months'    ut 

teachers   t.>    Hofwyl    for  a   three 
nnal    course.     The   next    year,   the 
denied    its    consent,   as    it     feared 

:l,i. 


was  born 
there,  Nov.  21., 
I  ..t  Pestalozzi, 
society  can  be 
ly  by  an  ini- 
i  believed  that 


the   Wylhof,  called   by  him    Hoi 

.vsl.  and   there 

of  educa  bag   poor   boys,   and   e\ 
agriculturists.     Fellenberg  en  lea 
this  school  self-supporting  and  1 

vored  to  make 

v;:-,',M;,uM:ull;,;!y!'u!'l,,!'a«'l!u 

wess.     All  th  • 

sul,,,-,|u"l„'|y     dis'tiujlli-'hed     til.'-'u 

ofTe  pupils 

catora  and   teachers.     Fellenberg 

also   believed 

by  thr  labor  of  the  pupil-:  alth, 

i tributions  were  receive  1  all 

friends  ol  education,  tin-  In-  bi 
many       Twice  .in  1  BO  I  and   I  3 

.•1  themselves 

be  til,,.-  ir 

•ii  doubted  by 
17),    Pestalozzi 

ti.ms  ,,f  l-'.-lh-nl,:,-.  I,,,,   th.-y  Mil 
to  agree.     Fellenberg,  being  des 

,1  n  impossible 

■ led   from  a 

tions   in  the  state,  was  accustot 
b  .  1  dictatorial   manners  :  while 
as  a  practical  educator  was  grea 
was  unu  illing  t.,  a.t  as  a  subord 
educational   matters.    The  fame 
Hofwyl  was,  to  a  large  extent,  du 
v.),  who  became  connected  «  ith  i 
the  mean  time,  several  uew  insti 
children  ha.l  been  established  by 
1807,  he  opened,  in  buildings  wl 

ted  to  rule  and 
•estalozzi,  who 
ly  bis  superior, 

.f  the  school  of 

...  W.I, ilt  fa. 

minus  for  poor 
■"ellenberg.     In 
ich  the  govern- 

lominanl  in  Germany  and  Switzerland;  but, 
tnlike  most  of  the  Philanthropists,  he  attributed 

?nstruction.a!i,|,,l,-y,,tio,,alr\.oi-,-u,.|,  -tn.ily 
in.l  solemnly  observed  in  all  his  institutions.— 
See  W.  Hamm,  F,   ■■■   -/-   Lebei /  Wirken 

Bern,  1845  ;  Amen  I  lis  of  Education, 
...I.  [.  (1831  .  An  interesting  account  of  the 
school  of  Hofwyl  maj  also  be  i I  in  the  auto- 

liographj  ol  one  of  its  American  pupil.-.  Robert 
Dale  Hum  |  Threading  My   Way,  N.  V..  1874). 

FEMALE  EDUCATION.  This  subject 
,\ill  be  treated  in  two  sections:  (I)  The  lu'story 
a  female  education,  and  :  1 1 :  the  discussion  of 


\-i.p 


a  I  institutions  In 
10th  year  of  age 
There    she   wag 


she  received  the  orna nt  of  the  head-needle; 

and,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  she  was  married.     In 
education,  as  well  as  in  all  other  departments  of 


300 


FEMAU-:  EDCCATIOX 


life,  China  has  remained  stationary;  ami  the 
education  of  girls  is  now  substantially  the  same 
as  it.  was  thousands  of  years  ago.  While  the 
instruction  of  boys  is  quite  general,  nine-tenths  of 
all  the  women  can  neither  read  nor  write;  and 
it  is  only  the  daughters  of  the  wealthiest  families 
that  receive  even  a  meager  education.  In  India, 
the  instruction  of  the  female  sex  was  also  totally 
neglected.  An  exception  was  made  only  in  the 
case  of  public  dancers,  or  bayaderes.     The  latter 

are  daughters  of  poor  parents,  and.  in  chilclh 1, 

are  kept  for  the  service  of  the  temple  The 
priests  teach  them  to  read  and  write,  and  have 
them  carefully  taught  music,  dancing,  singing, 
and  all  the  ways  of  female  coquetry.     In  /''  rsia, 

which  had  a  system  of  national  scl Is,  the   .jiil, 

were  generally  excluded  from  public  instruction. 
Still  there  seem  to  have  been  exceptions :  for  the 
plot  of  a  Persian  novel  is  based  upon  the  love  of 
two  persons,  which  is  represented  as  beginning 
at  school.  In  Egypt,  the  female  sex  occupied  a 
more  dignified  and  independent  position  than  in 
the  other  oriental  nations,  attending  to  the 
business  of  the  market  and  to  commerce;  but 
no  provision  was  made  for  their  instruction. 
Cleopatra  is.  however,  reported  to  have  been  one 
of  the  most  accomplished  women  of  antiquity. 
and  to  have  spoken  Eebrew,  Arabic,  Ethiopic, 
Syriac,  and  other  languages.  The  legislation  of 
Sparta  excelled,  in  this  respect,  not  only  every 
oriental  country,  but  also  every  other  Hellenic 
state.  The  Spartans  held  a  very  high  opinion 
of  the  dignity  of  the  family,  and  the  wife 
and  mother  was  the  center  of  family  life.  The 
wife  was  helil  in  especially  high  esteem  ;  she  was 
called  Sea-nowa,  mistress,  and  exerted  a  consider- 
able influence  over  her  husband.  This  social 
position  of  woman  required  that  her  education 
should  be  similar  to  that  of  the  other  sex.  The 
Spartans  thought  that  tree,  noble  nun  could  only 
spring  from  noble,  well-formed,  healthy  mothers; 
and  the  girls,  th  i.  fore  participated,  though  with 
some  modifications, in  the  peculiarities  of  Spartan 
education.  They  were  to  be  inspired  will,  feel- 
ings of  morality  and  patriotism  no  less  than  men. 

The  society  of  experien 1  matrons  was  one  of 

the  chief  means  of  their  education:  and  exercises 
in  singing,  the  study  of  the  poets,  and  the  learning 
of  choruses  were  used  to  promote  their  general 
culture.  They  practiced  gymnastic  exercises, 
on  arenas  specially  provided  for  them,  and  grace- 
ful mimetic  dances.  At  certain  festivals,  they 
sang  ami  danced  in  public.  Young  men  were 
usually  present  at  these  exhibitions;  ami  females 
attended  those  given  by  the  males.  Thus  a 
rivalry  arose  between  the  two  sexes,  which  had 
a   beneficent    influence  upon   the   education   of 

both.     As  the  rest t  this  education,  the  young 

women  of  Sparta  m.-iuifcted  .-,  I ....  lily  vigor  and 
beauty, and  a.  national  pride,  which  were  admired 
by  all  foreigners.  The  school  of  Pythagoras 
which,  like  the  Spartans,  represents  the  peculiar 
development      of     the     Doric     tribes,     produced 

several  female  writers  on  education  (Theano, 
Phintys,  Periktione),  whose  writing.-  are  by  far 
the  best  that  can  be  found  on  the  subject  in  the 


literature  of  the  ancient  world.  The  Dorians  re- 
garded piety  as  the  basis  of  self-control,  and 
music  and  gymnastics  as  means  for  attaining  it. 
This  and  a  due  harmony  between  the  intellect 
and  the  will  were  viewed  by  them  as  the  chief 
results  of  all  sound  female  education.  In  Alhi-mt, 
female  education  was  not  so  well  provided  for  as 
in  Sparta,  and  the  elevated  position  which  the 
Spartans  conceded  to  their  wives  was  derided  by 
the  Athenians  as  gynocracy,  or  female  govern- 
ment. With  them,  the  wife  was  not  the 
Aioirowa,  or  mistress,  but,  in  fact,  the  servant  of 
the  house.  Only  in  exceptional  cases,  did  the 
daughters  of  a  family  receive  instruction  ex- 
tending beyond  the  usual  domestic  duties  ;  female 
schools  were  unknown.  Women  appeared  in 
public  only  at  public  festivals,  and  it  was  only 
the  educated  heiarra  that  the  intelligent  Athe- 
nian could  meet  in  society.  The  Ramans  had  a 
very  exalted  idea  of  the  dignity  of  family  life  and 
the  position  of  woman.  In  no  nation  of  antiquity 
was  monogamy  so  strictly  observed  asm  Rome. 
The  kings,  according  to 'popular  tradition,  ami 
afterward  the  decemvirs,  were  expelled  from 
power  on  account  of  attacks  made  upon  female 
virtue.  The  mother  ot  the  family  (maierfamilias) 
presided  over  domestic  affairs  as  a  venerable 
priestess,  and  regarded  the  education  of  all  her 
children,  boys  as  well  as  gills,  as  her  most  sacred 

and  si  important  duty.  Thus  the  girls  received 

an    excellent    home    education ;   and    it  would 


-ell 


iveral    centuries, 

only  in  the  regeneration  of  family  life.  The 
first  places  in  Christian  countries  in  which  in- 
struction was  provided  foi  girls,  outside  of  their 
families,  were  the  convents.  The  nuns,  as  we 
see  from  the  correspondence  of  Boniface,  not  only 
copied  the  Biblical  books,  but  also  taught  secular 
sciences.  The  number  of  girls  who  were  educat- 
ed in  these  schools  was.  how  ever,  small  in  com- 
parison with  that  of  boys.  The  daughters  and 
si.-ters  ot  ( 'li.iilemaL'iie.  as  appeal's  from  their  cor- 
respondence with  Aleuiii.  t..,,k  an  active  part  in 
the  learned  studies  which  distinguished  the  curt 
of  thai  great  emperor;  and  their  example  was  sub- 
sequently followed  by  several  other  princesses  and 
nuns:  still  no  steps  were  taken  toward  a  general 
provision  for  female  instruction,  during  the  first 
part  of  the  middle  ages.  The  development  of 
knighthood  organized  a  system  of  instruction  for 
a  small  but  very  influential  portion  of  female 
youths,— the  daughters  of  the  nobility.  Xo 
special  institutions  were  founded  for  them  ;  but 

ii  w.i-  e,  .a  in to  have  a  number  of  them  brought 

g,  :!,.  i-  in  the  castli    oi   a   count  or  other 

nobleman.  The  pupils,  in  this  case,  inhabited 
in  common  a  separate  pari  oi  the  building,  were 
placed  under  a  common   governess,  and  received 

traveling    artists,   singers,  and   poets.     Reading 

and  writing  were  the  principal  part  of  this  in- 
struction, and  the  young  ladies  were  called  upon,. 


FEMALE    EDUCATION 


301 


In  i; 


;miii  i> 
s.  and 


ml. 


and  boys  and  girls  who-were  brothers  and  sisters, 
were  often  allowed  to  attend  the  same  school. 
Similar  schools  were  found  in  some  of  the  other 
cities,  Inn  only  in  a  limited  number.  In  the 
convents,  only  those  girls  received  instruction 
in  reading  ami  writing  who  intended  to  enter 
the  order.  In  some  of  the  towns,  the  girls 
were  allowed  to  attend  boys'  schools.  The 
great  impulse  which  was  given  to  the  extension 
of  female  schools  by  the  Reformation,  in  the 
16th  century,  is  generally  recognized,  even  by 
Catholic  writers.  Luther,  in  his  appeal  to  the 
magistrates  of  theGerman  towns,  urged  them  to 
establish  schools,  not  for  boys  only,  but  also  for 
girls.  All  the  church  andschool  regulations  which 
were  U-ue.l  during  this  period  recognized  the  need 
of  establishing  female  schools.  The  chief  reason 
adduced  for  the  demand  was  the  duty  of  women 
as  well  as  of  men  to  read  the  Scriptures.  The 
greatest    zeal    for  the  establishment   of   female 


was  as  follows:  Dorpat,  1:2.4;  Warsaw,  L:6; 
St.  Petersburg,  L:19;  Odessa,  1:23:  \\  Una,  1:51; 

Kharkof,  l:.il;  Kasan,  l:H:J:  Kiel,  L:65.8;  Mos- 
cow. L:49.4.  Anion-  the  seventeen  provinces 
into  which  Austria  proper  is  divide. I.  thi  n  were, 
in  1-71.  four  (Lower  Austria,  1  ppei  Austria, 
Salzburg,  and  Vorarlberg)  in  which  the  number 
of  girls  attending  the  public  schools  exceeded 
that  of  lio\-  -even  in  which  the  uumbi  r  of  girls 
wasa  little  inferior  to  that  of  boys,  and  six  in 
which  it   fell   considerably  below  that  oi  boys; 

namclv.  Triest,  boys  6,168,  girls    t,372;  I 

and  <; rail i.-ea.  In, \.,  -.1 .-:;.  eiif-  t',.1  1!  ;  istiia.  Imvs 


several  ei 

The   n. 

elemental 

and  deeply 


the 


Is  providing  a  higher  than 

•ii  for  girls  was  very  generally 

•ca<ll\  when  England,  France, 
and  (HTinaiiy  entered  successively  into  the  golden 
age  of   their   national   literature.      An 
institution  of  the  kind   was  founded   by  A.   II. 


be  prescribed! 

irthellicliereducati.il,  ot  females. 

rity  nf  the  schools  ni  this  class 

have  ever  sini  i 

been  pi  ivati  institutions  :  but,  in 

<  iermany  and 

-c\e:.il    other  i.itii.peaii   countries. 

the  state  gove 

nniciits  as   well   a-   the  municipal 

authorities  ha\ 

e.  in  the  nineteenth  cent  ury.  begun 

to  establish  fei 

i.ile  selmols  of  a  hie  her  grade.     In 

England,    the 

education    of    the    danglm  is    of 

Bible  history,  and  singing.  Although  the  ideas 
of  the  reformers  were  not  carried  out  to  their 
full  extent,  the  number  of  schools  for  the  in- 
struction of  gill,,  established   at  the    time   of   the 

Reformation,  was  vert  large.    They  were  partly 


wealthy  parents  at  home  by  governesses  is  more 
general  than  in  any  other  country  of  the  I  lnistian 
world  ;  but.  recently,  considerable  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  establishment  of  female  schools 
of  a  higher  grade.  See  England.  -In  Catholic 
countries  a    ven    en  tl    n  ai.  ritj  of  the   female 


which  aimed  to  impart  a  higher  education  than 
could  be  found  in  the  parish  schools.  Little 
progress  was,  however,  made  in  the  second  half 
ni  the  L6th  and  in  the  J  7th  century;  and,  after 
the  devastations  of  the  Thirty  Veals'  War  tenia  le 
schools  were,  in  Germany  and  other  countries  of 
the  European  continent,  in  a  less  flourishing 
condition  than  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation. 
The  work  was  resumed  in  the  18th  century;  but, 
at  lirst,  with  only  slow  progress.  Gradually,  how- 
ever, the  adoption  of  the  principle  of  compulsory 
education  (q.  v.)  prepared  the  way  for  the  univer- 
sal education  of  female  youth  in  public  elementary 
schools.  In  some  of  those  countries  of  Europe 
where  the  principle  of  compulsory  education  has 
not  y.t  been  adopted  or  earned  out,  a  huge 
portion  of  the  female  youth  still  grow  up  with- 
out any  instruction.  Among  the  most  backward 
countries  in  this  respect,  is  Russia.  While,  in 
1874,  the  number  of  boys  attending  school  in 
proportion  to  the  entire  school  population  varied 
in  the  nine  school-districts  into  which  the  empire 
is  divided  from  1:1.5  (in  Dorpat)  to  1:10.5  (in 
Moscow);  the  proportion  of  girls  attending  school  j 


'alio 


alone,   600   Ursuline  nuns,  in  11    houses    who 

devoted  themselves  to  the  instruction  of  girls. 
During  the  last  three  centuries,  a  number  of  new 
religious  orders  have  been  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  affording  girls  a  higher  education.  There  are, 
at  present,  more  than  30  orders  of  this  class,  w  ith 
several  thousand  members;  and  their  school,  are 
not  only  attended  by  Catholic,  but  also  by  large 
numbers  of  Protestant  girls.  (See  Roman  Cath- 
olics.) For  statistics  relating  to  female  schools 
in  Europe,  see  the  articles  on  the  several  coun- 
tries.— The  IT.  S.  < lommissioner  of  Education,  in 
his  report  for  1874,  enumerates  21  I  institutions 
for  the  superior  instruction  of  women,  of  which 
111  were  authorized  by  law  to  confer  degrees. 
These  are  in  part  styled  cofie<yes,and  in  pari  semi- 
iinrit'.i,  instiliilrs,  etc  The  oldest  of  these  institu- 
tions is  the  Bradford  Academy,  at  Bradford, 
Mass..  chartered  in  L804;  the  oldest  having  the 
title  of  <  V/eyeare  the  Maine  Wcslcyan  Seminary 


302 


FEMALE  EDUCATION 


ami  Female  College,  at  Kent's  Hill.  Me.,  and  the 
Granville  Female  College,  at  <  rranville,<  >hio,char- 
teredin  1821  and  1834,  respectively.  The  progress 
of  the  higher  education  of  women  is  illustrated  liy 
the  following  facts:  in  1870,  the  number  of  these 
institutions  in  the  United  States  reporting  to  the 
Bureau  of  Education  was  :i:i.  the  number  of  in- 
structors 378,  and  the  numberof  students  5^337  ; 
while,  in  1874,  the  number  of  institutions  is  re- 
ported at  209;  the  number  of  instructors,  2,285, 
and  the  number  of  students,  23,445.  These 
institutions  commonly  comprise  a  primary,  a 
preparatory,  and  a  collegiate  department.     The 

last  extends  through   a   course  of  tin, r  four 

years,  and  embraces  the  higher  English  branches, 
with  the  addition  generally  of  Latin  and  French, 

Spanish,  and  Italian.  Facilities  are  afforded,  i.i 
most  if  not  in  all  cases,  for  instruction  in  vocal 
and  instrumental   music,  drawing  and  painting. 

etc.      The  principal    degrees  conferred  by  female 

colleges  are  Graduate  in  Arts  (A.  B.),  Graduate 
inScienee(B  Sc  Sisterof  ixtsl  LS.),  Mistress 
of  liberal  Aits  [M.  I..  A.),  Mistress  of  Liberal 
Learning  (M.  L.L.),  Mistressoi  Scien  e  (M.&    . 

\lMre-,   of    hngli-h    l.li.  ...Mire       \I.  f..   1.    .    and 

Mistress  of  Music  Mis  Mus  .  In  some  of  tl.  ■ 
higher  co-educative  institutions,  there  is  a  separate 
course  for  females  [Ladies'  Course)  .similar  to 
that  of  most  female  colleges ;  in  others,  there  is 

no    distinction,    females   being   admitted    to    the 


lies. 


Among  the  institutions  for  females  exclusively, 

Vassar  College,  at  Poughkeepsie,  N.  V..  holds 
a  very  high  rank,  its  curriculum  being  fairly 
comparable  with  that  of  good  male  colleges.   (See 

V  iSSAB   I  lOLLBGE.) 

II.  Theory  of  Female  Education.— This  is  a 
subject  which, especially  in  recent  years,  has  very 
greatly  engaged  the  attention  of  practical  educa- 
tors, scientific  educationists,  physicians,  and  all 
others  who  have  either  written  or  spoken  on 
questions  concerning  the  present  condition  and 
future  prospects  of  human  society  and  human 
welfare.  The  proper  education  of  woman  has 
been  recognized  as  an  important,  perhaps  the 
chief,  factor  of  social  progress.  In  former  times, 
both  ancient  and  modern,  as  we  have  situ,  woman 
in  general,  occupied  a  secluded  state;  and  it  was 
only  m  the  extreme  privacy  of  the  home  circle 
that  she  excited  the  potent  influence  inseparable 
from  her  sex.  whether  .-is  daughter,  wife,  or 
mother.  The  Roman  matron,  within  this  narrow 
limit,  was  an  educator  of  her  daughters  always, 
and  sometimes  chiefly  of  her  sons,  as  in  the  case 
of  Cornelia,  only  illustrious  as  the  "mother  of 
the  Gracchi.''  '  Lncient  history  affords  many 
examples  of  women  who,  breaking  through   thi 

barriers  of  social  custom,  1 ; illustrious  for 

their  learning  and  eloquence.  Such  were  ispasia 
of  Lthens,and  Hypal  aol     le  andria.  The  career 

of  theirsex under  circumstances  permitting  or  en- 
couraging its  culture.  Female  education,  however, 
has  always  been  viewed  .-is  radically  distinct  from 
that  of  males, — as  presenting  entirely  different 


aims,  and  requiring  different  processes  of  train- 
ing and  instruction,  and  a  widely  different  cur- 
riculum of  study.  Much  has  been  said  and 
done  in  recent  years  to  modify  very  greatly  this 
view;  but  it  is  still  generally  entertained,  and  is, 
at  the  present  time,  the  principle  on  which  most 
schemes  for  the  education   of   females  are  based. 

"A  system  of  education,"  says  Maudsley,  "adapted 
to  women  should  have  regard  to  the  peculiarities 

of  their  constitution,  to  the  special  function  in 
life  for  which  they  are  destined,  and  to  the  range 
and  kind  of  practical  activity,  mental  and  bodily, 
to  which  they  would  seem  foreshadowed  by  their 
sexual  organization  of  body  and  mind."  -From 
the  beginning  of  the  eighti  year."  says  Schwarz, 
"the  two  sexes  require,  in  almost  every  respect. 
a  different  education."     "The  culture  of  girls," 


boys  '     Alonzo   Potter,  in   the  School  and  Oie 

ciple:  "One  ci t  look  at  the  female — with  less 

muscular  vigor  and  more  nervous  sensibility 
than  the  other  sex;  with  more  timidity  and 
gentleness;  with  deeper  affections  and  more 
acute  sensitiveness-  without  perceiving,  that  she 
has  been  annointed  to  a   sphere   very  different 


over  the  family,  where  she  not  only  lays  the 
foundation, during  childhood,  of  individual  char- 
acter, but  where  sheever  exerts,  through  her  ac- 

quaintai and  especially  through  her  husband 

and  children,  a  humanizing  influence  over  the 
world."  -  Hence,'  he  argues. -there  should  be, 
in  the  education  of  females,  a  special  reference 

educational  training  for  a  boy."  says  Dr.  Clarke, 
in  Searin  Education  (Boston,  L873),  "is  not  the 
best  for  a  girl,  nor  that  for  a  girl  best  for  a 
boy."  Such  are  the  views  upon  which  the 
education  of  females  has  been  based.  Ar- 
ranged, as  it  has  been  by  the  other  sex.  the 
only  considerations  that  have  dictated  its  meth- 
ods and  processes  have  been  the  average  phys- 
ical weakness  of  women  as  compared  with  men. 
and  the  accomplishments  they  might  need  as 
wives  and  matrons.  It  is  not  difficult  to  per- 
ceive that  were  the  education  of  men  arranged 
by  the  other  sex  from  an  analogous  stand-point,  it 
would  also  be  narrowed  in  its  scope  and  proc- 
esses. During  the  last  few  years,  the  questions 
pertaining  to  female  education  have  been  vig- 
orously discussed  by  writers  of  both  sexes ;  and 
much    experience    has     been     gathered,    which 

.ears  to  show  that  the  necessity  tor  a  modified 

cm  of  education  for  females 


supp. 


cd.  (Se 


Co-Education  of  the  Sexes.J  We  say  modified 
5  ,st  m  of  education,  because  just  as  it  is  necessary 
to  adapt  the  educational  processes  to  individual 
traits,  so  is  it  equally  necessary,  upon  the  same 
principle,  to  adjust 'the  training  and  teaching 
processes  to  male  and  female,  as  far  as  they 
severally     present    peculiar   characteristics.      In 

1 e   education,    these    proper  discriminations 

must  naturally  be  made.     The  girl  is  treated  as 


FEMALE  EDUCATION 


nor; 


a  girl,  and  the  boy  as  a  boy — in  manners,  habits, '  tin ■  caprices  and  vanity  of  ill  ju. J-ii i-  |  i.-n-i-nt-. 
amusements,  and  accomplishments.  Over  the  Female  seminaries  of  all  kinds  have  especially 
former   the   mother   exercises    a   peculiar   care,    been   subject    to   the  latter  ivj.ri.acli:    but   the 

says  Schwarz,  "require  chiefly  the  guidance  of    due,in  great  part,  to  the  false  system  of  female 


management,  winch  every  w. 
stand  to  which  may  be  a. Me. 
In  every  thine;  thus  taught .  t 
the  t'iil.  as  a   member  of  soei 


dependency  of  these  relations.  should  such  be 
her  destiny.  "AsthegeneraJ  rule, "says  MissO.  E. 
Heedier.  "every  true  woman  would  prefer  to  be 
a  wife,  mother,  and  housekeeper,  could  her  ideal 
be  fully  met.  But  in  multitudes  of  cases  this 
ran  never  be,  and  so  every  woman  should  prepare 
herself  not  only  for  the  ordinary  dutie.-.  of  the 
family  state,  but  also  for  some  profession  to 
secure  an  independent   livelihood." 

In  ]. ul. lie  elementary  instruction,  as  shown  in 
the  article  on  Co-Educalion  of  the  Sexes  (q.  v.), 
girls  and  boys  are  frequently  instructed  not  only 
in  the  same  schools,  but  in  the  same  classes. 
There  are,  however,  numerous  private  female 
seminaries,  many  of  which  are  boarding-schools. 
In  such  institutions,  the  discipline,  instruction, 
and  studies  are  all  specially  adapted  to  impart 
that  culture  and  confer  those  accomplishments 


ils, 


domestic  education,  who  arc  introduced  into 
!  world  under  the  broad  and  universal  title  of 
•omplished  young  ladies,  of  all  of  whom  it 
mot  very  truly  ant" 


delicacy  requires  that  girls  should  be  educated 
ehielly  by  their  own  sex.  This  is  apparent  from 
considerations  that  regard  their  health  and  con- 
veniences, the  propriety  of  their  dress  and 
manners,  and  their  domestic  accomplishments." 
[nher  Addr    t  to  the  P  1-1"   i„  relation 

to  female  e  lucation,  she  discusse  I  very  ably  and 
fully  its  defects,  an  1  thus  enumerated  in  particular 
those  of  boarding-schools  for  girls:  1 1  I  A  want 
of  suitable  accommodations,  as  well  as  of  neces- 
sary apparatus  for  instruction:  (2)  Incompetency 
of  no  rin tors,  those  who  keep  these  s<  tools 
being  unable,  and  sometimes  unwilling  to  pay 
for  properly  trained  and  cultured  teachers; 
(3)  Imperfection  of  organization:  ,  I  Tendency  to 
teach  showy  accomplishments  rather  than  such 
as  are  solid  and  useful,  the  immediate  and  sole 
object  being  profit,  and  hence  a  wish  to  gratify 


that  they  illustrate  the  defin 

tiou  l.v  a   coninlet  •- 

ness  which   leaves  nothing 

to  be  added,  and  a 

perfection  which  leaves  not 

lingto  be  desired." 

Hut  at  the  period  in  which  tin 

was  written,  women 

of  scholastic  or  professional  at 

tainments  or  literary 

ability  were  quite  exception 

d.     th.ee.  the  chief, 

social  emploN  incut  of  young 

...lie-  wasa  kind  of 

fancy    embroidery    or    need 

i-work     wlu.-h   con- 

su 1,  or  wasted,  a  vast  ai 

lount  of  time      Of 

this.  Miss  Edgeworth,  in   / 

ra  '         1 

.-ays,    "Our     great-grandmi 

tilers     di-tillWU.-hcd 

themselves  by  truly  substanl 
and  carpets,  by  i He-work 

ial  tent-work  chairs 

.inures  of  Solomon 

and  the  queen  of  Sheba.     '1 

lese  were  admirable 

in  their  day,  but   their  da\ 

is  over  :  and   these 

useful,  ingenious,  and  laborii 

us  specimens  of  fe- 

male  talents  are  consigned   i 

i  the  garret,  or  pro- 

duced  but  as  curiosities  to  i 

xcite  wonder  at   the 

strange  patience  and  miseral 

le  destiny  of  former 

generations. '    As  late  as  1  ~T 

i.  Rev.  S.  Van  Bok- 

kelen  remarked.  »  1  think   * 

•   may  venture  the 

opinion    that    all    over    the 

United   States  the 

academic  education  of  yoi 
tifarious  and  desultory.  '    1 

ng  women  is  mul- 
is  comprehensive, 

embracing  a  little  of  every  tl 

in-.,  but  ace  urate  in 

almost  nothing.     Tin's  is  bei 

tuse  it  has  no  well- 

defined  purpose.     When  on 

young  women,  in- 

stead  of  closing  their  1 ks! 

t  1  7.  aim  to  prepare 

themselves  for  a  college  com 

-e.  their  shams  will 

give  place  to  realities,  and  tl 

■  public  exercises  of 

girls  will  present  a. 

more  substantial  programme 

han  music  and  sent  i- 

mental  essays,  and  have  a  hig 

her  purpose  than  to 

display  the  skill  of  the  mat 

tua-makers."     (  The 

Educati  m  of  W .a  pa 

icr  read   before  the 

N.  V.  State  Teachers'  Assoi 

ation.  July,    L873.) 

Mi-  -abject  of  the  higher 

ducation  of  women 

has  been  eh 

question  of 
continuous 
or  universit? 
of  the  Sexes. 


it  may  probably  be  said,  have  all  been  answered 
either  by  actual  experience,  or  by  the  cogent 
reasoning  of  such  writers  as  Anna  C.  Bracket) 


FEMALE   EDUCATION 


FKMALK   TKACIIKKS 


(Educati /'   American   Girls),   < 

Dall  I  The   Other  Sid  ,    Mary  P.  Ji 
U,        iction  and  Phys        H 

Duffey    Vo  Sex  in  Education),: n 

The  ability  of  young  women  to  comp 
othei  -i ix,  as  university  students,  a 
physical  injury,  appears  to  be  ] 
i  :  and,  hence,  the  dooi  -  of 
and  other  higher  institutes  oi  I.  annu- 
ally being  thrown  open  to  women. 
been  done  only  afti  rthe  most  strenuous 
and  by  stemming  the  adverse  currei 
opinion.  In  1862,  Mr.  <  (rote  strongh 
that    the    1'niversity   of    I, Ion   .-In 


it  wise  men  know 

icons  to  the  morals 


e  women  uned 
eir  influence  be;. 
1  the  disadvanti 


ivniniiii---. 
,f  dctermi 


I  n  1 1- in  to  say,  '\\  e 
e  and  deserving  en- 
hey  are  not  laudable, 
nee  them  forwomen. 
.  honors  ami  a  Ivant- 
urage  what  is  a  bad 
ton  for  women.'  1 
which  the  Senate  is 
This  would  be  to 


women  to  degree 
gued,  "the  Senate 
consider  our  stui 

courngeuieiit  only 

and  we  intend  to 

We  cannot  giant 

ages  which  will  t 

and  wrong    type 

maintain  this  is 

not  warranted  in 

usurp  the  right 

point  which  individuals  have  a  full  discretion  to 

determine  by  theme  Ivi         [i  d   that  evi  ry 

woman  has  a  right  to  .-I se  for  herself  among 

the  various  t>  |  es  o    edui  it  ion  ;  ii  og   th  se 

she  prefers  that  which  coincides  with  our  cur- 
riculum, we  ought  to  be  the  last  to  discredit  her 
for  so  doing."  'I  he  Senate  of  the  university,  how- 
ever, positively  refused  to  grant  degrees  to  wom- 
en, on   the   -round   that   the  strain   ncccs-ar\   for 

passing  the  examination  would  be   injur 3  to 

their  health.  To  encourage  women  to  compete 
tor  decrees,  it    was   stated,  is   to  invite    them    to 

.self-destruction.    Actual  experience  in  the  I  ' i 

States  disproves  the  latter  assertion.  (See  CO- 
EDUCATION of  the  Sexes.)  Jn  that  country 
about  fifty  institutions  for  superior  instruction 
are  open  to  both  sexes,  besides  which  there  is  a 
large  number  for  females  exclusively. 

The  progress  already  made  in  the  complete 
education  oi  women  a  well  as  that  which  is 
promised  in  the  future  by  the  continued  opera- 
tion of  the  same  causes  that  have  worked  so 
great  achange  in  the  past,  cannot  but  redound 
to  the  benefit  of  our  race,  and  shed  a  genial  in- 
fluence on  modern  civilization.  "Already."  says 
Van  Bokkelen,  "an  hupuKe  has  been  given  to 
society  by  the  education  oi  women  ;  yet  no  truly 
womanly  duty  has  he  n  neglected,  nor  are  wom- 
en less  disposed  to  accept  the  cares  of  domestic 
life,  or  yield  to  the  claims  of  conjugal  or  maternal 
affection."  "Will  woman's  smiles,  be  asks, 
"cease  to  be  attractive  when  they  arc  brightened 
by  intelligence?  Will  her  conversation  lose  its 
power  when  strengthened  by  words  of  wisdom  '! 
Will  her  beauty  of  form  and  feature  vanish  amid 
geometrical  and  metaphysical  problems?  Will 
her  kingdom  be  circumscribed  as  her  knowledge  is 
enlarged?  Will  her  companionship  be  less  valued 
as  her  ability  to  counsel  wisely  and  control  judi- 
ciously is  increased?"  "Girls  too,"  said  Erasmus, 
"  ought  to  receive  a  liberal  education.     The  mul-  | 


of    Instruction,  Augui 
An  Address  to  the  J 


i  Institute 

WlLLARD, 

g  a  Plan 


68  :  Bra.  m  it.  The 

Hrls  (N.  V..  1,7-1,. 
ttions  for  II  omen,  a 
Science  Association 
'"  l//e   U.  S.  Conunis- 


■k,i„ 


FEMALE  TEACHERS.  As  long  as  female 
education  continued  to  be  neglected,  the  work  of 
instructing  pupils  in  schools  devolved  upon  the 
other  sex  ;  but-  inasmuch  as  girls  were  taught 
only  in  the  household,  these  schools  were  com- 
posed exclusively  of  boys.  A  woman  capable  of 
teaching  was  an  intellectual  and  social  phenom- 
enon; for  the  position  of  females  rendered  the  ac- 
quisition of  learning  unnecessary.  A  writerof  the 
I  3th  century  enumerated,  as  the  end  and  aim  of 
female  education,  "  the  knowing  how  to  pray  to 
God,  to  love  man,  and  to  knii  and  sew."  in  pro- 
portion, however,  as  women  w  ere  set  free  from 
the  social  bonds  that  prevented  their  receiving 
the  duecultureof  their  faculties,  it  was  perceived 
that  they  were  well  fitted  to  take  a  due  share  in 
the  work  of  elementary  education.  In  the  ITiited 
States,  the  number  of  female  teachers  by  far 
exceeds  that  of  male  teachers.  According  to  the 
census  of  1870,  out  of  I  69,577  teachers.  I  26,822, 
or  about  7  1  percent,  were  females.  In  the  New 
England  states  the  excess  of  female  teachers  over 
males  is  very  great.  Thus,  in  .Massachusetts, 
during  1874 — 5,  the  number  of  female  teachers 
employed  in  the  public  schools  was  #,(147  out  of 


FEMALE  TEACHERS 


FENfiLON 


Mam.' 


per  cent  :   m 

.  is  about  97 


per  cent,  m  winter,  only  ao  per 
necticut,  the  proportion  is  nearly  as  great;  in 
Vermont,  in  L873,  out  of  1,406  teachers,  3,739, 
or  nearly  90  per  cent,  were  females.  In  the 
.state  of  New  York,  about  67  per  cent  of  all  the 
teachers  employed  are  females:  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  out  of  .'i.l  lo  teachers  employed  in 
the  public  schools,  in  1875,  2,842,  or  more  than 
'JO  per  cent  were  females,  hi  the  other  large 
cities  of  the  Union,  the  preponderance  of  female 
over  male  teachers  is  very  great.  In  the  city  of 
Boston,  for  example,  out  oi  L,289  teachers  em- 
ployed in  1M74,  1,091,  or  about  85  per  cent,  were 

a  smaller  percentage  of  female  teachers.  Thus. 
in  Ohio,  in  1873,  the  number  of  female  teachers 
was  12.110  out  of  21,899;  in  Missouri.  Ken- 
tucky. Tennessee,  and  Kansas,  the  number  of 
male  teachers  is  in  excess  of  that  of  female 
teachers.  In  some  of  the  European  countries, 
the  number  of  female  teachers  .-.hows  a  similar 
preponderance  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  male  teacHers 
are  in  a  majority.  Especially  is  this  the  ease  in 
most  of  the  German  states  Thus  in  the  public 
•elementary  schools  of  Prussia,  there  were,  in  ls.">7. 
31,467  male  and  only  1,523  female  teachers. 


of  employments  in  which  women  can  engage; 
(IS)  the  superior  compensation  paid  to  female 
teachers,  in  comparison  with  that  paid  in  other 
occupations,  such  as  sewing,  copying,  etc.:  i  li  'I  he 
fact  that  men  of  talent  and  enterprise  can  obtain 
a  larger  compensation  in  other  fields  of  labor,  in- 
duces most  to  quit  the  work  of  teaching  at  an 
early  age;  (5)  Women  are  often  preferred  to 
men  by  superintendents  and  school  officers  on 
account  of  their  being  more  tractable,  and  more 
willing  to  comply  with  the  regulations  and 
to  carry  out  the  policy  of  special  systems  :  and 
(6)  Considerations  of  economy,  the  salaries  paid 
to  female  teachers  b  'ing  considerably  smaller  than 
those  paid  to  males,  the  last  mentioned  reason, 
though  generally  very  influential,  in  a  few  cases 
does  not  exist.  The  question  of  equal  compen- 
sation for  equal  service  lias  been  much  discussed, 
but  has  rarely  been  decided  in  favor  of  the  female 
claimants  for  equal  salary.  The  city  of  St  Louis 
makes  no  discrimination  between  male  and  female 
teachers  in  fixing  their  salaries.  The  California 
legislature  of  1  S7.'l  enact ei  1  that  "females  employed 
as  teachers  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state 
should,  in  all  cases,  receive  the  same  compensa- 
tion as  is  allowed  to  male  teachers  for  like  services, 
when  holding  certificates  of  the  same  grade." 

Much  has  been  said,  in  addition,  as  to  the  com- 
parative value  of  the  services  of  male  and  female 
teachers;  and  there  is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion 
on  this  point.  Many  contend  that  it  is  "woman's 
special  mission"  to  teach,  and  that,  therefore,  the 
whole  field  should  be  left  open  to  lur  without 
any  competition  from  the  other  sex  ;  and  some 


•  Mast 
id  this 


-  should 

chers  of 


A  number  of  Germs. 
Grundzuge  der  E 
(EvaTigi    s-Jhe  Fz±-g 


.  shall  fairly 
the  other." 

as  <;.  Hack 
I,    Palmer, 

SEKEiErzie- 


no1  prevailed,  and  in  Germany  aswell  as  in  most 
of  the  other  European  countries,  the  scale  on 
which  female  teachers  arc  employed  is  steadily 
enlarging,  and  the  number  of  training  schools  for 
female  teachers  correspondingly  increasing    (See 

Training  Sci s).     It  is  sometimes  said  that 

female  teachers  are   i v  earnest   and  devoted 

than  mal  i  teachers,  and  consequently  thai  their 
work  is  more  successful.  This  might  be  antici- 
pated from  the  fact  that  women  pursue  teaching 
more  as  a  steady  employment;  while  there  are 
but  few  young  men  engaged  in  elementary  schools, 
who  are  not  looking  forward  to  more  lucrative 
and  more  influential  occupations.  In  this  con- 
nection. Adams,  in  77.  Free  School  System  of 
the  United  States  1875  .  remarks:  "The  large 
preponderance  of  female  teachers  in  the  States 
will  always  render  the  occupation  of  teacher 
more  or  less  a  temporary  one.  As  a  matter  quite 
of  course,  women  do  not  look  to  teaching  as  a 
lifelong  career  In  England,  scarcely  one  in 
twenty  of  the  female  teachers  reaches  her  tenth 
year  of  service.  Of  the  female  teachers  trained 
at  Bishop's  Stortford,  it  has  been  ascertained 
that  their  average  school  life  was  under  five 
years.  The  proportion  of  female  teachers  in 
America  is  ten  times  greater  than  in  England. 
Female  teachers  may  hive  other  advantages  over 
males,  and  in  the  United  States  are  generally 
conceded  to  have,  but  the  length  of  their  school 
life  is  not  one  of  them. 

FENELON,  Francois  de  Salig-nac  de  la 
Mothe,  a  celebrated  French  educator  and  prel- 
ate, was  born  Aug.  6.,  L651;died  Jan.  7..  L715. 
lie  was.  in  1074,  ordained  a  priest,  and  four 
years  later  appointed  aumonier  of  a  society  of 
French  ladies  for  instructing  Protestant  girls  in 
the  Catholic  faith.  I  lis  experience  in  this  posi- 
tion induced  him  to  write  a  work  on  female 
education,  one  of  the  first  systematic  works 
written  on  the  subject.  When  the  Duke  of 
I'.eauvilliers  was  appointed  governor  of  the 
royal  princes,  he  procured  the  appointment  of 


306  FERULE 

Fenelon  as  one  of  their  educators.  The  results 
of  his  labors  in  this  position  gained  for  him  a 
reputation  as  one  of  the  most  successful  educators 
of  princes  that  ever  lived.  The  oldest  of  the 
princes,  the  Duke  Louis  of  Burgundy,  who  when 
Fenelon  was  appointed  was  only  seven  years  old, 
but  already  noted  for  a  propensity  to  violent 
anger  and  stubbornness,  became,  under  the  in- 
struction of  Fenelon,  the  model  of  a  meek,  docile 
young  prince,  and  was  enthusiastically  attached 
to  his  teacher.  In  1695,  the  king  appointed  him 
Archbishop  of  Cambray;  but,  two  years  later, 
he  fell  into  disfavor  with  the  king  in  consequence 
of  theological  controversies  with  Bossuet.  and 
was  removed  from  his  position  of  educator.  His 
famous  work.  Leg  Aventures  de  Telemaque,  is 
an  educational  novel,  the  chief  object  of  which 
is  to  develop  the  principles  that  guided  Fenelon 
in  the  education  of  the  three  princes.  It  was 
completed  about,  the  time  his  personal  intercourse 
with  the  princes  ceased.  It  was  published 
against  his  wish,  the  manuscript  having  been 
stolen  by  a  servant.  The  best  edition  of  Ins 
educational  works  is  that  of  llidot  (Paris,  18">0); 
the  best  Knglish  translation  of  Tcleim/i/ne  is  that 
of  Hawkesworth  (4to,  London,  L768,  and  L2mo, 
New  York.  L859). — See  also  De  Bausset, Histoire 
de  Fin, lion  (Paris,  1808). 

FERULE  (Lat,/Wv//i/,from/eW/v,  to  strike), 
an  instrument  used  in  inflicting  corporal  punish- 
ment in  schools.  Allusion  is  made  to  it  by  Hor- 
ace and  Juvenal ;  by  the  latter  in  the  remark, 
nit/Hum  feral, r  snlitht.i  iniim.  Among  the  Ro- 
mans, this  was  the  instrument  for  the  lightest 
kind  of  punishment;  of  a  much  severer  kind 
were  the  scutica,  made  of  twisted  strips  of  parch- 
ment, and  the  terrible  flagellum,  a  whip  consist- 
ing of  thongs  of  hard  ox-hide.  The  exact  form 
of  the  ferula  as  used  by  the  Romans  is  not 
known;  in  modern  times,  it  was  a  Mat  piece  of 
wood,  narrow  at  the  handle,  generally  with  a 
small  hole  in  the  middle  of  its  broad  part,  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  a  blister  on  the  offender's 
hand.  Sometimes,  it  was  a  broad  leather  strap, 
about  ten  inches  long,  and  at  its  broad  part 
about  four  or  five  inches  wide,  fastened  to  a 
wooden  handle.  The  Scotch  ferule,  called  the 
laws,  was  a  leather  strap  with  one  end  cut  into 
strips  and  hardened  in  the  fire. — See  Cooper, 
History  of  the  Rod.  (See  also  Corporal  Pun- 
ishment.) 

FESTIVALS,  SCHOOL.  See  School  Fes- 
tivals. 

FICHTE,  Johann  Gottlieb,  one  of  Ger- 
many's greatest  philosophers,  and  one  of  the  most 
noted  writers  on  the  subject  of  national  educa- 
tion, was  born  May  19.,  1762,  and  died  Jan.  28., 
1814.  He  was,  for  some  time,  professor  of  phi- 
losophy at  Jena  ;  but  being  charged  with  athe- 
ism by  some  persons  who  had  completely  mis- 
understood him,  he  left  that  university,  and  went 
to  Berlin,  where  he  afterward  became  a  professor. 
His  philosophy  is  a  development  of  that  of  Kant, 
and  rests  entirely  upon  the  notion  that  the  mind 
constructs  its  objects  by  an  internal  necessity.  All 
activity,  as  well  as  the  condition  of  the  existence 


FICTION 

of  all  things,  depends  upon  the  ego.  Very  many 
profound  remarks  and  fine  psychological  anal- 
yses occur  in  his  philosophical  writings.  His. 
bent  of  mind  was  strongly  ethical;  he  viewed 
nature  as  valueless  except  as  a  means  for  devel- 
oping the  moral  character  of  the  individual. 
Like  Kant  he  had  the  greatest  abhorrence  of  all 
utilitarian  ethics,  and  woidd  not  sanction  any  at- 
tempt to  reduce  the  moral  law  to  a  means  of 
gaining  either  happiness  or  heaven.  His  ad- 
dresses to  the  German  nation,  delivered  while 
Napoleon  was  in  Berlin,  are  full  of  this  ethical 
rigor,  and  are  so  stirring,  that  it  is  a  wonder 
that    Napoleon   Buffered   him   to  deliver  them. 

emphatic  enunciation  of  the  doctrine'  that  edu- 
cation must  be  an  unfoldingof  the  whole  nature, 
moral  as  well  as  mental.  The  mere  acquisition 
of  knowledge  he  viewed  as  the  smallest  part  of 
education.     The  great  aim  of  instruction  is  to 

make    g 1    men  ;    or.   since  will    was   the  man 

with  him,  to  develop  a  will  to  do  right.  His  hatred 
of  selfishness — which  was  probably  much  in- 
creased by  the  political  .vents  of  his  time- 
brought  him  into  sharp  antagonism  with  the  pre- 
vailing theories  both  of  education  and  of  religion. 
He  complained  that  the  aim  of  the  schools  was 
simply  to  make  men  knowing,  and  th.it  they 
were  utterly  indifferent  to  their  moral  develop- 
ment. Religion  itself,  he  said,  as  taught,  ministers 
to  selfishness  by  its  theory  of  rewards  and  punish- 
ments. Selfishness  was.  for  him,  the  root  of  all 
evil,  and  tainted  the  old  methods  in  church,  school, 
and  state.  The  new  education,  therefore,  must 
aim    to    produce    complete    and    unselfish    men. 

Addresses  to  the   German    Nation    (the    book 

tion)  to  lay  down  a  theory  of  state  or  national 
education,  in  which  the  rights  of  the  individual 
do  not  receive  proper  recognition.  This  was  a 
necessary  revolt  from  the  individualism  of  the 
previous  century,  but  it  was  no  less  one-sided, 
and  prepared  the  way  for  the  opposite  theory  of 
Herbart.  Concerning  Fichte  as  an  educator, 
see  Schmidt,  Geschichie  der  Pddaaogik;  and 
Striempei.l,  Die  Padagogik  der  Phihsophen 
Kant,  Fichte,  Herbart  ( 1 8 13).  See  also  Fichh  's 
Leben  and  Briefwechsel,  edited  by  his  son,  J.  H. 
Fichte  (2  vols.,  1830— 31) ;  and  Drmss,  Schule 
der  Pddagogik  (Leipsic,  1876). 

FICTION,  Works  of,  constitute  an  import- 
ant part  of  the  literature  used  in  the  education 
of  children.  The  young  mind  delights  in  inter- 
esting tales,  and  receives  impressions  therefrom, 
deeper  and  more  durable  perhaps  than  those 
derived  from  any  other  source.  While  it  instinc- 
tively perceives  what  is  fictitious  in  the  scenes 
and  incidents  of  the  story,  it  imbibes  as  true  the 
characters  of  the  personages  and  their  relations; 
that  is,  it  feels  that  such  characters  and  relations 
may,  possibly  or  actually,  exist  in  real  life. 
Hence,  the  awe  with  which  children  listen  to 
supernatural  narratives  is  due  not  only  to  the 
excited  condition  of  their  imagination,  but  to  the 
feeling  that  had  such  things  never  existed  they 


would  not  have  formed  part  of  the  story:  for 
stories  are  felt  to  be  senseless  and  idle  that  tell 
of  things  entirely  impossible.  This  principle  may- 
serve  to  guide  the  educator  in  selecting  or  reject- 
ing works  of  fiction  for  the  young.  They  must 
be  looked  upon  as  powerful  instruments  in  either 
benefiting  or  corrupting  the  minds  of  children. 
The  writings  of  Mrs.  Barbauld,  Miss  Bdgeworth, 
Berquin,  and  in  part  those  of  Hans  Andersen, 
are  illustrative  of  this  principle.  Some  of  the 
stories  of  the  latter  must  be  classed  among  the 
impossible,  and  hence  are  much  less  instructive 
and  interesting  to  children.  Nor  do  children  take 
any  real  interest  in  those  stories  usually  found 
in  Sunday-school  books,  which  are  designed 
to  improve  their  moral  and  religious  nature 
by  presenting  examples  of  juvenile  virtue  and 

g Iness,  such  as  they  never  behold  in  real  life, 

and  which  they,  therefore,  look  upon  as  senti- 
mental and  of  no  account.  "There  is, "  said 
Margaret  Fuller,  "  too  much  amongst  us  of  the 
Preach  way  of  palming  off  false  accounts  of 
things  on  children,  'to  do  them  good',  and  show- 
ing nature  to  them  in  a  magic  lantern,  'purified 
for  the  use  of  childhood',  and  telling  stories  of 
sweet  little  girls  and  brave  little  boys,  —  O,  all  so 
good,  so  bad!  and,  above  all,  so  little,  and  every 
thing  about  them  so  little  !  Children  accustomed 
to  move  in  full-sized  apartments,  and  to  converse 
with  full-grown  men  and  women,  do  not  need  so 
much  of  this  baby-house  style  of  literature.  They 
like,  or  would  like  if  they  could  get  them,  better 
things  much  more.  They  bke  the  Arabian 
Nights,  and  Pilgrim's  Progress,  and  Bunyan's 
Emblems,  and  Shakespeare,  and  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey,  —  at  least,  they  used  to  like  them  ;  and 
if  they  do  not  now,  it  is  because  their  taste  has 
been  injured  by  so  many  sugar-plums."  In  the 
same  spirit.  Rosenkrauz  says.  'The  purest  stories 
of  literature  designed  for  the  amusement  of 
children  from  their  seventh  to  their  fourteenth 
year,  consist  always  of  those  which  were  honored 
by  nations  ami  the  world  at  large.  One  has 
only  to  notice  in  how  many  thousand  forms  the 
stories  of  (Jlysses  are  reproduced  by  the  writers 
of  children's  tales.  Becker's  Tales  if  Ancient 
Times,  (jlustav  Schwabs  most  admirable  Sat/as 
of  Antiquity,  Karl  Grimm's  Tales  of  Olden 
Times,  &c.  —  what  were  they  without  the  well- 
talking,  wOy  favorite  of  Pallas,  and  the  divine 
swineherd?  And  just  as  indestructible  are  the 
stories  of  the  old  Testament  up  to  the  separation 
of  Judah  and  Israel.  These  patriarchs  with  their 
wives  and  children,  these  judges  and  prophets, 
these  kings  and  priests,  are  by  no  means  ideals  of 
virtue  in  the  notion  of  our  modern  lifeless  moral- 
ity, which  woidd  smooth  out  of  its  pattern  stories 
for  the  'dear  children'  every  thing  that  is  hard 
and  uncouth." 

By  means  of  suitable  works  of  fiction,  the 
minds  of  children  and  youth  may  be  cultivated 
in  several  respects  ;  (1)  By  imparting  vivid  con- 
ceptions of  persons  and  things  ;  (2)  By  impress- 
ing upon  them  sentiments  of  virtue,  courage,  and 
patriotism;  (3)  By  developing  and  training  the 
imagination  and  the  taste.  Such  were  the 


TON  307 

which  prompted  Fenelon  to  write  Telemaque, 
and  probably  Xenophon  in  the  composition  of 
the  Cyropcedia;  ami  this  office  of  fiction  as  a 
vehicle  of  instruction  and  moral  elevation  has 
been  recognized  by  most,  if  not  all.  great  educa- 
tors. Pestalozzi  selected  it  as  the  most  effective 
means  of  reaching  the  popular  mind.  In  his 
Leonard  ami  Gertrude  (1784),  he  laid  the 
foundation  for  a  national  pedagogical   literature. 


pected  turns  and  changes,  and  thus  not  only  de- 
lights, hut  inculcates  morality  and  nobleness  of 
soul.  It  raises  the  mind  by  accommodating  the 
image  of  things  to  our  desires,  and  not,  like  his- 
tory and  reason,  subjecting  the  mind  to  things.'' 
There  are,  however,  dangers  to  be  avoided  in  us- 
ing fiction  as  an  educational  agent,  which  we 
may  thus  briefly  summarize :  i  1  Bj  itsexciting 
character,  it  may  so  occupy  or  intoxicate  the 
mind,  as  to  destroy  the  taste  for  more  solid  and 
useful  reading.  Such  is  uniformly  the  result  of 
permitting  children  to  read  the  wild,  romantic, 
and  startling  stories,  with  which  some  of  the 
juvenile  periodicals  of  the  day  are  filled.  The 
constant  perusal  of  such  narratives  is  baneful  : 
like  ardent  spirits,  it  intoxicates  but  does  not 
nourish.  (2)  In  the  case  of  narratives  which 
present  instances  of  suffering,  the  sympathies 
are  expended  upon  fictitious  objects,  and  pity 
thus  becomes  habitually  a  mere  sentiment,  instead 
of  prompting  to  active  beneficence.  "In  the 
healthy  state  of  the  moral  feelings,"  says  Aber- 
erombie,  "the  emotion  of  sympathy  excited  by  a 
tale  of  sorrow  ought  to  be  followed  by  some  ef- 
forts for  the   relief  of  the  sufferer.     When  such 


dlv 


wlii 


m.l  ths 

11  seltis 


hardu, 


of  heart."  |3)  By  presenting  to  the  young  mind 
fictitious  scenes  of  immorality,  vice,  or  .nine,  it 
becomes  familiar  with  their  associations,  and  is 
thus  depraved.  (4)  By  impressing  upon  the 
mind  false  conceptions  of  the  enjoyments,  duties, 
and  objects  of  life,  it  may  be  the  means  of  pro- 
ducing a  kind  of  infatuation,  unfitting  for  every 
sphere  of  useful  employment.  Johnson,  in  Bas- 
selas  well  describes  this  mental  condition  :  "The 
mind  dances  from  scene  to  scene,  unites  all  pleas- 
ures in  all  combinations,  and  riots  in  delights 
which  nature  and  fortune,  with  all  their  bounty, 
cannot  bestow.  In  time,  some  particular  train 
of  ideas  fixes  the  attention ;  all  other  intellect- 
ual gratifications  are  rejected;  the  mind,  in 
weariness  or  leisure,  recurs  constantly  to  the 
favorite  conception,  and  feasts  on  the  luscious 
falsehood  whenever  she  is  offended  with  the  bit- 
terness of  truth.  By  degrees  the  reign  of  fancy 
is  confirmed  ;  she  grows  imperious,  and  in  time 
despotic.  Then  fictions  begin  to  operate  as  re- 
alities, false  opinions  fasten  upon  the  mind,  and 
life  passes  in  dreams  of  rapture  or  of  anguish." 
(See  Imagination,  Culture  of.) 


308  FINE  ARTS 

FINE  ARTS,  a  term  which  lias,  of  late, 
undergone  considerable  modification.  Formerly, 
it  was  tin-  collective  name  of  all  those  arts  which, 
through  the  power  of  invention  or  imitation,  are 
designed  to  produce  pleasure  in  the  mind  ;  such 
as  poetry,  music,  etc.  Fine  arts,  in  the  widest 
sense  of  the  word,  constitute  an  important 
agency  in  every  complete  system  of  education; 
for  the  element  of  beauty,  which  exists  in  the 
human  mind  and  should  be  trained  no  less  than 
the  intellect,  the  will,  or  the  conscience,  depends 
for  its  development,  to  a  great  extent,  on  the 
proper  application  of  the  arts  of  poetry,  music, 
and  , hawing.  (See  Esthetic  Culture,  and  Akt- 
Education).  More  recently,  the  meaning  of  the 
term  Fine  Arts  has  been  restricted  to  painting, 
sculpture,  engraving,  and  architecture,  which 
influence  us  through" the  eye.  In  a  still  narrower 
sense,  it  is  sonitimcs  applied  to  painting  and 
sculpture  exclusively. 

Special  art  schools  maybe  divided  into  two 
large  classes, — schools  of  a  lower  grade,  chiefly 
intended  for  industrial  purposes,  and  embracing 
instruction  in  drawing,  modeling,  and  design ; 
and  schools  of  higher  grade,  specially  intended 
for  the  instruction  of  young  artists  in  the  fine 
arts,  according  to  the  more  restricted  sense  of 
that  term.  The  former  class  has  been  fully 
treated  of  under  the  head  of  art-education  (q.  v.). 
The  schools  of  the  latter  class  have  generally 
been  designated  by  the  name  Academies  <>f  An. 
In  ancient  times  and  m  the  middle  ages,  schools 
of  this  kind  were  unknown;  and  the  young 
artist  was  educated  in  the  n/e/ier  of  his  master, 
by  being  trained  to  take  an  immediate  and  active 
part  in  the  master's  work.  The  first  institution 
which  bears  a  similarity  to  our  present  academies 
of  art,  was  founded  at  Padua  by  Squarcione, 
who,  by  his  collection  of  antique  works  of  art 
and  by  encouraging  a  thorough  study  of  antique 
art,  exerted  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  Italian 
artists  of  the  L5th  century.  The  school  which 
was  opened  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci  at  Milan, 
is  designated  by  the  name  of  academy,  and 
even  at  that  early  period  contained  the  principal 
features  of  the  modern  academy  of  art,  the 
personal  element  of  the  atelier  being  enlarged  by 
general  instruction.  The  entire  separation  o'f 
the  academy  of  art  from  the  atelier  began  in 
the  school  of  Bologna,  founded  by  Lodovico 
Caracci,  ami  soon  met  with  general  approbation. 
The  influences  proceeding  from  Ixjuis  XIV., 
closely  attached  art  to  the  royal  courts,  and  con- 
verted the  academies  of  art,  to  a  large  extent, 
into  court  institutions.  Among  the  most  famous 
institutions  of  this  kind,  were  the  schools  of 
Paris,  founded  in  1648,  of  Berlin,  in  1694, 
Dresden,  in  1697,  and  Vienna,  in  1726.  The 
revival  of  the  fine  arts,  in  modern  times,  caused 
also  a  revival  of  the  academies  of  art  and  raised 
them  to  a  higher  standard.  It,  moreover,  re- 
established the  close  connection  which  formerly 
existeil  between  instruction  and  the  work  of  the 
ateliers.  Great  celebrity,  in  modern  times,  has 
been  attained  by  the  schools  of  Munich  and 
Dusseldorf.       In    Great    Britain    and    Ireland, 


FINLAND 

there  are  also  schools  for  artists,  located  in 
London,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin.  France  has 
3  schools  of  tine  Arts ;  and  Italy.  25  academies 
and  institutes.  Russia  has  imperial  academies  of 
art    at   St.    Petersburg    and    Warsaw,    and  a 

school  of  painting  and  sculpture  at  Moscow. 
The  schools  for  artists  in  the  United  States  have 
already  been  mentioned  in  the  article  on  Art- 
Education. 

FINLAND,  a  grand  duchy  in  the  north- 
western part  of-  the  Russian  Empire,  having  an 
area  of  144,258  square  miles,  and  a  population, 
in  1872,  of  1,835,138.     Of  this  number,  about 


ivl, 


Finns  having  joined  the  Greek  Church.  1a\ss 
is  known  of  the  early  history  of  Finland  than  of 
any  other  countrv  of  Europe.  It  was  originally 
governed  by  independent  kings;  but,  in  the 
middle  of  tlie  12th  century,  it  became  subject  to 
the  kings  of  Sweden,  who  introduced  <  Christian- 
ity, and  retained  their  hold  upon  it  up  to  1809, 
when  it  was  ceded  to-  Russia.  The  Swedish 
language  had  taken  such  a  deep  root,  however, 
that  the  Russians  have  not  been  able  to  eradicate 
it. up  to  the  present  day.  Very  little  was  done 
for  education  in  Finland  up  to  the  17th  century. 
In  1826,  a  gymnasium  was  founded  in  Abo,  the 
pupils  of  which  were  educated  to  serve  as  clergy- 
men ;  but.  in  their  learning  and  manners,  they 
were  not  much  better  than  the  great  mass  of 
the  people.  In  1640,  Abo  obtained  it  university  ; 
but  the  great  obstacle  to  the  spread  of  education, 
was  the  want  of  books.  In  1642,  a  Finnish  Bible 
was  published  at  the  expense'  of  the  government; 
and,  by  the  efforts  of  the  governor,  Peter  Brahe, 
the  schools  were  greatly  improved.  During  the 
northern  war.  which  lasted  up  to  1721.  Finland 
suffered  very  much:  but,  after  the  conclusion  of 
peace,  education  was  revived,  both  in  the  Swed- 
ish and  Russian  parts  of  the  country  :  and  insti- 
tutions of  learning  were  every-where  established. 
At  the  present  time,  education  is  well  cared  for, 
and  the  Finnish  language,  which  had  been 
neglected  under  the  Swedish  rule,  is  encouraged 
by  the  Russian  government.  A  large  number 
of  native  Finns  were  sent  to  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  in  order  to  study  the  educational 
systems  of  those  countries,  and  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  them,  both  theoretically  and 
practically.  Among  them,  one  of  the  most 
prominent  was  Uno  ( Vgnaus,  who,  on  his  return, 
advocated  manual  labor  as  a  meansof  education; 
and,  in  his  proposition  for  the  organization  of  a 
public-school  system  for  Finland,  he  embodied 
this  idea.  In  1863,  he  was  entrusted  with  the 
organization  of  a  Finnish  seminary  for  public- 
school  teachers  in  Jyvaskyla.  This  met  with  so 
much  success,  that  in  1871,  two  more  were 
organized  for  Swedes, — one  at  Ekeniis  for  female 
teachers,  and  the  other  at  Ny-Karleby  for  male 
teachers.  According  to  the  latest  accounts, 
there  were  71  elementary  schools,  with  about 
9,600  scholars.      Secondary   instruction  is  im- 


FISK   UNIVEBSITY 


iperior  instruc- 
elsingfors,  \\  iih 
on  la  provided 


parted  in  6  gymnasia  :  ai 
rim.  there  is  one  univers 
48   professors.     Special 

for  in  the  following  schools:  one  caaet  corps  at 
Frederikshamn  three  navigation  Bchools,  three 
technological  schools,  three  commercial  schools, 
one  institute  for  rural  e  »nomy,  at  Mustiala,  ten 
agricultural  schools,  six  industrial  schools  for 
girls,  and  our  female  aei  leinv.  or  high  si  li  ml.  at 

Helsingfors.  -See  Bcsch,  B  rag  r  G  - 
schichte  und  Slatistik  des  Kirchen-  tmd  Schul- 

„■,..,,,,■  ,/,■<  (^rns<f,,rstenihums  Finnland  (1874). 

FISK  UNIVERSITY,  at  NashviUe.Tenn., 

Was  established   by   the    American    Missionary 

Association  in  1866.  The  name  was  given  in 
honor  of  Gen.  <  ilinton  B.  Fisk.  then  chief  of  the 
Freedmen's  Bureau  for  Tennessee,  who  aided  in 
its  establishment.  It  was  known  as  the  Fisk 
School  till  1867,  when  it  was  incorporated  as  a 
university.     It  makes  no  distinction  of  race  or 

sex.  but  'the  institution  was  es] ially  designed 

for  colored  youth,  and  the  students  are  mainly 
colored.  It  has  received  some  aid  from  th- 
Preedmen's  Bureau  and  the  Peabody  Fund,  and 
a  gift  of  between  three  and  four  acres  of  land 
from  the  United  States;  but  its  support  is 
chiefly  derive  1  from  the  Association.  In  1S71 , 
a  number  of  the  students  were  organized  as  a 
singing  band,  known  as  the  "  Jubilee  Singers." 
These  and  their  successors,  by  concerts  in  the 
Northern  states  and  iu  England,  earned  clear  of 
expenses  $130,000,  which  was  devote  1  to  the 
purchase  of  a  permanent  site  for  the  University, 
comprising  25  acres,  in  a  beautiful  situation  in 
the  suburbs  of  the  city,  and  to  the  erection  of 
a  fine  building  (dedicated  Jan,  L,  1876),  called 
Jubilee  Hall.  The  singers  are  now  (1876)  in 
England,  engaged  in  the  effort  to  raise  an  en- 
dowment of  8100,000  for  the  institution.  The 
property  of  the  university  is  value!  at  $176,000; 
its  library  contains  l.:!UII  volumes;  audit  has 
chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus,  and  a  col- 
lection of  over  .'i.000  specimens  in  natural  history, 
geology,  and  zoology.  Six  courses  of  study  have 
been  organized:  namely. a  collegiate,  a  coll  "je  pr  ■- 
paratory,  a  higher  normal,  a  theological,  a  nor- 
mal, and  a  primary  course.  Other  courses,  in- 
cluding law  and  me  Heine, are  to  be  a  1  led  as  soon 
as  they  are  required.  The  first  college  class,  con- 
sisting of  4  students,  graduate  1  in  1875.  In  1875 
— 6,  there  were  14  instructors.  The  number  of 
students  was  as  follows  :  in  the  college  course.  11; 
in  the  college  ]  ire]  iamb  iry.  .'is  ;  higher  normal.  1  li: 
theological.  1  3  :  normal.  03  :  primary,  63  ;  total, 
deducting  repetitions.  212.  The  tuition  fees 
vary  from  89  to  §13  per  year.  Prof.  John 
Ogden  was  principal  of  the  institution  from 
1866  to  18711;  and   Prof.  A.  K.  Spence,M.A., 

6 i   L870  to  1875.     In  1875,  the  Rev.  E.  M. 

Cravath.  M.  A.,  was  elected  president. 

FLATTICH,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  Ger- 
man educator  of  the  Pietistic  School,  was  born 
October  30.,  1713,  at  Baihingen.  near  Ludwigs- 
burg.  He  was  successively  garrison  chaplain  at 
Hohenasperg,  and  pastor  at  Metterzimmern  and 
at  Munehingen,  at  the  latter  of  which  places  he 


died,  June  I..  1707.     lie  was  generally  regarded 
in  Germany  as  one  of  the  most  successful  eduea- 


ictive   in   mind  or  manners.     He  -ought   to 

id  severity  in  discipline,  and  to  govern    by 

lie  objected  to  tin-  use  of  the  rod.  not,  he 


disposition  and  endowments,  the  circumstances 
of  his  age,  his  bodily  and  mental  strength,  his 
disposition,  his  family  condition,  and  the  calling 
to  which  he  was  destined.  Progress  in  instruc- 
tion should  be  made  by  slow  step.-,  beginning 
with  teaching  of  a  simple  character,  and  grad- 
ually building  up  the  understanding,  and  .strength- 
ening the  mental  powers.  Flattich's  fame  rests 
not  so  much  on  his  actual  work  as  a  teacher,  on 
the  distinction  attained  by  any  of  his  pupils,  or 
even  on  his  written  works,  as  on  the  pithy  maxims 
in  which  he  expressed  his  views  on  education. 
These  maxims  are  often  quoted  in  Protestant 
works  on  the  subject,  and  have  had  considerable 

inline in  molding  the  theory  of  teachers.— 

See  Ledderhose,  Leben  und  Sckriflen  des  M. 
Johann  Friedrich  Flatlich  (4th  edit  Heidel- 
berg. 1859)  ;  Seii.Et.-KR.  Flattich  und  sein  p&da- 
gogisches  System  (Frankfort,  1871). 

FLORIDA  was  ceded  to  the  United  States 
by  Spain,  by  a  treaty  concluded  in  Washington 
in  1819,  but  not  ratified  till  1820.  In  1821, the 
United  State-  authorities  took  formal  possession 
of  its  new  dominions;  and  in  1822,  President  Mon- 
roe appointed  William  Duval  of  Kentucky  gov- 
ernor of  the  territory.  It  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  as  a  state.  March  .'.'..  1845.  Its  pop- 
ulation, in  1830,  was  reported  to  be  34,730,  of 
whom  15,501  were  slaves;  in  1870,  according  to 
the  census  of  that  year,  the  population  was 
187,748,  of  whom  91,689  were  free  colored  per- 
sons. The  number  of  inhabitants,  of  all  races, 
lit  years  old  and  upward,  unable  to  write,  was 
71,803.    Of  these  18,904  were  whites,  of  whom 


5,083  w. 
from    1." 


from  10  to  15  years  old,  and  4,345 
i  21.  Of  the  colored  inhabitants 
reported  as  illiterate.  The  area  of 
59,268  square  miles. 
rial  History.—  As  early  as  1839,  a 
is  inserted  into  the  proposed  consti- 
the  lands  received  for  "  the  use  of 
seminaries   of    learning"   should   lie 


grammar  schools,  with  732  students,  and  51  com- 
mon and  primary  schools,  with  925  pupils.  Ac- 
cording to  the  census  report  of  1850,  there  were 
1(1  academies  and  tilt  common  or  public  school-. 
In  l-nll,  the  census  report  gave  Florida  07  pub- 
lic schools,   with   2.032   pupils;  and   KiS  aeado- 


310  FLO 

mies  and  other  schools,  with  4.486  pupils.  The 
whole  educational  income  was  $75,412,  of  which 
$2,045  was  from  endowments.    The  constitution 

of  1865  contained  a  provision  designed  to  secure 
for  the  benefit  of  the  schools  of  the  state  the  in- 
come derived  from  the  school  lands:  but  little 
was  done  to  promote  the  cause  of  education  till 
the  passage  of  the  school  law,  Jan.  30.,  L869,  on 
which  the  present  school  system  is  based. 

Slate  Superintendents. —  The  first  state  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  was  ('.Thurston 
Chase,  appointed  Aug.  13.,  1868,  under  whose 
advice  and  direction  the  school  law  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  enacted.  He  held  the  office 
until  his  death  Sept.  22.,  1870  :  and  Rev.  Charles 
Beeeherwas  appointed  to  succeed  him  March  Is., 
1871,  who  served  until  Jan.  23.,  1873,  when,  a 
new  administration  coming  into  possession  of  the 
state  government,  he  was  superseded  by  Jonathan 
C.  Gibbs.  The  latter  held  the  office  till  his 
death,  which  occurred  Aug.  11..  1874.  William 
Watkin  Hicks,  the  present  incumbent,  was  ap- 
pointed March  1.,  1875. 

School  System. — The  school  law  provides  for 
the  establishment  of  a  uniform  system  of  public 
instruction  free  to  all  children  between  the  ages 
of  6  and  2]  years.  The  officers  of  the  depart- 
ment of  public  instruction  consist  of  a  superin- 
tendent, a  state  board  of  education,  a  board  of 
public  instruction  for  each  county,  a  superin- 
tendent of  schools  for  each  county,  local  school 
trustees,  treasurers,  and  agents.  Each  county 
board  of  public  instruction  consists  of  not  more 
than  five  members,  appointed  by  the  state  board 
of  education.  The  board  of  education  consists 
of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  the 
secretary  of  state,  and  the  attorney  general,  the 
.superintendent  being  the  president  of  the  board. 
Its  duties  are.  to  take  charge  of  and  control  the 
sale  or  rental  of  all  lands  granted  to,  or  held  by, 
the   state   for  educational   purposes  ;    to    have 

charge  and  direct  the  use   of   all    educat al 

funds  of  the  state  ;  to  audit  the  accounts  of  the 
.superintendent  ;  to  decide  questions  and  appeals 
referred  to  them  by  the  superintendent ;  to  re- 
move subordinate  officers  for  cause  ;  and  to  keep 
in  view  the  establishment  of  a  university,  the 
object  of  which  shall  be  to  impart  instruction  m 
the  professions  of  teaching,  medicine,  and  law, 
in  natural  science,  the  theory  and  practice  of 
agriculture,  horticulture,  mining,  engineering, 
and  the  mechanic  arts ;  also  in  the  ancient  and 
modern  lane  n.-  I.uli  t -mathematics. literature, 
and  in  such  useful  and  ornamental  branches  as 
are  not  taught  in  the  common  schools.  The 
superintendent  holds  office  tour  years,  and  is  re- 
quired to  have  the  oversight,  management,  and 
charge  of  all  matters  pertaining  to  public  lands, 
school  buildings,  ground.-.,  furniture,  libraries. 
text-books,  and  apparatus ;  to  furnish  all  school 
officers  with  the  necessary  blanks  for  official  re- 
turns, and  information  regarding  the  proper  dis- 
charge of  their  duties;  to  provide  plans  and 
specifications  for  the  construction  and  furnish- 
ing of  school  buildings:  to  call  meetings  of 
county  superintendents  and  other  officers  for  the 


j  purpose  of  advising  and  instructing  them  as  to 
their  duties :  to  grant  certificates  to  successful 

I  teachers,  and  to  fix  the  grades  and  standards  of 
qualification  of  teachers  in  general  ;  to  apportion 


sell, 


i iv  tiie  one-mill  tax  among  tne  counties  m  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  children  residing  there- 
in between  the  ages  of  6  and  21  ;  to  decide 
questions  and  appeals  arising  under  the  school 
act,  or  to  refer  the  same  to  the  board  of  education  ; 
to  collect  and  preserve  useful  educational  and 
historical  documents,  and  specimens  of  natural 
history.  Each  county  board  is  constituted  a 
corporate  body,  and  may  take  and  hold  real  and 
personal  property  for  educational  purposes.  Its 
duties  are  to  have  charge  of  all  educational  prop- 
erty in  the  county ;  to  locate  and  maintain 
schools  wdiere  needed,  so  as  to  accommodate  all 
the  children  of  school  age  in  the  county,  not 
less  than  three  months  of  each  year;  to  examine 
candidates  for  teachers'  licenses,  and  grant  certif- 
icates to  those  found  competent  ;  and  to  keep 
a  record  of  its  official  proceedings.  The  county 
superintendent  is  secretary  ex  officio  of  the 
board  of  public  instruction  ;  and.  in  addition  to 
keeping  the  records,  he  is  required  to  make  him- 
self acquainted  with  all  parts  of  the  county,  and 
to  keep  himself  informed  of  the  needs  and  wishes 
of  the  people  in  regard  to  schools ;  to  visit  each 
school  at  least  once  in  each  term,  and  to  confer 
with  and  direct  the  teachers  in  their  work  ;  to 
exercise  a  supervision  over  the  trustees,  the  gen- 
eral management  of  the  schools,  and  do  all  in  his 
power  to  awaken  an  increased  interest  in  parents, 
trustees,  and  teachers,  in  regard  to  every  thing 
pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  the  schools;  also  to 
select  pcisons  for  trustees,  whose  characters, 
qualifications,  and  sympathy  with  education 
specially  commend  them  for  such  positions;  to 
decide  questions  in  dispute,  or  refer  them  to 
the  board  of  public  instruction  :  to  keep  a  record 
of  the  name,  description,  and  locality  of  every 
school  established;  and  to  perform  the  duties,  as 
far  as  may  be  necessary,  of  the  board  of  public 
instruction,  in  case  such  a  body  should  not  be 
organized,  or  should  fail  without  good  cause  to 
pci  form  its  duties.  The  school  trustees  are  re- 
quired to  take  special  charge  of  the  schools  in 
their  respective  localities,  to  see  tu  the  construc- 
tion and  safe-keeping  of  the  school  buildings  and 

other  property,  to  < perate  with   the  teachers 

in  maintaining  order  and  discipline,  to  suspend 
or  expel  pupils  for  misconduct  ;  and  to  make  a 
quarterly  report  to  the  county  superintendent. 
Certificates  of  qualification  to  teach,  valid 
for  one  year,  may  be  granted  by  the  county 
boards  of  public  instruction,  also  by  the  state 
superintendent  to  graduates  of  the  Department 
of  Teaching,  and  to  eminently  successful  teach- 
ers, valid  iii  any  part  of  the' state  during  the 
time  specified.  '  These  certificates  are  of  three 
grades,  the  standard  for  each  being  fixed  by  the 
state  superintendent  A  certificate  may  be  an- 
nulled by  the  authority  which  issued  it.  for  any 
cause  which  woidd  disqualify  a  candidate  for 
a  license. 


FLORIDA 

Teachers  are  specially  directed  to  labor  ear- 
nestly and  faithfully  for  the  advancement  of  the 
pupils  in  their  studies,  and  to  inculcate  by  pre- 


FOREIGN  EDUCATION  311 

yet  in  the  state    In  the  high   schools,  the  usual 
higher  English  and   classical  studies  are  pursued: 

/...,.■/,.,,:■  :.,  ti„.  i.;..i,   J..1.....L    , t otk  ,'.. 


mal    Condition.  — There    are   three 
chools, — high,  common,  and  primary, 


ncy 


suspend  pupils  from  school  for  ten  days  for  gross 
immorality,  misconduct,  or  persistent  violation 
oftheschool  regulations;  and  to  hold  a  public 
examination  each  term.  The  reading  of  the 
Bible  and  short  devotional  exercises  of  a  non- 
sectarian  character,  at  the  opening  of  the  school, 
are  not  to  be  prohibited ;  hut  no  pupil  is  to  be 
required  to  engage  in  them  against  his  conscience. 
or  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  parents  or 
guardian. 

A  school  day  is  defined  to  consist  of  six  hours 
exclusive  of  recesses  ;  a  school  month,  of  twenty- 
two  days,  exclusive  of  the  first  and  last  day  of 
each  week;  a  school  term,  of  three  months  ;  and 
a  school  year,  of  three  terms. 

School  Fund.  -The  school  fund  consists  of  the 
Kith  section  of  the  various    townships  set    apart 

by  act  of  Congress  for  common  school  purposes, 


and  various  donations  by  individuals  for  educa- 
tional purposes.  Besides  the  income  from  these 
sources,  then'  are  appropriations  by  the  state; 
the  proceeds  of  all  property  granted  to  the  state, 

all  nevs  which  may  be  paid  for  exemption 

from  military  duty  ;  all  tines  collected  under  the 
penal  laws  of  the  state  ;  such  portion  of  the  per 
capita  tax  as  may  be  prescribed  by  law  for  ed- 
ucational purposes  ;  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  sales  of  public  lands  which  are 
now  or  may  hereafter  be  owned  by  the  state  ;  a 
special  tax  of  not  less  than  one  mill  on  the 
dollar  upon  all  taxable  property  in  the  state,  to 
be    levied    and    apportioned    'annually    for   the 

raised  by  each  county,  annually  producing' a  sum 
not  less  than  one-half  of  the  amount  apportioned 
to  each  county  from  the  income  of  the  common 
school  fund. 

The  seminary  lands  were  granted  by  Congress 
for  the  support  of  two  seminaries,  "one  to  lie 
located  east,  and  the  other  west  of  the  Suwanee 
River,  and  amounted  originally  to  s."i,71  f  aires. 
Of  these  about  38,000  acres  remain  unsold.  The 
sum  realized  by  the  sale  of  these  lands  has 
amounted  to  about  $100,000  ;  and  the  estimated 
value  of  the  remainder  is  about  $75,000.  In 
addition  to  this,  there  are  Florida  6,7,  and  8  per 
cent  bonds,  amounting  to  $81 ,41)2.45.  There  is 
no  uniform  course  if  instruction  established  as 


as  follows:  in  .Jacksonville,  2, —  Duval  High 
School  and  Staunton  Institute:  in  Pensacola,  1 : 
in  Key  West,  1  ;  in  Monticello,  1  ;  and  at  Fort 
Reid,  1. 

The  following  are  the  principal  items  of  the 
school  statistics  for  1874  : 


•of  1 


There  are  no  city-school  systems  proper  in  this 
state,  the  management  of  all  the  schools  in  each 
county  being  in  the   hands  of   the   county  board 

Seminaries.  The  Middle  Florida  Seminary, 
located   at    Gainesville,  and   the   West  Florida 


ise  of  the  adjoining 
tudy  includes  common 
■he,-,  with  the  classics 
.  'I  here  are  also  several 
jal  schools  in  various 


■  state. 
Tnstrui 


'ion. — There  is  no  institution 
for  superior  instruction  in  Florida;  but  a  state 
agricultural  college  has  been  planned  and  provided 
for  by  law,  and  was  to  have  been  inaugurated 
some  time  ago  :  but  this  has  been  delayed  by  pend- 
ing litigation  in  regard  to  the  constitutionality 
of  the  state  bonds  in  which  the  college  funds 
had  been  invested.  Of  this  college  when  estab- 
lished the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion will  be  ex  officio  the  president. 

Educational  '  Literature.  —  The  Fernandina 
Observer  is  the  official  organ  of  the  state  educa- 
tional department. 

FOREIGN  EDUCATION.  By  this  is 
meant  the  education  of  children  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. Parents  in  the  United  States  sometimes 
send  their  children  to  France  or  Germany  to  be 
educated, in  preference  to  having  them  instructed 
in  the  schools  of  their  native  country.  The  custom 
also  exists  to  some  extent  in  Great  I'ritain.  The 
motive  which  prompts  this  course  is  the  desire 
that  their  children  shall  have  the  best  means  of 
instruction,  and  the  impression  that  this  is  af- 
forded by  the  teachers  and  schools  of  Europe. 


Inchlcliiif.'  fs.aaii  frem  the  Ivabody  limit. 


312 


FOREIGN   K1HCATION 


Very  frequently,  however,  it  arises  from  the  wish 
on  the  part  of  parents  to  accomplish  their  children 
in  foreign  languages,  particularly  French  ami 
German.  "Some  parents,"  savs  Von  Etaumer, 
"who  think  no  attainment    valuable  ii mpar- 

daughters  to  French  or  Swiss  schools,  where 
they  can  hear  and  speak  nothing  but  French.  In 
such  a  foreign  atmosphere  they  too  often  become 
estranged  from  their  native  home  and  country." 
"  For  our  youth."  says  B.  G.  Northrop.  "Ameri- 
can schools  are  better  than  European.  To  send 
our  boys  and  girls  away  to  a  foreign  boarding- 
school  is  a  great  mistake,  or  rather  one  of  the 
fashionable  follies  which  is  just  now  having  its 
day."  Parents  who  adopt  this  course,  seem  to 
lose  sight  of  the  important  fact  that  the  school  is 
not  the  only  educator,  nay.  is  not  generally  the 
most  effective  means  of  education.  The  influences 
that  cluster  around  the  home-circle,  and  that 
emanate  from  the  peculiar  laws,  customs,  man- 
ners  mi  I  institutions  of  tl ountry  in  which  the 

child  lives,  leave  their  indelibly  impress  upon  the 
plastic  character  of  youth  ;  and  these  influences 
should  be  such  as  to  form  a  character  in  har- 
mony with  the  life  of  the  nation  of  which  the 
child  when  grown  up  is  to  form  a  part.  Lin- 
guistic and  esthetic  training  cannot  lie  a  satisfac- 
tory substitute  for  this  national  culture.  It  is  of 
little  use  that  young  men  or  women  know  how  to 
speak  fluently  and  correctly  F"rench.  German, 
Italian,  or  any  other  foreign  language,  or  excel 
in  either  judging  or  executing  works  of  art.  if 
they  arc  ignorant  of,  or  indifferent  to,  the  lan- 
guage and  institutions  of  their  own  country. 
Children  grow, ng  up  in  a  foreign  land  must  nec- 
essarily imbibe  a  predilection  tor  foreign  man- 
ners, customs,  and  sentiments,  because  these  are 
inseparably  associated  with  the  most  delightful 
part  of  their  existence.  Every  one  reverts  with 
pleasure  to  the  scenes  of  childhood,  consecrated 
in  the  mind,  as  thev  are.  by  the  meinorv  of  the 
enjoyments  peculiar  to  that  age.  Itisthis  thai 
renders  the  foreign  education  of  children  so  dan- 
gerous, ..-  tending  to  unfit  them  for  the  duties  of 
special  citia  nship  I  low  often  do  we  hear  the 
most  unfavorable  criticism  pronounce  1  upon  the 
institutions  and  customs  of  the  native  country 
by  those  whose  notions,  associations,  and  modes 
of  thought  have  been  formed  by  a  foreign  educa- 
tion! " The  experience  of  American  colleges," 
says  B.  G.  Northrop,  "is  believed  to  be  nearly 
uniform,  as  to  the  superiority  in  the  qualifica- 
tion of  candidates  trained  at  home  over  our 
youth  prepared  for  college  abroad.  The  number 
of  the  latter  class  is  relatively  small ;  but  the 
instances  of  eminent  success,  either  in  college 
studies  or  pra-tical  life  on  the  part  of  American 
boys  chiefly  educated  abroad,  are  rare  and  excep- 
tional." 

These  objections,  of  course,  do  not  apply  to 
the  practice  of  sending  abroad  young  men  and 
women  of  more  mature  age,  cither  to  finish  their 
education  in  foreign  schools  or  universities,  or  to 
acquire  a  knowledge  of  sonic  special  arts  in  tech- 
nical schools,  because  the  national  character  hav-  '< 


FORM 

ing  been  once  fully  formed,  is  not  easily  affected 
by  later  influences  and  conversations.  Young 
men.  among  the  Romans,  particularly  in  the  later 
periods  of  the  republic,  were  often  sent  to  Greece 
and  other  countries  to  finish  their  scholastic  or 
literary  education.  Thus  Cicero  addresses  his 
/'.  qffii  its  to  his  son  Marcus,  then  a  young  man 
of  'J  1 .  who  had  been  for  some  time  pursuing 
his  studies  in  the  schools  of  Athens.  In  the  same 
manner  and  with  equal  propriety,  a  young  man 
may  be  sent  from  the  United  States  to  any  of 
the  great  European  universities,  either  in  Great 
Britain  or  on  the  continent,  to  pursue  linguistic, 
scientific,  technical,  artistic,  or  other  studies,  for 
which  those  institutions  are  able  to  afford  greater 
facilities  than  are  offered  at  home. 

Foreign  travel  constitutes  an  important  part 
of  a  complete  education,  and  is  not  at  all  subject 
to  the  objections  which  are  urged  against  a 
foreign  elementary  education.  Nothing  more 
enlarges  the  mind  than  the  observation  of  the- 
manners,  institutions,  etc..  of  foreign  countries. 
New  and  vivid  ideas  are  impressed  upon  it; 
narrow  prejudices  are  removed;  and  a  founda- 
tion is  laid  for  just  and  liberal  thought.  This, 
however,  should  occur  at  a  comparatively  mature 
age,  and  should  be  preceded  by  sufficient  educa- 
tion to  fit  for  the  observation  of  things  abroad. 
,.  Foreign  travel."  says  Bishop  Watson  (cited  in 
Knox  on  Libera!  Eilm-nHim),  "is  of  great  use 
when  it  is  undertaken  by  men  who  have  learned 
to  bring  their  passions  under  the  control  of 
reason  and  religion  ;  who  have  had  some  experi- 
ence in  life,  acquired  some  knowdedge  of  the 
manufactures,  policy,  revenues,  and  resources  of 
their  own  country.' — See  Northrop,  Education 
of  Americans  abroad  (Sen  York). 

FORM,  one  of  the  most  important  branches. 
of  object  teaching,  since,  from  the  first  dawn  of 

intellect,  the  endless  variety  of  tonus  presented 
to  the  chiM's  sight  constitutes  perhaps  the  most 
effective  means  of  awake  nine  and  exercising  its 
perceptive  faculties.  The  first  comparison  which 
the  young  child  makes  between  the  objects  of  its 
perception  must  be  based  upon  their  resemblances, 
the  conscious  perception  of  differences  occurring 
somewhat  later.  'I  his  arises  from  its  need  of 
forming  general  ideas  as  preliminary  to  the  exer- 
eiseof  its  thinking  powers.  (See  Intellect.)  'lite 
diversity  of  forms,  like  that  of  color,  as  seen  by 
the  child,  very  greatly  interests  it  and  attracts 
its  attention  :  and.  hence,  when  formal  education 
begins,  the  child  has  already  accumulated  in  its 
mind,  in  a  rude  and  indefinite  way.  many 
materials  which  the  expert  teacher  will  use.  in 
guiding  his  pupil  to  more  exact  knowdedge. 
The  untaught  child's  vocabulary  of  terms  to- 
denote  the  various  forms  which  it  has  seen  is 
very  meager ;  and,  hence,  its  conceptions  are  too 
indefinite  to  form  the  materials  for  conscious 
thought.  They  are.  as  it  were,  only  embryotic 
thoughts,  to  be  developed  by  the  power  of 
language.  Hence,  an  important  office  of  the  in- 
structor is  to  teach  the  proper  term,  or  word,  by 
which  each  particular  object  of  the  child's  atten- 
tion is  to  be  designated,  and  in  this  way  clearly 


FORM 

individualized.  For  example,  a  young  child 
intuitively  perceives  the  difference  between  the 
form  of  a  round  object  and  a  square  one;  but 
before  the  terms  round  and  square  have  been 
learned  as  the  names  of  these  forms,  they  cannot 
be  used  by  the  mind  in  any  process  of  thought. 
Besides,  the  young  mind,  in  the  exercise  of  its 
unaided  powers,  is  chiefly  occupied  with  the 
observation  of  resemblances  and  analogies,  and 
only  after  the  guidance  of  the  teacher,  comes  to 

analogy,  ;\<  it  has  been  called,  taking  the  lead  in 


the  obse 
guided  1 


a  basis  for  training 
teacher   should  be 
inciples:  (1)  Resem- 
blances are  perceived  before  differences;  (2)  The 

concrete  precedes  the  abstract;  (.3)  Kvn\  object 
is  perceived  as  a  whole  before  its  component 
parts  are  noticed ;  (4)  Every  idea  must  have  its 
proper  verbal  designation  to  be  clearly  and 
permanently  fixed  in  the  mind.  The  teacher 
should,  therefore, begin  with  simple  regular  forms, 
such  as  the  cube,  prism,  parallelopiped,  pyrami  1. 
sphere,  cone,  and  cylinder.  These,  at  first,  should 
be  all  alike  in  material  and  color,  and  about 
the  same  in  size,  so  that 
develop  the  idea  oiform 
in  the  instruction.  At 
be  very  slow.  Thus  the 
view  of  the  pupils  a  cubi 
of  the  box  of  solids  us 
lessons],  and  asks.  •■  \V 
children  probably  repjy 
Then  the  teacher  present 
cone,  cylinder,  etc.,  askin 


FOUNDLING  ASYLUMS  313 

have  been  thus  developed,  and  the  method  of 
representing  lines  and  hemes  on  the  blackboard 
shown    to   the    pupil,    he    is   prepared    fur   varied 

slate  and  blackboard  exercises  on  the  positions 
and  combinations  oi  lines  both  stra  !  and 
curved,  to  be  followed   h\    similar  exercises  on 


designs.  Of  a  similar  bu 
character    are    block    eon. hi 

HoxeS  of  blocks  made  for  th 
signs  for  construction,  can 
Charts  containing  diagrams 
also  be  found  very  useful  i 
form.  These  lessons  should 
desultory,  but  regularly  arrai 


ined. 
will 


ele 


process  should 

tolds  up  to  the  I 

of  wood  Tone  I 


spl 
question  and 


obtaining  the  same  answer.     The  teacher  then 
says,  •■  Each  of  these  is  a  piece  of  w 
they  all  alike?  "     To  which  the  childre 

-  No."     -  Do   they    differ   i lor?" 

"In  size?"  "No."  This  leads  the  teacher  to 
show. in  a  very  general  way.  not  by  giving  names 
at  first,  but  by  directing  the  pupil-'  attention, 
that  the  objects  differ  in  form  :  that  is,  each  has 
its  own  peculiar  form.  'The  teacher  may  then 
go  back  to  the  cube,  and  ask  the  pupils  to  men- 
tion any  other  things  they  have  seen  which  have 
the  same  form  as  the  block  of  wood:  and  so  on 
with  the'  other  forms.  This  exercise  being  a 
perfectly  natural  one  will  awaken  interest, 
liesides  familiarizing  the  children  with  the  par- 
ticular forms  presented.  The  next  step  will  be 
to  lead  the  children  to  observe  the  points  of 
difference  between  thes  •  forms  :  and,  in  order  to 
do  this,  the  analytic  process  must  begin.  Thus. 
the  teacher  develops  the  idea  of  side  or  face,  and 
the  pupils  perceive  that  the  cube  has  six  faces; 
the  edges,    corners,   and  equality  of  faces  and 

has  perceived  the  distinctive  characteristics  of 

the  form,  its  name,  as  cube,  prism,  etc.,  may  be 
taught.  This  method  requires  the  teacher  to 
begin  with  solids  (as  the  concrete)  and  to  deduce 
from  the  observation  of  them  the  ideas  of  sur- 
face, line,  and  point  (as  the  abstract),  in  accord- 
ance with  the  principle  (2).     After  these  ideas 


I'rim.tn,  Oh},,!  hssous  (X.  V.,  1*71)  ;   llmr  to 

Teach  (N.  V..  L874). 

FORT  WAYNE  COLLEGE,  at  Fort 
Wayne,  Ind..  founded  in  1846,  is  under  the 
patronage  of  the  Northand  North  West  Indiana 
Conferences  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
It  is  situated  in  the  most  pleasant  part  of  the 
city,  and  occupies  a  large  and  commodious  edi- 
fice. It  comprises  six  departments  ;  the  college 
(with  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course),  the 
normal,  commercial,  and  academic  departments, 
and  those  of  music  and  art.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  fees,  and  both  sexes  are  admitted.  In 
1875—6,  there  were  11  instructors  and  L32 
students.  The  Rev.  Reuben  D.  Robinson,  It..  It., 
is  the  president  of  the  college  (1876). 

FOUNDLING  ASYLUMS  are  institutions 
in  which  children  are  revived  who  have  been 


hu 


d!n 


century,  a  foundling  a.-yliim  is  said  to  have  ex- 
isted in  Treves.     But  the  first  instituti f  this 

kind  of  which  we  have  any  authentic  informa- 
tion is  that  of  Milan,  founded  in  787.  Others 
followed  in  course  of  time,  and  they  spread 
rapidly.  Later,  they  disappear  from  the  Ger- 
manic countries,  and  principally  from  those  in 
which  the  Protestant  faith  prevailed:  while 
they  continued  to  spread   in   the  Catholic  and 


creased  in  I- ranee,  and  wherever  French  influence 
has  predominated.  Thus  in  France  the  number 
of  foundlings  received  in  asylums  increased 
from  40,000,  in  1784,  to  129,700  in  1834.  In 
Austria  proper,  there  were,  in  1872,  1  5  foundling 
asylums,  taking  care  of  13.72.3  children  in  the 
institutions,  and  42.  ICO  outside.    The  number  of 


314 


FOURIER 


foundlings  annually  received  in  Rome  is  esti- 
mated at  3,1 ;  in  Naples,  at  2.000;  and  in  Tus- 
cany, at  about  12,000.  Spain  had.  in  1800,  14!) 
asylums,  with  53,464  foundlings.  Portugal  had, 
in  the  same  year,  21  asylums,  with33,E found- 
lings, L6.000  being  received  annually.  England 
has  foundling  asylums  in  London  and  Wanstead. 
The  institution  in  London,  in  L870,  maintained 
504  children.  The  only  asylum  in  Dublin  was 
closed  in  1k.'S.">.  Norway  has  several  institutions 
of  this  kind,  ami  the  number  of  foundlings  has,  for 
some  years,  been  more  than  !)  per  eent  of  the  total 
number  of  births.  Sweden  has  also  an  asylum  at 
Stockholm.  There  axe  but  few  foundling  asylums 
in  the  United  States,  the  children  being  generally 
brought  to  the  almshouses.  In  New  York,  a 
Catholic  asylum  was  founded  in  1800,  which  re- 
ceived ( siderable  aid,  in  money  and  grants  of 

land,  from  the  state.  Besides  this  institution. 
there  are  several  others  in  the  same  city,  all,  how- 
ever, established  and  controlled  by  private  char- 
ity. The  Nursery  and  Child's  Hospital,  founded 
inl854, has,  however,  aschool,  which  is  partly  sup- 
ported from  the  state  school  fund.  This  asylum 
hasacountrv  branch  on  the  north  shore  of  Staten 
Island.  Nowhere,  in  the  United  States,  has  the 


government    taken 
tion  of  foundling  as 


money  and  grants  of  laud.  Considerable  differ- 
ence of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  utility  of  found- 
ling asylums.  One  of  the  chief  objections  raised 
against  them  is  the  excessive  mortality  of  the  chil- 
dren; but  this  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  send- 
ing the  children  into  the  country,  and  boarding 
them  out  in  private  families.  Very  little  has 
been  done  for  the  education  of  foundlings,  at 
least  in  the  asylums,  a-  tiny  are  sent  to  other  in- 
stitutions for  instruction,  and  continued  there 
up  to  their  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  year,  after 
which  they  are  provided  with  places  of  employ- 
ment, generally  as  apprentices  to  farmers  and 
others.  In  Rome,  a  large  number  of  the  chil- 
dren are  educated  in  families.  The  boys  that 
return  to  the  asylum,  are  sent  to  the  foundling 
asylum  in  Viterbo,  where  they  learn  trades  up 
to  their  twenty -first  year,  when  they  are  dismis- 
sed with  a  present  of  10  scmli.  If  they  remain 
in  the  families,  they  are  educated  in  the  same 
manner,  and,  when  of  age,  receive  a  similar 
present.     The  girls  are  kept  in  the  families  or  in 

the  asylum  until  they  marry,  when  they  r ive 

a  dowry  of  100  scudi.  In  I!u~>ia.  foundlings 
are  educated  for  a  trade  or  profession  ;  and  those 
who  show  particular  talents  are  sent  to  tin' uni- 
versity. Here  also  the  children  .are  boarded  in 
private  families  as  much  as  possible.  In  Russia 
and  France,  agricultural  colonies  have  also  been 
established,  where  tin-  boys  are  brought  upas 
farmers. — See  Huegel,  Die  Findelhduser  mal 
,/,,.<  Findetioesen  Europa's  (1863). 

FOURIER,  Pierre,  the  founder  of  an  edu- 
cational order  of  the  Catholic  Church,  was  born  at 
Mirecourt,  I/irraine.  in  I  ."ilia,  ami  died  in  Cray, 
Franche-<  lomte,  in  1  OUt.  I  [e  studied,  for  a  time, 
in  the  university  of  Pont  -  a  -  Mousson,  where 
he  led  a  very  strict  life.     At  the  age  of  seven- 


FRANCE 


teen  years,  he  began  to  teach  in  the 
families,  and  conceived  the  plan  of  devoting  his 
entire  life  to  the  education  of  youth.  1  le  entered 
the  order  of  Pr&monbre;  ami  when  the  dissolute 
monks  compelled  him  to  leave  the  order,  he  be- 
came the  parish  priest  of  Mataincourt.  when-  he 
gained  a  great  reputation  as  an  educator.  In  1598. 
with  Alice  Le  Clerc  and  other  nuns,  he  formed 
an  educational  institution  for  girls.  In  L603,  he 
obtained  a  papal  bull  tor  the  organisation  of  the 
society  of  Notre  Dame  de  Lorraine,  of  which 
Alice  Le  Clerc  was  the  first  abbess;  and  this 
society  was  confirmed  by  Raul  V.,  in  Willi.  The 
older  spread  rapidly  ami  has.  at  present,  flourish- 
ing establishments  in  France,  Hungary,  Canada, 
the  New  Knglaml  States,  and  (  hili,  with  its 
central  house  for  America  in  Montreal.  He  also 
reformed  the  canons  of  the  order  of  Premontre, 
who  bound  themselves  to  the  education  of 
christian  youths.  In  1632, he  was  elected  superior 
genera]  of  the  new  Boeiety,  which  called  itself 
St.  Sauveur  de  Lorraine.  He  was  beatified  Jan. 
2!L.  17.10.  and  is  generally  styled  the  Blessed 
Peter  Fourier.-  See  Rittee,  Der  selu/e  P. 
Fourier.  (I.inz.  is;,;,). 

FRACTIONS.     See  Arithmetic. 

FRANCE,  one  of  the  principal  countries  of 
Europe,  having  an  area  of  204,090  sq.  m.,  and 
a  population,  according  to  tie  census  of  L872,  of 
1  36,102,921.    Formerly  France  had  immense  pos- 
sessions in  America,  tar  exceeding  those  of  (heat 

a  very  small  part.    I  luting  the  present  century, 
however,  French   rule   has  been  extended  over 

considerable  territories  in   northern  Africa.    Far- 


ibout  :t7::.000s,p  m..  having  a  popu- 
ut  6,600,000.  Including  itscolonies 
icies.  France  occupied,  in  lsTli.  the 
uong    the   nations  of   the  earth  in 


religion.  Almost  the  entire  population  speak 
the  French  language, and  more  than  98  per  cent 
are  actually  or  nominally  connected  with  the 
Catholic  Church.  1  hus  France  is  the  chief  re- 
presentative, among  the  countries  of  the  earth, 
of  what  is  sometimes  called  the  latin  race; 
ami  its  language  is  fore st  among  Romanic  lan- 
guages, as  its  people  are  chief  among  the  supporters 
of  the  Catholic  Church  -  'I  he  present  territory 
of  France,  in  the  earliest  historic  times,  was  in- 
habited by  the  Cauls,  a  Celtic  tribe.  The  country 
became  a  Roman  province  58—51  B.C.  During 
the  5th  century  A.  D.,  it  was  conquered  by  the 
Franks,  a  German  tribe,  who  built  up  an  empire, 
which,  under  Charlemagne,  reached  its  greatest 
territorial  extent,  embracing,  besides  modern 
France,  a  large  portion  of  Germany  and  Italy. 
With  the  division  of  this  empire,  in  843,  by  the 
treaty  of  Verdun,  begins  the  separate  history  of 
France  and  Germany.  The  kingdom  of  France, 
slowly  consolidating  itself  by  the  absorption  of 


the  territories  of  numerous  petty  princes,  at- 
tained the  summit  of  its  glory  under  Louis  XIV. 
(1643—1715);  but,  tired  at  "last  of  the  long-con- 
tinued oppression  of  the  kings  and  the  priv- 
ileged  classes,    the   people,  in   IT-'.'    rose  in  a 


NCE  315 

Louis  le  Debonnaire  was  not  favorable  to  this 
school,  lint  its  prosperity  revived  under  Charles 
the  Bald,  when  it  counted  .Mm  Scotus  Kriocna 
among  its  teachers.  Alter  the  death  of  (  harles 
the  Bald,  the  efficiencj   of  the  school  departed 

fur  ever,  and  theological  seniinaries  and  convent 


,sclt 


and  established  the  greatest  empire  of  nioilcrn 
times,  subjecting  to  his  direct  or  indirect  rule 
all  Europe  except  England  and  Russia.  With 
his  final  dethronement,  in  1-1 A  tlii-  empire 
came  to  an  end  :  and  the  re-instated  Bourbons 
only  ruled  withm  the  former  limits  of  the  king- 
dom of  France.  In  1848,  a  second  republic  was 
proclaimed,  and  Louis  Napoleon  was  elected 
president,  who.  in  L852,  proclaimed  himself  em- 
peror under  the  title  of  Napoli III.  His  de- 
feat, in  1870,  by  the  united  German  states  led  to 
the  deposition  of  Ins  dynasty  and  the  proclama- 
tion of  the  third  French  republic. 

Educational  History.  -Little  is  known  of  the 
state  of  education  among  the  Celts  of  ancient 
Gaul;  but  Csesar  says  of  the  Druids  that  they 
"held  a  great  many  discourses  about  the  stars 
and  their  motions,  about  the  extent  of  the 
universe  and  of  various  countries,  about  the 
nature  of  things,  and  the  power  of  the  immortal 
gods."  and  "transmitted  their  opinions  and 
knowledge  to  the  young."  In  the  flourishing 
Creek  colony  at  Marseilles,  a  school  was  estab- 
lished long  before  the  time  of  ( ';esar.  which  at- 
tracted a  large  number  of  pupils.  Under  the 
rule  of  the  Romans,  the  cause  of  education  made 
considerable  progress.  Lyons,  Narbonne,  Bor- 
deaux. Toulouse,  Aries.  Besancon,  Treves,  and 
other  centers  of  population,  had  both  public  and 
private  schools,  in  which  the  Creek  and  Roman 
classics  were  read.  The  teachers  of  these  schools 
enjoyed  many  privileges.  They  drew  their  salaries 
from  the  imperial  treasury,  and.  before  entering 
upon  their  office,  had  to  undergo  a  public  com- 
petitive examination.  The  scholars  were  divided 
into  three  classes:  exlenti,  living  outside  the 
institution,  amvictores,  boarders,  and  alimenr 
tarii,  those  supported  in  the  institution  by  pub- 
lic or  private  stipends.  When,  in  the  course 
of  the  5th  century,  the  education  and  civilization 
of  pagan  Rome  gradually  decayed,  and  finally 
disappeared  before  the  advance  of  Christianity. 
Christian  schools  sprung  up  in  connection    with 

many  monasteries,  and  Prance  s i  took  aprom- 

incn't  part  in  the  establishment  of  cathedral, 
collegiate,  and  convent  schools.  Among  the 
cathedral  schools,  those  at  Aries.  Bourges, 
Clermont,  Le  Mans.  Paris.  Poitiers,  and  Vienne, 

and  among  tin. nvent  schools,  those  of  Luxence. 

and  of  St.  Vaudville,  in  Normandy,  were  espe- 
cially famous.  I  luring  the  7th  century,  dense  igno- 
rance prevailed  ;  but  Charlemagne  infused  new- 
life  into  the  existing  schools,  and  founded  many 
new  ones.  Through  the  efforts  of  Alcuin.  the 
court  school  [sckola  palatina),  in  which  the  sons 
of  nobles  were  educated,  became  a  model  school 
for  all   ecclesiastical  institutions.     The   reign  of 


the  reformatory  movements  among  the  clergy 
favorably  reacted  upon  education,  and  many  of 
the  clerical  schools  regained  new  luster.  1'aris 
became  the  great  center  of  learning,  and  many 
were  the  distinguished  teachers  who  added  to 
the  reputation  of  the  Parisian  _  schools.  The 
most  illustrious  among  all  the  French  teachers 
of  this  period  was  Abelard  (q.  v.).  Besides  the 
episcopal  schools  of  Notre  Dame  and  Cciicvii-vc. 
in  Paris,  those  of  Reims  and  ( 'hartres,  and  the 
convent  school  of  Bee,  in  Normandy,  were 
especially  famous.  In  1200,  a  royal  decree  which 
exempted  the  teachers  of  Paris,  the  students  and 
their  servants,  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  city, 
prepared  the  way  for  a  corporate  organization 
of  teachers  and  students,  and.  consequently,  for 
the  establishment  of  the  Paris  university,  which. 
after  animated  controversies  with  the  chancellor 
of  the  chapter  of  Notre  Dame,  in  1203,  had 
its  independence  recognized  and  permanently 
secured  by  Papal  privileges.  The  reputation 
and  influence  of  the  new  university  increased 
with  marvelous  rapidity,  and  attracted  thousands 
of  students  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  In  1233, 
another  university  was  established  at  Toulouse, 
which  received  from  Gregory  IX.  privileges 
equal  to  those  of  Paris.  A  third  university  was 
founded  tit  MontpeUier,  where,  probably,  the 
scholarship  of  the  Arabian  schools  in  the  neigh- 
boring Spain  were  exerting  a  favorable  influence. 
In  the  natural  course  of  development,  these  in- 
stitutions became  the  only  seats  of  the  higher 
studies,  while  cathedral  and  convent  schools  re- 
mained almost  exclusively  training  schools  of 
candidates  for  the  priesthood.  'Hie  controversy 
of  the  university  of  Paris  with  the  powerful 
orders  of  the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  led 
to  the  organization  of  the  theological  faculty, 
which  was  gradually  succeeded  by  the  division 
of  the  entire  university  into  four  faculties.  As 
the  example  of  Paris  was  followed  in  most 
countries  of  Europe,  the  establishment  of  distinct 
faculties  marks  a  new  departure  in  the  history 
of  the  European  universities.  (See University.) 
Another  educational  movement  of  great  impor- 
tance was  begunin  Paris  by  the  establishment  of 
colleges  in  connection  with  the  university.  These 
institutions  were,  at  first,  intended  to  give  to 
students  from  the  French  provinces,  and  from 
foreign  countries,  lodging  and  board,  and  some 
of  them  were  founded  even  before  the  establish- 
ment of  the  university.  But  their  character  as 
preparatory  and  auxiliary  schools  was  only  de- 
veloped in  connection  with  the  universities. 
Among  the  oldest  and  most  renowned  Parisian 
i  colleges,  were  those  of  St.   Thomas,  the  Danish 


^ 


316  FRA 

College,  the  College  of  the  Dix-huit,  the  Greek 
College  (1206),  and  the  Sorbonne  (1253).  Besides 
these  colleges,  which,  however,  were  numerous 
only  iu  Paris,  the  universities  conducted  also 
independent  middle  schools  to  meet  the  growing 
demand  of  large  classes  of  the  population  for  in- 
struction. Paris,  at  this  time,  had  even  a  system 
of  parochial  or  elementary  schools,  under  the 
Grand  Chanter,  or  master  of  singing.  In  1380, 
the  male  and  female  teachers  of  Paris  held  a 
general  meeting,  from  the  proceedings  of  which 
it  appears  that  there  were,  at  that  time,  in  Paris 
at  least  41  male,  and  'J2  female  teachers.  Of  the 
former,  many  had  the  degree  of  bachelier  or 
maitre-es-arls.  In  the  course  of  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries,  the  desire  for  knowledge  and  edu- 
cation became  quite  general  among  the  nobility 
and  the  population  of  the  towns.  The  number 
of  students  rapidly  increased  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.  New  universities  arose  at  Orleans, 
Cahors,  Perpignan,  Angers,  Aix,  C'aen,  Poitiers, 
Valence,  Nantes,  Bourges,  and  Bordeaux.  The 
kings  recognized  their  importance,  conferred 
upon  them  many  favors,  anil  by  gradually  with- 
drawing them  from  papal  and  placing  them 
under  royal  jurisdiction,  substantially  changed 
their  character.  Strict  conformity  with  the 
teaching  of  the  church  was  no  longer,  to  the 
same  degree  as  before,  the  highest  aim  kept  in 
view,  and  a  more  exalted  position  was  accorded 
to  the  foremost  representatives  of  the  high 
schools  in  both  church  and  state.  Among  the 
grandest  triumphs  of  the  university  was  the 
leading  part  which  it  was  called  upon  to  take  in 
the  termination  of  the  papal  schism.  The  trans- 
fer of  the  lectures  from  the  halls  of  the  univer- 
sity to  the  colleges  was  an  innovation  which 
has  not  proved  conducive  to  the  progress  of  edu- 
cation. By  making  the  colleges  the  centers  of 
university  instruction,  instead  of  preparatory 
aud  auxiliary  schools,  it  retarded  the  sharp  dis- 
tinction between  secondary  and  superior  instruc- 
tion, which  has  greatly  promoted  t  lie  educational 
development  of  other  European  countries.  The 
ecclesiastical  seminaries  and  convent  schools 
greatly  suffered,  toward  the  close  of  the  middle 
ages,  from  the  disorders  prevailing  in  the  church; 
but  the  petites  ecoles,  or  small  Latin  schools, 
which  were  conducted  by  clergymen  in  all  the 
larger  towns,  attai la  high  degree  of  prosper- 
ity. Under  Louis  XL  (1461—1483),  the  sub- 
jection of  all  the  non-clerical  schools  to  the 
supreme  jurisdiction  of  the  state  government 
was  completed.  In  L529,  Francis  I.  founded  the 
College  </<■  Franc  :,  a  school  for  the  study  of  the 
humanities,  which  were  too  much  neglected  by  the 
university.  The  new  school  flourished  in  spite  of • 
all  opposition,  and  attained  a  very  honorable 
position  among  the  high  schools  of  France.  The 
university,  on  "the  other  hand,  lost,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, its  former  influence  and  prestige,  while  im- 
morality made  alarming  progress  among  the 
students,  especially  between  1548  and  1558. 
The  government  took  occasion,  from  the  deplor- 
able condition  of  the  university,  to  curtail  its 
privileges.     The   rector,   instead   of    being   the 


head  of  an  independent  organization,  became  an 
officer  of  the  king.  After  the  conversion  of  the 
universities  into  state  institutions  had  been  com- 
pleted, the  government  deemed  it  expedient  to 
extend  their  educational  influence,  and,  to  that 
end,  conferred  upon  them  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  preparing  students  for  the  academic  degrees 
and  for  the  state  examinations.  The  powerful 
competition  which  existed  between  the  schools 
of  the  Jesuits  and  the  universities,  was  an  effi- 
cient spur  for  the  latter,  but,  when  Lotus  XIV. 
took  the  Jesuits  under  his  special  protection, 
their  influence  upon  the  educational  institutions 
of  the  country  became,  for  a  time,  all-powerful. 
Another  religious  order,  the  Oratorians,  were 
active  and  zealous  in  the  management  of  town 
schools,  while  primary  education,  in  the  rural 
districts,  appears  to  have  been,  on  the  whole,  in 
a  very  unsatisfactory  condition.  After  the  ex- 
ample of  the  Jesuits  and  Oratorians,  a  number 
of  other  religious  orders  devoted  their  chief  or 
even  exclusive  attention  to  teaching  schools  of 
different  glades;  and  no  other  country  of  the 
world  showed  itself  so  prolific  in  the  formation 
of  new  congregations  of  school  brothers  and 
school  sisters  as  France.  (See  Roman  Catholic 
Church.)  The  philosophy  of  Descartes  emanci- 
pated the  French  high  schools  to  a  considerable 
extent  from  the  rule  of  scholasticism,  which  until 

then  had  1 n  generally  prevalent,  and   through 

the  peiites  ecoles  of  Port  Royal,  its  influence 
leached  even  the  primary  schools.  The  /iflitcx 
ecoles  of  Port  Royal  were  not  of  long  duration, 
but  their  school  books  were  continued  in  use  for 
along  time.  Rollin,  the  celebrated  Rector  of 
the  Paris  University,  followed  closely  in  the 
footsteps  of  Port  Royal,  and  France  is  indebted 
to  him  for  several  important  reforms.  The  rigid 
centralization  which,  under  Louis  XIV.,  began 
to  be  established  in  all  departments  of  public 
life,  was  also  applied  to  the  educational  institu- 
tions. A  closer  connection  was  established 
among  the  colleges,  a  general  course  of  studies 
was  drawn  up,  new  studies  were  introduced,  and 
the  training  of  teachers  wa.s  improved.  .Many 
distinguished  educators  found,  however,  in  the 
educational  methods  of  the  French  schools  too 
much  of  a  mechanical  formalism  ;  and  Rousseau 
violently  attacked  the  pedagogy  of  his  time  as 
lifeless  and  weak,  perverse  and  inefficient. — The 
influence  of  the  great  revolution  of  1 789  showed 
itself  first  in  an  attempt  to  introduce  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  revolution  into  all  the  schools  of 
the  country.  Several  plans  were  tried,  but  with- 
out satisfactory  results.  Talleyrand,  in  1791, 
submitted  an  elaborate  and. comprehensive  plan 
of  national  education,  but  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly confined  itself  to  sanctioning  two  prin- 
ciples: (1)  public  instruction  shall  be  estab- 
lished common  to  every  citizen,  and  gratuitous 
in  respect  to  those  branches  which  are  necessary 
to  all,  and  its  establishments  will  be  grad- 
ually arranged  in  accordance  with  the  divisions 
of  the  kingdom  ;  and  (2)  national  holidays  will 
be  appointed.  In  1792,  the  philosopher  Con- 
dorcet  submitted  another  elaborate  plan  to  the 


Legislative  Assembly;  which,  however,  was  like- ! 
wise  prevented,  by  the  gravity  of  political  events, 
from  completing  the  reconstruction  of  public 


consented  to  a  change  in  the  composition  of  the 
Council  of  Studies,  by  appointing,  in  addition 
to  the  life  members  of  which  it  was  formerly 


in  1795,  the  Ecofe  Normale,  which  was  aban- 
doned alter  three  months,  and  one  hundred  cen- 
tral schools,  a  kind  of  real  gymnasia,  which 
likewise  did  not  provea  bucc  ss.  \  g  'neral  nation- 
hut  it  never  took  effect.  Real  progress  in  re- 
in ISIIH.  established  four  large  colleges  called 
pri/ltiifiiMis.M  Paris.  Versailles.  Fontainebleau, 
and  St.  Germain,  to  which  were  afterwards 
added  one  at  Brussels,  and  one  at  < 'ompiegno, 
the  latter  for  mechanical  arts  and  navigation. 
A  general  revival  of  education  began  in  1802, 
and  in  180.i,  France  again  possessed  30  [yceuras 
and  250  communal  colleges.  At  the  same  time, 
the  governmeut  restricted  the  absolute  freedom 
of  teaching,  and  subjected  the  entire  educational 
system  to  a  strict  supervision.  In  1808.  Napo- 
leon abolished  the  old  provincial  institutions, 
and  united  all  the  teaching  forces  of  the  country 
into  one  educational  corporation,  which  he 
called  Universite  de  France,  lie  comprised  in 
this  one  organization  all  th lucational  insti- 
tutions, from  the  primary  school  to  the  uni- 
versity. The  chief  peculiarity  of  this  organ- 
ization was  that  the  university  alone  possessed 
the  right  of  teaching,  and  that  in  this  way  every 
body  was  forced  to  receive  its  teaching.  The 
supreme  direction  was  placed  in  the  hinds  of  a 
Grand  Master,  and  a  Council  of  the  University. 
In  1815, after  the  overthrow  of  tin-  Empire,  this 
grand  master  and  the  council  of  the  university 
were  abolished,  ami  their  powers  were  transferred 
to  a  rm/ii/ aiiiDiiisniiiii  acting  under  the  authority 
of  the  minister  of  the  interior.  The  commission 
was,  in  lsjo,  changed  into  a  royal  council  of 
public  instruction,  the  president  of  which  again 
received,  in  L822,  the  title  of  Grand  Master  of 
the  University,  and  in  1824,  that  of  Minister  of 
Public  Instruction  and  Ecclesiastical  Affairs. 
The  ( 'harte  of  1830  promised  a  new  educational 
law,  as  well  as  a  law  on  freedom  of  instruction  ; 
these  provisions  were,  however,  only  carried  out  in 
part.  In  1833, a  new  law  on  primary  instruction 
appeared,  which  introduced  important  reforms. 
Mr.  (Juizot.  the  minister  of  public  instruction, 
addressed,  in  connection  with  this  law.  a  circular 
letter  to  the  primary  teachers,  which  was  trans- 
lated into  all  the  languages  of  Europe,  and 
gained  for  its  author  hosts  of  warm  admirers. 
The  bishops  regarded  the  existing  school  legis-  I 
lation,  and  especially  the  privileges  of  the  uni- 
versity, as  detrimental  to  the  interests  of  the  j 
Catholic  ( 'hurch.and  accordingly  began  a  vigorous 
agitation  for  freedom  of  instruction.  In  L845, 
the   minister  of   public   instruction,   Salvandy,  | 


body  was  henceforth  to  be  composed  of  arch- 
bishops, bishops,  Protestant  clergymen,  council- 
or's of  state,  and  members  of  the  Institute  of 
France,  all  elected  by  the  free  suffrage  of  their 
colleagues.  Under  the  second  empire,  this  mode 
of  election  was  abolished;  and  the  government 
claimed  the  right  of  appointing  all  the  members. 
In  making  the  appointments,  the  government 
showed  itself,  however,  anxious  to  give  no  offense 
to  the  church.  Bythe  law  of  1854,  sixteen  acad- 
emics were  established,  to  which  one  was  added 
afterward.  These  academies  wen  subdivisions 
of  the  University,  and  comprised  all  the  insti- 
tutions of  a  district,  faculties,  lyceums,  colleges, 
and  primary  schools.  For  each  academy  a  coun- 
cil was  appointed,  composed  of  the  inspectors, 
the  deans  of  the  faculties,  a  bishop,  two  clergy- 
men, two  magistiatcs.  ami  two  other  state  officers 
of  the  academic  district,  the  seven  last  being  ap- 
pointed by  the  ministry.  After  the  overthrow 
of  tin-  seii, ml  empire,  dules  Simon,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  educational  writers  of  France, 
became  minister  of  public  instruction.  The 
chief  aim  of  the  new  minister  was  to  make 
primary  instruction  as  general  as  possible,  and 
to  raise  the  French  schools  of  all  grades  to  a 
level  with  the  best  in  any  country  of  the  world. 
By  a  law  of  1*73.  the  council  of  public  instruc- 
tion was  again  made  elective.  As  the  majority 
of  the  legislative  assembly  were  favorable  to  the 
demands  of  the  <  hurch,  superior  instruction  was. 
in  1875,  so  regulated  as  to  make  it  possible  for 
the  Catholic  Church  to  establish  free  Catholic 
universities.  In  1876,  the  chamber  of  deputies 
passed  a  bill  to  restore  to  the  university  the  sole 
right  of  conferring  degrees,  but  it  was  not  con- 
curred in  by  the  senate. 

Primary  Instruction.— The  policy  of  estab- 
lishing public  primary  schools  under  the  control 
of  the  state,  in  which  all  children  might  receive 
instruction,  was  not  incorporated  into  the  leg] 
lation  of  France  until  after  the  law  of  June  28., 
1833.  under  the  administration  of  M.  Guizot  as 
minister  of  public  instruction.  The  attempts 
made  during  the  revolutionary  period,  and  un- 
der the  empire,  to  provide  a  national  system  of 
instruction,  had  lasting  results  only  for  secondary 
and  .superior  instruction,  but  not  for  primary 
schools.     One  of  the  great  scholars  of  that  time, 


318  FRA 

M.  I  luvier,  made  an  extensive  tour  through] 
Holland,  Germany,  and  Italy,  to  study  the  edu- 
cational systems  of  those  countries;  and  his  re- 
port, published  in  1811,  which  specially  com- 
mended the  elementary  schools  of  Holland  for 
their  sound    practical    organization,   excited    a 

lively  interest,  and  led  to  r retful  comparisons, 

but  'not   to  anv  real   improvement.      M.7  Guizot, 


to  the  inspector  of  the  academy.  The  highest 
school  authorities  in  a  department  are  the  rector 
of  the  academy  and  the  prefect.  The  former 
supervises  the  instruction,  lias  charge  of  the 
normal  schools  and  of  the  examinations  of  teach- 
ers, and  lias  all  tins  done  through  liis  inspectors, 


in 


France,  commends  the  heads  of  the  educational 
department  under  the  Restoration  for  their  good 
intentions;  but  of  the  educational  condition  of 

tin iiitiv,   from   1814  to  1830,  he  can  only 

state  :  "  It  cannot  lie  said  that  elementary  in- 
struction did  not  suffer  from  political  attacks ; 
but  still  it  did  not  completely  perish  in  the  dan- 
gerous contact."  The  government  of  1 830 
proved  itself,  from  its  commencement,  highly 
favorable  to  elementary  instruction.  The  exec- 
each  other  in  the  promotion  of  this  object.  In 
1831,  M.  Cousin,  one  of  the  ablest  scholars  of 
France,  was  sent  to  Germany  to  study  the  edu- 
cational system  of  that  country;  and,  in  the 
report  published  on  his  return,  he  carefully  dis- 
cussed all  questions  which  the  new  law  on 
primary  education,  then  in  preparation,  was  to 
settle.  '  M.  Guizot,  who  was  appointed  minister 
of  public  instruction,  in  1832,  was  supported  in 
the  preparation  of  the  new  law.  by  a  number  of 
eminent  men,  among  whom,  besides  M.  Cousin, 
may  be  especially  mentioned  M.  Villemain,  M. 
Thenard,  and  M.  Rendu,  on  account  of  their 
reputation  as  scholars  or  educational  writers. 
The  conscientious  care  with  which  the  law  of 
ls:S:S  had  been  prepared,  is  now  reeo.oiizedon 
all  sides,  as  is  also  the  beneficent  influence 
which  it  has  exerted  upon  the  progress  of  pri- 
mary education.  In  1826, there  were  L4,009  com- 
munities which  had  no  elementary  schools;  and,  j 
in  1832,  there  were  in  Paris  30,000,  among  the 
70,000  children  of  school  age,  who  received  no 
instill. lion.  Four  years  after  the  promulga- 
tion of  the  law  of  1837,  as  many  as  29,613, 
of  35,280  communities  in  the  country,  had 
their  own  school-houses.  On  the  basis  of  the 
new  law,  the  primary-school  system  was  more 
fully  developed  by  the  law  of  March  15.,  1850. 
the  organic  decree  of  March  9.,  1852,  and  the 
law  of  Jan.  14.,  1854.  These  laws  supplement 
each  other,  and  contain  the  chief  principles 
which  are  still  in  force.  The  primary  schools  of 
each  commune  are  under  a  local  board,  consisting 
of  the  mayor,  the  parish  priest,  and  a  few  citizens 
elected  by  the  officers  of  the  arrondissement. 
This  board  superintends  both  public  and  private 
primary  schools.  It  cannot  appoint  teachers; 
but,  in  case  of  a  vacancy,  it  can  decide  whether  a 
lay  teacher  or  a  member  of  a  religious  congrega- 
tion shall  be  appointed.  In  urgent  eases,  the 
mayor  has  the  power  to  remove  teachers,  but  he 
must  give  immediate  notice  to  the  inspecteur pri- 
maire.  The  inspectors  are  generally  experienced 
teachers;  and  it  is  their  duty  to  visit  and  ex- 
amine the  schools,  and  to  attend  the  examina- 
tions of  candidates.     They  make  annual  reports 


lllllllstel 

of   the 

sel Is. 

houses. 


■  every  department  in 
lie  makes  an  annual 
of  the  primary  schools 
lie  and  private,  to  the 
'he  prefect  has  charge 
administration  of  the 
erection  of  the  school- 

■  finances,  can  appoint, 

t;icf  tfciMsdsmyof 


pecteurs  geniraux  lor  the  lyceums  and 
S,and  eight  for  the  faculties.  Any  French 
citizen,  twentj  years  of  age  or  over,  may  give 
priniarv  instruction  in  public  or  private  schools, 
provided  he  has  the  necessary  certificate.  The 
salaries  of  the  French  teachers  arc  very  small, 
though  they  have  been  raised  seven  times  since 

ceived  20(1  francs;  250  francs,  in  1844;  275,  in 
IslT;  l.il.in  1849;  and  lino,  in  1867.  Accord- 
ing to  a  law  of  July  19.,  1875,  the  salaries  of 
the  teachers  are  regulated  as  follows :  Male 
teachers  are  divided  into  four  classes,  according 
to  their  term  of  service. and  the  size  of  the  cities. 
The  first  .lass  receive  L,200  francs;  the  second, 
1. 1  Oil;   the    third.    1,000;    and    the    fourth.   DUO. 

and  receive  900,  HMl.and  700  francs. respectively. 
The  course  of  studies  comprises  religion,  lead- 
ing, writing,  grammar,  arithmetic,  the  elements 
of  French  history,  and  geography.  Teachers 
may  add  to  these  -Indies  the  elements  of  natural 
history,  natural  philosophy,  agriculture,  hygiene. 
singing,  and  gymnastics.  Only  in  recent  years 
have  reforms  been  introduced  in  the  methods  of 
teaching.  As  late  as  1843,  there  were  still5,484 
primary  schools  pursuing  the  so-called  individual 
method  [mode  individuel),  each  child  being 
called  to  the  desk,  and  instructed  separately. 
This  method,  as  well  as  the  monitorial  system, 
which  found  many  admirers  in  France,  is  now 
abolished.  The  method  most  generally  employed 
at  the  present  time,  is  the  simultaneous  method, 
by  which  the  children  are  divided  into  three 
divisions,  all  the  pupils  of  one  division  receiving 
instruction  at  once.  Those  who  are  not  able  to 
take  part  in  any  of  the  three  divisions,  are  placed 
under  the  charge  of  the  best  pupil  in  the  school. 

The  total  number  of  sel Is,  in  1 875,  was  53,350, 

with  3,477,542  pupils,  of  whom  1,366,360  were 

free  scholars.     Of  the   sel Is,  19,044  were  for 

boys,  and  (i.'.V.)'.K  for  girls,  besides  which  there  were 
16,570  mixed  schools.  The  number  of  pupils  in 
the  lay  schools  was  2,340,344,  of  whom  704,028 
were  free  scholars.  Of  the  convent  schools,  1,970 
were  for  boys,  8,322,  for  girls,  and  1,099  were 


mixed  schools.  The  number  of  pupils  in  the 
convent  schools,  was  l.l.'tv.l'.is,  of  whom  662,352 
were  free  schi ilars.  Infant  asylums  and  schools 
were  first  established  in  L808,  but  met  with  little 
success.  In  1827,  they  began  to  increase  and 
flourish,  until,  in  I860,  there  were  3,517,  of 
whi.h.  1,088  were  private.     The  public  asylums 


had  15,623  libraries  connected  with  schools, com- 
prising L,474,637  volumes.  The  number  of  books 
loaned,  in  1873,  was  925,358. 


Secondary  Instrm 
tion  is  imparted  in  t 
coDegea  [colleges  comi 
composed  of  eight  cla 
German  gymnasia.  ( ' 


Secondary  instruc- 
ceums  and  communal 
ux).  The  lyceums  are 
md  correspond  to  the 
8  and  7  compose  the 


,-ision  ;   C.  5,  ani 
3,  2,   lb,   and 


or.le 


arithmetic,  and  linear  drawing;  manual  occu- 
pations,  and  other  exercises  appropriate  to  the 
age  of  the  pupils;  the  singing  of  hymns,  and 
moral  and  physical  training.  The  decree  of 
1864  placed  them  under  the  patronage  of  the 
empress,  and  created,  in  the  ministry  of  educa- 
tion, a  central  committee  of  patronage,  for  the 
increase  and  superintendence  of  these  schools. 
In  every  academy,  there  is  an  inspectress,  paid 
by  the  government,  to  inspect  all  the  public  and 
private  asylums.  Besides,  there  are  two  delegates 
connected  with  the  central  committee,  who  go 
wherever  they  are  called. — As  soon  as  primary 
instruction  had  made  some  progress  in  Prance, 
it  was  found  necessary  to  open  schools  for  adults. 
in  order  to  complete  the  instruction  of  some, 
and  to  begin  that  of  others.  The  first  school 
for  adults  was  opened  by  M.  Delakaye  in  Paris, 
in  L820.  An  evening  school  was  opened  by  the 
Christian  Brothers. in  1830.  In  1833,  M.Guizot, 
minister  of  public  instruction,  alluded  to  them 
in  an  order  of  the  department;  and.  in  1835, 
they  were  formally  recognized  and  aided  by  the 
government,  but  were  not  incorporated  into  the 
public-school  system  of  the  country  until  1m17. 

courses  for  adults,  in  22,947  communes.    They 

men.— The  first  normal  school  in  France  was 
founded  in  1810,  in  Strasbourg.  Under  Napo- 
leon I.  and  the  Restoration,  they  greatly  flour- 
ished; but  soon,  objections  were  raised  against 
them,  and,  after  the  promulgation  of  the  law  of 
1850,  its  authors  considered  normal  schools  not 
only  unnecessary,  but  even  dangerous.  It  was, 
consequently,  proposed  to  abandon  the  normal 
schools,  and  to  recruit  the  ranks  of  the  teachers 
from  a  certain  number  of  pupil-teachers,  who 
were  to  receive  their  training  in  the  best  com- 
munal schools.  This  plan,  however,  proved  a 
failure,  and  the  pupil-teacher  schools  were  grad- 
ually abandoned,  and  normal  schools  again  came 
into  favor.  Their  number,  in  187f>,  was  81,  of 
which  that  of  Nancy  is  considered  the  best. 
Recently,  efforts  have  been  made  to  connect  a 
library  with  every  school,  particularly  in  the 
country.  The  system  was  first  organized  by  a 
decree  of  M.  Rouland,  in  1862.  The  books, 
which  are  of  two  classes,  classics,  reading-books, 
and  arithmetics,  and  books  of  general  reading — 
are  the  property  of  the  commune,  and  are  placed 
under  the  charge  of  the  teachers.  France  (ex- 
clusive of  the  department  of  the  Seine),  in  1875, 


been  introduced,  so  that  it  comprises  two  courses, 
-the  literary  and  the  scientific.  The  studies 
of  the  literary  course  are  Latin,  Greek,  geome- 


both 


Most  of  the  lyceums  are  also  boarding  schools. 
The  censeur  is  the  head  of  the  boarding-school. 
Corporal  punishment  is  not  allowed,  and  re- 
proofs are  required   to  be  administered  without 

lished  in  1802.    They  are  founded  and  sustained 


,.  h< 


these 

idary 


character.     Included  in  this  class  of  institutions 

are  the  so  called  pedis  seminaires  oj  'I fes 

secondaires  ecclesiastiques  (ecclesiastical  insti- 
tutions), which  are  superintended  and  conducted 
by  the  bishops,  and.  in  many  respects,  resemble 
the  lyceums.  The  number  of  secondary  schools 
of  each  class,  with  the  number  of  students  in 
each,  as  given  by  Brachelli  [Die  Stouten  Eu- 
ropa's,  1876),  is  as  follows: 

Schools.     Students. 

Lyceums  (1872) 80  36,756 

Conimumil  colleges  (1S72).... 244  32,744 

Private  institution"  (1m;..| 935  74,585 

Total 1,2.5!)        144,085 

A  superior  normal  school  for  the  education 
of  teachers  of  secondary  schools  has  been  estab- 
lished in  Paris.  It  is  composed  of  two  depart- 
ments, a  literary  and  a  scientific,  each  compris- 
ing a  three  years'  course. 

Superior  Instruction. — France  has.  at  present, 
five  classes  of  faculties;  namely,  for  theology, 
law,  medicine,  mathematics  and  natural  science 
[facultes  de  sciences),  and  literature  or  philo- 
sophical,   historical,    and     philological    science 


320  FRA 

(faeuM  des  lettres).  These  faculties,  which  are 
state  institutions,  are  not,  as  in  other  countries, 
united  into  complete  universities,  but  each  is  an 
isolated  and  independent  institution.  Among 
the  schools  of  superior  instruction,  are  also 
counted  the  high  Bchools  For  pharmacy,  and  tin- 
schools  for  medicine  and  pharmacy.  'J  he  organi- 
zation of  medical  faculties  was  begun  in  17'.'!: 
of  law  faculties,  in  1804;  and  the  other-,  in 
1808.  There  were,  in  1876,  six  faculties 
of  theology  (Paris,  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  Aix. 
Rouen,  aiid  Montauban,  the  5  former  being 
Catholic,  the  latter  Reformed);  12  for  law 
(Paris,  Bordeaux,  Lyons.  Nancy,  Aix,  Caen, 
hijon.  Crciioblc,  Poitiers,  Rennes. Toulouse,  and 
Douai  ;  S  lor  medicine  |  Paris.  Bordeaux,  Lyons, 
Nancy,  Montpellier,  and  Lille);  15  for  science 
(Paris,  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  Nancy,  Caen,  Dijon, 
Grenoble,  Poitiers,  Rennes,  Toulouse,  Montpel- 
lier, Clermont,  Besancon,  Lille,  and  Marseille.-1: 
15  for  lettres  (Paris, "Bordeaux,  Lyons.  Nancy, 
Aix.  Caen,  Dijon,  Grenoble,  Poitiers,  Rennes, 
Toulouse,  Montpellier.  I'uuai,  Clermont,  and 
Besancon);  '■>  higher  schools  for  pharmacy  (Paris, 
Nancy,  and  Montpellier);  and  2  higher  schools 
for  medicine  and  pharmacy.  The  medical  facul- 
ties;, i  Bordeaux,  Lyons,  and  Lille  are  also  in- 
tended for  pharmacy.  Inclusive  of  preparatory 
schools  for  medicine  and  pharmacy,  and  4  pre- 
paratory schools  for  instruction  in  science,  these 
institutions  for  superior  instruction,  were,  in 
1872,  attended  by  14,572  students;  and  the  ag- 
gregate number  of  professors  ami  teachers  was 
42L— Thelaw  of  duly  26.,  L875,  authorized  the 
establishment,  by  private  citizens  or  associations, 
of  free  institutions  for  higher  instruction  (free 
faculties),  which,  if  three'  of  them  are  united, 
may  assume  the  name  of  free  universities.  At 
the  beginning  of  1*7(1.  the  bishops  of  France 
founded  three  free  Catholic  universities,  at 
Paris,  Angers,  and  Lyons.  —  The  College  de 
rntitr\  which  provides  for  lectures  on  many  of 
the  university  studies,  and  the  Practical  School 
for  Higher  Studies,  which,  in  five  differeni 
sections,  prepares  its  students  for  the  higher 
study  of  mathematics, physics,  chemistry,  natural 
history,   the  lii.-toricnl    -  -i  ■ ■:-.   and    philology, 


has  a  seminary  at  Paris  :  and,  in  the  same  city, 
there  is  a  Free  Thei  .logical  School,  founded  by  the 
Free  Evangelical  <  hurch.  The  £cole  des  charies, 
at  Paris,  educates  paleograpbists  and  archivists. 
For  technical  instruction,  there  are  12  ei  oles  pro- 
fessionnelles,  3  ecoles  des  arts  ■  n  •  u  rs,  at  Aix, 
Lngers,  and  Chalons  BUT  Maine:  schools  for 
v.  itch-makers,  at  I  luses,  in  Opper  Savoy,  and  at 
Vsim  on.  a  school  for  manufacturers  of  tobacco, 
and  a  higher  comineri  ial  school,  at  Paris,  many 

lower  commercial  schools,  42  hydrographic  scl is 

for  educating  seamen  for  the  mercantile  marine, 
and  many  other  schools  and  (ourscs  ot  study. 
Agriculture  is  taught  in  3  high  schools,  at 
Grignon,  near  Versailles,  Grandjouan,  in  Loire- 
Inh'-i ■icinv,  and  Montpellier,  and  in  43  fermier- 
ecoles;  or  agricultural  si  hools  of  a  lower  grade  ; 
besides  these,  there  is  a  school  of  forestry  at 
Nancy.  The  principal  mining  school  is  the  Na- 
tional School  of  Mmcs.  at  Paris,  besides  which 

there  are  mining  scl Is  at  r-t.  I'diei, uc  and  Alais. 

For  instruction  in  the  fine  arts,  there  are  3  na- 
tional schools  of  fine  arts,—  at  Paris,  Lyons,  and 
Dijon,  the  National  Conservatory  of  Music  and 
Declamation,  at  Paris,  and  many  other  institu- 
tion.-. Military  in.-iniction  is  imparted  in  the 
i  cho  I,  at  Paris,  the  School  of  Artillery  and 
Military  Engineering,  formerly  at  Metz.  now  at 
Fontainebleau,  the  Special  Military  School  at 
St.  Cyr,  near  Versailles,  the  schools  of  artillery 
at  Valence  and  Nimes,  the  school  of  infantry 
at  the  Campd'Avor,  the  naval  school  at  Brest, 
.!„■-  hool  of  military  medicine  and  pharmacy  in 
Paris,  the  school  of  cavalry  at  Saumur.  the  Mili- 
tary Pyrotechnic  School,  at  Bourges, the  Normal 
School  for  Gymnastics,  al  Vincennes,  the  Prac- 
tical School  of  Maritime  Engineering  a1  I  her- 
bourg.— There  are  314  orphan  asylums  in  which 
15,7  15  orphans  were  educated.  'I  he  saUes  d'asi- 
les,  of  which  there  were  2,950  (2,068  public  and 
882  private),  were  attended  by  I'M',  (Hid  children, 


,nd 


Iget  of  about  2,000,000 
almost 


ion.  —  Th( 


for  the 
tors  of 
,onts  ei 


Special  and  Prof  ssi '  I 

Polytechnic  School,  at  Paris, 
having  a  military  organization 
pupils  for  the  higher  technical 
military  and  civil.  The  latter  i 
Ecole  ■  ntra !  ■  -  'es  arts  i '  mm 
education  of  ci\  il  engini  ei  ,  a 
glass-works  and  Factori  !,  the 
chau&sees,  for  the  education  oi  roaa  engineers, 
and  the    '  • '  ■'  "  i  art  netiers,  all 

in  Pan-,  i.  Polytechnic  School,  in  1873,  had 
1.9  professors  an  I  I  achers,20  assistants, and 426 
pupils.  Roman  ( latholic  theology  is  taught  in 
the  diocesan  seminaries,  which  arc  established  in 
the  principal  town  of  every  French  diocese.  The 
numerous  religious  orders  for  males  have  gen- 
erally theological  schools  of  their  own  for  the  in- 
struction of  their  novices.  The  Lutheran  ( 'hurch 


ciatui;oii.|\  an  mdu-irial  education  to  I  '_'  i  ,  boys 
an  I  1  -,i  '.(.".  lii  1-.  S,  e  .-,  1 1 \in..  Km  -,  j  ii, n.  ait. 
Frankri  •  by  I  r.  Biichelei  ;  Baknakd,  Na- 
UonalEdi'cation,\ol.n.;TntB.Y,Hisioirederedu- 
cation  en  France  (Paris,  1858,2  vols.);  Jdles  Si- 
mon, L'&oh  (8th  edit.,  L874);  Annuaire  deVin- 
slruction  pvbliqut    (Paris).    Among  the  school 

tablished  in  1  •  12  is  n  garded  as  the  mostimpor- 
tanl  forsecondary,!  nd  the  Manuel  general  detin- 
strudion  primaire,  as  the  foremost  for  primary 

instruction.  A  complete  collection  of  all  the 
laws  and  regulations  which  have  been  issued  in 
France  relative  t  >  primary  instruction  from  1789 

to  i-Ti  ha- 1 ii  published  by  Greard,  La  legis- 

,.         ,         ■imaireen  Francedepuis 

1789  jusqu'a  no*   j i  (3  vols.,  Pans.  1874). 

The  history  of  primary  -cbool  inspection  is  given 
in  P.iioi  win  and  Dbfodon,  Inspection  des  ecoles 
primaires  i  Paris,  1874).  \  very  full  account  of 
the  primary  sehoools  of  Paris  and  of  the  Dej«ir- 
tementde  la  Seine  is  given  in  Greard,  I'lnstruc- 
tion  primaire  a  Paris  en  ls7o  (Paris.  1876). 


FRANCISCAN  COLLEGE  FEANCKE                      321 

FRANCISCAN     COLLEGE,    a    Roman  I  nine  schools  with   three  boarding-houses  and  an 

Catholic  institution  at  Santa  Barbara,  Cal.,  was  orphanage,  and  with  property  valued  at  313,266 

I. mm.  led  in  L868.   Ii  is  conducted  bythe  Fathers    thalers.  '  Since  tli.-ii-  toim.li.ti..ii.  In. i  teachers 

of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis.    In  1873     Lit  had  and  more  than  200,000  children  have  been  taught 

2,500  volumes!     The   Rev.  J.  J.  O'Keefe,  O.  S.  7000   orphans  have    been  cared  for!     These  in 

F.,  is  (1876)  the  president.  titul s  furnished  the  model  after  which  those 

FRANCKE,  Hermann  August,  a  distin-  "l    a  similar  character   were   founded   in   other 

ral.lv  . -I ii.if.1  will.  :i  clusti'i- of  (..rphan  houses  Francke's    death   by   liiss.ni.  Gottlieb  August 

as  an  educational  influence,  was  born  at  The  governing  ideas,   in  Francke's  work  and 

l.'.il...-',.  Maul.  J'.' ..  ir.iis.aml  died  June  8.,  1727.  teaching,  were  trust  in  God,  and  the  cultivation 

I  i.'n ".',',', 'l  'Kir|'."]',',''"i,ll''„„,'|.,"'.'l,^    inll'n,-!,.-,.    '..,  ■l'I..|i-Mip|».rt.:,n.l    .■.-.•..•. '„■.  I   the   her,'',  am'l  -.ills 

Spener.the in  -chaplain  .,,  1 >,-. -  1.  ■„.  au.l  re  which    he  received  as  direct   bounties  from  the 

ceived  from  liiin  iiiii.r.-M..„,  ul.i.l,  largely  affect-  hand   of  the    Almighty.     He  regarded  piety  as 

ed  the  motives  and  character  of  his    future  life,    thechief  thing  needful;  without  it.  aU  I wledge, 

I  lo  1 an  bis  labors  as  an  educator  ...  1687,  by  wisdom,  and  worldly  culture  were  more  harmful 

opening  an  infant  sol I  ...  I  Ian,!,.,,-    LValizing  than  useful.      He  taught    that,   in  bringing  up 

the  importance  and  difficulty  of  teaching  children,  children,  the  teacher  should   first  look  to  the  im- 

he  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  the  improvement  provement  of  the  heart  and  the  removal  ol  tan  lis 

of  schools  and  methods  ol  ins tion    Theresults  While  payingdue  regard  to  the  peculiarities  of 

of  his  experience  he  afterwards  embodied  in  a    I hilds   nature,   he  should   seek   to  banish 

work  which  lie  published  under  the  title,  Upon  ih  ■  whatever  intei  fen  -  with  the  higher  development. 

Mm-,,!,,,,,  of, ■/,,',/,;■„  /,,  /,„/,,  ,„„l  <-h,-hti.„>  »•/-■-  'I'h.-    inculcation    of    godliness     was     likewise 

dom.    [n  1692,  he  became  professor  of  the  Greek  Francke's     predominant     object     in  discipline, 

and  oriental  knsua.T- in  tl..' in, ivrisiivuf  Halle,  ",,    this   subject,  he  observed,  (1     that   system 


into  a  class,  anil  hung  out  a  poor-box  for 
tii  ms.  I'"imling  seven  florins  in  the  box  c 
ing,  Ii.'  ili'i-iilt:  I  lo  I'oiuiil  a  | «-i  inaiii'iil  si-1 
soon  had  to  enlarge  theschool;  and  circu 
le  1  to  the  further  development  of  his  en 

ami  tl iganization  of  oih.T    in-tituti. 

there  grew  up  under  his  charge  the  Orphi 
the  Pcedaqoqium,  the  Burgher  School, 


iv.    geography,    music,    physics,   ana! v. 

iry,  and  logic.     The  Pcedagogium  had  at- 
id   to  it   a   botanical   garden,  a    cabinet   of 


Office,  the  Apothecary's  Shop  (establish,  ,1  with. -.,,,,-  lath  -.  ami  J.i-.-nui,,,,  ,„.,.  l,n„i  v.  The 

legacj  I  ft  l>\  on,'  i;,ii:H,tall.i..tlu'Canstein  Bible  svidences  of  Christianity,  Latin,  Greek,  Bebrew, 
House  (the  fruit  of  a  gift  by  the  Baron  von  Can-  and  French  were  taught  in  it.  The  system  of 
stein  for  the  puxpou'  of  printing  one  hundred  classiticatioti  in  tin.-  schools  allowed  the  pupils 
thousand  copies  of  the  Bible),  and  the    Mission    to  be  graded    according  to  their  advancement  in 


0,1  pupils.    The  teachers  lived  with  the  scholars, 
and  Francke  himself  exercised  a  constant  super 


Institute.     At  the  ti f  Francki 

's  death,  the  e 

institutions  compris  •  1  the  follow  in- 

:  The  Pceda- 

i/ui/ium,  having  >2  scholar-  an  1  7" 

t  ach  i - :  the 

Latin  srhool  of  the  « Irphan  1 1  ills 

.:  inspectors, 

32 teachers,  tOOscholars 1  LOsen 

ints;theGer- 

man  Burgher  Scl 1.  1    inspectors 

98  teachers, 

8  female  teachers,  1728  boys  and 

girls;   the  Or- 

plian  House,  1 00  boys.  34  girls, 

en  overseers; 

the  Free  Tulil,:  2.Vi  students.  360  | r  seholai-s  : 

the  household  of  the  Apothecary's  Shop  and 
Bookseller's  Shop.  .".:{  persons;  the  Institution 
for  Women  and  Girls,  with  15  persons  in  the  girls' 

department.  >  in  the  lioardiug-lioiise  for  young 
women,  and  6  widows.     In  1876,  they  included 


all.     Besides  Zinzeintorf.    Fran,  ke's 


■in  law. 


iiainelv.  .I.'lni  Ana-ta-iii-.  I-  lam 
and  his  son,  Gottlieb  Anastasius;  J.  G.  Knapp; 
Joachim  Lange;  Jacob  Rambach  :  1 1  Freycr  :  G. 
Sarganeck  :  Johann  Julius  Hecker,  who  founded 
the  famous  Berhn  real  school;  and  Anton  Bti- 
sching.     Francke  is  regarded  by  some   as   the 


322 


FRANK  LIN   COLLECH 


greatest  practical  educator  that  ever  lived,  and 
even  those  who  are  opposed  to  the  religions  basis 
of  his  educational  theories  do  not  hesitate  to  hold 
him  up  as  a  model  for  all  time.  He  was  the  author 
of  the  orphan  and  charity  schools  of  Protestant 
Germany;  and  his  ideas  on  superintendence, 
inspection,  and  examination  exerted  great  influ- 
ence upon  the  development  of  the  public-school 
system  fn  Germany.   The  nourishing  institutions 


of  the   Moravians  Iq 
Zinzendorf,  had  been  educated 
for  a  long  time  conducted  in 
Prancke's  principles.     About 
tions  began  to  decline;  bul  the 
Niemeyer,  a  gr  at-grandson  of 
directory    ushered  in  a  new  pei 
which  Mill     I  B76     conl  inui  - 
.1.    //.  Francke  (Halle,  L827 
Gestattung  der  I   i  >. 
scken  Pietismus    1  361 

FRANKLIN  COLLEGE 
is  under  the  control  of  the  ft 


hose  foil  I  n 


FREE  SCHOOLS 

Campbell,  1832—5;  the  Rev.  Johnson  Welsh 
1835—6;  the  Rev.  Dr.  Joseph  Smith.  L837— 8 ; 
the  Rev.  Jacob  Coon,  pro  tern.,  1 838 — fl ;  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Burnett,  183!) — 10  ;  the  Rev.  Edwin 
||.  NYvin.  1840—5;  the  Rev.  Dr.  Alexander 
D.  Clark.  1X45— III  :  the  Rev.  R.  G.  Campbell, 
1867—71  ;  and   A.  F.  Ross.  Id,  1)..  the  , .resent 


FRANKLIN  AND  MARSHALL  COL- 
LEGE,  at  Lancaster.  I'a..  is  under  the  control 

of  the  Reformed  (I  ■ermani  Church.  This  insti- 
tution was  founded  in  L853,  by  the  consolidation 
of   two   older   institutions,  —  Franklin  College, 


plant  ; 

the  Ba 


-41 


cstiiulioii   was  first  called 
bor  Institute.     Aboul  the 


instruction  he-un.  I  Ins  name  it  lias  ever  since 
retained,  although  it  has  ha  1  one  suspension  of 
five  years,  and  another  of  as  many  months.  The 
present  organization  dates  from  1-71.  The  col- 
lege has  two  large  brick  edifices,  a  campus  of  VI 
acres,  a  dwelling-house,  ami  philosophical  ;,nd 
chemical  apparatus,  the  whole  valued  at  $40,000. 
The  endowment  amounts  to  S-5.UII0.  ['ho  libra- 
ries connected  with  the  institution  contain  about 
3,000  volumes.  It  has  both  a  preparatory  and  a 
collegiate  department,  with  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course.  Facilities  are  offered  for  in- 
struction in  music  and  painting.  Roth  sexes 
arc  admitted.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  college 
is  $28  per  year;  in  the  preparatory  department, 
$23  per  year.  In  1875—6,  there  were  li  in- 
structors and  !»9  students,  of-whom  18  were  in 
the  collegiate  department.  The  presidents  have 
been  the  Rev.  G.  C.  Chandler,  D.  D.,  Silas  Bailey, 
D.  D.,  and  the  Rev.  W.  T.  Stott,  D.  I).,  the 
present  incumbent  (1876). 

FRANKLIN  COLLEGE,  at  Xew  Athens, 
Harrison  Co.,  Ohio,  was   chartered   ill  1825.      it 


grew  out  off 
conducted  fi 
the    Rev.  Jd 

The  colleger 

controversy. 
anti-slavery 

torj  i'1111' : 

a  classical  an 
admitted. 
In    1st:—  I, 
students  (27 


which  had 


1875,  there  were  319  alumni.    The  presidents  of 

the  coll e  have  been  as  follows:  The  Rev.  Dr. 

Wm.  McMillan,  1825—32  ;    the    Rev.  Richard 


1836,  and  trans- 
nii  from  itsformer 
iklin    Co.     It  has 


four  years'  classical  course  of  American  colleges. 
There  are  no  optional  courses  of  study,  in  which 
the  student  is  allowed  to  choose  for  himself  what 
he  shall  learn.  The  college  receives  no  irregular 
students,  as  they  are  called,  and  has  no  provisional 
or  mixed  classes.  The  college  and  society  libra- 
ries contain  about  11,000  volumes.  Connected 
with  the  college  arc  the  Franklin  and  Marshall 
Academy  and  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the 
Reformed  Church.  The  academy  is  designed  as 
a  training  school  for  those  who  desire  to  prepare 
for  college,  and  also  to  furnish  a  complete  aca- 
demical course  for  those  who  do  not  propose  to 
take  a  full  collocate  course  of  study.     The  full 


(college,  7;  academy.  2;  seminary.  3),  and  135 
students  (college,  67;  academy,  36;  seminary, 
32).  The  number  of  alumni  of  Marshall  college 
was  IM'  ■  of  Franklin  and  Marshall  College  358  ; 
total  540.  The' first  president  of  Franklin  and 
Marshall  College  was  the  Rev.  Emmanuel  V. 
Gerhart,  I>.  I).,  appointed  in  L855.  He  continued 
in  office  till  1866,  when  he  was  succeeded  by  the 
Rev.  John  W.  Nevin.D.  D.,  LL.  1).,  the  present 
incumbent  (1876). 

FREDERICK  COLLEGE,  at  Frederick, 
Md.,  was  organized  in  ITilT.  It  has  a  valuable 
niineralogical  cabinet, philosophical  and  chemical 
apparatus,  and  a  library  of  3,000  volumes.  There 
are  three  department-  :  The  classical  department, 
including  the  Latin  and  Creek  languages,  also 
the  German,  with  related  subjects;  The  math- 
ematical and  higher  English  departments;  and 
the  elementary  department.  The  cost  of  tuition 
in  these  departments  is.  respectively.  SCO.  S  III, 
and  $25;  but  there  is  an  extra,  charge  of  $20 
per  annum  for  German.  G.  C.  Deaver,  A.  M., 
is  ,  I .- 7 < ; ,  the  president. 

FREE  SCHOOLS.    .See  Public  Schools. 


FREEDMEN 'S  SCHOOLS  FE] 

FREEDMEN'S  SCHOOLS.     A  proclama-  S.  i '.  |  Method 

fcion  issued  by  President  Lincoln,  Jan.  L.,  1863,  Orleans,  La 

abolished  slavery  in  the  United  States,  and  the  [Method.  Epis 

colored  people   set    tree    liv  the   piiH'laiiiiitiini  re-  luiiscetariain. 

ceived  the  nam.'  of    freedmen.     As   nearly  the  Seminary  (Ba 

whole  of  this  ii<i|iiilaitiiii   «,is  i  Hi  (<i.it.-.   \ariniis  ( '.;  and  the  II 


which,  a 

Itll    all    tin 


rllMl-,-    I.V    It.  atl.l   III   smile  sialic  u.-lv  earned  ..I 

entirely  by  aid  of  its  fund  and  under  its  provisions 
A  Qumberof  benevolent  and   religious  societie 

continued  to  co-operate  with  the  Bureau  in  tli 

establishment  of  schools,  and  most  oi  the  Amei 

li-ivilini'iis  „-| Is ■■  the  objects  of   thei 

home  missionary  socie'ties,  or  of  specia]  Freei 

superintendent,  appointed  by  the  commissione 
of  the  Bureau,  traveled    through  most  oi    th 

srli.iuls.  ami   day   ami    nielit   schunls,  that    made 
utilv  occasional  reports  tu  the  liiin-au. 


Year 

Day  &  Night 
Schools 

Teachers 

Pupils 

Total  number 
of  pupils 

1866   .  . . 
1si;t   ... 
1868     . . 
1869.... 
1870. . . . 

1,839 
1,831 
2,118 
2,039 

1,405 
2,037 
2,295 
2, 1  >5 
2,563 

90,77s 
111,412 
LOt.327 
11  4,  V22 
114,516 

150,000 
238,342 
241,819 
250,000 
247,333 

Of  the  schools  reported  in  1  *7n.  1  .•'!'.!  I  were  sus- 
tained wholly  or  partly  by  freedmen, wl wned 

592  school   buildings;    74   scl Is.  with    >.l  IT 

pupils,   were   high    or    leal   Bchools.     * » t'    the 

teachers,  1,251  were  white,  and  l,312colored.  The 
wliole  number  of  sellout.  ..t  all  kinds,  was  \.TA\>. 
with  '.i..'!H7  teachers;  of  these.  1  ...li'J  wereSunday- 
schools,  with  6,007  teachers  and  ! ' 7 . 7 "> 'J  pupils. 
and  Gl  industrial  schools,  with  1,7">i>  pupils. 
The  whole  amount  expended  for  educational 
purposes,  to  A.ug.31.,  L871,  was  $3,711,264,  the 

greater  porta I'  which  was  for  the  erection 

and  renting  of  school  buildings.  The  Freedmen's 
Bureau  also  aided  in  tl stal.lisl nt  of  a  con- 
siderable number  of  schools  of  a  higher  grade  for 
th.-  colored  population, in  some  cases  co  operating 
for  this  purpose  with  one  nt  the  religious  d.-iinm- 
inations.  Among  the  institutions  thus  found- 
ed, were  Howard  University.  Washington,  D.  ( '. 
(uiiseetai'iaiii  ;  Atlanta  I '  niversity.  Atlanta.  <ia. 
(unsectarianj  ;    Claflin    University,  Orangeburg, 


.Is  mi  .-..  lai.'.-a  l.a.-i-.  a- t 
Church.    Ai  theannivei 
s  Aid  Society  oi  the  M. 

-  ,.i  that  society,  during 

ii-  M.-tl 

the  In. 

the  eig 

,t  \ 

Epis- 
.1.1   in 

ars.,1 

no.     '| 

he  r 

■eelptS 

e   last    lill.lllil.il    \e.-ll-   lend 

11-'    \la\ 

31. 

1875) 

$86,000.     The  Society 

has  aii 

ii   the 

li-niiu-ut  andsupport  oi  fi 

n-ll 

litmus 

higher  ul-a.le   in    the  >oilt 

.111    st: 

It  has 

elaitm-'l    that    tif'tv't  linn's. 

,11,1    ell 

.In 

have 

taught   in  it-  daj  schools,  and  a 

still 

larger 

H  r  in   it-  Sunday-scl Is 

:   that 

•  than 

iili'-'l  t sters,  and  ovei 

a  thou 

ami 

teach- 

LSI  II.  I 


a  Inn 
ers,  ha\ 
has  est! 
of  tort 

persons  whom  it  has  trained.  Besides  receiving 
this  aid  from  the  Beveral  American  churches,  the 
sel Is  for  freedmen  have  had  considerable  sup- 
port from  the  Peabody  fund.  (See  I'i  usody.) 
FREEWILL  BAPTISTS,  a  section  of 
Baptists,  which  commenced  in  North  America 
in  1780.     The  name  was  reproachfully  given  1  ■  v 

tln-ir  calvinistic  brethren  to   Benjamin  R lall 

and  a  few  other  I'.aptist  ministers  who  gave  spe- 
cia] prominence  to  the  doctrineof  thefreedomof 
the  will  in  the  work  ..)'  salvation.     Randall  and 


IIM 


nil  tin 

tists  I 


sneiatinn  is  called  a  N.-.n  1  \  Meeting.  All  the 
Yearly  Meetings  send  representatives  to  the 
General  Conference,  which  meets  once  in  three- 


324 


FRENCH  LANGUAGE 


years.  They  agree  almost  wholly  in  doctrine 
with  the  General  Baptists  in  England.  In  I  -  U  . 
nearly  the  whole  body  of  another  Baptist  de- 
nomination, the  Free  Communion  Baptists,  chiefly 
belonging  to  the  state  of  New  York,  united 
with  them;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  their 
congregations  in  North  Carolina  left  them,  and 
several  thousands  of  Baptists  in  Kentucky  and 
other  Southern  states,  who  agreed  with  them 
on  doctrinal  points,  were  refused  admission  to 
their  communion  in  consequence  of  the  very  de- 
cided position  which  the  church  assumed  against 
slave-holding.  More  recently,  negociations  have 
been  begun  to  bring  about  a  union  with  the 
Church  of  God  q.v.),  as  the  two  churches  are 
essentially  one  in  principle;  but  from  a  report 
made  to  the  Freewill  Baptist  General  Confer- 
ence in  L874,  if  appears  that  the  <  Ihurch  of  God 
is  unwilling  to  give  up  its  present  name.  The 
Freewill  Baptist's  reported,  in  1N7.">.  .'is  yearly 
meetings,  1,3'JO  churches,  1,185  ordained  preach- 
ers, and  72,128  members.  Of  the  yearly  meet- 
ings, one  is  in  British  America. ami  one  in  India; 
the  others  are  in  the  United  States.  The  Free 
Baptists  of  New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  are 
in  full  agreement,  though  not  in  organic  union, 
with  the  Freewill  Baptists  :  the  former,  in  ls7.">. 
had  138,  the  latter,  30  churches.  The  Freewill 
Baptists  have  21  literary  institutions  for  second- 
ary or  higher  instruction,  six  of  which  are  col- 
leges; namely.  Hillsdale  College,  at  Hillsdale, 
Mich,  (organized  in  1855);  Bates  College,  at 
Lewiston.  Me.  llMJ.'i):  Kidgeville  College. 
Ridgeville,  Ind.  (1867);  West  Virginia 
College,  at  Flemington,  \V.  Ya.  (1868)  ; 
Storer  College,  at  Harper's  Ferry,  \V.  Ya.  : 
and  W'olsey  College,  at  Peach  Grove.  Tenn. 
Theological  schools  arc  connected  with  Hills- 
dale and  Bates  colleges.  The  Freewill  Baptist 
Education  Society  has  invested  funds  to  the 
amount  of  $45,000,  the  interest  on  which  is 
chiefly  devoted  to  sustaining  theological  instruc- 
tion in  Bates  and  Hillsdale  colleges.  It  makes 
liberal  provision  in  aid  of  young  men  preparing 
for  the  ministry.  This  denomination,  from  t lie- 
beginning  of  the  anti-slavery  struggle,  main- 
tained an  unwavering  and  strenuoii,  oppo>iiioM 
to  slavery,  and  is  still  doing  good  service  for  the 
freed n,  especially  in  the  Shenandoah  and  Mis- 
sissippi valleys.  Among  the  newspapers  issued 
by  the  denomination,  are  two  Sabbath-school 
papers,  which,  by  alternating  with  each  other. 
furnish  a  weekly  issue.  Its  Sabbath-school  work 
is  pursued  with  much  interest  and  vigor. 

FRENCH  LANGUAGE.  The  French 
language  is  universally  recognized  as  standing. 
with  the  English  and  ( lerman,  at  the  head  of  the 
languages  of  the  civilized  world.  Wherever  a 
knowledge  of  any  other  than  the  native  lan- 
guage is  valued,  French  is  sure  to  have  its  claims 
considered.  Hence,  in  the  school,  ,,i  the  English- 
speaking  world.it  usually  occupies,  «  1 1 1 1  the  I  rer- 
man  language, a  place  in  the  coarse oi  instruction. 
Whatever  should  be  said  of  the  >tudy  ..I  modern 
foreign  languages  in  general. and  especially  of  the 
languages  of  great  nations,  like  those  of  France  . 


and  Germany,  is  reserved  for  the  article  Modern 
L/i,:/n,i,/,'s.  this  article  treating  only  of  what  be- 
long, io  the  French  language  exclusively. 

This  language  is  one  of  the  so-called  Romanic 
languages  (q.  v.),  which,  after  the  destruction 
of  the  Western  Roman  empire,  sprang  from  the 
development  of  the  provincial  dialects  of  the 
empire,  and  from  the  l-atin  colloquial  language 
t/iiii/ii,!  Hum, in, i  riis/tr.i).  which  continued  to 
exist  by  the  side  of  the  refined  language  (sermo 
urbanus),  and  was  earned  by  the  victorious 
armies  int.. south-western  Europe.  In  Gaul,  the 
Latin  colloquial  language,  in  consequence  of  the 
conquest  of  the  country  by  the  German  tribes, 
soon  became  the  only  medium  of  conversation 
I  between  the  people  of  the  various  tongues  ;  and, 
by  the  close  of  the  7th  century,  displaced  all  the 
other  languages,  except  in  a  small  district  of  the 
north-west,  apart  of  Brittany,  where  a  Celtic  lan- 
guage, like  that  of  primitive  Gaul,  maintained  it- 
self. The  name  French  language,  w  Inch  is  derived 
from  the  Franks,  a  German  tribe,  who  established 
themselves  in  Caul,  in  the  5th  century,  did  not 
come  into  general  use,  until  the  language  of  the 
Franks  (which,  for  a  considerable  length  of  time, 
co-existed  with  the  Latin  provincial  dialects  in 
the  northern  and  eastern  parts  of  the  country) 
became  extinct.  The  dialects  which  could  be  dis- 
tinguislied  in  the  language  thus  formed  grouped 
themselves  into  two  classes.  —  the  Smith  French 
{rom, in  provenfed,  hngue  (Toe)  and  the  North 
French  (roman  wallon,  langue  cFoil  or  cCoui). 
Both  developed  a  literature,  chiefly  poetical :  but 
gradually  the  South  French,  in  which  the  Latin 
element  had  a  more  thorough  predominance, 
lost  ground,  and  the  North  French,  which  was 
more  largely  mixed  with  German  elements,  be- 
came the  language  of  the  entire  country.  In 
the  Ulth  century.  Francis  1.  made  it.  in  place  of 
the  Latin,  the  language  of  public  transactions, 
and  thus  elevated  it  to  the  position  of  a  national 
language.  The  first  work  in  genuine  French  was 
published  in  the  14th  century.  Since  the  16th 
century,  the  development  of  the  language  made 
rapid  progress.  Richelieu  etablished  the  acade- 
iii  i,  /~i;ii,,;n.<,  for  regulating  all  quest  ions  relative 
to  the  national  language  :  and  under  Louis  XI Y., 
it  attained  a  high  scholastic  authority.  Even  in 
the  middle  ages,  the  French  language  was  known 
and  spoken  far  beyond  the  boundaries  of  its  native 
country.  It  was  the  court  language  of  England 
and  Scotland,  was  generally  understood  in  south- 
ern Italy  and  by  the  German  nobility,  and  was 
also  the  chief  language  of  the  merchants  in  the 
East.  At  the  peace  of  Xlmeguen  (1678),  it 
was,  for  the  first  time,  used  as  the  language  of 
European  diplomacy:  and  this  position  it  has 
maintained  to  the  present  day.  It  is  the  national 
language  in  all  France,  and  in  most  of  the  French 
colonies,  as  well  as  in  south-western  Switzerland, 
and  also  in  Hayti.  In  Belgium,  though  spoken  by 
only  about  one  half  of  the  entire  population,  it  is 
the  prevailing  language.  It  is  also  spoken  as  a 
native  language  by  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
province  of  Quebec,  and.  other  parts  of  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada;  and  in  a  part  of  Lorraine  which, 


FRENCH  LANGUAGE  325 

in  1871,  was  ceded  to  Germany.     It  has,  to  some  I  prose  than  in  poetry.and  it   is  also  admirably 
extent,   maintai 1    itself   in    that    part  of    tin;    suited  for  num-rsii Im with  mosl 


the  French  language  are  still  dif 
Even    at    present,    no    language     is 

StUllii'cl     tl)    SO     great     .III     eXtelll      b\     fll 

the  French  :  and.  therefore,  traveler 
knowledge  of  French  more  useful  t 
any  other  modern  language;  althoi 
respect,  it  is  at  present  far  less  import; 
pared  with  the  English  and  German 
than  it  was  a  hundred  years  aeo     Th 


writers   ami  sei.-nti-ts.   like  l„-il,nirz.  lluniboMt. 

Frederick  the  Great,  Gibl ,  Beckford,  and  Sir 

William  Jones,  write  their  works  in  the  French 
language,  in  preference  to  their  vernacular,  either 
as  a  matter  of  taste  or  to  insure  to  their  writings 
a  wider  circulation. 

There  is  a  sufficient  number  of  literary  docu- 
ments extanl  of  every  period  oi  the  French  lan- 
guage. Iiy  wliii-h  its gradual  growth  may  be  traced 
from  its  first  formation  to  the  present  time.     It 


am  from  units,  «, 
re,  the  mother;  i 
mother;  for  (Lai 
r  (German,  der  I 
■   MuUer).   Like  it 


i  studied  : 
schools  of  English-speaking 


*  to  be  found  in  ■: 
language,  which 

the  Germane 

ments  were  use 
guages,  the  I'n  i, 
Latinsource.  8 
comparative  ling 
of  the  French 
the  working  of  t 
ulate  the  forma 
languages :  and. 
much  that  formi 


the    l.allll    Word     I,..,:,,    the     new    I    I.  I,.  I.     1.1 1,"  ,1.,.  e 

formed  a  long  Beriesof  words,  as  or,  tors,  des-lors, 
alors.  lorsque,  encore,  dorinavant,  desormais, 
keure,heures,horaire, each  with  a  different  idea  ; 

it  is  obvious  that,  in  tl rigin  of   the   French 

language,  there  was  uot  onlj  the  decay  of  the  Lat- 
in.l.nt  the  creative  power  ol  new  ideas.  The 
ahn.i  lance  of  simple  words  in  French,  where  the 

English  and  Germans  have  to  u mp  mnds,  is 

gen  rally  conceded  to  be  an  .1  U.mi.i-.  .  a-  IT  neh. 
/in,/ii,i,. ,-.  •-,.,,,.;  English,  app  ■■  vineyard. 
jAmong  the  commendable  qu  dities  oi  the  French 

language,  are   generally    em rated    its    logical 

precision,  neatin-s.-.  and  ) ■■  i  ~ | u.  nil  v  :  while, on  the 
other  hand,  the  monotony  of  accentuating  the 
final  syllables,  and  the  frequent  oeearieiiee  of  the 
nasal  sound  make  it  less  euphonious  and  rhyth- 
mical than  other  Romanic  languages.  Its  excel- 
lencies, therefore,  appear  to  greater  advantage  in 


tl 
at  lire 


i  to  the  English,  and   to    tnini-h   ih.-  key  for 
understanding  oi   its  truly   magnificent  liter- 
It  is  desirable   to   use  the  I'reiieh.  as  far 


FRENCH  LANGUAGE 


as  possible,  in  the  recitations,  in  order  to  famili- 
arize the  ear  of  the  student  with  the  spoken 
language, and  also  to  afford  him  some  practice  in 
speaking  it.  The  ability  to  speak  the  French 
language,  however,  eannot  he  acquired  in  school 
exeepl  within  very  narrow  limits.  To  discontinue 
the  study  after  a  fair  knowledge  of  grammar  and 
reading  has  been  acquired,  is  a  serious  educational 
error.  Where  the  study  is  introduced,  it  should  be 
continued  without  interruption  until  the  com- 
pletion of  the  school  course.  When  it  is  intended 
to  teach  pupils  to  speak  French  fluently,  a  course 
of  instruction  of  at  least  four  years  should  be 
provided,  with  daily  exercise,  and  constant  inter- 
course with  a  French  teacher.  The  French,  in 
this  respect,  does  not  differ  from  any  other  mod- 
ern langage.     (See  Modern  Languages.) 

Instruction  in  French,  as  in  every  other  foreign 
language,  begins  with  the  acquisition  of  a  correct 
pronunciation.  Next  to  Knglish,  French  is  the 
least  phonetic  of  all  languages;  and.  there- 
fore, a  large  number  of  rules  must  be  learned 
before  the  pupil  is  able  to  pronounce  ordinary 
words,  [t  is  important  that  this  pronunciation 
should  be  learned, partly  at  least,  by  means  of  an 
imitation  of  the teacher's pronunciation.  Memoriz- 
ing lessons,  before  the  correct  pronunciation  has 
been  acquired  is  positively  injurious.  The  French 
grammar  offers  but  few  peculiarities  and  difficul- 
ties. The  absence  of  case-endings  and  of  many 
other  inflections,  and  the  paucity  of  simple  U  ases 
ami  of  changes  in  the  radical' part  of  irregular 
verbs,  facilitate  the  rea  lingo!  a  French  author  at  a 
very  early  stage  oi  ins tion.  The  chief  peculiar- 
ities, such  as  the  interrogative  and  negative  form 
of  sentences,  ought  to  be  frequently  practiced. 
Attention   should   be    called    to  the  relationship 

which  the  Latin  and  the  Norman  elements  of 

the  English  language  bear  to  both  Knglish  and 
French.  Simple  exercises  in  etymology  maygreat- 
ly  facilitate  the  early  acquisition  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  words,  to  enable  the  pupil  to  read  easy 
writers  without  a  too  frequent  use  of  the  dic- 
tionary. If  French  is  studied  by  pupils  who  pos- 
se-- some  knowledge  of  Uitin.  this  knowledge  can 
be  used  to  great  advantage  in  etymological  illus- 
tration, and  in  giving  a  clear  view  of  the  peculiar 
character  of  the  Romanic  languages.  The  under- 
standing of   French  authors  can    lie  made  quite 


for 


deprive  Fenelon's  T&emaque  and  Voltaire's 
(  Viarles  XII  of  the  deserved  popularity  which 
they  have  so  long  enjoyed.  In  selecting  modern 
writers,  teachers  should  exercise  the  greatest  care 
to  avoid  all  works  the  contents  of  which  are  ob- 
jectionable.  In  general,  the  reading  of  foreign 
author,  who  in  a  marked  manner  reflect  the 
national  peculiarities  of  their  country,  is  to 
be  preferred;  but  whenever  there  is  reason 
to  apprehend  that  the  impressions  thus  made 
upon  the  pupils  mind  may  weaken  his  patri- 
otic sentiments,  there  will  be  need  of  the  ex- 
'  ereise  of  caution.  —  There  is.  generally,  too  little 
lime  in  Knglish  and  American  institutions  for 
the  study  of  French  literature.  In  most  cases, 
the  time  devoted  to  it  maybe  more  profitably 
spent  in  improving  the  pupil's  technical  knowl- 
edge of  the  language.  Of  course,  advanced 
pupils  should  become  acquainted  with  the  most 
celebrated  authors  as  well  as  a  rudimentary  out- 
line of  the  literary  history  of  France  ;  but  most 
of  this  can  best  be  learned  as  an  introduction  to 
the  reading  of  the  standard  writers.  Good  French 
reading  books,  with  literary  introductions  to  the 
different  authors,  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  es- 
pecially in  advanced  classes,  with  great  advantage. 
The  reading  of  selections  which  would  make  the 
pupil  acquainted  with  the  peculiar  style  and  ex- 
cellencies of  Corneille,  Racine,  Moliere,  Boileau, 
Fonclon,  etc.  of  the  age  of  Louis  XIV. ;  of  Vol- 
taire, Rousseau,  Montesquieu.  Florian, &c, of  the 
philosophical  century:  of  Chateaubriand,  Be- 
ranger,  Lamartine,  V.  Hugo.  G.  Sand,  Guizot, 
Tluei-.  Michelet,  Ac.  of  modern  times,  is  prefer- 
able to  the  exclusive  reading  of  one  or  two  entire 
worksof  French  literature.  When  colloquial  ex- 
ercises constitute  the  chief  part  of  French  instruc- 
tion.and  to  acquire  fluency  of  speech  is  the  chief 
aim.  care  should  be  exercised  that  the  command 
of  the  language  thus  obtained  may  give  to  the 
pupil  something  more  than  a  collection  of  trivial 
phrases  and  unmeaning  expressions  of  politeness. 
Eminent  educators  have  often  called  attention 
to  the  dangerous  influence  which  a  knowledge, 
so  exclusively  formal  and  without  substance, may 
exercise  upon  the  pupil's  mind. 

The'  first  grammar  of  the  French  language  was 
written  by  an  Knglish  author,  Palsgrave  (L'es- 
darcissementdela£anguefranpoyse,Lond.,l530; 
new  edit  li\  Genin,  Paris,1852).    It  was  followed 


inajon 
same  r 
should 
rupted 


lumatical  or  literary  remarks.  The 
.should  be  to  make  the  language 
familiar  to  the  pupil  ;  as  he  advances,  it  will  be 
easy,  without  any  sacrifice  of  time,  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  rhetorical  excellencies  oi  the 
French  classics.  Classic  prose  should  precede 
poetry,  and  should  be  read  to  a  much  larger  ex- 
tent.     The    great    prose    writers  of  the  1  7th  and 

18th  centuries  have  some  claims  to  the  privilege 
of  being  read  first  :  at  all  events,  they  should  not 
be  neglected.  French  literature  is  exceedingly  rich 
in  works  suited,  in  every  respect,  for  beginners  : 
and  there  is  no  reason  \\  hy  modern  writers  should 


■s  ll 


;,,,,,,,,,. 


Great    progress    was    visible   in    the   works    of 

Roberl  and  Henry  Stephens    q,  v.  .     \u g  the 

later  grammars  published  by  French  scholars  the 
most  highlyvalued  are  those  by  the  Port-Royal 
writers,  Lancelot  and  Arnauld  (1660),  de  Wailly 
(1754),  Girault-Duvivier  (1811),  Landais  (1836), 
Bescherelle,  Noeland  ( lhapsal,  Poitevin,  Boniface, 
ht  llier  and  Larousse.  Among  the  grammat- 
ical works  on  the  French  language  written  by 
foreigners,  the  works  by  Matzner,  (Syntax  der 
neiiframdsischen  Sprache,  2  vols.  Berlin.  L843 — 


aft'/fc,Berlin,1856)  a  schism  took  place  in  the  Philadelphia  Yearly 
ch  scholars. — The  Meeting,  which  afterwards  extended  to  mosl  of 
s  French  language    the   other  yearly  meetings    in    America.      Both 


i~  h 


Dictionnaire    universel   by 
(Hague,  L690)  was  a  kind  of 

ilia.    A  re\  ision  of  this  work.  1 

became  celebrated  under  the 


Vr 


•H'l"' 
the  i 
The 

this, 

Lani 
tion. 
1876 
Sand 
On  i 


by  I!. 
L851) 
(1865 
1863 


has  1 
first- 

art  id 


try  of  tin'   Freni 
works   have   bet 


if  all  diction- 
istorical  dic- 
grand  scale, 
idemy,    The 


itirely  without  theological 
lox  Friends  have  twelve 
ol.lest  of  which,  that  of 
,-  the  others  with  respectful 
rof  yearly  meetings.  The 
n    I  iijand  ami    Ireland  is 


.Is 


M.nl.i 


Borel, 

Noel  ( 

Masim 

on  the  history  of  the 

by  V-.    v      //  .  ■        , 

en  Fran*      Paris    18 

dulangagi  frangaU 

1845), and  l.ittre  |  His 

2  vols.,  Paris,  1863).- 

Frencli  synonyms   a: 


French 
(  I  vols. 
< feruzez 


Beau/.ee 

(180 

liter 
1841 

(2  vol...  1852) — In  ,■ ction  with  the  other 

Komanic  languages,  the  French  has  1  len,  gram- 

matieallv  and  lexicallv.  ic.i  i  in  the  Standard 
work.  ..t  Mez  o,,  these  languages.  Iramm  a  'c 
der  romanis  '  S  <ra  .  3  rol  ,  I  336  12, 
4th  edit.,  1876;  and  /'  ......    ...  j  '   s  II'.  •.  rbuch 

trans,  by  Honkin,  1864). 

FRIENDS,  Society  of,  commonly  called 
Quakers,  a  religious  denomination  which  was 
organized  in  England,  in  the  17th  century,  by 
George  Fox.  He  begun  his  religious  reform  in 
1047,  and  only  a  few  years  later,  in  1655,  the 
first  of  his  followers  came  to  America.    In  1827, 


is    tl„ 


an  endowment  of  £40,000,  and 
voted  to  the  training  of  young 
in  the  Friends'  educational  & 
in  I  heir  families.  Ackworth  Scl 
worth,  is  the  chief  public  Bchoi 
and  has  an  endowment  of  £3 
pupils  (about  180  boys  and  120 
ers.  Besides  Ackworth,  the 
public  schools  at  I  iroydon  (endo 
Sidcot  (£15.000),   Wigton   (£1 


:!28 


FROEBEL 


near  Leeds  |  65,000),  Penketh.  near  Warrington 
(£4,000),  Sibford  (£10,000),  Ayton,  near  Dar- 
lington [£i  1,000),  Newton,  Waterford;  .Mount- 
in  Sick  |  £9,000  .  Ldsburn  ''-'II  ,000  .  Brookfleld 
I  68,000  .    First  day  8c] I-   Sunday-scl Is)  are 

conducted    in    all    1 1 1. ■   vearlv   incetin">   with    zed 

and  efficiency,  and  North  '  arol baa  tab  n  the 

lead  in  the  establishment  of  a  normal  first-day 
school.  The  other  branch  the  Hicksites)  have, 
in  the  eities  of  New  York.  Philadelphia,  Bal- 
timore,  and  Richmond.  Int.  extensive  and  well- 
conducted  schools,  adapted  to  a  high  standard 
of  useful  and  practical  education.  There  arc  abo 
numerous  schools  of  varied  character  through- 
out the  yearly  meetings.  Swarthmore  College. 
near  Philadelphia,  was  organized  in  1  Mii'.l.  ami  is 
intended  for  three  hundred  pupils  of  both  sexes. 
FROEBEL,  Friedrich,  a  celebrated  German 
educator,  and  the  inventor  of  the  kindergarten 
system  of  school  instruction,  was  born  in  Ober- 
weissbach.  Thuringia.  April  '21..  17*'-'.  and  died 
in  Marienthal,  June  21.,  1852.  lie  was  the  son 
of  a  Lutheran  clergyman,  but  had  few  oppor- 
tunities for  education,  leaving  home  at  the  early 
age  of  13,  to  become  a  forester's  apprentice.  As 
such  he  learned  the  elements  of  geometry  and 
surveying,  and  acquired  the  means  to  prepare 
himself  for  the  university  of  Jenajbut  his  funds 
being  exhausted,  he  was  compelled  to  shift  for 
himself  in  various  stations,  until,  in  L803,  he 
was  employed  as  a  teacher  in  a  model  school  in 
Frankfort  on  the  Main.  To  acquaint  himself 
with  the  details  of  Pestalozzi's  reforms  in  educa- 
tion, he  became  his  associate  in  the  school  at 
Vverdun,  Switzerland,  from  1807  to  1810.  He 
then  continued  his  studies  at  the  universities  of 
Gottingen  and  Berlin;  but,  in  1813,  he  '  10k  pari 
as  a  volunteer  in  Ltitzo'H  -  celebi  ited  i  i  apaig 
against  Napoleon  I.  In  the  same  year  he  »;i-  ap- 
pointed assistant  inspector  of  the  mineralogie  d 
museum  in  Berlin  :  but  he  resigned  that  posi- 
tion in  lslG  to  found  in  Griesheim,  Thu- 
ringia, a  school,  which  he  sunn  after  transferred 
to  Keilhau,  near  Rudolstadt.  His  system  of 
education,  as  practiced  here  for  fifteen  years  was 
based  on  the  principle  of  cultivating  the  self- 
activity  of  the  pupil,  by  connecting  manual 
labor  with  everystudy.  Not  fully  satisfied  how 
ever,  with  the  results  of  bis  experiments,  he  left 
his  school  to  the.  guidance  of  three  devoted  and 
excellent  assistants.  —  Middendorf,  Barop,  and 
Langethal,  and  went  to  Switzerland,  where  lo- 
lloped to  rind  more  support  in  his  reformatory 
plans,  lb-  founded  a  school  first  in  Willisau, in 
1832,  and  att-rw.irds  another  in  Ilurgdorf,  in 
1835,  which  he  again  left  to  be  carried  on  by 
Middendorf  and  Langethal,  and  returned  to  Ger- 
maiiyin  order  to  realize  bi>  plan  of  kindergarten 

schools.      He   had   be i ntirely   convinced 

that  no  thorough  educational  reform  could  be 
effected,  without  changing  the  methods  of  the 
earliest  instruction.     The  powers  of  the  infant's 

mind,  before  they  bo te  stunted   by  aeglect, 

he  held,  must  be  ham iousbj  developed,  in  an  in- 
stitution specially  adapted  to  prepare  these  young 
minds  for  the  ordinary  processes  of  school  instruc- 


FTJRMAN  UNIVERSITY 

tion.  In  this  institution,  teachers  were  also  to  be 
trained  for  the  special  work  of  infant  education. 
Such  a  school  he  called  a  Kindergarten,  that  is, 
a  garden  for  children,  partly  because  it  was  to  be 
located  in  a  hall  within  a  garden, and,  partly.be- 
caus  ■  thl  children  were  to  lie  treated  like  plants, 
beinu'  carefully  tended,  and  aided  in  the  natural 
development  of  their  powers.  His  first  attempt 
at  a  practical  realization  of  this  scheme,  was  made 
in  lllankeiiburg,  Thuringia.  in  18411;  the  second, 
at  the  invitation  of  the  Duchess  of  Meinmeen. 
in  Liebenthal,  in  1849,  in  the  latter  of  which 
places  he  began  the  training  of  young  women  to 
be  kindergarten  teachers.  Other  kindergartens 
were  opine.  1  in  several  of  the  German  cities — 
Dresden,  Hamburg,  etc.,  previous  to  Froebel's 
death,  in  1852.  Before  his  death,  he  had  the 
mortification   to   find   the  establishment  of  state 


or  public  kindcrgai  t, 

as  forbidden  by  the  Prus- 

sian  Minister  Von  1 

auinei.  who  supposed  their 

founder  to  be  Karl  1- 

roebel,  his  nephew  .  w  ho  was 

charged  with  beine  a 

democratic  agitator  and  so- 

eiah'st.  Like  all  self  ei 

ucated  persons,  Froebel  was 

deficient    in    logical 

1,  arness,  especially  in  writ- 

ing.  when  a  Hood  of 

ideas  overwhelmed  him ;  as 

a  practical  teacher. 

te  was  wonderfully  impress- 

ive  and  clear.     Aw 

tward  in  appearance,  indif- 

ferent  to  the  conven 

ionalities  of  life,  and  always 

filled  with  one  inter, 

st,  one  range  of  ideas  and 

efforts,  he,   lieverthel 

ss.    exerted  on   all    genuine 

educators  who   eauit 

in  contact  with  him,  irre- 

spective  of  creed,  s 

almost    magical   infl 

atiou  in  life,  or  party,  an 

tence.     Although  a  devout 

Christian  and   religionist,  he  was  entirely  un- 

sectarian  ;  although 

a   revolutionary  thinker  in 

most  respects,  he  ke' 

t  free  from  all  attempts  at 

practical   revolution 

although   a   cosmopolitan 

and  lover  of  mankin 

1.  he  was  an  ardent  national 

German;  and  altho 

gh    in    theory   be  was  most 

uncritical,  in  speech 

incoherent    and    hardly    in- 

tclli-ilile.  his  system 

,f  methods  for  the  develop- 

ment  of  the  mind   i 
matic,  and  effective. 

s  eminently  practical,  syste- 
The  most  complete  biog- 
at  written  by  A.  P>.  Hansch- 

M  \\\    Eis  uai  h    1  -7 

l);  shortei   ones  are  found 

ill   Wit  HARD    LANGE' 

complete  e  lition  of  Froe- 

be]  -  pedagogical  woi 

ks    3  vols.   Berlin,  L862),in 

!> ■■  -,            "-  Rhein 

sche  Blatter  (1860),  in  the 

journal  Er  iehungd 

rOega <(1874,sq.)by 

the  Baroness  Mares 

louz.  11,  BLOW,  and  in  Am. 

KtEHXER's   Praxis  t 

is   Kindergartens   (3  vols.. 

Weimar,.   An  excel] 

■nt  bio-raphi,  al    sk,  ti-li  has 

also  1 n  written  by 

Matilda  II.  Crieqe  (New 

fork,  1-7 


FURMAN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Greenville, 

S.  ('.,  founded  in  1  Sail,  is  under  Baptist  control. 
It  has  ample  buildings  beautifully  located  on  a 

tract  of  land,  of  some  forty  acres.  Its  endow- 
ment was  almost  wholly  I,, 'st  by  the  Avar.  The 
remnant  spared   has  recently  been  augmented  by 

cent  interest.  Hereafter  tuition  will  be  free  for 
111  years.  The  university  has  an  educational 
fund  of  about  $10,000,  the  interest  of  which  is 
to  aid  young  men  who  are  preparing  for  the 
ministry.    It  comprises  eight    schools;  namely,. 


GALESVILLE   UNIVERSITY  GAMES  329 

Roman  literature  :  (ireek  language  and  litera-  '  The  theological  di-j >art  11  n  n t  was  abandoned  some 
ture;  mathematics  ami  mechanical  philosophy ;  years  after  the  organization  of  the  university,  in 
natural  philosophy;  chemistry  and  natural  order  to  make  it  the  germ  of  the  Southern  Bap- 
history;  logic,  rhetoric,  and  the  evidences  of  tist  Theological  Institution,  which  hold  il  ses- 
Christianhv  :  metaphvsies ;  and  Knglish  lit, a.,-  ions  .it  Greenville,  and  haf  5  pro!  Of  I  h e 
ture.  Students  are  allowed  entire  freedom  in  I  university,  in  1874  -5,  had  5  professors  54  stu- 
the  selection  of  the  schools  which  they  desire  to  dents,  and  79  alumni.  The  Rev.  James  C.  Fur- 
attend.  The  full  course  for  a  degree  of  A.  B.  man.  I».  I»..  has  been  the  presiding  officer  of  the 
extends  through  four  years.  The  preparatory  institution  since  its  opening. 
department  was  discontinued  in  1 8(19,  and  has  FURNITURE,  SCHOOL.  See  School 
been  succeeded  by  the  Greenville  High  School.  |  Furniture. 


GALESVILLE  UNIVERSITY,  at  Gales- 

\ille.  Wis.,  chartered  in  L859,  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees  and  an  endowment  of  §15,000.  It  has  a 
library  of  over  4,000  volumes,  a  cabinet  of  natural 
history,  and  apparatus  for  the  illustration  of  nat- 
ural philosophy,  chemistry,  and  astron y.    It 


preparatory 


year.  and.  in  the  collegiate  department,  $27.  In 
1S74 — 5,  there  were  7  instructors;  and  the  num- 
ber of  students  was  as  follows:  in  the  collegiate 
department,  29;  in  the  preparatory,  96;  in  music, 
28;  total,  deducting  repetitions,  135.  The  Hon. 
George  Gale,   Id..  I'.,  was  the  president  of  the 

Harrison  Gilliland,  D.D.,  the  present  incumbent 
(1876),  was  elected. 

GALL,  Franz  Joseph,  a  German  physician 
and  the  founder  of  phrenology,  was  born  a1 
Tiefenbronn,  in  Baden,  March  !>.,  1758,  and 
died  at  Montrouge,  near  Paris,  A  ug.  22.,  1828. 
The  first  impulse  to  his  phrenological  inves- 
tigations was  given  by  the  observation  mad.'  by 
him.  when  a  boy,  that  all  pupils  who  excelled 
in  committing  pieces  to  memory  had  prominent 

he  thought  he  perceived  in  the  human  head 
external  marks  of  other  intellectual  and  moral 
faculties;  and,  after  twenty  years  of  uninterrupt- 
ed Study,  he  believed  that  he  had  discovered 
about  twenty  organs  of  different  faculties.  In 
I7!)t;,  he  began  to  leel ure  on  his  peculiar  theory  | 
in  Vienna ;  but,  in  ISO'.',  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment interdicted  his  lectures  on  the  ground  that 
they  were  dangerous  to  religion.  This  charge, 
which  has  since  been  often  repeated, againsl  the 
phrenologists,  was  stoutly  denied  bv  Call.  who. 


tion.  and  that,  therefore,  a 
nology,  which  revealed  bet 

knowledge  of  phre- 
er   than   any  other 

means  of  observation,  the  gi 

od  and  bad   disposi- 

tions  of  men.  was  of   great 

mportance  to  every 

educator.     Gall    had   many 

followers,  the  most 

noted  of  win  an   was    Spun 

leim.  the  author  of 

.1    View  of  the  Elementary 

P               ,/  Edu- 

cation  (Edin,  L821),and  oil, 

■r  important  works. 

GALLAUDET,  Thomas  Hopkins,  a  noted 
teacher  and  philanthropist,  was  born  in  Phila- 
delphia, Dec.  10..  17*7.  and  died  in  Hartford, 
Ct.,  Sep.  !».,  1851.  Hegraduated  at  Vale  College 
in    1805,   entered    the  theological   seminary  at 


ndent  of  an  institution 
rpose  at  I  lartford.  and  in 
e    in    its    behalf.       finding 


vogue.  In  July 
with  Mr.  Lin 
pupils  and  ass 


/;., 


Defining  Dictionary,  Practical  8p  '  i  |  Bo,  ■: 
The  Every-Day  Christian,  Letters  of  a  Father, 
and  Public  Schools,  Public  Blessings.— See 
Barnard,  American  Teachers  and  Educators ; 
and  Tribute  to  GaUaudet  (Hartford,  1852);  U. 
Humphrey,  Life  of  T.  II.  GaUaudet;  North 
Ameri  an  Eevi  a  for  October,  1858. 
GAMES    are    formal    methods    of   sport    or 

diversion,  which  istitule.  in    an    especial    man 

ner   and   degree,  the    peculiar  life  of  childhood. 


taneolis    e\erei-c    ot      tie-     hoililj      Organs     of    an 

animal,  which   promotes   its  growth  and  adapts 

it  to  its  surroiiiidiii'j-  ;  .- 1 ■  i .  1  -.I •-  convention- 
ally established  modes  of    play        I  h    ■    garni 
maybe   more  or  less  in   harmony  with  the  nat- 
ural wants  of  those  who  engage  in  them  ;  but  it 


-will  be  found  that  the  more  nearly  they  agree  I  need  of  purchasing  costly  and  elaborate  toys,  in 
with  these   natural   wants,   the   more    generally     which  children  take  but  a  transient  interest.   Mure 


they 

tory 


particularly  will  it  dissuade  from  supplying 
as  children  with  contrivances  for  such  games  oi 
id  chance  as  tend  to  foster  the  spirit  of  gain  and 
is  gambling,  children  should  be  led  ;o  make  their 
id    own  toys,  and  to trive  their  own  games  and 


With  the  pro] 
andergo  cei-tan 
to  the  age  ;  am 
characteristics 
and  kinds  of  it: 
arc.  in  part,  ini 
indeed,  sometii 
ser s  oocnpa 

child  -  plays  .- 
scholars,  or  asst 
the  household, 
mechanic,  etc.,  i 


is    pi 


exclusively  on  the 
tilia.ii  also  recogni 
certain   games.      It 


, 


i 


cause  to  be  real! 
spontanea  ms. 
rect  in  regard  b 
not  prejudicial 
unsuited  to  the 
parents,  and  o 
great  influence 
joining  in  thcii 
may  regulate  t 
make  them  an 
struction.  Tin 
interference  is 
child's  powers  s 
that  amusemen 
stimulating  th. 
that  growth.  I 
from  the  earlii 
and  -aincs.  sucl 
has  been  deraoi 
who  have  pracl 
or  the  kinderg 
proaches  perfec 
ing  ability  of  t 
that  method,  t 
beautiful  plays 
ability  which 
them  as  childr 
spheres  of  usef 
meuts  to  adapt 
and  his  sanies. 
eighth  year  u] 
number  of  schi 


rebuses;  and  also  construction  games  b\ 
of  geometrical  solids,  cutting,  weaving, 

must  tend  tu  keep  children  from  rough,  boi 

and  dangerous  sports,  and  will  also  obv: 


has  dune  so  much  to 
importance  as  Froebel ; 
no  educat  tonal  system  ca 


cation  of 
Aristotle.. 
tssembled 
ir  female 
eir  plays, 
lati.m  for 

•mine   or 


of  recreation.  Quin- 
developing  power  of 
d.lle  ages,  only  the 
■eciated  the  value  of 
•ial  culture.  Luther 
of  children  ;  but  the 
ith  centuries  are.  m 

y  neglect  of  this 

•at  i'.. not  youth.  The 
ere,  in  this  respect, 
table  principles  than 
dvocated  games  for 
r»  ise  favored  them. 
particularly  enjoined 
required  as  far  as 
n  playthings.  "All 
f   children, '  he  says. 

ds   g 1   and    useful 

tduce  ill  ones.  What- 
ipression  on  that  ten- 
j  receive  a  tendency 
er  hath  such  an  in- 
flected." Rousseau 
ipreciate  the  value  of 
9th  century,  no  one 
I  attention  to  their 
.at  the  present  time, 
•  considered  complete 
onsideration  of  every 
tional  amusement  of 
ongs  to  their  formal 
her  of  1  inuks  in  the 
n  published,  ci.ntain- 
rv  \ai  icty  of  games 
boys   and   girls,  and 

have  1 ii  expended 

1  instrui  tive  in-d ■ 

"onstructing  material 
ily  exhaustive  treat- 
tin  educational  point 
Spiel  und  die  Bpii  '• 


GAUME,   J 


>an  Joseph,  a  French  ecclesi- 
,  especially  noted  for  his  earnest 
ie  use  of  the  pagan  classics  in 
ovn  in  iMi'J.and  died  in  L869. 
,-  orders  tit  an  early  age,  and,  in 
uted  professor  of  theolo-\  in  the 
ers.  of  which  institution  he  was 


GEDIKE 

afterwards  the  director.  Subsequently,  he  be- 
came canon  of  the  cathedral  and  vicar-general. 
In  his  Le  rrr  rongeur  des  societes  modemes 
—  The  Canker-worm  of  Modern  Society  (Paris, 
L851),  he  endeavored  to  show  thai  all  the  so- 
cial evils  of  the   last   four  centuries  could   be 


ival  • 


every  other  educational  process.     (See  Develop- 
ing Method.) 
GENEVA    COLLEGE,    at   Wesl    Geneva, 


editions  of  Latin  and  Greek  authors  anteri 
to  the  4th  century  A.  D.  should  be  read  in  I 
schools.  In  order  to  carry  out  this  idea, 
issued  Bibliothequ,   des  <  'assiques   cftretiens,  i 


[lostolie  by  Pius  IX.  (See  Clas- 


GEDIKE,   Friedrich,   a  Herman  educat. 
orn  in  1755,  died  in  1803.     He  studied  at  tl 


foi  classical  studies,  $30.  The  Rev.  H.H.George, 
D.D.,i8  (1876    the  president,  having  held  this 

GENIUS  (Lat.  genius,  innate  power  or 
capacity,  from  gignere,  to  produce),  as  used  in 
modern  times,  has  been  variously  defined  by 
many  writers,  who.  though  differing  widely  as  to 
it,-  essential  quality,  arc  agreed  as  to  its  out- 
ward, distinguishing  manifestation  ;  namely,  un- 
usual mental  ability  coupled  always  with  great 
intuitional  or  creative  power.  Absolute  creative 
power  cannot,  of  course,  be  claimed  for  it.  since 
it  does  not  create  the  elements  with  which  it 
works  ;   but  that  it  is  creative  in  the  scum'  of  re- 


appointed sue 

that  restitutio 

which'  he  intr, 
a  model  for  a 
His  principal 
follows:  "  As  i 
man  does  not 
studies,  but  ad 


attend  to  all  the  studies  m  the  sa 

plan  is,  therefore,  arranged  in  so  A 

a  scholar  can   attend    one  less 

another  in  a  lower  class,  without  I 
otherwise  necessary."  In  his  po 
school  councilor  i  Oberschulraih),\ 
appointed  in  1787,  he  also  showi 

as  an  organizer.     The  creati 

School  Board  WberschtdccUegim 

traduction  of  the  exai ation  ol 

graduation  in  the  gymnasia  Abitui 
ware  chiefly  his  work.  In  17-7.  I 
teachers  seminary  for  the  instrud 
of  classical    schools,  the  directioi 


iClibes  them  for  mortal  ears;  with 
r  follows  the  falling  apple  till  worlds 
i  proclaim  the  same   immutable   and 

iw  ;  it  hr Is  with  Napoleon  over  the 

and,  scorning  experience  as  its  guide, 
dden  and  overwhehnine;  victory  from 
ield  of  disaster;  it  paints  the  heroic 
the  simplicity  and  grandeur  of  nature 
in  Homer,  or  probes, as  in  Shakespeare, 

ess  whichagescai tantiquate.  Tran- 


il  his  death,     lie  published  a  collec- 
Schulschriftea  (Educational  Works) 


GENETIC    METHOD,     in    instruction,    is 
but  another  name    for  what    is   more    frequently 


cated.  that  is,  their  development  from  fundamen- 
tal principles  ;  or  that  it  will  be  led  to  construct 
for  itself  eeiieral   principles  from  observed  facts 

as  antecedents.    This  method  recocni/.es  tin-  l d 

of  a  genesis,  or  development,  of  actual  concep- 
tions in  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  as  the  basis  for 


works  the  nil 
be  attained, 
and    living    t 
quite  often  h 


Its 


S   b' 


towever,  that  the  man  of 
,eniu,  falls  OUt  of  harmony  with  the  age  m 
which  he  lives.  And  here  the  duty  oi  the  educa- 
tor towards  him  must  be  considered.  Our  first 
question,  therefore,  is,  How  far  can  the  teacher 
influence  genius ?  Lf  genius  be.  as  many  think, 
only  an  abnormal  development  of  .me  faculty  at 
the  expense  of  the  others— as  the  ear  becomes 
exquisitely  acute  by  the  loss  of  sight — the 
method  to  be  adopted  by  the  teacher  is  plain ; 
namely,  a  repression  of  the  abnormal  faculty  and 


332 


GENIUS 


a  careful  cultivation  of  the  others.  Whether  this 
process  would  result  in  a  reduction  of  them  all 
to  mediocrity,  or  a  harmonious  ami  powerful 
development  of  them  all.  remains  to  be  con- 
sidered.    If.  on  the  other  hand,  genius  be,  as  it 


epressible 


has  i 

an  apparently  higher  power,  acting  from  with- 
out, and  impelling  its  | r,  almost  in  spite 

of  himself,  in  a  given  direction,  any  attempt  to 

injurious  irritation  and  disgust  to  the  pupil  and 

discouragement  to  tin- teacher.  History  furnishes 
many  iust; es  in  which  genius,  thwarted  in  its 

has  passed  for  stupidity,  till  a  fortunate  chance 
has  disclosed  its  real  nature.  Perhaps,  the  ques- 
tion how  far  genius  can  be  profitably  influenced 
by  education,  must  wait  for  an  answer  till  a 
betl  r  system  of  psychology  than  we  now  possess 
has  laid  down  the  principles  according  to  which 
the  experiment  must  be  conducted. 

Our  second  question  is.  How  far  is  it  desirable 
that  genius  should  be  influenced  by  education? 
Perhaps  it  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  the  last 
and  best  result  of  education  is  to  make  men 
happy,  [f  happiness  be  the  only  consideration, 
and  if  happiness,  according  to  an  extensive 
modern  school  of  philosophy,  consists  in  bringing 

further  it  be  granted,  that  the  minil  thu  gifted 
can  be  harmoniously  developed  and  retain  all  its 

original  power,  the  duty  of  tl ducator  is  again 

plain — the  race  would  be  benefited  by  such 
development,  and  the  man  of -emus  made  more 
happy  liv  eliminating-  from  his  mental  constitu- 
tion all  those  jarring  differences  which  arise  from 
inharmonious  development,  and  which  take  the 
form  of  eccentricities.  There  then  arises  the 
broader  consideration,  how  far  the  permanent 
welfare  of  the  human  race  is  concerned  in  the 
harmonious  development  we  have  been  discussing. 
This  question,  however,  in  the  present  state  of 
our  knowledge,  is,  perhaps,  beyond  our  power  to 
solve. — Akin  to  genius  are  those  special  aptitudes 
which  arc  manifested. some  times  at  ipiite  an  carn- 
age. These,  as  constituting  a  part  of  the  char- 
acter, should  be  recognized  by  the  educator;  and 
while  they  should  not  form  the  l.asis  ,,f  general 
training  or  discipline,  should  be  allowed  their 
specific  exercise;  ami.  in  the  more  advanced 
steps  of  education,  should  become  distinct  objects 
of  culture.  The  existence  of  this  special  talent, 
or  of  genius  itself,  should  not  be  permitted  to 
supersede  the  necessity  of  industry  and  applica- 
tion. As  far  as  possible,  the  tasks  imposed  by 
the  instructor  should  bear  a  proper  relation  to 
the  special  ability  of  the  students,  those  who  are 

of  brilliant  parts  being  required  to  ace plish 

more  than  those  who  arc  comparatively  dull  and 
slow  to  acquire.    Many  youths  of  great  promise, 

in  large  scl Is.  are  often   seriou  Ij  injured  by 

insufficient  requirements,  lapsing  into  loth  or 
bad  habits  by  the  want  of  full  occupation,  d'lus 
principle  is  of  great,  importance;  though  its 
application  in  school  and  college  education  is 
accompanied  with  many  difficulties.    The  true 


GEOGRAPHY 

educator  will,  however,  recognize  it,  and  allow  it 
to  guide  and  regulate  many  of  his  operations. 
The  possession  of  the  brightest  genius  cannot 
supersede  the  necessity  of  industry  and  study. 
"Invention,"  said  SirJoshua  Reynolds,  '-is  one  of 
the  great  marks  of  genius;  but,  if  we  consult 
experience,  we  shall  find,  that  it  is  by  being  con 
versant  with  the  inventions  of  others,  that  we 
learn  to  invent,  as,  by  reading  the  thoughts  of 
others,  we  learn  to  think". 

GEOGRAPHY   (Gr.  ytd,  Vl.  the  earth,  and 


111  Its  I 


a   concise 


yet  comprehensive  definition.  Strictly  speak- 
ing,  modern  scientific  geography  necessarily  in- 
cludes a  great  part  of  the  results  and  many  of 
the  details  of  the  several  natural  and  physical 
sciences.  We  must  look  to  astronomy  for  an  ex- 
planation of  the  phenomena  of  day  and  night  and 
of  the  seasons:  and  for  the  means  of  determining 
the  true  form  of  the  earth,  its  magnitude,  and 
the  relative  position  of  places  upon   its  surface. 

tii m  and  contour,  and  their  incessant  though  slow 
mutations.  Physics  only,  can  enable  us  to  con- 
sider intelligently  the  conditions  of  climate,  the 
origin  of  the  wind  and  ocean  currents,  the  rain- 
fall, the  relations  of  temperature  to  elevation, 
and    the    mysteries   of    terrestrial    magnetism. 


derstand  the  nature  and 
t.-mt  factors  in  modem 
and  mineral  coal.  Gei 
tributions  from  all  these 


aphical 
to  un- 
impor- 
roleum 
is  con- 


it   and 


liarities  of  the  countries  which  th 
nt  the  effects  of  their  physical  environment  up- 
on their  social  development  and  then- condition: 
also  a  knowledge  of  their  resources,  industries, 
and  government;  and  of  the  commercial  rela- 
tions of  nations.  It  is  evident  that  a  subject 
so  vast  and  comprehensive  cannot  be  exhaus- 
tively treated  in  any  ordinary  school  course  of 
study.  As  in  the  science  of  arithmetic  there 
are  very  many  things  which  cannot  possibly  be 
included  in  an  elementary  or  "  practical "  busi- 
ness course,  so  in  the  study  of  geography,  a  very 
large  part  of  the  entire  subject  must  lieccssarily 
be  omitted,  partly  because  of  the  immaturity  of 
the  pupils  mind,  and  partly  because  of  the  pres- 
sure of  other  subjects  upon  his  time  and  atten- 
tion. The  contents  of  the  modern  daily  news- 
paper furnish,  perhaps,  the  best  general  indica- 
tion of  what  should  constitute  a  proper  course 
in  geography  for  ordinary  schools.  With  most 
persons,  the  newspaper  furnishes  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  their  reading,  and  is  the  chief,  if 
nut  the  only,  source  of  their  stock  of  general  in- 
formation. None  can  safely  dispense  with  it; 
and.  iii  the  not  distant  future,  with  the  general 
increase  of  the  number  of  intelligent  readers 
through  improved  systems  of  instruction,  the 
daily  journal   must   bee e  more  and  more  the 


<;koi!i:aimiy 


medium  for  spreading  a  knowledge  of  the  things 
which  every  one  should  know.  '  Its  telegrams, 
editorials,  and  communications,  as  well  as  the  ad- 
vertisements, relate  to  every  great  human  inter- 
est, political  and  commercial,  social  and  religious. 
They  are  from  every  part  of  the  world;  and 
those  of  chief  interest  involve  geographical 
knowledge  which  the  editor  must  necessarily  as- 
sume to  be  already  posa  ssed  by  the  reader.  In 
order  to  be  truly  practical,  a  proper  course  of 
study  in  geography  should  recognize  the  fact 
that,  after  reading,  writing,  and  elementary 
arithmetic,  a  knowledge  of  no  other  subject 
studied  in  school,  perhaps  not  of  all  others  taken 
together,  is  so   frequently   called  into   practical 

In  view  of  the  limited  time  that  can  usually 
be  given  to  the  subject  in  school,  it  is  obvious 
that,  if  a  text-book  be  used,  it  should  be  clear 
and  concise,  and  should  chiefly  direct  the  atten- 
tion of  the  pupil  to  those  matters  which  will 
afterwards  be  most  needed.  All  unimportant 
details  should  be  omitted.  It  is  a  matter  of  no 
consequence  that  the  pupil  should  know  the  de- 
tails of  Arctic  geography,  or  be  able  to  describe 
minutely,  and  by  long  formulas,  the  courses  of 
rivers,  the  precise  boundaries  of  countries,  or 
the  exact  location  of  a  large  number  of  towns 
and  cities  of  the  third  and  fourth  orders.  Gen- 
eral but  substantially  correct  ideas  are  all  that 
are  here  necessary;  and,  in  nearly  every  case, 
these  will  be  nearly  all  that  will  remain  in  the 
pupil's  mind,  after  till  the  labor  and  time  ex- 
pended upon  details.  A  know  ledge  of  local  geog- 
raphy is  indispensable  as  a  basis  for  the  proper 
study  of  the  more  important  descriptive  geog- 
raphy ;  but  great  care  should  be  taken  to  make 
it  no  more  than  a  well-selected  outline,  such  as 
the  average  mind  is  likely  to  retain.  When 
judiciously  pursued  in  the  school  room, geography 
becomes  a  lifelong  study,  full  of  pleasure  and 
profit :  badly  taught,  it  is  perhaps  more  than 
any  other  subject,  "stale,  flat,  and  unprofitable." 
Geography,  like  all  other  subjects,  cannot  be 
taught  by  any  one  who  is  not  specially  prepared 
to  teach  it.  The  teacher  should  know  a  great 
deal  more  about  it  than  the  brief  statements  of 
the  text-book.  He  should  have  a  fund  of  illustra- 
tion from  books  on  history,  travel,  commerce,  and 
other  collateral  subjects,  so  as  to  fill  up  and  en- 
Bven  the  simple  outline  of  the  book.  There  are 
few  more  common  or  more  distressing  illustra- 
tions of  incompetency  in  the  school  room  than 
that  of  the  misnamed  "teacher,"  with  his  eyes 
fastened  upon  the  book,  now  following  with  his 
finger  the  printed  question,  and  then  doubtfully 
poring  over  the  map,  or  over  the  printed  answer 
in  the  descriptive  text,  to  see  if  the  pupil  "knows 
his  lesson."  Pupils  are  quick  to  estimate  such  a 
teacher  at  his  proper  value. 

Geography  is.  comparatively  speaking,  a  moil- 
em  science.  The  Phoenicians,  the  Egyptians, 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Carthaginians,  in  tie  prog- 
ress of  their  commercial  enterprises,  made  a 
few  discoveries,  principally  confined  to  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  !Sea  ;   and  the  great  mili- 


tary expeditions  of  Alexander,  in  the  4th century 
1!.  <'..  added  somewhat  to  this  knowledge, which 
Eratosthenes  (about  2<l(>  I',.  ('.)  first  reduced  to 
a  scientific  form.  The  treatises  of  Strabo  and 
Ptolemy  contained  nearly  all  tl  ei  aphii  al 
■  by  mankind  I  r  ceu  tiries. 


little 
knowl 
the  15 


physical.  A.  P.  Busching  ( 1  754), of  politico-statis- 
tical geography.  It  was.  however,  the  labors  of 
Kail  Hitter,  that  first  gave  geography  a  truly 
scientific  character.  A  new  and  important  era  of 
geographical  discovery  began  just  before  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century,  and  is  still  in  prog- 
ress. The  geographical  society  of  Paris  was 
founded  in  1821;  that  of  Berlin,  in  L828  ;  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London,  in  1830; 
and  the  American  Geographical  Society,  in  1852. 
'I  here  ate  now  (1876),  at  least  thirty-four  such 
societies,  differing,  of  Course,  in  extent,  activity, 
and  importance.  Within  a  brief  period, and  under 
their  advice,  direction,  or  encouragement,  pro- 
digious results  have  been   ace plished.      A  few 

years  ago,  more  than  one  half  of  the  map  of 
Africa  was  a  blank:  and  of  the  17  millions  of 
sq.m.  of  Asia,  more  than  12  millions  was  either 
entirely  unknown,  or  wholly  cut  off  from  all 
intercourse  with  mankind.  Twenty-five  years 
ago,  a  geographer  wrote  of  Australia,  "a  corner 
of  this  huge  mass  of  land  is  all  that  is  known." 
Besides  the  newly  opened  empires  of  t  !hina  and 
Japan  and  the  recent  vast  conquests  of  the  Rus- 
sians, nearly  every  other  country  of  Asia  has 
been  visited  by  scientific  explorers,  eager  to 
notice  every  fact  relating  to  physical  or  political 
geography,  ethnology,  geology,  botany,  or 
zoology,  and  to  discover  the  various  agricultural, 
mineral,  and  other  physical  resources,  developed 
or  undeveloped,  which  play  so  important  a  part 
in  modern  civilization.  In  the  same  spirit,  the 
limits  of  the  unexplored  regions  of  Africa  and 
Australia  have  been  greatly  reduced  ;  the  Arctic 
Ocean  has  been  penetrated  nearly  to  the  83rd, 
and  the  Antarctic  to  the  77th.  degree  of  latitude  ; 
and  the  vast  and  almost  unknown  regions  in  the 
heart  of  South  America  have  been  visited, again 
and  again,  by  enthusiastic  observers.  Twenty- 
five  or  thirty  years  ago,  the  greater  part  of  the 
area  of  the  United  States.  —  more  than  2  millions 
of  square  miles,  was  inhabited  only  by  savages, 
and  was  almost  unknown:  now.  although  a  great 
part  yet  remains  unexamined,  the  admiration 
of  the  world  is  tixe.l  upon  "its  gnat  mountain 
ranges, extraordinary  canons,  wonderful  geysers, 
and  prehistoric  ruins;  upon  its  lakes,  rivers, 
majestic  cataracts,  and  broad  areas  of  culturable 
land  ;  its  untold  mineral  treasures  of  even-  kind. 


334 


CKOKKAPIIY 


and  the  rapidity  with  which  its  ancient  solitudes 
are  becoming  the  homes  of  an  advanced  civili- 
zation." (President  Daly's  Annual  Address, 
L876.) 

The  study  of  geography  in  schools  is,  compar- 
atively speaking,  of  recent  introduction.  The 
first  text-books  ""appear  to  have  been  modeled  in 
part  upon  the  extensive  descriptions  of  Strabo, 
and  in  pari  upon  the  briefer  work  of  Ptolemy, 
much  of  which  consists  essentially  of  mere  lists 
of  places.  1'ntil  the  latter  part  of  the  last  cent- 
ury, nothing  had  been  done  in  the  United 
States  to  popularize  the  subject  and  adapt  it  to 
school  instruction.  The  first  text-book  on  the 
subject  published  in  that  country  was  a  small 
lsmo  manual  by  Jedidiah  Morse,  issued  in  17s4. 
This  work  was  of  little  use  beyond  affording  a 
means  of  giving  some  slight  geographical  informa- 
tion to  the  pupilsof  elementary  schools  :  but.  pre- 
vious to  t lie  publication  of  the  w ork  of  William 
('.  Woodbridge  and  Mi-   Kmma  Willard  as  joint- 


was  it  in  the  work  published  about  the  same 
time  by  Sidney  E.  Morse  i  New  System  of  Mod- 
em Geography,  8vo,  1823),  nor  in  the  subsequent 
editions' of  that  work,  which  had  a  wide  and 
long-continued  circulation.  The  improvements 
of  Woodbridge  and  Willard,  adopted  and  added 
toby  Morse, Olney, Smith,  and  many  other  au- 
thor'- obliged  the  pupil  to  make  the  maps  thechief 


of  William'  '»''.  '  Woodbridge.  "geography"  as  a 
science  had  receive  1  but  little  attention  in  the 
public  schools  of  New  England  :  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  of  the  more  favored  of  the  larger 
schools,  spelling,  reading,  and  writingwere  nearly 
all  the  branches  that  received  special  attention. 
As  for  geography,  some  tew  schools  studied 
Morse  ;  a  few  others  used  as  a  sort  of  reading- 
hook.  Nathaniel  Dwight's  System  of  Geography, 
which  was  arranged  in  the  form  of  question  and 
answer.  The  vast  majority,  however,  paid  no 
attention  to  the  subject."  Mrs.  Willard  urns  de- 
scribes the  method  of  teaching  geography  in  l.-l  1. 
and  for  some  years  subsequently:  "In  geography, 
the  eye  was  not  made  the  sole  or  the  chief  me- 
dium of  teaching  the  signs  of  external  things,  as 
the  forms,  proportions, and  situation  of  countries. 
rivers,  etc.;  for  though  maps  existed,  yet  they 
were  not  required  to  be  used  :  hut  the  boundary 
was  learned  by  the  words  of  the  book,  and  the 
latitude  by  numbers  there  set  down."  This  pre- 
sents a  very  striking  illustration  of  the  error, 
once  so  prevalent,  of  addressing  the  mere  mem- 
ory (and  generally  the  memory  of  words),  with- 
out any  endeavor  to  develop  the  intelligence. 
The  attempt  to  teach  the  situation  of  places 
(topography)  by  mere  verbal  description  was 
perhaps  the  most  absurd  error  which  the  history 

of  education  presents.    William  ( '.  W Ibridge, 

who  had  been  tor  - t •  , -neaped  in  t each i lei 

geography  to  deaf-mutes,  and  Mrs.  Willard.  of 
tin-  Troy  Female  Seminary,  appear  to  have  been 
simultaneously  impressed  with  the  ab.-urdity  of 
the  method  in  use.  and  with  the  need  of  reform 
In  teaching  geography:   and   both    proposed    to 

publish  text  1 kg  on  the  subject,  and  on  plans 

substantially  identical    This  led  to  the  nni t 

authorship  already  referred  to.  The  application 
of  a  principle  of  scientific  generalization  to  geog- 
raphy, whether  apprehended  by  them  or  not, 
was  not  introduced  into  their  text-books ;  nor 


"asn'ot'strielly  belonging  to  the  subject. 
Is  of  such  a  method  of  instruction  must 
mis.  When  the  convenient  plan  of  print- 
is  and  text  in  one  volume  was  adopted. 
es  opposite  the  maps  werelargelj .  and  in 
ises  exclusively,  given  up  to  map  exercises, 
consisting  of  lists  of  islands,  capes,  rivers, 
is.  though  convenient  for  map  study,  was 
t  to  be  abused.  In  1849,  Arnold  ijuyot 
lublished  a  small  volume  of  lectures,  en- 
Earth  and  Man,  which  was  the  first 
ation  to  the  American  public,    in    a    pop- 


BtimuluB,  in  the  United  States,  to  the  study  of 
geography  as  a  science,  and  led  to  many  changes 

in  sel l'tc.xt-1 ks  on   the   subject,   as  well   as 

more  rational  methods  of  presenting  it  in  the 
class  room.  The  publication  of  EarthandMan 
has  been  followed  by  an  admirable  series  of  wall- 
maps  and  sel 1  text-1 ks  of  geography,  by  the 

same  author,  who  has  thus  home  a  leading  part 
m  earrvine  out  the  reform  which  he  was  the  first 
to  introduce.     In  a  similar  manner,  the  labors  of 


dies. 


country.     In   1590,  we  find  The  Cosmography, 

probably  that  of  Sebastian  Mun>teiM'ee mended 

as  a  useful  reader  in  certain  schools  of  Hesse- 
llannstadt.  The  school  regulations  for  Saxe- 
Gotha,  in  1 680,  provide  for  a  simple  geographical 
outline,  in  schools  where  there  were  more  than 
one  teacher.     In  ITii.'i.  the  school  regulations  for 

provjg b  were  made  in  Silesia  and  some  other 

countries.  The  method  followed  in  all  appears  to 
have  been  that  of  oral  instruction  by  means  of 
a  few  outline  maps,  beginning  with  the  native 


(;k<m;i:ai']iy 


village  and  province.  Yet  notwithstanding  these 
directions  and  provisions,  Dittessays  [Schuleder 
Pctdagogik,  Leipsic,  L876),  -As  late  as  the  be- 
ginning  of   the    L9th  century,  there  was  still,  in 

si] Is,   scarcely   any  geographical  instruction; 

and  when  it  was  •j.'wi  n.   it  was  confined  to  a  tow 

and  their  capitals.  Even  in  the  higher  schools! 
but   little  geography   was   learned.'      Xotwith- 


(inlv  the  necessary  preparation  for  it.  These  con- 
ceptions are  to  geography  but  as  the  syllables  to 


is  I,. 


study,  and  the  costly  > 
with  maps  and  pictor 
supplied  to  the  pllpil; 
complain  that  the  rest 
unsatisfactory.  The  vai 
it  embraces,  imperfec 
all.  and  bound  togethe 
drop  from  the  pupils 
committed  to  it.  ( !ai 
colleges  and  universiti 


none  receives  so  much  attention  tn  the  element- 
ary schools,  except  reading.  -p'lliiiL;.  and  arith- 
metic. Tn  what  causes  this  is  in  lr  attributed 
has  been  Already  in  part  considered  and  will  be 
further  noticed  as  we  proceed.  In  treating  of 
geography  as  a  branch  of  elementary  instruction 
(for  such  it  exclusively  is  at  the  present  time), 
we  shall  consider  (I)what  are  the  faculties  which 
are  specially  exercised  in  Btudying  it;    H)    the 

different    stages  into  Which  the  instruction  shoul  1 

be  divide  I,  and  what  is  proper  to  each;  illli  the 


I.  Geography  seeks  to  present  to  the  mind 
conceptions  of  countries  and  peoples  thai  we 
have  never  visited,  analogous  to  those  which  we 
have  acquired  in  relation  to  regions  which  we 
have  actually  seen.  It  further  seeks  to  com- 
bine and  generalize  these  conceptions  into  a 
systematic  view  of  the  earth  as  a  whole,  and  as 
the  abode  of  mankind. — The  fundamental  con- 
ceptions, therefore,  which  are  to  be  thus  ampli- 
fied, combined,  or  otherwise  modified,  must  be 
based  upon  objective  presentation.  A  landscape, 
the  more  varied  the  better,  or  in  default  of  this, 
a  good  pictorial  representation,  as  its  nearest 
equivalent,  must  furnish  most  of  the  basic  ele- 
ments. The  first,  though  limited,  steps  must. 
therefore,  be  made  through  an  appeal  to  the  per- 
ceptive faculties.  The  second  stage  must  consist 
in  an  exercise  of  the  conceptive  faculties  in 
vividly  recalling  .and  combining  the  impressions 
which  the  objective  presentation  has  made  upon 
the  mind.  The"  pupil  must  be  trained  to  recall 
the  image  of  the  mountain, the  island,  the  forest, 
the  placid  lake,  the  verdant  plain,  or  the  flowing 
river  ;  to  see  again,  as  it  were,  the  tossing  ocean 
and  to  hear  the  roar  of  its  waves  as  they  break 
upon  the  beach  ;  and  to  picture  to  himself  in  one 
season  of  the  year  the  aspect  of  nature  in  an- 
other.     These  and   other   analogous  impressions, 

alrea  ly  obtained  from  physical  phenomena, must 
furnish  the  indispensable  basis  for  any  true  prog- 
ress in  geographical  knowledge.  —  Hut  all  this 
training  is  not  the  teaching  of  geography,  but 


e  conception  oi  a  long  and 

idening  towards  the  right 

crooked  black 
-hand  side  of 

:  but  his  imagination  will  i 

t  01 picture 

id  surface  and  turbid  wate 

s  of  that  vast 

s  hot  and  humid  climate, 

ind  its  limit- 

st  solitudes  with  their  t< 

ngle  of  giant 

„i  then    troops  of   chatte 

ing  monkeys. 

ly  of  maps  is 

ed.  thedls.iphne     ot     the 

/<•  mory  is  ad- 

that   ot   the  perceptive,  a 

nceptive,  and 

■inhering     the 

of  mountains,  islands,  rivi 

is.  and  towns. 

while 


and  coast-lines,  and  in  connecting  the  genera] 
course  of  a  river  with  the  elevations  and  slopes 
of  the  country  which  it  drains. 

struetioii  have  1 u  already,  in   part,  indicated. 

The   conceptions  and  distinctions  ot    mainland 

and  island  ;  of  mountain,  hill,  and  table  land  :  of 
lake,  river,  basin,  valley,  peninsula,  and  rape  ;  of 

ehmate.  vegetation,  race,  and  other  geographii  al 
elements,  should  first  be  fixed,  and  then  the  terms 


those 


lia\ 


lake,  as  actually  used,  defy  all  sharp  differentia- 
tion :  and  others,  such  as  continent  and  water- 
shed, are  variously  used  by  standard  authorities. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  definitions  in 
geography  have  a  totally  distinct  function  from 
those  of  iiiatheiiialies.  -laminar,  and  othel    logic- 

conception  of  a  term,  such  as  parallelogram  or 

adjective,  is  to  bo  obtained  from  its  definition; 
whereas,  in  geography,  the  definition,  if  required. 

must  bo  developed  from  a  correct   v<  ptioii  of 

the  object  defined.  The  formal  definitions  of 
geographical  terms  have,  indeed,  their  place ;  but 
this  is  not  in  the  first  stage  oi  thi  subject.  The 
geographical  terms  and  their  association  should 
be  followed  by  ideas  of  direction  or  relative 
position,  that  is,  a  knowledge  of   the   cardinal 


flF.OfiT:  A  Pin- 


points ;  after  this,  the  construction  and   inter- 
pretation of  a  simple  map  of  limited  and  known  \ 


\  The  final  stage  of  geography,  as  a  branch  of  ele- 
mentary instruction,  is  much  more  comprehensive 
localities,  beginning  perhaps  with  a  plan  or  map  |  than  the  preceding  stages,  and  makes  more  fre- 
of  the  school  room  itself,  loll. .wed  by  a  map  of  j  quent  appeals  to  the  judgment  and  the  memory. 
'  The  outline  already  given  is  to  he  reviewed  and 
tilled  up.  Political  or  social  geouraphv  is  then  to 
be  more  fully  and  systematically  taught;  and  the 
whole  subject  of  the  peculiarities  and  resources, 
together  «  ith  the  commercial  and  other  relations 
of  all  the  most  important  countries  of  the  globe, is 
to  be  more  fully  shown.  Geographical  definitions 


the  immediate  neighborhood,  then  by  that  of  the  \ 

county  as  it  would  appear  if  seen  from  a  balloon. 
When  the  pupil  has  been  thoroughly  trained  to 
understand  the  symbols  of  the  map.  am  I  readily  to 
picture  to  himself  the  things  that  are  symbolized 
by  the  various  lines,  dots,  and  other  marks,  he  is 
in  possession  of  all  the  elementary  ideas  essential 
to  the  subject.— Either  of  two  opposite  courses 
may  now  be  pursued  in  giving  the  outline  of 
geography  itself  which  is  usually  included  in  a 
primary  or  elementary  course  for  beginners. One 
of  these  plans,  known  as  the  synthetic,  begins 
with  the  study  of  a  map  of  the  locality  of  the 
pupil's  home  or  neighborhood  ;  it  takes  next  the 
map  of  the  county,  then  of  the  state  or  district, 
and.  finally,  of  the  whole  country  in  which  the 
pupil  resides.  After  this,  follows  the  study  of 
the  simple  outlines  of  the  continent  of  which  the 
country  forms  a  part ;  then  the  outlines  of  the 
other  continents  or  grand  divisions,  in  some  pre- 
ferred order,  and  finally  a  general  review,  which 
completes  and  combines  all  that  has  preceded  ir 
into  a  brief  view  of  the  world  as  a  whole.  Th  ■ 
other,  .'!■  analytic  system,  pursues,  at  least  in  it- 
early  stages,  an  exactly  revers urse.     From 

the  consideration  of  certain  < nun  phenomena 

and  other  well-known  facts,  the  pupil  is  first  led 
to  form  a  conception  of  the  earth  as  a  gigantic 
globe  or  ball  ;  then  of  the  primary  divisions  of 
its  surface  into  land  and  water;  and  then  of 
the  leading  subdivisions  of  these  primary  ele- 
ments. After  learning  the  climatic  division  of 
the  earth  into  /ones,  the  pupil  studies  the  conti- 
nents, each  in  its  turn,  as  in  the  other  system. 
Both  of  these  systems  have  their  strong  points, 
both  have  been  successfully  followed,  and  both 
have  earnest  advocates.  Excepting  in  their  in- 
itial and  terminal  stages  i  hey  have  much  in  com- 
mon. One  great  advantage  of  the  analytic  system 
is,  that  it  more  readily  admits  theearhj  intro 
duction  of  the  terrestrial  globe,  and  requires  its 
frequent  use  throughout.  In  no  other  way  can 
certain  serious  misconceptions  be  thoroughly 
piwented.  The  use  of  maps  of  different  scales, 
together  with  the  inherent  faults  of  projection, 


to 


Bizeof  countries,  and  1  ■  •.  rot   eptions  of  their 

relative  positions.  These  first  impressions  are 
hard  to  correct,  and.  in  the  majority  of  eases. 
are  never  corrected.  The  globe  should  have 
the  leading  place  in  teaching  elementary  geog- 
raphy. It  should  be  used  to  fix  the  idea  of  the 
spherical  shape  of    the  earth,  its  dimensions,  and 

lie  di n  of  its  surface  into  land  and   water. 

It  should  give  the  first  view  of  its  division  into 
continents,  oceans,  islands  etc.,  and  just  concep- 
tions of  their  relative  position  and  magnitude. 
By  no  other  means  can  the  astronomic  elements 
of  primary  geography  be  so  simply  and  correctly 
taught  ;  such  as  the  causes  of  day  and  night,  and 
.us.  the  zones,  the  nature  of  latitude 
and  longitude  and  the  need  of  these  measurements. 


irough  training  in  the 
physical  geography,  as 
ific  basis,  and  the  only 
c  generalization,  for  the 
v.  'I  his  training  should 


igraphy  as  is  nm 

ilivocompaial  ive  | 
[    immediately    fol 


tion,  form.  size. 
tions;  (2)  the 
islands,  the  chii 
and  lowland  ,1 
currents,  and  th 
mate  as  affected 


)  di- 
.l  by 


distribution  of  characteristic  plants  and  animals, 
and  of  the  races  of  mankind.  All.  or  nearly 
all,  of  these  may  be  profitably  taught  simply 
as  physical  facts  to  be  known  by  observation. 
The  study  of  the  explanatory  theories  belongs 
to  a  higher  stage  of  geographical  knowledge. 
Each  of  the  six  grand  divisions  should  now  be 
considered  in  turn  ;  first,  in  relation  to  the  lead- 
ing facts  of  its  physical  geography,  including  its 
surface,  drainage,  climate,  and  characteristic 
plants  and  animals,  indigenous  or  exotic;  and 
secondly,  on  the  basis  of  these  physical  facts,  in 
relation  to  the  separate  political  subdivisions, 
their  inhabitants,  towns  and  cities,  resources, 
commerce,   industrial  develo]  ment,  government, 

and  g  11  iral  social  c Iition.   I  mally.a  brief  but 

iprehensive  general   review   should  bring  out, 

in  strong  relief,  the  various  interrelations  of  the 
different  countries  in  regard  to  commerce,  gov- 
ernment, race,  language,  and  religion. 

III.  As  a  general  rule,  the  pupil  should  not 
begin  the  study  of  geography,  at  least,  not  what 
may  be  called  map  geography,  until  ten  or  eleven 
years  of  age.  There  are.  however,  geographical 
lessons,  of  a  very  simple  character,  which  may 
be  profitably  given  to  younger  children.  These 
should,  according  to  the  principles  already 
Maied,  he  pictorial  and  di  seriptivc.  approximat- 
inwto  object-lessons,  in  being  designed  to  develop 
ideas  rather  than  to  impart  knowledge.  In  rela- 
tion to  this  stage  of  the  instruction,  Currie  says, 


CI'.OCRAIMIY 


in  Principles  of  Early  School  Education,  "  The 
geography  oi  the  infant  school  is  a  series  of  ob- 
ject-lessons C icted  liy  a  geographical  link.    Il 

l>nt  prepares  materials  for  the  formal  study  of 
geography.  It  may  be  thought  that  the  use  of 
the  map  would  facilitate  this  instruction  ;  but  i1 
is  quite  immaterial  whether  the  map  be  in  the 

school  or Ii    is  the  business  oi    the    nexl 

Ma.:.'  "i  i ■  i ■  •—  i . ■■-  '  ■  ■-■■■//..  all  that  has  been 
learn!  ;  which  it  does  by  going  regularly  over 
the  map,  and  fixing  down  in  position  the  coun- 
tries, which  as  yet  areonly  nam.-  to  the  children. 
The  utmost  use  of  the  map  that  should  be  made 


in  the  infant  sc 

iooI  is  togoove 

infants,  if  time 

Limit. ai  the  en 

mi  a  physical  i 

i i    the  worl 

lin  d  so  a-  to  - 

..«  the  features 

g  n  i  il  out  line 

.t  what  they  ha 

were   not   for  i 

„•  early  period 

cliil  Iren  leave 

cl 1,  the  regul 

raphy  might  bi 

profitably  defer 

longer.      1  he  p 

evalent  practice 

studyof  maps  a 

ion  the  time  and 

disgust  of  both  pupils  and  teachers  with  the  usual 
net  results  of  itsstudy.  II.  •  introductory  course 
should  occupy  from  a  year  to  a  year  and  a  half; 
the  subsequent  course,  from  two  and  a  half  to 
three  years. 

IV.  The  principles  which  should  guide  in  1 1 1  ■  • 
selection  of  methods  of  teaching  this  subject, 
have  already  been  explain. •  1.  ami  the  difference 
I)  twe  i  the  synthetic-  ami  analytic  systems  has 
been  defined.  The  following  suggestive  hints 
will  prove  valuable  to  practical  teachers  :  I  the 
memorizing  of  the  details  of  maps  without  sulli- 
cient  descriptive  matter,  will  leave  no  permanent 

impressi n  the  mind  :  Inure.  (2)  let  the  study 

of  the  map  he  suli  n. Iin.it.-  I  to  tliat    of   tl 1 1 1 ■  i 

important  facts,  such  as  soil,  climate,  productions, 
etc.,  relating  to  the  separate  countries;  and 
(ii!  let  these  facts  he  pivsente  1  ami  studied  in  a 
uniform  order,  so  that  the  pupil's  mind  will 
always  haw  a  guide  hoth  for  investigation  and 
oral  description.     A  special  oi  ler  of   topics  for 

always  be  borne  in  mind,  that  in  proportion  as 
the  pupil  becomes  intei  si  I  in  the  particular 
country  studied,  h.-  will  •  1 — i  i  ■«  -  to  know  more  •  •! 
ii-  geographical  details,and  will  remember  them 
longei  II  nee,  th  exhaustive  Btudy  of  the  map 
should  n..t  precede  ail  other  lessons.  After  fully 
locating  the  country  to  be  studied,  by  means  of 
iis  boundaries,  etc.,  the  teacher  may  proceed  with 
a  description  of  some  of  its  most  striking 
features,  passing  from  these  to  the  mote  minute 
details  of  topography,  as  they  are  brought  out 
by  this  description,  until  all  the  topographical 
and  descriptive  details  are  siilhViently  learned. 
In  considering  the  methods  to  be  pursued  in 
the  study  of  geography,  reference  must  also  be 
made  to  the  necessary  appliances.  For  the  first 
stages  of  the  study  a  simple  terrestrial  globe  and 
good  wall-maps  arc  indispensable.    Eteliei   maps 

and  relief  globes,  as  now  < stracted  and    used, 

R re  of  great  value   in  giving  correct  ideas  ol    the 


superficial  configuration  of  different  countries.  If 
a  text -hook  is  used,  ii  should  lie  chiefly  a  well-iUus- 


aml  lasting.  In  the  first  stage  oi  geogra]  hical 
study,  the  teacher  is  obliged  to  do  a  largi  part 
of  the  work:  in  th.'  laid- Mac..-,  the  pupil  should  be 
trained  to  do  as  much  as  possible  for  himself. 
This  subject,  when  properly  taught,  furnishes  an 


x.ell.ul  ami  lleco.SIIVill~.lpl 

die    illustrations    oi    the    te 
looks  oi   travel   may   be  ma 


'lelnel.l      II 


•ws.      These    may     lake    any  one  or   more  oi    a 

rietj   oi   forms  too  well   known  t..  need   de 

riptioii.      <  'ai  togiapliy.  or  the  draw  ing  of  mat 


many 
in     ge 


*ari..ii-  ,1,'M,-,  ■    ,,.    ,, -,.,i, ,1  t,,.  some  using  the 

quare,  others  ..  se l  triangulations,  and  still 

others  a  combination  of  these,  in  connection  with 
arbitrary  measures       .-.  c  i'hIi    kisn    ■        li 
of    Teaching,     translated     from     Diesterweg's 
Almanac  for  1855     6,in  Barnard's  -I  oj 

Education;  Gdtsmuths,  Versuch  einer  Metho- 
dikdes  geographischen  Unterrichts-  Essay  on 
Methodical  Instruction  in  Geography  (1845); 
Diesterweg,  Anleitung  zu  einem  methodischen 
Unterricht  in  der  Geography-  Introduction  to 
Methodical  Instruction  in  Geography  (1833); 
Km  Mia:.    ..Vs. -A, .-/,/.-     ,/.;•    /'lid.,.,,..,//,-;    |.iiii:s. 


m  present  use  .  I 
of  Common-St  •'- 

WlCKERSHAM,  .>/■  tflO 


\es  and  Practice 
klin.andLond.); 
ion  (Phil.,1865.) 


GEOLOGY  (Or.  yrj,  the  earth,  and  7Aynr.  a 
disc. mrsc).  the  science  which  treats  of  the  history 
of  the  earth.  More  exactly,  it  consists  of  a 
group  of  sciences  which  treat  of  the  materials  of 
which  the  earth  is  composed,  and  of  the  arrange- 
ment of  these  materials,  whether  superficial  or 
deep-seated,  and  of  their  relations  to  one  another; 
of  the  changes  which  the  earth  is  undergoing  at 
present,  and  of  the  series  of  changes  through 
which  it  has  heretofore  passed.  Nay  more,  the 
inorganic  changes  that  have,  in  thecourseof  time, 
resultedinthe  present  physical  geography  and  in- 
ternal condition  of  the  globe,  have  been  accom- 1 
panied,  through  the  latter  part  of  the  series,  by  a 
corresponding  series  of  appearances  and  modifi- 
cations of  organic  forms  ;  and  these  two  sets  of 
phenomena,  organic  and  inorganic,  have  been  so 
interdependent,  that  it  is  impossible  to  separate 
the  history  of  the  earth  from  the  history  ol  the 
life  it  supports.  It  will  thus  be  seen.  (1)  that 
geology  is  intimately  connected,  both  by  the  fans 
of  its  own  genesis  as  a  science  and  by  the  light 
it  throws,  in  return,  on  the  origin  of  existing  con- 
ditions, wiih  /ill i/sical geography ;  and,  (2)  that, 
while  in  its  branches,  mineralogy,  Hthology,  an  I 
palceontology,  it  has  its  descriptive  and  classi- 
ficatory  elements,  these  are,  in  fact,  only  subor- 
dinate to  that  element,  which,  by  the  aid  of 
dynamical  geology,  weaves  the  material  facts  in- 
to a  web  of  cause  and  effect,— a  continuous  his- 
torical argument.  It  is  important  to  observe 
here  that  the  part  of  geology  which  treats  only 
of  the  material  conditions,  without  regard  to  the 
reasoning  which  connects  them  into  historical 
sequence,  is  recognized  as  gefu/imsi/.  a  term,  how- 
ever, that  is  but  little  used  by  English  or  Amer- 
ican writers.  I 'ala.'ontolngv  is  really  a  natural- 
history  science,  bearing  much  the  same  rekition 
tozoologj  ili, n  geologj  doe,  to  physical  geog- 
raphy. Geology,  however,  cannot  lie  read  with- 
out its  aid;  and  it  might  perhaps  be  well  to  re- 
suscitate the  term  oryctohgy  for  this  application 
of  palaeontology  to  geological  interpretation 

If  the  highest  aim  of  man.  in  the  : i >  ■  1 1 ii - 1 1  ion 
of  material  knowledge,  is  to  obtain  the  fullest 
attainable  insight  into  his  true  position  in  the 
great  scheme  of  existence,  and  into  the  respon- 
sibilities which  that  position  implies,  assuredly, 
geology  must  be  one  of  the  fields  in  which  he 
may  hope  to  gain  most  important  information; 
as  the  truths  of  this  science,  in  throwing  light 
upon  the  history  of  his  surroundings  and  their 
antecedents,  of  the  earth  which  supports  him, 
and  of  the  life  of  which  he  is  a  part,  must  in- 
evitably throw  light  upon  the  history  and  rela- 
tionships of  man  himself.  A  science  so  com- 
pletely underlying  all  the  facts  of  our  existence, 
developing  so  multifariously  our  dependence  up- 
on all  parts  of  the  scheme  of  which  we  seem  to 
be  the  temporary  culmination,  should  surely 
commend  itself  to  the  educator,  should  be  beyond 
the  need  of  having  its  importance  asserted  as  an 
essential  factor  in  the  problem  of  universal  edu- 
cation. Yet,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  simplest 
teaching  of  geology,  even  to-day,  is  generally 
looked  upon   as   supererogatory.     Whether  the 


world  is  six  thousand  years  old,  or  of  incalcu- 
lable antiquity ;  whether  it  always  lias  been  as 
it  is  at  this  moment,  or  whether  it  has  passed 
through  a  vast  series  of  changes ;  whether  life 
has  or  has  not  bad  its  progress;  whether  the 
facts  that  are  taught  us  by  every  pebble  and 
every  ram  storm  are  not  worth  thinking  upon,  or 
whether  they  lead  to  conclusions  more  wonder- 
ful than  the  Btrangest  dreams  of  the  ancients, 
implying  more  power  than  the  boldest  myths 
ever  imagined,  and  illustrating  the  rule  of  law  so 
universally  that  even  the  minutest  grain  of  sand 
proclaims  its  control  :  these  are  questions  on 
which  most  parents  and  teachers  have  thought  it 
scarcely  worth  while  to  enliehten  the  minds  of  the 


will  aid  the  purpose  ot  tins  article,  it  is  impor- 
tant to  ask.  why  this   neglect   of  so  important  a 

science?     In    the   first  place,  the  repbj    i », 

geology  is  a  young  science,  begotten  in  the  last 
century. and  brought  forth  m  the  commencement 
of  the  present,  an  offspring  of  the  second  great 
Reformation,  the  reformation  not  of  creeds  but 
of  philosophy.  Secondly,  geology  has  had  to 
fight  its  way  as  an  intruder. as  a  disturber  of  old 
received  notions,  of  deeply  ingrained  prejudices; 
its  claims  in  the  realm  of  thought  were  seen  to 
be  stupendous,  ami  the  possible  consequences  of 
their  admission  beyond  all  calculation.  Thirdly, 
although,  as  in  all  reform  movements,  it  has 
derived  genuine  strength  from  persecution  by 
its  foes,  its  progress  has  been  all  along  greatly 
impeded  by  the  t  10  hasty  zeal  of  many  of  its 
votaries.  <  For  the  history  of  the  gradual  devel- 
opment of  geology,  until,  by  Playfair's  Illustra- 
tions (f  Hutton,  and  the  patient  researches  of 
William  Smith,  the  clues  were  given  by  which 
its  accumulate  1  facts  could  be  systematized  into 
a  scientific  form,  see  a  concise  account  in  the 
first  four  chapters  ot  Lyells  P  i  i  iplesof  Geol- 
ogy.) Excluding  the  almost  invincible  bU  iner- 
tice  of  ancient  prejudice,  the  third  cause  has,  per- 
haps, been  the  most  potent  in  retarding  the  ac- 
ceptance of  geological  discoveries;  because  some 
hypotheses,  which  had  been  accepted  by  numer- 
ous and,  perhaps,  influential  geologists,  were 
ultimately  proved  to  be  untenable,  therefore  the 
significance  of  truths  that  were  incontrovertible 
was  unfairly  belittled.  It  is,  even  to  this  day,  a, 
frequent  argument  against  geology,  that  there  is 
so  much  in  connection  with  it  that  is  uncertain  : 
but  those  who  make  this  objection  are  unwilling 
to  admit  -will  not  allow  themselves  to  realize, 
how  much  of  proven  truth  there  is  in  the  science, 
and  how  thoroughly  it  is  founded  upon  facts, 
which  need  only  the  proof  of  observation.  Per- 
haps, the  best  way  in  which,  in  this  brief  article, 
the  fundamental  ideas  upon  which  geology  is 
based  may  be  presented,  will  be  to  put  them  in- 
to  i he   for f   simple  statements,  or  axioms, 

which,  though  incapable  of  proof.it  would  be 
absurd  to  deny,  because  their  truth  may  be 
seen  at  a  glance  :  (1)  It  is  a  matter  of  observa- 
tion, that  wherever  on  the  surface  of  the  earth 
there  is  moisture,  then',  under  the  influence  of 
changes  of  temperature,  will  be  chemical  and 


ihanical  changes  in  progress,  in  the  rocks  < 


of  the 
the  n: 


phenomena  themselves,  and  from 
of  many  volcanic  rocks,  we  are  ir- 


ally  moved  onwards  1 
from  higher  to  lower 
sink  to  rest  in  the  q 
(3)  H  this  process  oft] 
[and  were  continued  a 
it  would  result  in  tin 
every  island  and  every 
ing  up,  in  part,  of  the 

at  w..rk  re'-elevatino  n 


L'S  ut"    fossils.      These 

which  all  signs  of  a 
In  such  "  aether- 


other  organic  reman 

s  which  they  contain  ;  and 

other.     (11)  The    rela 

they  thus  show  that 

continents  have  either'been 

rocks  isdetermi 1.  in 

elevated  ...It  of  tllov 

ater,  or  that  water  has  been 

superposition,     the  lm 

withdrawn  from   01 

■r  them.     (5)   <  lareful  and 

which   the   others    res 

extended  examinati 

m    has   shown    that    altera- 

oldest;  and,  secondly, 

tions  in  the  relativ 

level    of   sea  and  land  are 

tain;  because.  (12)  W< 

the  rale,  a es 

leptional  cases,  along  coast- 

rocks  contains  the  rem 

lines;  thai  these  mo 

'ements  are  ao(  necessarily 

wtie  forms  Of    life,  (lift 

connected,  directly  i 

t   least,  with  volcanic  phe- 

those  that   preceded,  a 

nomena;    that   they 

are  ex. Lingrj    gradual  : 

ceededthem.     (13)  W 

and,  finally,  the  un 

fossils  of  the  later  rock 

incuts  of  elevation    ; 

ml  depression  in  opposite 

mure  nearly  than   thos 

directions,  in  adjoint 

ig  areas,  ai  the  Bame  time, 

the  oldest  deposits  cot 

proves  conclusively  t 

.at  these  are  movements  of 

those  of  to-day.     We  1 

the  crust  of  the  earl 
lationsdueto  the  ris 

a  peculiar  type  of  lift 
never  again  been  repro 

rounding  waters. 

hand,  there  is  a  sufficiei 

with  lll.lll\    -.1!    S  of 

idimentary  rocks,  overlying 

I.  itween  successive  fan 

one  another,  in  the 

ame  continent,  we  see  that 

ing,  tiiat.  at    no   time 

the  same  region  mus 
merged,  and  that   tl 

there  been  a  complete 
life,  succeeded  by  .a  n.-\ 

rive  age  of  sedimentary 
the  first  place,  by  their 
,-ost  in  the  series, those  on 
t,  being  necessarily  the 
by  the  fossils  they  con- 
■  I'm. I  that  each  series  of 
tins  of  certain  character- 
ering  more  or  less  from 
and  from  those  that  snc- 
find,  as  a  fact,  that  the 


•aduall\ 


aerial  elevation  intervened  lietween  the  submer- 
gencies — as  the  older  deposits  had  evidently 
been  partially  denuded  before  the  later  sedi- 
ments were  laid  upon  them.  .7;  We  have  thus 
evidence  of  a  force  at  work  within  the  earth, 
capable  of  elevating  the  sediments  resulting 
from  the  destruction  of  .me  continent,  so  that  a. 
new  continent  shall  be  formed  from  them  ;  and 
our  existing  lands  are  in  fact  built  up  of  the 
debris  of  older  and  destroyed  itinents,  up- 
heaved by  this  subterranean  p..w.T.  s.  Prom  the 
observation  of  volcai s  and  the  volcanic  phe- 
nomena of  hot  springs,  and  of  the  temperature  of 
mines  and  deep  borings,  we  have  evidence  of 
the  existence  either  of  a  highly  heated  interior 
of  our  globe,  or  of  local  areas  of  elevated  tem- 
perature at  a  greater  or  less  depth  below  the 
surface.  (9)  From  the  constant  presence  of 
water  in  volcanic  phenomena,  from  the  character 


■  Unions.    We    I. ut  that  the  chain  of  vitality  has  been  contin- 

ervals  of    siih-     .mus,     -old    forms    gradually   disappearing,   and 

■u  the  snluuei-    new  to rin.-  taking  their  place.     (15)  As  nature 

had   evidently    is   forever   destroying   parts   of   the   geological 

he   later  se.li-    record   of  life  that  is  kept  in   the  rocks,  this 

We  have  thus    record  for  this,  amongst  other  reasons,  is  in  a 

most  fragmentary  condition.     Imperfect  as  it  is, 

few,  except  the  professional  paheontologist,  can 

realize  the  enormous  variety  of  fossils  that  have 

already  been  exhumed,  and  upon  which  the  above 


formation  by  their  association  with  unaltered 
sedimentary  rocks ;  and  in  extensive  regions  of 
highly  disturbed  and  nietaniorphosc.Li...  k.-.   the 

determination  of   their  age   lice 3  one  of  the 

most  difficult  problems  of  the  ••..■. .lo.jjst  :  hut 
even  here  characteristic  differences  n.  the  min- 
eral characters  of  different  series  may  help  as 


340  GEO 

in  the  determination.  (IT)  The  oldest  known 
rocks,  or  those  underlying  the  lowest  fossilifer- 
ous  rucks,  are,  generally  speaking,  so  highly 
metamorphosed  that  they  may  lie  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  border  period  of  legitimate 
geological  history;  and  the  ingenious  specula- 
tions ol  physicists  and  <-In-iiii.-t.-.  ;i.-~  to  tl \ .  -i  it  - 

that  accompanied  and  preceded  the  orig  a  ol 
an  earlier  earth,  apply  to  what  is  really  to  us  a 
mythical  epoch.  (18)  The  evidence  thai  hits 
I n  collected  iii  every  held  of  geological  in- 
quiry, conclusively  shows  that  all  terrestrial 
forces  act,  as  judged  from  a  human  stand- 
point, with  extreme  slowness,  except  m  occa- 
sional and  local  instances;  and  if  such  energetic 
disturbances  oi  ordinarj  i  indition  could  ever 
have  occurred,  more  widely  .~j.re.vl  over  the 
whole  or  even  a  large  part  of  the  earth  at  once 
it  is  certain  that  they  would  have  left  us  evi- 
dences, both  organic  and  inorganic,  of  the  fact. 
xhaustive  our  researches 


The 

more  caret 

have 

become,  t 

are 

such     hvpi 

shown  to  lie  :  - 

com 

iction,    tha 

have 

obtained  i 

the 

sarin,  Mich 

matter;  and  no  case  has,  so  far,  been  met 
with,  apparently  suggesting  such  an  interpreta- 
tion, which  on  examination  cannot  lie  shown  to 
be  more  readily  explicable  by  the  application  of 
known  natural   laws,  acting  through  prolonged 

periods  of  time.    (19)  The  existence  oi  any ■ 

series  of  geological  monuments  invoh  i  -  on  anal- 
ysis, the  idea  of  indefinite  time.  For  example, 
let  us  take  the  scries  of  strata  known  as  the  <W 
measures  We  know  l>y  examination  that  coal 
is  formed  from  vegetable  matter;  that,  in  almost 
every  instance,  there  n  •■■■'.  .  .n  pi  oof  that 
this  matter  was  accumulati  1  bj  growth  on  the 
spot  where  the  coal  now  is  found;  that  coal  eon- 
tains  by  its  constitution  but  a  portion  of  the  orig- 
inal vegetation-,  that  it  contains  that  portion  in 
a  very  compressed  and  condensed  form,  and  con- 
sequently a  .-ingle  workable  coal-seam,  a  few  feet 
in  thickness,  represents  an  amount  oi  vegetable 
matter,  which,  under  the  most  favorable  circum- 
stances conceivable  for  growth,  and  without 
allowing  for  waste  in  other  ways,  must  have  re- 
quired certainly  hundreds,  probably  thousands, 
of  years  for  its  accumulation.  In  most  localities, 
where  the  coal  measures  occur,  we  find  several, 
in  some  cases  many,  such  seams  of  coal  vertically 
overlying  one  another,  and  this  proves  with 
mathematical  certainty,  that  such  periods  were 
as   many  times  successively  repeated,     finally. 

inten  alate  I  betwi   n  tl al  beds,  arc  beds  of 

sandstone,  clay,  li -tone,  etc..  in  the  aggregate 

hundred-,  or  m   some  cases  thousands,  of  feet  in 

thickness,  so  constituted  as  to  show  the  slow  and 
gradual  mode  of  their  accumulation,  thus  giving 
evidence  of   great   lapses  of  time  between  the 

existet f    the   successive    coal-making    forests. 

By  a  process  of  exact  reasoning,  we  thus  arrive 
at  the  conclusion,  that  a  vast  period  of  tune  was, 


altogether,  required  for  the  formation  of  the  coal 
measures  alone ;  and  these  can  be  shown,  in  a 
similarly  logical  manner,  to  constitute  a.  record 
of  only  one,  and  that  a  subordinate,  series  of 
events,  in  an  epoch  of  the  earth's  history  very  re- 
mote from  the  present.     (20)      We  must  'here 


which  no  rocKS  were  perinani  nth  tunned  to 
record  events.  Vet  that  such  gaps  occurred. — 
that  they  were  of  enormous,  duration,  can  be  most 
emphatically  proved.  At  the  conclusion  of  the 
palceo  oic  age,  after  the  formation  of  the  coal 
i  leasures,  tha  anas  that  had  been  oscillating  for 
i  oni  between  dry  and  submerged  conditions, 
became,  by  an  extensive  upheaval,  permanent  dry 
land;  the  borders  of  the  growing  continent. 
formed  of  sediments  thousands  of  feet  in  thick- 
ness, were  elevated  far  out  of  the  waters;  water- 
sheds, due  probably,  in  the  liist  instance .  to  un- 
equal amounts  of  elevation,  were  formed,  and 
running  streams  c  arved  out  valleys  hundreds  and 
ilioii.-ands  of  feet   in  depth,  and  left  standing,  as 


tared  in  relief.  The 
of  the  si  ulptor.  were 
id  resorted,  arranged 
igth.  during  the  next 
e.  they  found  perma- 
>f  the  mesozoic  age. 


and  ii 

great 


latter.  Such  was  the  birth-time  and  such  the 
history  of  the  Appalachian  Range;  and.in  the 
interval  that  subsequently  occurred  between  the 
close  of  the  mesozoic  and  the  commencement  of 
the  cainozoic  periods,  such  a  history  repeated 
elsewhere  gave  rise  to  the  vast  chains  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Andes  ;—  a  third  and 
later  pause  saw  in  Europe  outlines  given  to 
the  Alps  and  Pyrenees:  and.  later  still,  the 
Himalayas  were  carved  out,  the  mightiest  uf 
existing  landmarks  of  geological  progress.  We 
thus  see  that  the  history  of  a  continent  is  divis- 
ible into  periods  of  extensive  submergence,  dur- 
ing which  sediments  arc  arranged  into  rock 
masses,  and  periods  of  upheaval,  during  which 
the  surface  configuration  is  given  to  the  new 
land.  (21 J  Additional  evidence  of  the  length 
of  geological  nine  is  afforded  by  the  changes 
in  life  that  have  tak<  n  place  on  the  globe.  Thus, 
while  it  cm  be  shown  that  comparatively  slight 
changes  in  the  mammalian  fauna  uf  Europe  have 
taken  place  since  the  glacial  epoch,  and  that  the 
great  vicissitudes  in  climate,  which  that  epoch 
(humanly  speaking  of  such  immense  duration, 
as  to  be  measured  at  least  by  tens  or  by  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  years)  implies,  did  not 
produce  any  radical  change  of  types;  yet,  in  the 
cainozoic  period,  we  find  the  whole  class  of 
mammals  modified  from  the  most  generalized  to 
the  most  specialized  forms.     And  in  the  interval 

between   the  existence  oi  i    the  globe  of    theSeasin 

which  mesozoic  and  cuiiinznic  deposits  were  re- 
spectively formed,  a  still  more  striking  revolution 


GEOLOGY 

GEOMETRY                      311 

in  animal   lit' :curred  ;     reptiles  ami  amphibi- 
ans   jaic    u;iv,  as   predominant    forms,  t ani- 
mals ami   bin  Is:    so    that,   if  by  the   test  -1   the 

deriving  principles     The  inculcation  of  the  lat- 
ter, at  an   early  age,  by  reference   to  surround- 
ing i  .hi    s  1  i  it.  .i  -  and  in  conjunction  with 

mesozoic  and  cainozoic  ages  with  that  from  the 
commencement   of  the    glacial    period  to   the 
present  day,  we  should  have  to  turn  the  tens  of 
thousands  of  years  of  the  latter  into  millions  in 

child'  fundamental  'id,'!,',    reuai'ln,"  \  all,'  V-'a'ml 

mountains,  make  him  see  that  everj  rain  st 

carves  out.  in  miniature, such  surfai  e  fei  turesin 

the  fundamental  concept -  ol  geologj   is  pre 

elementary  lessons  upon   the   subject  :     1  |  The 
uniformity  of  action  of  natural  laws.     (2)     The 
universal  unrest  of   matter  under  the  influence 

great  changes  that    i  suit  fr this  constant  un- 

time.     (5)  The  definite  order  that  h  is  prevaile  1 
in  the   introduction  of  living  forms.    '  6)    The 
certain  order  which  prevails  in  the  arrangement 

of  rocks,  ami   thus  enables   us.  as  a  rule,  to  de- 
termine the  relative  ecological  ace  of  any  partic- 
ular rock.     From   these  fundamental  ideas,  we 

student  will  advance  to  an  intelligent  study  of 
the  rocks  ami  of  the  fossils. as  examples  of  some 
of  the  effects  thus  produced. 
Th-   works  .a,   g ...,.  exclusive  of  special 

numerous.      \  m»    are  here  suggested:  Lyell, 
Principles  of  G nr.  this  should  be  thought- 
fully perused   by  every  one  aspiring   to  be  con- 
sidered educated,  and  especially  by  all  engaged 

our  continents  an  1  th  i  sue  -  ssive  ep  ichs  of  for- 

in th'  -line. thers;  .1.  1'.   Dana,   Man- 
ual of  G ■•...  which   should   he  at    hand  for 

mation  of  our  great  mountain    ranges.     In  tin-. 
sketch  is  presented  only  the  briefest  outline  of 

ologj  :   Lyell,  Memento  of  Ge,  ogy   foi  especial 

permitting'  a   con-id.T.iti  ei   of  th  •   details  of   ils 

lithological  or  stratigraphical  aspects.    Neither  is 
it  possil  i    todi     ■■    -  rtain      i  il  gi  al  qu    tions 

the  support  of  the  former  existence  of  a  glacial  ous   states  of    tin-   Union,  of     Canada,  and  of 

/"■'•/■«/.  the  application  of  the  doctrine  of  evolu-  Great    Britain,  should  he  consulted.     See  also 

tion  to  geology,  etc.  D'Aechiac,  Histoire  du  Progres  di  la  ' 

The   general  omission   of  geology   from   the  which  treat-  fully  of  the  general  development 

course  of  instruction  in  high  schools  ami  coif'-  ■-  mid  pr,,".re—  >  >t  t  fi.  ■  -.  i.  i ,. .  ■.      For  a  graphic  his- 

is  much   to  be  regretted:  since,  whether   for  the  tory  of  coal  and  the I  m,  .i-ui,  -   .,-   d, a, 'loped 

purpose  of  culture  or  information,  it   has  many  in  Nova  Scotia), see  Dawson,    I    ta        I /./: 

claims  to  consideration,  a  few  of  which  are  here  on  the  phenomena  oi  the  glacial  period,  Geikie, 

suggested:  (1)  Of  all  sciences  it  most  thoroughly  The  Great  Ice  Age ;  and  ou  thi    ■    ological  bifr 

cultivates  a  habit  of  inductive  reasoning ;     2)    It  tory  of  the   human  race,    Lyi    r.,   Antiq   Uy  of 

socompletelypenneate- phv-i"al  .jio^iaphv.  that  Man;  Lubbock,  Prehistoric  Man;   ami   Page, 

a  knowledge  of  its  elements  is  essential  to  the  Handb,    c   <f   6         ■         Terms.      Other  ele- 

intelligent  comprehension  of  the  latter;  (3)  It  is  utaiv  works  by    the  same   author,  on  geol- 

obviously  necessary  and  proper,   while  children  ogy  and  physical  geography,  will  be  found  of 

are  taught  that   the  earth  revolves  around  the  assistance  to  the  teacher.   We  hesitate  to  recom- 

sun,  and  other  fact-  of   the  solar  system,  that  mend  to  beginners  any  of  the  numerous   works 

they  should  also  learn  that  tin'-,  earth  of  to-day  which  aim  at    popularizing  geology.      Most  of 

has  ha  1  a  Ion-  and  eventful   history,  and  thai  these  either   endeavor    to   throvs    a   sensational 

as  we  find  them  now ;  (4)  The  practical  applies-  character;    and.'  in    either   ease,   .in-   generally 

tions  of   the    truths  of   geology   arc    not  only  of  more   or   less    unscientific,   because    inexact    and 

scientific  interest  ami  importance  but   of  great  inaccurate.     After  the  student  can  separate  the 

■■■ !  utility.  correct  from  thr  incorrect. he  will,  however,  find 

If  it  is  true  that  difficulty  has  arisen  in  com-  that  such  works,  with  all  their  errors,  i ften 

imiiiicatin-  ,_;coIoMJ|.;d  knowledge,  it  has.  probably,  rich  in  n,Avly-di.-,o\  •red    fact-,  ami  m  ingenious 

been  owinu  to  two  ran-,  ~:   ill    I'o  a  hesitation  in  presentation-  of  those  lone  known. 

telling  the  whole  truth,  and,  (2)  to  a  misconcep-        GEOMETRY   i(lr.  ;.''„,«.'-,,„..  from   yea,yr/, 

' teaching,  as  to  what    reallj    constitutes  the  earth,  and   ,  i asure),    the   science 

ial  part  of  the  science.     Ii  is  customary  which  treats  oi    the   properties  and    i   I  oi 

among    teachers   to   dwell   upon   the   details  of  magnitudes.   We  get  the  eleimi 

strata,  fossils,  etc..  instead  of  upon  general  un-  as  well  as  the  word  used  to  designate  it  from  the 


342  GEOMETRY 

ancient   Greeks.      Etymological]}',  the   word   is  dividual  student  is  exactly  what  \ 

synonymous  with  our  term  land  sur  wiling ■  but  by  the  race,  as  antecedent  to  logical   inquiry  :  he 

i  not  appear  that  it  ever  had  .simply    this  needs  to  know  the  fact, and  to  perceive  its  practical 

As  far  back  as  we  can  trace  the  significance,  before  he  attempts  to  reason  about 

history  of  the  subject,  there  appeal's  to  have  been  it.    For  example,  if  the  t\  ro  has  Learned  by  trial 

a  body  of  theoretical  truths  and   problems  des-  thai  he  cannot    take    three   give I-  and.  by 

ignated  by  this  term.  Thus,  in  the  time  of  Plato,  placing   their  ends  together,  make   triangles  of 

the  word  j  uuerpia  does  not  appear  to  have  had  different  forms,  he  is    prepared   to    understand, 

than  it  has  with  us ;  for,  when  he  spoke  of  God  lateral  trimigles  are  equal.       [gain,   ii   he   has 

ence  to  land  surveying.     But   it  is  not  the  pur-  and  found  that  he  can  combine  them  only  into 

pose  of  this  article  to  trace  the  history  of  geom-  triangles  of  the  same  shape,  he  is  prepared  to  be 

etry,  nor  to  give  even   a   ,■■<■,,„.■■  of'  it*   truths  intelligently   interested    in   the   reasoning  which 

and  methods.  The  object  istopointout  its  place  proves  that.    If  two  triangles  ham  iheir  homol- 

and  function  in  a  scheme  of  general  education,  ogous  sides  proportional,  ihey  are  similar.  And 

and  to  offer  certain  practical  suggestions  in  re-  so  of  all  the  fundamental  truths  of  plane  geom- 

gard  to  the  methods  of  teaching  it.     These  will  etry.      Much    of    the    superficial    and    merelj 

be  presented  in  connection   with  the  following  mechanical,  memoriier  work  which  is  done  by 

inquiries  and  considerations  pupils  in  geometry  is  caused  by  their  having  no 

I.  How  should  this  subjt      '«    approached,  in  adequate  conception  of  the    facts   about  which 

the  first  instance,  by  th>   learner?    The  proper  they  arc  attempting  to  reason.    Once  show  the 

reply  to  this  is,  he  should  first  b leacquainted  pupil  l>\  measurement  that  the  circumference  of 

with  the  leading  facts  of  plane  geometry,  with-  a  given  circle  is  a  little  over  three  times  its  diam- 

out   any   attempt   at    scientific    demonstration;  eter,  and   he  will  be  induced  to  inquire  whether 

notwithstanding  the  fact  that   the  chief  excel-  it  is  so  in  another,  and  finally  it  this  is  true  in 

fence  of  geometry,  as  a   means  of  mental  im-  all  circles.     Again,  let  him  draw  several  pairs  of 

proveiucnt.    lies   iii   its  admirable   body   ot    prac-  chords    intersecting    in    a   circle,  and   by    actual 

tical  logic.     It  is.  in  part,  in  consequence  of  this  measurement  find  that  the  segments  are  recipro- 

veiv   fact    that    the    learner    should   have  an   ae-  rally    proportional,   and    his    curiosity    naturally 

quaintance  with  the  fundamental  truths  of  the  prompts  him  to  inquire  why  it  is  so.     Finally,  a 

science,   as   facts,    before   he   attempts    to    reason  feu   illustrations  of  the  mechanical  value   of  tie 

upon  them.     It  must  be   remembered  that   the  truths  with  which  they  are  becoming  familiar  will, 

logical  faculty  is  not  the  inventive  faculty,  fngen-  with  most  pupils,  give  added  zest  to  their  study 

end.  its  materials  must  l>  •  furnishe  I  it.   I-  specially  and  acquisition.    To  know  that  the  brace  stiffens 

The  historvof  the  development  of  science  affords  I hau»..l  without  chanjiiiu.  the  sides,  while  those 

abundant  proof  that  these  truths  are  furnished  of  a  quadrilateral  can  ;  to  see  how  the  carpenter 

to  the  logical  faculty  rather  than  by  it.     Thus  can  square  his  foundation,  calculate  the  length 

the  theorems.    If  mi.    .,/,-,,/,//,/   /,,„■    ',,,.;)  „,,,,//,■;•  of  his  brace  or  rafter,  on   the  principle  that   the 

straight  line,  the  sum  qf  the  atigles  formed  equals  squar i    the  hypotenuse  is  equivalent  to  the 

two  right  angles ;   The  sum   of  the  angles  of  a  sum  of  the  squares  on   the  two  other  sides  of  a 

triangle  is  two  right  angles;  The  square  described  right-angled  triangle;    how    inaccessible  heights, 

on  the  hypothenuse  of  a  right-angled  triangle  and  the  distances  between   inaccessible  objects, 

is  equivalent  to  the  sum  qf  the  squares  on  the  can  be  determined   by   the  property   of  similar 

other  two  sides;  The  circumference  qf  a  circle  is  triangles     these,  and  the  like  applications  of  the 

alittlemori  than  ihre,   times  its  diameter;  and  principles  he  is  about  to  investigate,  give  an  air 

many  others,  were  known  to  men  as  facta,  and  of   practical   reality  to  the  abstract  speculations 

their  practical  significance  was  well  understood,  of  the  science,  which  will  be  found  exceedingly 

long  before  their  logical  connection  with  axioms  helpful  and  stimulating  to  the  student, 
and  definitions  was  traced.    As  it  has  been  with         II.    It 'should  be  borne  in  mind  that  geometry 

the  race,  so  it  should  be   with  the  individual;  is  a  mechanical  as  well  as  a  logical  science.    V> 

the  facts  are  needed  as  a  basis  for  logical  inquiry,  more  mischievous  mistake  can  be  made  than  to 

We  cannot  reason  about   that  c erning  which  underrate  the  problems  of  geometry;  nevertheless 

we  kno»  little  or  nothing.    Indeed. this  principle  this  is  not  an  uncommon  practice  with  teachers. 

has  been  almost  universally  acl wledged  in  the  While  some  teachers  permit   the  pupil  to  omit 

construction  of  our  text-1 ks  on  geometry  up-  these  problems  in  i struction  altogether,  others 

on  the  analytical  rather  than  upon  the  synthet-  allow    him   the  almost   equally  pernicious  habit 

ical  model.     From  the  time  of   Euclid,  a1  least,  of  des  ribing   Ih    c     -  -i    'ion  without  actually 

to  the  present  time,  the  custom  has  I n  to  Btate  performingthe  work  according  to  the  description. 

each  truth  in  formal  proposition  before  attempt-  Thus,  thej  allow    him   to  tell  how  an  angle  is 

ing  to  demonstrate  it  ;   but  this  is  not  sufficient,  bisectt  d  without  requiring  him  actually  to  bisect 

The  mere  statement  of  such  a  truth  does  not  give  a  given  angle;    they  accept  a  clumsy  descrip- 

the  ordinary  mind  a  sufficiently  clear  and  full  tion  of  the  process  of  inscribing  a  circle  in  a 

apprehensi f  it  to  interest  the  attention  or  to  triangle,  illustrated  by  a  five  hand  caricature  of 

guide  the  thought.      What    is  needed    by  the   in-  the  tiling  itself,  instead   of  requiring   a  neat  and 


GEOMETRY 

accurate  construction  upoi rrect  geometrical  no  such  classification  has 

principles.     Now,  this  is  g letrj   with  the  ac-  in  our  text-books.    The  si 

tual  geometry  left  out.    Nor  is  it  simply  that  tin-  raneoment    in  Euclid,  whi 

mere  mechanical   part    (not  an  inconsiderable  or  many  centuries,  is  to  den 

unimportanl    part)  is  left  out;   but   any  critical  propositions   as   are    elen 

examination    of   such   pupils  will  usually   show  essential  use  in  subsequen 


343 

ilv  found 
f  the  ar- 
led  for  so 
irst  such 
hence  of 
inns.     Of 


the  real  spirit  of  geometi 
may  know,  and  be  able  to  i 
prop  isitions.  Nor  are  the 
site  to  effect  neat  and  ace 
structions,  attainments  to 
ing  an  education.  Shall  - 
of  form,  and  not  cultivate 
reference  to  form'.'  Shall 
ficient  in  the  science  of  ext 
cannot  construct  a  paralleli 
and  eye  are  so  i ipleteh 


.  having 
triangle 


Mo! 


clearness  of    pe 

arc  most  helpfn 

ed,  a  student  wi 

rate  a  | 

ir  whirl 
rineiple 


it   so  constructe  I.     It 

i  figure  used   for   the  ] 
should    be   thus  const 


but  it  is  urged  that  the  pupil  should  be  able  to 

tangents 

fre.pientlvl.e  iv.piired  to  do  this:  and.  moreover. 

tersectio 

it  is  claimed  that  there  is  a  positive  power  to  in- 
vestigate  geometrical    truth     begotten    of    this 
method.      Who  that    has  ever  attained  any  pro- 
ficiency   in    geometrical    investigation    does    not 
know  the   value  of   an  accurately  constructed 
figure?    This  Ls,  g  merally,  the  very  first  step  in 

that   thi 
ancle   (1 
while  th 

portant 

an 


often  suggesting  tl ntirelim 

III.    But,  passing  i in 

the  student  ready  t  i  commeni 
body  of  geometrical  proposit 
up  the  Elements  of  Geometry 
to  demonstrate  them.  Whi 
presented  to  him  .  Most  asst 
sified  arrangement  of  the  si 
prime  requisite  in    a   branch   of  study  which  en 


comparison   ot   nguw 


joys  the  distinction  of  being  the  most  perfect  of    there  are  three  ideas  to  be  taken  as  bases  df  com- 
the  sciences.    It  is.  however"  a  singular  fact,  that  I  parison;  namely.  (1)  equality,  (2)  similarity,  and 


344 


GEOMETBY 


i?,)  equivalence;  out  of  the  last  of  which  grows  1 
the  idea  of  area.  Having  treated  these  topics, 
we  have  exhausted  thesubjeci  of  elementary  plane 
geometry.  No  other  elementary  inquiry  can  arise; 
and  no  subsequent  inquiries  can  be  carried  for- 
ward except  on  the  basis  of  these.  Thus  we 
have  hastily  sketched  the  outlines  of  a  scientific 
arrangement:  but  our  special  purpose  is  to  in- 
sist, that  some  logical  order  of  sequence  be  im- 
pressed upon  the  mind  of  the  student,  whether 
it  be  this,  or  some  better  one. 

IV.  Hints  concerning  class-room  work. — The 
order  of  arrangement  in  the  treatment  of  a  geo- 
metrical proposition  should  be  early  fixed  in  the 
student's  mind:  namely,  il)  The  general  state- 
ment of  the  proposition ;  (-)  The  illustration  of 
this  statement  by  reference  to  a  particular  dia- 
gram :    (.'!)    Any  additional  construction  which 

maybe  necessary  to  the  del istration  :   (4)  The 

demonstration  proper.  The  exact  language  of 
the  text-book  should  always  be  used  in  the  state- 
ment of  propositions,  ami  in  quoting  definitions 
and  all  fundamental  principles,  unless  such  lan- 
guage is  changed  by  the  instructor  or  student 
for  a  particular  reason:  but  the  demonstration 
should  not  be  memorized,  although  the  general 

order  of  thought  should  i v-arily  be  retained.. 

and  the  spirit  and  style  of  tie-  lairj.ccj.e  be  pre- 
served. The  diagram  ' 'I  always  be  con- 
structed on  the  blackbo  ird  by  the  pupil,  with- 
out prompting  from  any  -  >urce.  When  the  con- 
struction is  complete,  he  should  usually  :'il 
the  board. and  trace  the  lini  of  th  i  ight  b\  point- 


tion  - 
figures 
the  cat 


are  others  which  must  not  be  neglected,  nor  be 
unfrequent. —  First  among  these  is  the  giving 
of  outlines  of  demonstrations  without  going 
through  the  details,  and  without  reference  to  a. 
diagram.  This  is  one  of  the  best  tests  of.pro- 
ficiencj  which  can  be  applied,  and  the  whole 
subject  should  be  repeatedly  reviewed  in  this 
way.  \-iin  frequent  reviews  of  groups  of 
theorems,  without  demonstrations,  are  essential. 
Thus,  the  teacher  may  call  for  the  propositions 
concerning  equality  of  triangles,  the  elementary 
propositions  concerning  the  measurement  of 
a  i  lb  prop  i  tons concerningparoZfefe, etc. 
\\  li  n  a  itud  -e  is  assigned  such  a  topic,  he 
should  give  all  the  facts  embraced  under  it  [defi- 
nitions, propositions,  corollaries,  and  Bcholiums), 


equality, 
monstra- 
Ie  which 
itrations. 
in!  that 
appliea- 
e  modifi- 
letry  the 


'/""""'  >sai«a\s 
in,.,  of  one  figure 
cation,  that  in  cas 
figures  are  ilividi 
then  applied  as  b 


text-bi 
memoi 

the  fa, 


are 


■\  ice  is 

irizing. 

sposed, 

pearance 


It  is  quite  as  easy  for  a  pupil  w 

to  in  ■ i.  e  li\  the  mere  positii 

of  the  parts,  with  figures  to  designate  them,  or 
even  without  any  characters  attached,  as  by  means 
of  letters.  The  pupil  can  make  as  perfeel  a  par- 
rot-like recitation,  by  merely  memorizing  every 
statement  as  referring  to  certain  parts  of  the 
diagram.and  by  using  the  barbarous  diction,  "line 
this,"  ■■  lin  ■   that,    etc.,  whi<  h  may  be  heard  in 

Our  counsel  is,  use  the  language  of  the  science 
hi,:  .  and  depend  on  something  le  -  -  u- 
pertieial,  to  prevent  all  improper  memorizing. 
In  referring  to  antecedent  propositions  constitut- 
ing the  b  isis  of  the  argu nt,  it  is  far  more  im- 
portant that  the  proposition  |...  ,| noted. than  that 
its  number  be  given  ;    for  the  latt   r  i-  of    no  sort 

pt  as  a  mei  i ,  !      rooi at   nienee, 

«  !nl  i  the  former  method  i    ■  t    ■■    ntial     rvicein 


bringing  out 
the  truths  of 


familiar  on    the   tongue.      Such  methods  should 
Constitute  the  ordinary  classroom  drill:  but  there 


n  like  manner,  In-  can 

ot  siwti.tnlii.  Such 
a  study  «ill  lea  be  merely  a  review  of  the  sec- 
tion on  or  that  on  \  'arily,  since  these 
i  leas  are  the  lei-  of  the  thought  in  many  pro- 
positions where  they  do  not  constitute  the  main 
subject,  or  purpose.  In  fait,  it  will  be  found  that 
nearly  one-half  of  the  propositions  of  geometry 
involve  one  or  the  other  of  these  notions  (i  quality 
and  similarity)  as  the  basis  of  thought.  Again 
he  may  be  set  to  select  and  study  the  proposi- 
tions relating  to  form,  and  then  those  in  which 

ll)il'li;i!iiili-     is    the     object   of    inquiry  :    tllCSC    two 

ideas  dividing  between  them  the  w  hole  domain 
of  geometrical  truth. — Finally  it  is  of  the  high- 
est importance,  that,  from  first  to  ia.-t.  the  pupil 
be  trained  in  the  practical  application  of  the  ab- 
stract truths  as  fast  as  they  are  learn,  d.  No  truth 
is  well  learned  until  it  can  be  applied  ;  and  n 
would  lie  quite  incredible  to  one  who  has  not 
had  large  observation,  how  fully  one  may  appear 
to  understand  a  geometrical  truth,  and  yet  be 
totally  unable  to  apply  it.  The  writer  has  ex- 
amined in  geometry  hundreds  of  students  desir- 
ing to  eiiier  college  in  "advanced  standing."  and 
has  made  this  a  mat*  r  of  careful  obsi  rvation. 
Porexample.  he  has  n-uailv  asked  such  students, 
»  ffovi  do  S  "i  find  the  area  of  a  (spherical  tri- 
angle?" Generallyth  i  i  r  has  been  promptly 
given,  "By  multiplying  the  sphericali  iccessbythe 
tri -rectangular  triangle:"  and.  quite  generally,  the 
can, li, late    has    been    found   able    to  demonstrate 


GEOMETRY 

fi>  proposition.  But  in  no  instance  has  the 
examiner  ever  found  a  student,  who  had  not  been 
trained  in  the  practical  application  of  the  state- 
ment, able  to  compute  the  area  of  a  triangle  the 
alleles  of  whieh  are.  say  1  10".  HI",  ami  t-7  .  cm  a 
sphere  the  radius  of  which  is  2  feet.  In  fact, they 
could  tell  what  atri-reetangular  triangle  is,  what 
part  of  the  sphere  it  is, and  what  the  spherical 
excess  is;  but  not  cue  could  actually  find  the 
number  of  square  inches  in  the  area  of  the  tri- 
angle. A  student  may  appear  to  have  thoroughly 
mastered  solid  geometry.and  yet  be  totally  unable 
to  solve  such  a  problem  as.  To  rind  how  many  bar- 
rels of  water  a  cistern  in  the  form  of  the  frustum 
of  a  cone  will  contain.  It  is  obvious,  therefore, 
that  the  teacher  of  geometry  should  never  allow 
his  pupils  to  omit  the  practical  examples. 

V.  G  omeirii  tl  Invention. — This  term  is  used 
to  designate  the  power  to  discover  demonstra- 
tions of  propositions  or  the  solution  of  prob- 
lems. .Many  excellent  teachers  quite  overrate  the 
ordinary  student's  power  in  this  direction.  Some 
have  even  thought,  that,  from  the  first,  a  pupil  can 
be  lei  to  discover  the  demonstrations  of  all  the 
propositions.  New  classes  may,  indeed,  maki m- 


GEORGETOWN    COLLEGE        345 

of  elementary   ge try,  either  by  a  text  book, 

or  by  the  hints  of  a  competent  and   judicious 

teacher;  and  thai   it   is  best   thai    n  should    be   ,o. 


rhese   were 

llbject  and  , 


M  JTHEM  VI  les.l 

GEORGETOWN  COLLEGE,    at    George- 
town, D.  ('..  was  founded  in   L789,  but  was  not 


mtothcr  hand.  ,,,];,  ,1 -,a,e,„ent  of  prop- 
ositions ;  but  it  will  be  found  that  they  do  not 
originate  the  demonstrations  which  they  bring 
into  the  .lass;  thev  simplv  look  them  up 'in  other 
text-books,  and  thus  learn  them.  After  a  pupil 
has  acquired  a  considerable  stock  of  geometrical 
knowledge,  any  real  te.i  u  ill  show  that  original 
demonstrations  are  but  slowly  evolved,  even  of  the 
simplest  propositions.  Many  stu  lents  have  little 
or  no  capacity  in  this  direction:  and.  therefore,  to 
make  it  the  staple  of  geometrical  teaching  would 
supreme  folly.  Some  exercise  of  this  kind  may. 


t  of  such  ability 
ty  of  students  of 
ly,  this  is  not  the 


and  should,  be  given  fr< 
study:  and  students  mav  be  -tiinu 
in  the  work,  so  that  all  the  abili 
cise,  which  really  exists  in  the  das. 
out:  but,  after  all.  there  is  no  r, 
to  expect  tl 
can  be  dew 
elementary 

purpose  for  whieh  geometry  holds  its  emin 
place  in  the  curriculum  of  our  colleges.  It  is, 
that  students  may  learn  what  a  logical  argument 
is  and  how  to  frame  it,  from  the  study  of  such 
arguments,  carefully  elaborated  and  express,.,)  ),v 
the  ripest  culture.  '  What  but  the  most  clumsy 
work  can  be  expected  from  the  tyro  in  framing 
such  arguments,  if  he  has  not  had  much  study  of 
the  best  models?  To  put  a  demonstration  in 
good  form,  a.s  well  as  to  evolve  it.  is  the  ripest 
fruit  of  scholarship,  not  the  daily  work  of  begin- 
ners; the  ability  to  do  either  is  to  be  acquired, 
in  the  first  instance,  by  a  protracted  and  careful 
study  of  the  work  of  masters.  It  is  not  the  pur- 
pose of  theseremarks  to  discourage  all  attempts 
to  secure  original  demonstrations,  but  to  guard 
against  a  serious  error  into  which  enthusiastic 
and  ambition,  teachers  ate  ,,,  danger  of  falling; 
and  the  conclusion  is,  that,  for  the  most  part, 
pupils  must  be  furnished  with  the  demonstrations 


institution,  tinder  the  direction  of  members  of 
the  Society  of  Jesus;  and  is  supported  by  fees 
from  students.  In  the  classical  department,  the 
entire  course,  including  the  preparatory  classes, 
is  of  seven  years,  the  last  four  of  which  corre- 
spond generally  with  the  classical  course  oi  most 
American  .-..lieges.     The  institution   has  a  well- 


volumes,  amongst  which  there  are  many  rare  and 
curious  works.  One  hundred  of  these  volumes 
were  printed  between  the  years  1  160  and  1520; 
three-    manuscripts  are  anterior  to  the  year  1400, 

and  many  others  i  al '    as  earlj  a  date 

Thesociety  librari   sec  atain about  3,000 volumes. 
The  charcre  for  tuition,  board,  lodging,  etc.,  is  $325 
large   for  day  scholars  is 
igton,  there  is  a  medical 
in   1  851 .  and  also  a  lav, 


a  year;  the  re 
$60  a  year.  It 
department,  est 


the  law 

,   At  the 


i  of  the 
o  been 
791-3  : 
e  Rev. 

.eonard 


were  I.,  instructors  and  80  studi 
department. 4  instructors  and  39 
commencement  in  1876,  the  degt 
conferred  on  7  graduates.  The 
college,  with  the  date  of  appoint 
as  follows  :  the  Rev.  Rob  art  P 
the  Rev.  Robert  Molyneux,  17 
bonis  W.  Dubourg,  1796  9;    tl 

Neale,  1799-1806 ;    the  Re*    l: aoiyneux, 

1806  8;  the  Rev.  Wm.  Matthews,  1808  LO ; 
the  Rev.  Francis  Neale,  L810  L2  ;  the  Rev. 
John  Grassi,  1812  17  :  the  Rev.  Benedi  I  J. 
Fenwick,1817-ls;  the  I !ev.  Anthony  Kohlmann, 
1818  20;  the  Kev.  Knoeh  Fenwic'k.  I -'JO  -T>  ; 
the  Kev.  Heiiedid  .1.  Fi  ie\  i 
Rev.  Stephen  Dubuisson,  182.V<;;  the  Kev. 
William    Feiner,   1826-9;    the    Rev.   John    G. 


346       GEORGETOWN    COLLEGE 

Beschter,  March,  1829-Sep.,  29;  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Mulledy,  1829-37 ;  the  Rev.  William  McSherry, 
1837-9;  the  Rev.  Joseph  A.  Lopez,  Jan.  L840- 
April  1840;  the  Rev.  James  Ryder,  1840-45;  the 
Rev.  Samuel  Mulledy,  Jan.,  1845  A.ug.,  15;  the 
Elev.  Thomas  Mulledv.  I -la  -:  the  Kev.  James 
Ryder,1848  51;  tin-  Rev.  Charles  H. Stonestreet, 
1851-2;  the  Rev.  Bernard  A.  Maguire,  L852  -; 
the  Rev.  John  Early,  1858  66;  the  Rev.  Bernard 
A. Maguire,  L866  70; the  Rev.John  Early,  1870 
73;  the  Rev.  1'.  P.  Healy,  appointed  in  L873 
and  still  (1876)  in  office. 

GEORGETOWN  COLLEGE,  at  George- 
town, Scot!  Co.,  Ky.,  chartered  in  L829,is  under 
the  control  ol  tin-  Baptists.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  an  endowment  of 
nearly  $75,000.  The  real  estate  of  the  college  is 
valued  at  about  S7a.ll<l(>.  The  library  contains 
between  5.000  and  ('..lino  volumes.  The  institution 


( 1  E<  tRGIA 

the  state"  ;  but  this  was  omitted  in  the  revision 
of  L789,  educational  affairs  being  left  to  the 
regulation  of  tin'  general  assembly.  In  L783,  the 
assembly  donate.!  1,000  acres  of  land  to  each 
county  lor  the  support  "1  free  schools;  and.  in 

uieiit  ..f  a  state  university,  which   was  charter..! 
in  1785.     In  lTl'J.an  act  was  passed  appropriat- 
demy 


cabinet  of  minerals,  fossil...  and  shells,  and  a 
seiini  of  curiosities.  It  comprises  an  acai 
orpreparatory  course  and  a  collegiate  course. 
curriculum  is. listributod  into  i he  follow  ine.l. 
meiits  of  stu.lv:  (li  English;  (2)  Latin 
Greek;  Ml  Modem  lan-jua^-s;  'el  Mathem; 
(6)  Physical  Sciences;     7)    History  and  Pol 

!■;.• v:     -    Mentalai.  I  Moral  Philosophy. 


Arts,  i 
Arts  to 
tist  Tht 
college. 
is  $50  | 
Candid 

free,  all 


841 

:  J.  L.  Reyi 

Ull| 

.ell.  D.  !>..  1 

L86 

5;     B.  Manly 

.ft    ufj 


e  IVl  eolleees  and 
ents:  and  17.VJ 
7  pupils,  the  total 
.•h  was  $449,966. 
r  the  number  and 
ries.  There  was, 
.  system  of  com- 
ilie  taxation,  and 
fforts  were  made 

establish  such  a 
1  giving  $20,000, 
1  countiesof  the 
cr  children";  but 

regard  to  educa- 

niake  any  return 
the  endowment. 

itive  white  adults 
lit  were  unable  to 
inber  of  illiterates 
cent.  Tht'  state 
tor    the   establish- 

;eneial  education, 
of  the  state,"  and 
1  commissioner,  to 
with  the  consent 


(84  collegiate  and  li::  j 
dents  of  the  college,  wi 
have  b.eii  as  follows ; 
1829;  Joel  S.  Bacon,  I) 
worth.  L836;  Rockwooi 
I  lowar.l  Malcom,  1>.  I> 
li.  1 1..  L850;  Duncan  R 
\.  M  Crawford,  1>.  I 
1).  1).,  1871  (the  present 
GEORGIA,  one  of  tl 
of  the  American  unii 
Savannah,  by  colonists 
(Jen.  .lame.  (  Iglethorpi 
area  is  58,000  -  |   in.  :   ai 


in  which  were  545,142  colored  persons,  10  In- 
dians, and  1  ( 'liinaiuaii.  Aeeor.liiie;  to  its  entire 
population,    it    ranked    as   the     ll'th    an g    the 

states:  and,  as  to  colored  population,  as  the  1st. 
li-  gain  in  population,  during  the  ten  years 
preceding,  was  \'l  per  cent. 

Educational  History.— The  original  constitu- 
tion of  this  state,  adopted   in  I  777.  eonlai 1  a 

provision  requiring  schools  to  be  "erected  in  each 
county,  ami  supported  at  the  general  expense  of 


jtablishing  such 
,vas  passed  '  tet. 
iols  were  put  in 
n  of  the  first 
s.  His  report, 
I  were  enrolled 
pi]  .,    an. I     6,66  I 

s.     Very  great 


many 
<>1  law. 
.1  dur- 
J.Orr 

under 
1872), 


ipened 

w  lib  ll 


\  i. line 


counties,  and  faithfully  disbursed.  The  regular 
,seh. ..,1  fund  had  accumulated  to  the  amount  of 
$250,000,  which  also  was  properly. apportioned. 


'ikIit  these  r-ircnmst.il s,  the  schools  thai  year    No  county  is  entitled  to  a  participation  in  the 

lade  considerable  progress.     The  annual   report    state  school  fund  unless   its  board  of  education 
f   Commissioner  Orr,    for    L873,   Bhowed    that     has  provided,  by  taxation  or  othoru  is.  >.  for  keen 


1  :i, , .1.1  were  colored,     lh 

ring  the  next  year,  the 

attendance  ii ised  to  L: 

colored,    12,371.    The  a 

noil, it    of  school    funds 

apportioned  in  L874,  was 

$265, 1.    The  report 

For  the  year  L875  showed 

a  still  further  increase, 

the  aggregate  attendance 

leing  156,349, — whites, 

105,990;    colored,   50,35 

1.      During  1874,  five 

school  laws   were   enacti 

change  was  made  in  the 

system,  except  the  re- 

quiremenl   that   the  enu 

aeration  of  the  school 

population  should  l.i-  ma 

e  every  four  years  in- 

stead  of  every  year,  as  fo 

inerlv. 

School  System.    -The 

common-school  system 

ofGeorgia  is  under  the  di 

■eetionof  the  following 

officers:  (1)  A  state  sckooh 

rmmissioner  appointed 

by  the  governor,  with  th. 

for  four  years,  who  is  cha 

"ged  with  the  adminis- 

tration  of  the  school  laws 

:■  in  1  the  general  super- 

vision  of  all  the  public  . 

shools  of'  the   stale,  as 

well  as  the  apportionmen 

{•>)     \   stsrfo   hnm-ri  nf   ,;l, 

of  the  school  revenue; 

•ntinn     prm\rmtaT\a   the 

1  -1    .V   sfm     OUUl  U   ill        'I' 

governor,   secretary   of    I 

•  mi, a,  t  umpiiamg    mi 

schools,  hut  does  not  per- 
sectarian  character  to  he 

rate*  ami  buildings,  and  the 
•.are  exempt  from  taxation 
lution. 
at   present  consists  of  the 


of  the  West 
these  resourc 


determine  local  controversies  referred  to  them  by  cities 

appeal,  subject  to  a  still  further  appeal  to  the  school! 

state    commissioner;     (I)    ('mint*/  school  rum-  inggn 

missioners, elected  by  the  county  boards  of  eduea-  also   p 

tion.   who    examine   applicants   for    licenses   to  The  st 

teach,  and  revoke  licenses  for  immorality,  incom-  readinj 

patency,  or  cruelty  to  pupils,  subject,  however,  raphy, 

The  county  school  connnUioner  is  also  required  comn'i, 
to  visit  each  school  in  his  county  at  least  twice  a.  |  Numbe 
year,  to  make  an  annual  census  of  the  children 
of  school  age  (between  0  and  18),  to  apportion 
the  school  fund  of  the  county  ai  one;  the  sub-dis- 
tricts in  proportion  to  the  number  of  such  children 
in  each,  to  make  such  reports  to  the  state  com- 
missioner as  he  may  require,and  to  act  generally 
as  the  medium  of  communication  between  the 
state  commissioner  and  the  subordinate  school 
officers. 

The  county  boards  of  education  may  establish 
evening  schools  for  youths  over  12  years  of  age. 
who  are  unable  to  attend  the  day  schools  ;  and, 
under  the  direction  of  the  state  hoard,  they  may 
also  establish  self-sustaining  nam  mil  lulmr  tsrhmils. 


inon   schools  are 
irithmctie.  geog- 

lal  items  of  the 

...114,648 

d. .   55,268 


Total,  .lllll.llli; 

105,766 

children  of  school  age,  Whites   .218,733 

•'      Colored.  175,304 

Total.  .304,037 
For  the  private  elementary  schools  the  follow- 
ing  statistics   were  eiu'ii    in   the  report    for  the 
same  year  : 

Number  of  Schools 820 

••  Teachers 903 

•■  Pupils   taught.  Whites 'Jl.27.~i 

Colored 4,176 

Total..  2.'.  ,451 
Average  monthly  cost  of  tuition $1.88. 


348  GEO 

The  whole  amount  of  money  received  and  ex- 
pended for  the  support  of  public  schools,  in  1875, 
w;issi:;;,.;;i!i.  of  this.  s'»il.:-'.l!)  was  supplied 
by  the  slate:  and  $144,000,  raised  by  local  tax- 
ation. The  amount  apportioned  to  the  several 
counties  was  $151304.  The  Peabody  Fund 
contributed  86,900  to  the  support  of  schools  in 
Georgia   during  the  year. 

\',,,„,  |  /.  ,,  No  provision  has  been 
made  in  this  state  for  the  special  training  of 
teachers.  In  his  annual  report  for  1875,  State 
( 'oniniissioner  <  hr  said.  "The  want  of  well-quali- 
fied teachers  for  our  white  schools  has  been  much 
felt.  The  want  of  the  white  schools  in  this 
respect,  however,  is,  small  in  comparison  with 
that  of  the  colored  schools.  It  has  been  impracti- 
cable to  put  colored  schools  in  operation  at  all.  in 
some  places,  in  conseque f  the  lack  of  com- 
petent instructors."    He.  therefor.-,  r mmended 

that  an  "annual  appropriation  of  $10,000  he 
made  for  establishing  two  normal  schools  for 
whites,  one  to  lie  located  in  the  northern.; ;n id 
the  other  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  state; 
and  that  the  law  making  an  appropriation  of 
$8,000  tothe  \tlant;i  Onivi  rsitj  be  repealed,  and 

that,  in  Lieu  thereof  $10 b    annually  appro- 

priateil  for  e-t.il.!i-hn  .   ■'."      il  -ehool  tor  colore.l 

pupils."  Bowdon  College  has  a  normal  class; 
and  the  Atlanta  University  (q.  v.),  a  higher  and 
a  lower  normal  department,  the  former  embrac- 

for  pi  unary  scl 1  teachei  -       Lnd,  besidi 

these,    there    is    the    Haven    Normal   Scl I.   a1 

Wavnolioro.  which,  in  is,  I,  had  162  students. 
The  state  appropriation  to  the  Atlanta  University 
is  designed  to  encourage  the  training  of  colored 
teai  h' irs  hi  thai  institution. 

Secondary  Instruction  The  special  systems 
above  referred  to  comprise  9  high  schools.  2  in 
Bibb  County,  2  in  Chatham  County,  2  in  At- 
lanta, 1  in  Columbus,  and  2  in  the  city  of 
Griffin.  Macon  also  has  2  high  schools;  and 
Savannah,  8  high-school  classes.  Besides  these, 
there  were  reported  I'M  private  high  schools, 
having  171    instructors,  and   5,379   students,  ol 

wl i  3,087  were  male-.  .-,11.1  2,292  females.    The 

studies  pursued  in  these  schools  included  the 
usual  Knglish.  rhi-~ii-.il.  mathematical,  ami  scien- 
tific branches ;  and  the  average  monthly  cost  of 
tuition  was  $3.13  per  pupil,  ranging  from  $5  to 
$1.15.    There  ai     also  si  v\  ral  business  colleges. 

Superior  Instruction.  The  University  of 
Georgia  (q.  v.).  at  Athens,  is  the  principal  in- 
stitution of  this  grade  in  the  state.  Others  are 
contained  in  the  following  table,  according  to 
the  annual  report  of  the  state  commissioner  for 


Besides  these,  there  are  several  institutions  for 
tin-  bigher  education  of  women,  that  claim  the 
rank  of  colleges,  having  preparatory  and  collegiate 


1875: 

NAME 

Location 

B 
lenomination 

University  of  Georg    l 

Wli.-ns 

Non-sect. 

Nun  sect. 

Mercer  tJniversit; 

Baptist 

Non-sect. 

Emory  <  lollege 

0:  ford 

It  10.  South 

Jefferson 

Pio  Nono  College 

Macon 

R.  C. 

ints.  The  following  list 

the  report  of  the  state 


of  the 
re  in 


included 
for  1875: 


Baptist  Fem.Col.  Rome 

Fem.  Col Conyers 

;m.Col Pulton 


Baptist 

Meth.  Epis. 
Baptist 

M.  10.,  Smith 

Methodist 

Presb. 

Non-sect. 

Non-sect. 

M.  10.,  South 


tie  and  the 
longressional 
-part n lent  of 
orth  i ieorgia 
lege  became 
itv  in  1872. 
i/.l-d.in  1867, 
ie  American 
•Iv  supported 
•specially  for 
In  pursuance 
s  an   annual 

its   support. 

this  institu- 
movement  in 


the  money  thus  i 
devoted  to  ins 
specially  for  tin 


located  at  Lugu 
partment  of  tin 
value  of  its  grout 
estimated  at  $6 
5,000    volumes. 


•lusively 

teachers 

schools. 


ill  theGeorgia  Academy 

The  former,  in  1874, 

upils,  of  whom  25  were 

7    instructors   and  51 

receipts,  winch  wen-  al- 

ppropriations,  a unted 

a  law  school  connected 
Georgia,  in  which  the 
i.    including   the   whole 


t  ieorgia;  the 
.1  apparatus  is 
brary  contains 
there    are  the 


founded  in  ls:!s.  which,  in  lS7-l.li.nl  I  '1  in: 
ors,  ami  a  graduating  class  ,.t  L6  students. 


GEORGIA,  UNIVERSITY  OF 

GEORGIA,  University  of,  at  Athens, 
Georgia,  was  chartered  in  1785,  receiving  40,000 
acres  of  wild  Land,  granted  in  I  Ts  t  by  the  legis- 
lature, for  the  endowment  of  a  college,  or  semi- 
n.nA  of  learning.  It  did  not  go  into  operation 
for  some  years.  In  1801,  the  first  building  was 
erected,  and,  in  1804.  the  tir.-i  class  eaadnatcd. 


( IK  UMAX- AMERICAN  SCHOOLS    349 

the    General    Assembly.  -The    North   Georgia 
Agricultural  College  oo  upies  the  former  United 


tmeiits  of  the  university  was  as  follows: 
h___t.  Number  of         Number 


academic  dep 

lege),  the  Get 
and  the  Me 
(established  u 
Medical  Colli 
lished  in  183 
cultural  Colli 
College  and 
established  ii 
congressiona] 
Medical  Colli 


Lett 


volumes. 

of  about 


ds  of  the 

ia.       The 


matics ;  (7)  natural  philosophy  and  astronomy; 
(8)  chemistry,  geology, and  mineralogy  c|  his- 
tory  and  political  science;  (10)  English  liter- 
ature. These  separate  schools  are  so  arranged 
as  to  be  combined  into  several  departments, 
which  thus  offer  systematic  courses  of  educa- 
tion of  different  types  of  culture.  Three  degrees 
are  conferred  in  this  department:  Bachelor  of 
Philosophy.  Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  Bachelor 
of  Science.    The   Stat,'   College   has  three  de- 


ot 


Arts    [requiring     certificate*    ol     proticiciicy    in 

all  the  academic  school-  except  the  last),  <'ivil 
Engineer,  Civil  and  Mining  Engineer,  Bachelor 
of  Law,  and  Doctor  of  Medicine  The  cost  of 
tuition  in  the  academic  department  is  $75  a 
year:  in  the  State  College,  $40.  Fifty  young 
men  of  limited  means,  residents  of  Georgia,  are 
admitted  to  the  academic  department  free  of 
tuition,  in  return  for  which  they  are  expected  to 
teach  school  in  the  state  for  a  term  of  years  equal 
to  the  time  they  have  enjoyed  the  advantages  of 
the  university.  Needy  students  intending  to  en- 
ter the  ministry  also  receive  tuition  free.  In  the 
State  College,  state  scholarships,  exempting  from 
tuition  fees,  are  granted  to  as  many  students, 
residents  of  the  state,  as  there  are  members  of 
the  House  of    Representatives  and  senators  in 


Me, heal 


College 

gia  College 


Total  (.Inducting  repetitions)  33  572 

At  the  commencement  in  1875,  72  degrees 
were  conferred.  The  whole  number  of  alumni 
of  the  university,  at  that  date,  was  1,388  (of 
whom  980  were  living), including  1,153  bachelors 
of  arts,  141  of  law,    II   doctors  of  medicine,  and 


but  since  that  time  they  have  been  styled  chan- 
cellor. Their  names  arc  as  follows:  .losiah  Meigs, 
LL.D.,  1801-11  ;  the  Rev.  John  Frown.  D.  k. 
1811-16;  the  Rev.  Robert  Finley,  D.D.,  1816- 
17;  the  Rev.  Moses  Waddcll.  D.  D.,  1819-29; 
the  Rev.  Alonz..  Church,  D.D.,  1829-59;  the 
Rev.  Andrew  A.  Lipscomb,  D. D.,  LL.  D.,  1860- 
71;  and  the  Rev.  Henry  II.  Tucker,  D.  !>., 
appointed  in  1874  and  still  in  office  (1876). 
GERANDO,  Joseph  Marie  de.  Baron,  born 


in  I  '..lis.  Nov.  1  I . 


Instit 

inline 

De  G 


■  question,  -What  is  the 
the  formal  ion  of  ideas.'" 
tion  on  this  subject   took 


:  Paris  before  the 

37,   raised  to   the 
itioiial   and    pliilo- 

nes  et  de  Van  de 


I;     Be 
dePhi 


lation  of  it  ( 
Boston,  in  18 
de  J.  M.  B, 
American  /•', 


77" 


noun.     An  English  trans- 

.■•.,,    was   published   in 

Morel,  Essai  surte  m 

Gei-ando    (1846);    Worth 

April,  1861. 

GERMAN  -  AMERICAN    SCHOOLS,   a 

large  class  of  schools  in  the  United   States,  in 

which  a  part  or  most  of  the   instruction  is  given 


:;f,o 


GERMAN    CUT.EECE 


in  the  German  language.  They  consist  .>f  several 
classes:  (1)  The  earliest  and  still  the  most 
numerous  among  these  schools  are  tin ■  ilnmnii na- 
tional schools,  connected  with  the  German 
churches.  These  schools  .ire  chiefly  supported 
from  the  wish  to  establish  the  greatest  harmony 
between  school,  church,  and  family,  and  to  induce 
the  children  of  German  church  members  to  con- 
nect themselves  with  the  congregations  to  which 
their  parents  belong.  The  greatest  zeal  for  the 
establishment  of  denominational  German-Amer- 
ican schools  has  been  shown  by  the  German 
Catholics  and  the  German  Lutherans.  The 
schools  of  the  former  were,  iii  1  m;1.).  attended  by 
about  1.17.(100  children.  The  Lutherans  have 
about  3,000  German  congregations,  the  majority 
of  which  support  German-American  schools. 
('_')  A  large  number  of  private  schools,  in  most 
coses  consisting  of  only  one  or  two  classes,  are 
patronized  by  parents,  mostly  Germans,  bul  to 
some  extent  also  by  others,  who  regard  the  ability 
to  speak  German  as  a  valuable  acquisition  from 
a  business  point  of  view.  (3)  Since  1848,  a 
number  of  German-  American  schools  of  a  higher 
grade  have  been  founded,  partly  by  societies. 
These  are  designed  not  only  to  teach  their  pupils 
to  speak  German  fluently,  but  to  transplant  to 
American  soil  the  developing  method  of  instruc- 
tion, which  prevails  in  Germany,  and  to  realize 
the  ideal  of  a  German  real  .school.  With  a  num- 
ber oi  these  schools,  kindergartens  arc  connected. 
Schools  of  this  kind  have  been  founded  in  Mil- 
waukee (1853),  New  York  (1854),  Brooklyn, 
llolioken,  Detroit.  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  St. 
Louis,  and  sonic  other  places. 

GERMAN  COLLEGE,  at  Mount  Pleasant, 
Iowa,  under  the  control  of  the  Metho  list  Epis- 
copal Church,   was  incorporated  in  L873.     It  is 

designed   tO  be    the    theological    instit lltioll  of  the 

German  Methodistsin  the  West, North-west  and 

South-west      It   is  intimately  connected  with  the 

Iowa  Wesleyan  University,  though  independent 
in  finances  and  control.  All  German  students 
become  members  of  German  College  ;  and  all  not 
German,  of  the  University.  The  students  of  the 
< lollege  are  admitted  free  to  all  the  classes  of  the 
University,  in  which  most  of  the  collegiate  instruc- 
tion is  given.  The  college  has  an  endowment  of 
$25,000.  It  includes  a  preparatory  and  a  theolog- 
ical department.  Instruction  is  given  in  music, 
and  facilities  are  afforded  for  Americans  to 
learn  German.  In  1H75— 6.  there  were  3  in- 
structors ami  fill  students.  The  Rev.  It.  Lahr- 
mann  is  (1876)  the  acting  president. 

GERMAN  LANGUAGE.  The  German 
language  ranks,  with  the  English  and  French, 
in  value  and  importance,  above  all  the  other  lan- 
guages of  the  civilized  world.  It  is  very  exten- 
sively studied  in  the  literary  institutions  of  every 
civilized  country,  and  as  a  department  of  school 
and  college  instruction,  continues  to  assume,  from 
year  to  year,  greater  prominence.  The  height  to 
which  German  literature  and  science  have  at- 
tained in  every  department,  and  the  great  and 
rapid  progress  of  ( lerinaii  scholarship,  are  univer- 
sally recognized.   Thomas  de  Quincey,  in  his  Let- 


GERMAN   LANGUAGE 

ters  to  a  Young  Man,  thus  refers  to  the  compre- 
hensiveness and  extent  of  German  literature: 
"Dr.  Johnson  was  accustomed  to  say  of  the 
French  literature,  that  he  valued  it  chiefly  for  this 
reason,  that  it  hail  a  book  upon  every  subject. 
How  far  this  might  be  a  reasonable  opinion  fifty 
years  ago,  and  understood,  as  Dr.  Johnson  must 
have  meant  it.  of  the  French  literature  as  com- 
pared with  the  English  of  the  same  period.  I  will 
not  pretend  to  say.  It  has  certainly  ceased  to 
be  true,  even  under  these  restrictions,  and  is  in 
flagrant  opposition  to  the  truth,  if  extended  to 
the  French  in  its  relation  to  the  German.  Un- 
doubtedly, the  French  literature  holds  out  to  the 
student  .some  peculiar  advantages,  Inn  all  these 

are  advantages  of  the  French  Only  ill  relation  to 
the  English,  and  not  to  the  German  literature, 
which,  for  vast  compass,  variety,  and  extent,  far 
exceeds  all  others  as  a  depository  for  the  current 
accumulation  of  knowledge.  The  mere  number 
of  books  published  annually  in  Germany,  com- 
pared with  the  annual  product  of  France  and 
England,  is  alone  a  satisfactory  evidence  of  this 
assertion."  The  authors  of  the  great  educational 
ideas  and  reforms  which,  during  the  last  two 
hundred  years,  have  led  to  the  creation  of  the 
modern  systems  of  education,  were  nearly  all 
I  lermans  :  and.  at  the  present  time.  ( Serman  liter- 
ature, in  every  branch  of  educational  science  and 
art.  is  so  much  more  copious  and  instructive  than 
any  other  literature  of  the  world,  that  the  supe- 
rior advantages  of  German  over  other  foreign 
languages  for  every  one  connected  with  educa- 
tional  labors   are.  at   the   present    time,   hardly 

disputed.  The  progress  of  c parative  linguistics 

has  shown  that  a  knowledge  of  the  German 
grammar  and  of  its  history  offers  greater  advan- 
tages for  the  complete  in idei. standing  of  the  .struc- 


ture anil  law  -  oi  1 1  c,  ..jn.-u,  l  ■ .  n  ■_.  [  i  - 1 1  1 .  1 1 1 , .  1 1  o . . ,  • 
. han  the, tudv  of  anvoth.r  lan,„a,e.  ancient  or 
modem.  The  influence  which  considerations  like 
these  have  had  upon  the  admission  of  German 
into  the  course  of  instruction  of  many  Kicjjish 
institutions  from  which  it  was  formerly  excluded, 
has  been  more  recently  strengthened  by  the 
restoration  of  a  powerful  German  empire,  and 
the  steadily  rising  influence  of  this  new  empire 
in  the  commercial  affairs  of  the  world.  In  the 
United  States,  the  presence  of  a  numerous  Ger- 
man-speaking population,  numbering,  according 
to  the  smallest  estimate,  no  less  than  five  millions, 
has  caused  German  to  be  looked  upon  by  large 
classes  of  the  population  as  an  acquisition  of 
great  practical  value.  In  the  United  States, 
therefore,  German  is  now  studied  to  a  much 
larger  extent  than  French.  In  some  of  the  small- 
er countries,  near  or  adjacent  to  Germany,  and 
inhabited  by  kindred  races,  as  Sweden.  Norway, 
Denmark,  and  Holland,  the  study  of  German 
begins  early,  and  receives  so  much  attention,  that 
the  educated  classes  of  these  countries  are  gener- 
ally able  to  speak  the  language  with  fluency.  In 
France,  the  study  of  ( ierman  has  greatly  increased 
during  the  present  century,  and  has  generally 
been  favored  by  the  men  who  have  done  most 
for  the  educational  progress  of  the  country.   Cou- 


GERMAN    LANGUAGE 


sin.  Jules  Simon,  and  Waddington.  were  among  j  clear  idea  of  their  many  excellencies.  Thelangu 

its  warmest  friends.     For  so  much  of  the  study  appears  endowed  with   the   luxuriant   abunda 

of  German  as  it  has  in  common  wiih  French  and  of  a  primitive  language,  having  a  fullness  of  n 

other  modern  languages,  we  refer  to  the  article  and  a  considerable  but  well  regulated   variety 

Modern  Languages,  a-    we  present  under  this  inflections,  derivat s,  an. I  compositions. 

head,  exclusively,  what  i-  t"  be  said  of  German  short,  original  vowels  a,  i,  and  u  still  predomin 

and  its  value  as  a  branch  of  instruction.  and  the  other  vowel   and  consonantal    sou 

The  language  of  modern  Germany  is  one  of  a  have  mostly  1 n  preserved  in  unalloyed  pur 

cluster  of  languages  which,  collectively,  are  called  Special  case-endings  distinguish  the mat 

the  Germanic  or  Teutonic  languages.   They  em-  accusative,  and  vocative;  there  are  different  foi 


Germany  had  a  literatn 

original  Teutonic  tongu 
High  German  had  In1 
modern  <  rermany  is  tl 
from  the  latter;  all  the  others 


inglo-S 

hill. hand 

group.    1 

>nU'  before 
nee  of  the 

of  the  former.  The  following  table  will  fully 
illustrate  the  relation  of  the  Teutonic  languages 
to  each  other : 

Germanic  or  Teutonic  languages 
I 


ow  German  and  inflections  and  derivations.  I 
he  language  of  the  other  Germanic  languag 
nie  that  sprung  |  tion  in  nouns,  adjectives,  am 
jre  the  offspring  |  the  High  German,  has  been  i 


High  German 


Old  High  I  ;,Ti.,..n 
Anglo-Saxon  —  Middle  Dutch  —  ( )]d  Saxon  I 

|  |  I     MiddleHighGerman 

English         Dutch-Flemish     Plattdeutsch  I 

Modern  German. 

The  most  educated  among  the  German  tribes 
were  the  Goths.  Theyshowed  themselves  recep- 
tive of  Greek  and  Roman artand  science;  and,in 
the  third  century,  adopted  the  Christian  religion 
They  had,  at  that  time,  a  numberoi  heroic  songs 


ami  se 
I,,  the 
Latin 


mis.     A   pliant 
Is.  a   weakness  ci 


languages  of  the  Buns 

mans,  with  H  hum  tbey 

thj grations.  Simn 

others  of  tie  principal' 
provinces  of  the  decayi 
finally  succumbed  tot! 
established  a  number 
south-western  part  of 
found  it  necessary  to  ri 


leaving  conspicuous  ma 
e  languages  (q.  v.),  which 
•d  in  all  these  countriei 
alone  among  all  the  tribi 


of  theGothi 
Latin  and  \i 
was  the  begh 
ature,   consis 


srary  lan- 
•st  to  the 

ly   furnish 


port 


that  is  extant,  embracing  considerable 
of  the  New  Testament,  some  portions  ol 
Testament,  and  a  fragment  of  a  paraphra 

pel  harmony,  are  given  in  th lition  of  1 

Gabelentz  and  Lobe  2vols.,1843  L846) 
in  those  of  Stamm  (1858)  and  Bernhard' 
these  editions  contain  a  grammar  ami  a 
arv:  a  (iothie  o'lossarv  hiis  also  been  publ 
Schulze  (1848).  Th.  nigh  few.  the  fragmei 
<  Gothic  language  and  literature  suffice  to  ; 


id.  In  the  develop- 
■  great  periods  are 
High  German.ex- 
n  which  the  inflec- 

of  antiquity,  and 


352 


GERMAN    LANGUAGE 


Ei 


leven  with  the  Gothic,  visibly  declined;  the  voca- 
tive case,  the  dual  number,  ami  the  inflected  pas- 
sive  voice  disappeared:  and  tin-  variety  nt'  vmvi'l 
sounds  increased ;  ('-')  of  the  MiddU  High  Ger- 
man, extending  to  the  beginning  of  the  16th  cent- 
ury, in  which  the  decline  oi  the  inflections  con- 
tinued, the  full  vowel-endings  were  generally 
weakened  into  r.  and   the  auxiliary   verbs,   the 

nil    le       and      the      Hmbli'l      I  nioditieat  Inn     ,  ,f     the 

v.. weh  were  i i, iii 11 I nee,  1  :  (3)  of  the  New  Hiyh 
Uermnii.  in  which  the  predominance  of  die  vowel 
e  in  the  final  syllables  was  completed,  and  the 
quantity  of  wools  accordingly  changed.  The 
translation  of  the  Bible  by  Luther  introduced 
this  period,  and  established  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  High  German  as  the  literary  language  of  all 
Germany.  <  Ipitz  fallout  HJ.'Kll.  several  linguistic 
o  i  ii  ,  and  Gottsched  (about  1730)  contributed 
much  to  the  further  development  of  the  language, 
which,  in  the  writings  of  Lessing  and  Goethe, 
fully  attained  its  present  torn.. 

By  the  side  of  High  German  as  a  literary  lan- 
guage, the  Low  German  /'  i  kuisch)  has  main- 
tained   itself   as   the   language   of  a  considerable 

rtion  of  the  people  even  to  the  present  day. 
not  altogether  without  a  literature;  and. 
in  the  Kith  century,  even  translations  of  the 
Bib]  into  I-ovv  German  were  deemed  necessary, 
in  order  to  give  to  the  entile  population  access 
to  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  The  last  edition  of 
the  Low  German  Bible  appeared  in  1  il-'.'.  show- 
ing that  thereafter  the  entire  German  nation 
were  Miilieieiitly  acquainted  with  the  High  Ger- 
man to  regard  it  as  the  only  literary  medium  of 
[n  modern  times,  a  literary  culti- 
vation of  the  Low  German  has  been  attempted, 
chiefly  in  poems  and  novels,  in  order  to  reflect, 
by  using  the  people's  own  language,  in  the  most 
natural  and  impressive  way,  the  sentiments  of 
the  Low  German  people.  -The  Germans  have  no 
national  academy  of  science,  such  as  exists  in 
i' i  a  ne,.,  !„>,<, .^jn.j-  supreme  authority  ill  deciding 
elating  to  their  language.  There  is, 
in  ( Jennan.as  in  Knglish.a  considerable 
difference  in  the  mode  ot  writing  a  large  number 
of  words  and  classes  of  words:  and  the  authority 
of  -tand.ird  grammarians  and  lexicographers  is 
appealed  to  in  doubtful  questions.  As.moreover, 
the  desire  for  a  thorough  revision  of  the  entire 

<  ier 11  orthography  has  long  been  expressed  on 

the  Prussian  government,  in  Jan., 
1876,  assembled  a  conference  of  15  prominent 
German  philologists  to  propose  general  rules, 
which  are  to  be  introduce,],  by  order  of  the 
gover 'nt.  into  the  schools. 

'I  he  foundation  of  German  philology  was  laid, 

s alter  the  wars  against  Napoleon. by  Benecke, 

the  brothers  Grimm,  and  Uiclmiaim.  Benecke 
established  the  philological  knowledge  of  the 
Middle  High  Herman:  though  his  chief  work,  the 
Mill, -Hi. ,r//</,-nts<-J/t>  SVort'-rhiirl)  |:i  vols.,  Leips., 
1847 — 1864),  was.  only  a  sketch  which  was 
lib  equently  filled  up  by  W.  Midler,  jointly 
with  Zarncke.  The  brothers  Jakob  and  vVil- 
hebn  Grimm  comprehended  within  the  scope 
of  their  researches  the  whole  of  German  philol- 


ogy. In  accordance  with  the  principles  of  com- 
parative linguistics,  which  at  the  same  time  were 
applied  by  Bopptothe  Indo-Germanic  languages 
ii  general,  Jakob  Grimm  gave,  in  his  German 
grammar  {Deutsche  Grammatik,  4  vols.,  1810 — 
L837)  a  history  of  the  changes  of  t  h-rinan  words 
and  of  the  simple  sentence,  through  every  period. 
in  all  the  Germanic  languages.  The  history  of 
the  Herman  language  f  (,',» ■/, i,i,l<-  ihr  ilrtttscht'ii 
S/inirl/e,  'J.  vols..  Is  Is |  supplements  the  above 
work,  and  shows  the  relationship  existing  be- 
tween the  different  Germanic  languages.  The 
German-  dictionarv  bv  the  two  brothel's  Grimm 
i  Deuisches  WSrh  rbucl  was  begun  in  1852;  it  has 
been  continued  by  I  hyiic.  I  Id,  I,  brand,  and  Wei- 
gand,  but  will  not  be  finished  until  about  1890. 
It  is,  in  point  of  .scholarship,  unsurpassed  by 
any  other  work  in  the  entire  literature  of  dic- 
tionaries. Lachmann  applied  the  principles  of 
philological  criticism,  as  they  were  in  use  in  clas- 
sical philology,  to  the  study  of  German,  restored 
the  pure  text  of  the  master  works  of  the  Mid- 
dle High  German,  and  shed  entirely  new  light 
on  the  history  of  German  prosody.  On  the 
foundation  laid  by  Benecke.  the  Grimms,  and 
Lachmann.  numerous  hands  have  reared  the 
edifice  of  German  philology,  which  is  now  the 
admiration  of  the  literary  world,  and  has  served 
as  a  model  for  similar  labors  in  every  other 
literature,  particularly  in  the  Knglish.  (See  Kx- 
oisn.  Stud's  of.)  We  can  mention  only  a  few 
of  the  immense  number  of  valuable  works  relat- 
ing to  the  German  language  which  German 
scholarship  has  produced.    A  dictionary  of  the 


I  liuh 


iMit/ill/iirhl/nitsr/, 

alio,  of  New    I  lied 


it  ten  by  I  'raff 
I  vols.,  1834- 
Iligh  German, 
Zarncke,  who 
by  Zicinanii 
1837);  diction- 
resent  <  ierinaii 
ms,  by  San- 
ders ■  WSrb  rbuch  •>>  r  "'•  utsi  fu  n  Hprache,2  vols.. 
L860  1865,  besides  several  .-mailer  works),  and 
by  Weigand  (Deuisches  Worterbveh,  3  vols., 
1857  —  1865)  :  grammars,  besides  by  the 
Grimms,  by  K.  \\  .  I..  Heyse  (AusfvJirliches 
Lehrbuchderdeutschen  Spra,  e,  2  vols.,  L838 
1849);  Ituinpelt.  Deutsch  Grammatik,  1860); 
lleyne  (Kiirn    (•'ruiiiui'ih/.-  •!■  r  n/li/mirm isr/im 

Sprachst&mme);  Becket  I  tsfuhrliche  deittsche 
Grammatik,  3  parts,  1836  -  L839),  The  latter, 
viewing  language  as  an  organism  regulated  accor- 
ding to  strictly  logical  laws,  attempted  to  lay  a 
new  foundation  for  grammatical  science,  and 
found  a  number  of  followers,  but  also  a  very  de- 
termined opposition  to  some  of  his  ideas  by  the 
historical  school.  Periodicals  devoted  to  German 
philologv.  are  llanpt's  Znlsrliri/I  far  deutsches 
AUerfhum  (established  in  1841.  continued  by 
Mullenhoff  and  Steinmyer);  Pfeiffer's  Germania 
(established  in  1856,  continued  by  Bartsch);  and 
the  Zeitschrift  fur  Phihhgie  by  Hopfuer  and 
Zaches  (established  in  1870).  Grammars  of  the 
Old  High  German  and  the  Middle  High  tier- 
man    for  the   use    of    schools,   embodying   the. 


CEKMAX    LAXOTAO 


results  of  the  philological  researches,  have 
been -written  by  Hahn  (Althockdeuiscke  Gram- 
matik,  -1th  edit.,1875;  and  MUtelhochdeutscJie 
Grammaiik,  3d  edit.,  L875).  A  bibliography  of 
German  grammars,  from  the  earliesl  times  to 
1836,  is  given  in  Hoffmann's  (von  FaUersleben 

Die  deutsch   PI jieim  Gr     drisse     L836). 

Outlines  oi  the  history  of  the  .nun-  German 
literature,   have    been    written    by    Koherstein 

(Grundriss    der    deutschen     Nat 

L827);  Vilmar  I  Vorlesungen  iiber die  GesckicJiie 
derdeutschen  NatumattUeratur,  L847);  Wacker- 
aagel,  ■  '■'-  schicl  t  di  rd  <  -  hen  Lil  ratio1,  L851), 
The  history  of  German  Literature  by  Kurz. 
(Geschichte  der  deutschen  Literatur,  I  vols., 
1851—1872)  gives  well-selected  specimens  from 
all  the  prominent  German  writers. 

The  Herman  language  is  the  mother-tongue 
•of  about  i»2  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the 
German  empire  (in  1871,37,800,000),  the  re- 
maining 8  per  cent  being  Slaves,  Danes,  and 
French.  In  Switzerland,  14  out  of  22  cantons 
are  exclusively  German ;  in  the  large  canton  of 
Bern,  they  are  in  a  great  majority  (83  per  cent); 
and  of  the  entire  population  of  Switzerland, 
about  69  per  cent  sneak  ( rerman  as  their  mother- 
tongue.  In  Austria  proper.  German  is  the  ruling 
language,  although  it  is  the  mother-tongue  of 
only  35  per  cent  of  the  population.  In  the  lands 
of  the  Hungarian  crown,  (iennan  is  spoken  I > v 
about  11  per  cent.  Russia  has  a  German-speak- 
ing population  of  about  700,000;  in  the  three 
Baltic  provinces,  the  entire  aristocracy  are  Ger- 
mans; and  the  ( rerman  1  tnguage,  although  spoken 
by  only  a  small  minority  of  the  population,  also 
prevails  in  the  church  is  and  si  Etools.  as  well  a^ 
in  the  literature.  The  two  small  German  states 
of  Luxemburg  and  Lichtenstein  also  speak  Ger- 
man. England  still  owns  the  German  speaking 
island  of  Heligoland.  In  the  United  States  of 
America,  a  population,  estimated  at  from  5  to  6 
millions,  to  a  great  extent  consisting  of  actual 
emigrants  during  the  present  century  and  of 
their  children,  and  the  remainder  the  descen- 
dants of  emigrants  of  the  18th  century,  speak 
German  as  the  family  language,  either  equally 
"with,  or  in  preference  to.  English;  but  the  use  of 
German  as  the  mother-tongue  is  steadily  reced- 
ing before  the  advance  of  the  English.  The  en- 
tire population  of  the  world  speaking.  German 
as  the  mother-tongue  may  be  estimated  at  about 
60  millions,  the  German  being,  inrespect  to  the 
number  of  those  who  speak  it,  only  interior, 
among  the  languages  of  civilized  nations,  to  the 
English. 

The  method  of  studying  German,  in  English 
and  American  universities,  colleges,  seminarii  3, 
and  academies  is  about  the  same  a-  that  pursued 
in  the  study  of  Erench.  The  statements  made 
in  the  articles  Fn-m-h  Language  and  Modern 
Languages  are.  more  or  less,  applicable  to  the 
German,  in  regard  to  the  place  which  it  occu- 
pies in  the  course  of  instruction,  and  to  tin- 
mistakes  which,  in  this  respect,  are  very  fre- 
quently committed.  The  most  important  feature 
which    broadly  distinguishes   the  German   lan- 


guage from  the  French,  and  which  an  intelligent, 
teacher  will   always   keep   in  view  from  the  very 


commonly  spoken  and  written,  consists,  to  the 
extent  of  five-eighths,  of  Anglo-Saxon  words, 
and  that  among  these  are  found  nearly  all  the 
terms  of  common  hie.  Many  of  the  e  words 
are  spelled  exactly  alike;  large  classes  of  other 
words  show  so  slight  a,  modification,  thai  the 
pupils  recognize  them  ai  once  (as  Voter,  Mutter, 
Cruder,  Buck,  Haws),  and  still  others  present 
changes  made  according  to  certain  laws  which 
are  easily  understood,  even  at  the  earliest  stage 
of  instruction,  and  by  the  most  youthful  be- 
ginner (as  zehn,  ten;  Zinn,  tin;  Tag,  day; 
sagen,  say).  By  a  skillful  use  of  this  exten- 
sive resemblance  of  the  two  languages,  the  in- 
telligenl  teacher  has  it  in  his  power  to  give  to 
the  beginner,  in  a  few  lessons,  the  command  of 
a  very  large  number  of  words.  The  strange 
letters  which  seem  to  surround  the  first  lessons 
in  ( rerman  with  considerable  difficulty,  are  quite 
easily  learned  by  the  aid  of  words  which 
are  substantially  the  sa in  <  lei-man  a .;  in  En- 
glish. Whole  German  sentences  can,  in  this 
way,  be  at  once  understood ;  and  when  trans- 
lation forms  a  prominent  object  of  the  study, 
the  pupil  should  begin  to  translate  from  <  Iennan 
into  English,  as  soon  as  he  knows  the  letters, 
for  exercise  in  the  declensions  and  conjuga- 
tions, the  selection  of  cognate  words  for  the 
paradigms  likewise  facilitate.-,  the  progressof  the 
pupils.  In  this  pari  of  the  grammar,  German 
at  once  seems  to  the  beginner  to  be  more  com- 
plicated than  English,  and  presents  to  him  the 
greatest  difficulties  he  has  to  surmount ;  among 
which  may  bo  enumerated  the  following: 
(1)  The  noun  in  (Iennan  has  four  cases,  and 
the  plural  is  formed  in  four  different  ways 
as  far  as  its  termination  is  concerned,  besides 
mollifying  the  radical  vowel;  ('!)  Adjectives 
and  adjective  pronouns  are  declined  in  three 
differeni  ways;  (3)  The  past  participle  generally 
adds  the  prefix  ge,  and,  in  compound  verbs,  this 
prefix,  in  many  eases,  is  placed  between  the  verb 
and  the  particle  with  which  it  is  compounded, 
or  the  particle  is  detached  and  placed  at  the 
close  of  even  a  long  sentence.  In  constructing 
exercises  for  the  study  of  these  differences,  it 
u  ill  .main  be  found  a  help  to  choose  for  the  par- 
adigms words  similar  to  English  words,  or  such 
as  are  common  to  both  languages,  so  that  the 
attention  of  the  pupil  may  lie  concentrated  upon 
the  learning  of  the  inflectional  peculiarities.  It 
i-.  however, not  only  the  resemblance  of  German 
and  English  words,  but  also  other  points  of 
similarity,  in  the  etymology  of  the  two  languages, 
that  should  he  made  useof.  Thus  the  possessive 


case  of  English  nouns  may  be 
not  only  the  German  genitive, 
clension,  of  which  the  Engli 
remnant.      A  reference  to  the 


rede- 


354 


GERMAN    LANGUAGE 


fication  of  a  large  number  of  German  nouns  in 
the  plural;  as  will  also  such  forms  as  children, 
brethren,  and  pence.  The  fact  that  the  division  of 
verbs  into  strong  and  weak  is  the  same  in  both 
languages,  that  the  formation  of  the  principal 
parts  of  both  is  similar  (see,  saw,  seen  seh-en, 
sah,  ge-sehen ;  lore,  loved,  loved — lieb-en,  liebte, 
ge-liebt),  and  that  even,  as  a  general  rule,  the 
same  verbs  belong,  in  both  languages,  to  the  one 
or  to  the  other  conjugation,  is  easily  compre- 
hended even  by  beginners,  and  greatly  assists 
them  to  understand  the  structure  of  the  foreign 
language. 

the  English  should    n..t    be   limited  tn"th<M>nints 


foreign  language,  a  clear  understanding  of  the 

most  < Bpicuous  characteristics  helps  to  iix  in  the 

mind  a  clear  conception  of  the  language.  Among 
the  features  of  the  German  grammar  to  which 
special  attention  should  be  called,  when  they  are 
met  with  for  the  first  time,  are  the  following : 
(1)  The  gender  of  nouns  is  arbitrary,  and  many 
nouns  that  are  neuter  in  English  ale  cither  mas- 
culine or  feminine  in  German  ;  (2)  (  me  or  more 
long  qualifying  adjuncts  may  intervene  between 
the  article  and  its  noun ;  (3)  The  order  of  se- 
quence of  auxiliary  verbs  is  entirely  reversed  in 
subjunctive  propositions;  (4)  Prepositions  and 
verbs  govern  three  different  eases  of  the  noun  ; 
(5)  The  object  precedes  the  verb  more  frequent- 
ly than  in  English. 

The  correct  pronunciation  of  German,  as  of 
every  foreign  tongue,  must  be  learned  by  imitat- 
ing the  teacher.  This  is  especially  the  ease  with 
the  sounds  that  have  no  equivalent  in  English, 
as  ii.  ii,  eh,  the  guttural  i/,  short  o,  /-.and  the  com- 
binations of  sp  and  St.  Their  number  is  compara- 
tively small;  and,  if  they  are  steadily  practiced, il 
will  require  only  a  short  time  to  learn  to  enunciate 
them  correctly.  After  a  rudimentary  knowledge 
of  the  language  has  been  attained,  special  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  laws  acci  >n  ling  b  i  which 
derivatives  and  compounds  are  formed.  The  <  fer- 
man  has  greater  freedom  in  forming  compounds 
than  almost  any  of  the  other  modern  languages  ; 
and,  as  this  is  liberally  used  by  many  writers,  no 
dictionary  is  so  complete  as  to  contain  all  the  com- 
pounds to  be  met  with  in  modern  ( ierman  writers. 
As  the  radical  and  component  parts  of  these  words 
are,  however,  easily  recognized,  and,  as  but  few 
of  the  words  in  common  use  are  of  foreign  ori- 
gin, it  is  easy  for  students  of  German  to  under- 
stand all  such  derivatives  and  compounds.  This 
is  still  easier,  when,  as  is  the  case  with  most 
compound  verbs,  each  of  the  component  parts 
has  an  equivalent  in  English;  as  abhalten,  to 
keep  off;  ausgehen,  to  go  out.  etc.  [f  we  con- 
sider that,  for  a  conversation  on  every-day  sub- 
jects, a  knowledge  of  some  600  or  700  words  is 
generally  found  to  be  sufficient,  the  close  resem- 
blance of  roots,  derivatives,  and  compounds,  in 
(ierman  and  English,  will  be  seen  to  afford  ad- 
vantages for  proficiency  in  German  conversation 
of  which  no  teacher  can  fail  to  make  use.  Progress 


in  reading  the  language  will  also  be  greatly  pro- 
moted, if  the  teacher,  besides  calling  attention  to. 
the  large  number  of  common  roots,  derivatives. 
and  compounds,  traces  words  which  appear  to 
the  beginner  as  entirely  strange,  to  English 
words  of  the  same  loot.  '1  litis,  it  students  learn 
that  jener  is  etymologically  related  to  yon,  Enabe 
to  knave.schon  to  s/iine, Blume  to  bloom.  He,,,! 


tin, 


boy,  beautiful,  flower,  dog,  they  will  remember 
their  meaning 'moiv  easily,  and.  by  means  of 
every  new  word  of  this  class,  get  a  clearer  view 
of  the  near  kinship   between  the  two  languages. 

mological  comparison  of  Genual!  and  English 'is 

not  \et  sufficiently  appreciated  by  teachers  of 
German,  and  that  greater  attention  should  be 
paid  to  it  in  (ierman  classes  of  all  grades. 

The  rich  and  charming  juvenile  literature  of 
Germany  affords  an  abundance  of  suitable  read- 
ing lessons,  as  soon  as  the  pupil  has  sufficiently 
advanced  ill  the  knowledge  of  wools  and  gram- 
matical forms,  to  take  up  a  First  Oerman 
Reader.  Anecdotes,  fables,  talcs,  and  pieces  of 
didactic  poetry  present  the  smallest  difficulties 
to  beginners.  The  readers  published  by  Com- 
fort, Worman,  Schlegel,  IJenn.  and  others,  con- 
tain a  huge  number  of  selections  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  beginners.  The  attentive  teacher  will, 
however,  find  it  necessary  to  select,  especially 
during  the  fiist  months,  exercises  w  ith  short  sen- 
tences only  ;  smce  the  length  of  the  sentences  in 
many,  even  of  the  juvenile  writers  of  Germany, 
presents  difficulties  which,  at  an  early  stage  of  the 
instruction,  should  be  avoided.  There  are  scarce- 
ly any  (ierman  books  which,  like  TUemaque 
and  Charles  ATI  in  French,  can  be  put  into  the 
hands  of  beginners;  but  First  Readers,  containing 
selections  from  a  number  of  writers,  are  for  this 
]  mrpose  in  general  use.  Advanced  students  should 
either  use  a  fuller  German  reader,  prepared 
for  advanced  classes,  or  take  up  the  work  of  one 
of  the  (lassie  writers.  In  the  latter  case,  Schil- 
ler and  Goethe  are,  for  good  reasons,  invariably 
preferred.  Annotated  editions  of  some  of  the 
plays  of  both  these  poets  have  been  specially 
prepared  for  the  use  of  American  and  English 
schools.  Special  dictionaries  for  one  or  more 
plays  are  not  only  superfluous  ;  but,  when  a  stu- 
dent has  access  to  a  general  dictionary,  the  use 
of  the  latter  is  much  to  be  preferred.  When 
students  are  able  to  read  authors  like  Schiller 
and  Goethe,  the  teacher  may  properly  use  the 
reading  lessons  not  only  to  improve  the  student's 
knowledge  of  the  language,  but  also  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  history  of  (ierman  literature. 
The  (ierman  readers  for  advanced  classes  might 
advantageously  be  so  arranged  as  to  afford  to 
the  teacher  an  opportunity  to  acquaint  the  pu- 
pils with  the  foremost  writers  in  the  different 
departments  of  German  literature.  In  this  re- 
spect there  is  room  for  great  improvement  in 
the  readers  now  published. 

In  the  United  States,  German  is  not  only  gen- 
erally taught  in  universities,  colleges,  seminaries, 
and  academies,  but  more  recently  the  study  has 


GERMAN    LANGCAGE 


355 


been  introduced  to  a  great  extent  into  the  pub- 
lie  schools,  in  some  extending  to  the  lowest 
primary  class.  This  is  due  to  the  fait  that  a 
large  part  of  the  population  consists  of  Germans 
who  are  generally  desirous  that  their  children 
should  be  taught  the  German  as  well  as  the 
English  language,  besides  to  the  desire  of 
many  school  hoards,  to  draw  this  class  of  chil- 
dren, as  largely  as  possible,  from  private  into 
public  schools.  '1'his  practice  has  been  gradu- 
ally extended  until,  in  ls7(>,  a  majority  of  the 
large  cities  of  the  Union. — among  them  New 
York,  Rochester.  Jersey  City,  Pittsburgh,  Cin- 
cinnati, Cleveland.  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  St. 
Louis,  Louisville,  an  1  a  number  of  smaller  ones, 
had  made  provision  for  it.  In  that  year,  the 
mayor  of  Brooklyn,  in  his  message  to  the  city 
council,  strongly  recommended  the  introduction 
of  German  as  a  branch  of  instruction  in  the 
public  schools  of  that  city.  The  greatest  variety 
thus  tar  exists  in  the  courses  of  instruction  that 
have  been  adopted  for  this  study.  In  some 
places,  especi  illy  in  the  smaller  towns  where  the 
German-speaking  people  constitute  a  majority  of 
the  entire  populati  ei.it  has  been  made  a  part  of 
the  regular  course,  in  which  all  children  must 

take  part.  Inmost  piaees.it  is  optional  with  the 
children  to  pursue  this  study  or  not.  In  some 
cities  (Cleveland.  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  and 
others),  the  school  boards  have  arranged  different 
courses  for  children  who  come  to  the  public 
school  with  a  speaking  knowledge  of  the  German 
language,  and  for  those  who  have  not  this  knowl- 
edge. The  instruction  of  the  former  begins  in 
the  lowest  class  of  the  primary  department,  the 
time  in  the  primary  classes  being  equally  divided 
between  the  two  languages.  Very  many  Amer- 
ican educators  advocate  the  study  of  German  by 
Anglo- American  children  of  the  common  schools 
on  the  ground  that  the  elements  of  English 
grammar  will  in  this  way  be  learned  more  easily 
and  more  thoroughly.  That,  from  practical 
considerations,  many  parents  desire  an  opportu- 
nity for  their  children  to  learn  this  language, 
seems  to  be  proved  by  the  large  proportion  of 
children  who  pursue  the  study,  even  when  it  is 
entirely  optional.  The  testimony  of  some  of 
the  superintendents  of  schools  in  which  this  in- 
struction has  been  given  for  years  is  quite  em- 
phatic in  its  favor.  Thus,  in  his  Annual  Report, 
for  1874,  the  city  superintendent  of  New  York 
said :  "  No  other  consideration  than  its  useful- 
ness as  a  branch  of  American  education  should 
have,  in  my  judgment,  any  weight  in  continuing 
or  extending  German  instruction;  and,  within 
this  limit,  I  believe  sufficient  reasons  exist,  not 
only  to  justify,  but  to  recommend  it  strongly  as 
a  part  of  our  course.  In  the  schools  in  which  it 
has  received  the  most  earnest  attention,  and  in 
which,  consequently,  the  best  progress  has  been 
made,  no  indication  has  been  presented  that  this 
branch  of  study  has  at  all  retarded  the  progress 
of  the  pupils  in  their  English  studies,  but  that 
it  has  rather  facilitated  intelligent  advancement 
in  English  grammar  and  composition,  increasing 
the  pupils'  fluency  of  expression  by  giving  them 


a  more  precise  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  the 

words  of  their  own  language,    and  aiding,  in  an 


cation  of  the  city  of  New  York,  in  Dec.,  1874, 
remarked,  in  their  report  of  that  date:  "The 
more  effective  this  department  of  instruction  is 
made,  the  more  successful  will  our  system  be  in 
this  respect,  and  the  more  nearly  shall  we  ap- 
proach to  that  desirable  consummation  of  bring- 
ing under  the  influence  of  our  common  schools 
the  children  of  all  classes  of  our  people,  as  well 
as  of  every  nationality  and  creed.  The  impor- 
tance of  this  consideration  will  be  obvious  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  at  least  11,000  German 
pupils  are  in  daily  attendance  at  the  ( latholic  I'a 


rapid  increase  in  the  study  of  German  had  any 

effect  to  '  retard  the  general  course  of  study,'  or. 
in  other  words,  the  progress  of  the  pupils  in 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  the 
other  Knglish    branches,  as    they  are   sometimes 

called."  And  he  further  remarked,  that  "the 
chances  for  promotion"  were  found  to  be  equal 
among  the  pupils  pursuing  exclusively  English 
studies  and  those  who  studied  German  as  well, 
and  added,  "  If  now  we  take  into  account  the 
fact  that  the  latter  goes  from  the  school  pos- 
sessed of  a  good  knowledge  of  a  language  that 
opens  to  him  the  literature  and  scientific  rec- 
ords of  a  great  people,  who  can  doubt  but  that 
the  advantage  lies  on  the  side  of  the  study  of 
(ierman?''  In  St.  Louis,  the  study  of  the 
German  language  was  introduced  in  1864,  on 
the  report  of  a  committee  of  the  board  of  edu- 
cation, who  recommended  its  introduction  on  the 
following  grounds:  (1)  "That  by  such  intro- 
duction a  homogeneousness  of  feeling  would  be 
created  between  the  native  and  foreign  born  ;" 

(2)  "That  the  study  of  German  would  naturally 
assist    the    study   of    the     English    language ;" 

(3)  "  That  the  knowledge  of  the  German  lan- 
guage pecuniarily  benefits  those  who  speak  it.'' 
J  luring  the  ten  veai-s  preceding  the  last  report 
of  the  schools  of  that  city  (1874 — 5).  the  num- 
ber of  pupils  pursuing  the  study  of  German  had 
increased  from  450  to  17,197,  of  whom  5,670 
were  Anglo-Americans.  This  was  73  per  cent 
of  all  the  pupils  attending  the  public  schools. 
In  regard  to  this,  the  superintendent  of  schools, 
in  his  report  for  1873 — 4,  stated.  "A  perfect 
mingling  of  the  different  classes  of  population 
in  our  schools  has  been  the  result,  and  the 
fact  that  one-third  of  the  entire  number  who 
have  taken  up  the  study  of  (ierman  are  Anglo- 
American  children  ( /.  e.,  children  of  Irish  or  na- 
tive American  parents),  shows  how  completely 
this  feeling  of  caste  has  been  broken  down.  The 
population  has,  in    fact,  grown    homogeneous 


356     GERMAN  WALLACE  COLLEGE 

during  the  past  eight  years  by  means  of  the  in- 
troduction of  German  into  our  public  : 
On  the  other  hand,  the   admission  of 


III!,) 


.Is 


i  .11! .! 


ground  i 

teach  the  national  languago.and  that  the  exclusion 
of  all  others  will  tend  to  promote  the  consolidation 
of  all  the  people  of  the  United  States  into  one 
compact  American  nationality.  In  some  of  the 
large  cities,  the  difference  of  opinion  on  this  sub- 
ject, on  the  part  of  school  officers,  has  led  to 
vehement  and  protracted  discussions,  as  well  as 
to  considerable  vacillation  in  the  school  legisla- 
tion regarding  it.  In  some  of  the  western  states, 
as  Ohio  and  Indiana,  the  state  law  provides  that, 
when  in  a  school  district  a  certain  number  of 
parents  desire  the  introduction  of  Gorman  into 
the  course  of  study,  it  must  be  introduced.  A 
considerable  portion  of  the  German-speaking 
population  still  prefer  to  semi  their  children  to 
schools  in  which  the  German  language  is  either 
the  exclusive  medium  of  instruction,  or  shares 
this  position  with  the  English.  (See  German- 
American  Schools.) 

GERMAN  WALLACE  COLLEGE,  at 
Berea,  Ohio,  under  the  control  of  the  Moth,  .list. 
Episcopal  Church,  was  founded  in  1st;.'!.  The 
professors  arc  all  native  Germans,  educated  al 
German  universities,  and  the  instruction  i-  given 
in  German.  It  is  patronized  by  many  Americans 
for  instruction  in  German.  By  agreement,  the 
students  have  free  access  to  all  the  classes  of 
Baldwin  University.  The  college  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  aiui  partly  by  the  interest  of  an 
endowment  fund  of  838,982.  The  scholarship 
funds  amount  to  $19,455.  The  tuition  fees  vary 
from  $13.50  to  $27  per  year.  It  has  a  prepar- 
atory and  a  collegiate  department,  with  a  clas- 
sical and  a  scientific  course,  a  theological  course, 
and  special  courses  in  English  for  Germans,  and 
in  German  for  Americans.  In  L875 — (i,  there 
were  I  professors  and  117  students  (103  males 
and  14  females),  of  whom  47  were  in  the  pre- 
paratory department.  The  Rev.  William  Nast. 
D.  I'.,  has  been  the  president  from  the  opening 
of  the  college. 

GERMANY.  Anterior  to  843  A.  D.,  Ger- 
many was  a  part  of  the  great  Prankish  empire 
of  Charlemagne  and  his  immediate  successor; 
but  in  that  year,  by  virtue  of  the  treaty  of 
Verdun,  it  was  separated  from  the  remain- 
der of  the  great  Prankish  dominions,  and  was 
given  to  Ludwig  (Louis),  surnamed  the  German, 
a  grandson  of  Charlemagne.  Until  L806,  Ger- 
many was  an  elective  monarchy  with  the  official 
title  of  the  "Holy  Roman  Empire  of  the  t  icrmau 
Nation"  (das  Heilige  ESmische  Reich  deutscJier 
Nation).  The  French  subjugation  of  the  greater 
part  of  Germany  put  an  end  to  the  fust  Ger- 
man empire.  After  the  dethronement  of  Napo- 
leon (18151,  the  Congress  of  Vienna  re-established 
Germany  as  a  loose  conglomeration  of  sovereign 
states  (Beutscher  Bund),  under  the  permanent 
presidency  of  Austria  in  the  federal  diet.  This 
feeble  union  of  the  German  states  was  dissolved 
by  the  war, ill  1866, between  Prussia  and  Austria, 


GERMANY 

and  their  allies,  which  ended  with  the  complete 
discomfiture  of  Austria  and  her  withdrawal  from 
the  Germanic  confederation.  Prussia  then  united 
all  the  states  north  of  the  Main  river  into  a 
elose  political  union,  the  North  German  Union, 
and  formed  treaties  of  alliance  with  the  three 
states  of  southern  Germany,  by  virtue  of  which 
the  king  of  Prussia  had  supreme  command  of 
the  united  armies  of  all  Germany  in  case  of  war, 
besides  the  permanent  presidency  in  the  federal 
councils  of  the  North  German  Union.  The 
Successful  war  against  Prance,  in  L870 — 71,  led 
to  the  formation  of  the  present  German  empire. 
The  south  German  state.,  joined  the  North 
German  Union,  and  the  King  of  Prussia,  as  per- 
manent and  hereditary  president  of  the  whole 
German  confederation  in  all  federal  affairs. and  as 
supreme  commander  in  chief  of  all  the  state  con- 
tingents in  time  of  war.  at  the  request  of  all 
the  ( ierman  princes  and  free  towns,  assumed  the 
title  of  German  Emperor.  The  official  name  of 
the  confederation  is  the  German  Empire.  The 
several  states  composing  the  confederation  retain 
their  autonomy  in  all  internal  civil  affairs  not 
regulated  by  federal  legislation.  Federal  affairs 
are:  Army  and  navy,  foreign  diplomacy  and 
political  representation,  the  tarif,  the  postal 
service,  the  mint,  weights  and  measures,  and  the 
supreme  commercial  court  (at  Leipsic).  Rail- 
n .0. Is.  telegraphs,  legal  proceedings,  and  edu- 
cational interests,  it  is  contemplated,  will  also 
be  brought  under  the  federal  government,  the. 
measure  being  now  under  consideration  (1876). 
Bavaria,  however,  has  retained  certain  preroga- 
tives in  regard  to  her  army,  her  postal  service, 
and  herinternal  taxation.  The  federal  parliament 
consists  of  two  houses, — the  upper  house;  the 
federal  council  (Bundesraih),  consisting  of  the 
federal  commissioners  appointed  by  the  several 
state  governments  ;  and  the  lower  house  i  Reichs- 
tag),  consisting  of  383  members,  elected  by  the 
direct  suffrage  of  the  people.  In  the  federal 
council  Prussia  casts  17  votes.  Bavaria  G,  Saxony 
■1,  Wurtcinberg  4.  Baden  3,  Iles.se  .'i.  Mccklcn- 
burg-Schwerin  2,  Brunswick  2.  and  each  of  the 
lesser  states  1  vote;  58,  in  all.  The  chancellor 
of  the  empire  is  the  chief  executive  and  re- 
sponsible officer  of  the  confederation.  The  em- 
peror is  required  to  convene  the  parliament  at 
least  once  every  year.  The  (ierman  empire 
comprises  26  states:  namely.  I  kingdoms,— 
Prussia,  Bavaria.  Saxony,  and  Wiirtemberg; 
6  grand  duchies,— Baden,  Oldenburg,  Meeklcn- 

bur.r-Schwerin.     Mcoklcnburu'-Stivlit/.,     Ilcsse- 


-Wi 


■i.l.i 


Brunswick,  Anhalt.  Saxe 
burg-Gotha,  and  Saxc-Mciiiingeu-llildl.urgliau- 
scn;  7  principalities, — Lippe,  Schaumburg-Lippe, 
Waldeck,  '-'  .Schwarzburgs.  and  -  Busses  :  :\  tree 
towns,— Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Liibeck;  and 
1  federal  district  -  Alsace-Lorraine.  The  empire 
has  .-in  aggregate  area  of  208,745  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  42.7.">7.sd,_\  according  to  the 
census  of  Pec.  1.,  1ST... 

Educational    History. — Germany,  which  for 
several  generations  has  held  a  very  high,  if  not 


the  leading,  rank  among  all  the  civilized  nations 
of  the  world  in  regard  to  public  education,  has 
risen  to  its  present  high  standard  from  an  cx- 

lone  and  intricate  liistorv  of  the  development  of 


period  of  more  than  a  t 
present  time.  The  << 
within  the  limits  of  tin 
were  successively  convei 
the  6th  to  the  9th  ecu 
radic  conversions  ante] 
thai  epoch,  the  Franks 

mi ians  and  Bavarians 

Frisians.  1  lessians.  Thtu 


Beyond  the  Flhe  river,  in  a  region  inhabited  at 
that  time  by  Slavic  tribes,  now  thoroughly  Ger- 

vionsto  the  9th  and  10th  centuries,  and  in  some 
districts  I  Lithuania,  for  example),  not  until  a 
still  later  period,— from  the  11th  and  12th  to 
the  end  of  the  14th  and  the  beginning  of  the 
loth  century.  Charlemagne. the  mighty  Frank 
ish  king,  who  had  converted  the  sturdy  Sax 
ons  to  <  'hrisiiaiiity.  by  the  aid  of  fire  and  sword, 
was  the  first  to  sow  the  seeds  of  education  in 
Germany;  and  although  without  early  instruction, 
manifested  the  greatest   interest  and  energy  in 

the  establishment  and  furtherance  of  educational 
institutions  within  the  limits  of  his  empire,  re- 
maining faithful  to  his  purpose  until  his  death,  in 
814.  With  the  assistance  of  Aleuin  whom  he  had 
invited  from  England,  he  established  the  first 
school  in  his  empire,  the  Schola  Palatina,  or 
court  school,  chietiv  intended  for  the  education 
of  the  royal  children, of  whom  Charlemagne  had 
fourteen:  and  the  great  monarch  himself  was  not 
ashamed  to  acquire,  in  his  ripe  years,  what  had 
been  neglected  in  his  earlier  education.  The 
great  monarch  spoke  Latin,  understood  some 
Greek,  and  preferred  social  intercourse  with 
the  circle  of  learned  men  whom  he  had  assem- 
bled at  his  court,  to  every  other.  He  also  evinced 
much  interest  in  the  introduction  of  the  arts  of 
architecture  and  music,  and  invited  talented  men. 
especially  from  Italy,  to  take  up  their  residence  in 
Germany  near  the  imperial  court.  Other  schools 
were  established  after  the  plan  of  tibeSchola  Pa- 
latina; and  the  artes  liberates,  divided  into  a 
trivium  'grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialectics),  and 
a  quadrivium  (geometry,  arithmetic,  music,  and 
astronomy),  constituted  the  principal  subjects 
taught.  Besides  these,  there  were  schools  of  a 
lower  rank,  in  which  the  curriculum  of  study 
comprised  only  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, and  music.  Very  soon  adistinction  between 
ecclesiastical  and  secular  schools  was  established, 
although  Charlemagne  endeavored  to  obliterate 
all  differences  of  rank  in  educational  matters. 
Those  pupils  who  wished  to  study  for  the  priest- 
hood, studied  tiaetrimum  and  the  quach-ivium.in 
sckolis  intrariis,  seu  claustris  (convent  schools) , 

while  the  same  studies  were  pursued  by  all  others 
in  seholis  exterioribus,seu  canonicis.  The  driest 
formalism  was  a  characteristic  feature  of  all  these 


I A  XV  357 

schools.      Th nvents   and    the   cities,   as    they 

sprang  into  existence  till  over  the  empire,  be- 
came the  originators  of  educational  institutions  ; 
the  former  being  the  founders  of  convent  and 

cathedral  sc >ls;  the  latter,  of   Latin  and  city 

schools.     See  Cathedral  Sc t.s.aud  Convent 

Schools.)  Prominent  among  the  convent  schools, 
was  the  one  founded  by  the  famous  Abbot  IJlia- 
banus  Maurus  at  Fulda,  813,  which  is  still  in 
existence  as  a  gymnasiun 
primus  preceptor  Gem, 


mder  was  called 


Hi. 


was  a  pro- 
ed  down  to 
•ators  of  his 
r  renowned 


\V; 


not  maintain  their  high  standard  of  excellence  for 
a  long  time,  partly  because  their  prosperity  de- 
pended in  too  great  a  measure  upon  the  imme- 
diate influence  and  energy  of  their  founders, 
and  partly  because  the  pure  and  apostolic  ardor 
of  the  earlier  Christian  church,  from  which  they 
had  received  their  life-breath,  gradually  relaxed 
and  declined.  Deprived  of  the  strict  and  imme- 
diate supervision  of  the  bishops,  monastic  learn- 
ing and  discipline  soon  deteriorated;  and,  although 
the  mendicant  orders  of  the  Franciscans  and 
Dominicans    largely   increased    the    number   of 

convent  scl Is.  their  educational  work  did  not 

compare  favorably  with  the  standard  previously 
maintained.  Secular  Latin  schools  were  estab- 
lished by  the  municipal  authorities  in  cities  at  a 
somewhat  later  period;  but,  a1  first,  they  had  to 


difficulties 
i  rgy,  v  ho 
id  conduct 
which  mot 

arising  from  the  op 
•Iaimod  the  sole  righ 
ig  schools  of  a  highe 
■  than  the  mere  rudi 

.f'ntKSM 

ht.  Still,  bypersevei 
ccccdcd  in  founding 

their  own  schools  of  a  higher  order,  independent 
of  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  church. 
Among  the  oldest  of  these  city  Latin  schools,  may 
be  enumerated  those  at  Breslau  (Silesia),  which 
were  founded  in  1267  and  1293,  and  which  still 
flourish  as  Gymnasia.  As  a  matter  of  course, 
the  teachers  could  only  be  taken  from  the  ranks 
of  the  clergy;  and  the  convent  schools  furnished, 
in  general,  the  models  for  their  course  of  studies 
and  general  government.  These  city  schools 
were  placed  under  the  direction  of  a  sckolasticus, 
usually  a  Clergyman,  whose  appointment  was  gen- 
erally for  the  term  of  one  year,  but  coidd  be  re- 
newed. The  sckolasticus  was  assisted  by  a 
number  of  baccqlaurei  of  his  own  appoint- 
ment. The  course  of  studies  consisted  chiefly  of 
Latin  grammar,  music,  and.  to  a  limited  extent, 
rhetoric,  dialectics,  and  scholastic  philosophy.  It 
is  obvious  that  these  city  schools,  as  well  as  the 
convent  and  cathedral  schools,  were  under  the 
direct  influence  of  the  clergy,  and  that  the  stud- 
ies therein  pursued  had  the  closest  relation  to 
the  immediate  purposes,,)  the  church.  Although 
Latin,  and  in  some  schools  Greek  also,  was  stud- 
ied with  the  greatest  zeal,  these  studies  did  not 
disclose  to  the  scholars  the  ever  fresh  and  hu- 
manizing spirit  of  the  Roman  and  Grecian  clas- 
sics; but.  under  the  driest  conceivable  formalism 


:;:,s 


GERMANY 


of  instruction, merely  served, especially  the  Latin, 
as  the  aid  and  support  of  a  scholasticism,  which, 
notwithstanding  its  depth  and  speculative  in- 
genuity, was  of  little  value,  being  unproductive 
of  the  best  results  of  education,  according  to  its 
true  meaning. 

School  education  in  Germany  was  80  firmly 
held  in  subjection  to  church  interests  that  it's 
working  was  confined  to  a  blending  of  dry  scho- 
lasticism and  religious  mysticism,  and  devoid  of 
all  practical  philosophy  and  true  pedagogical 
principles.  The  conquest  of  the  Byzantine  em- 
pire by  the  Turks,  the  subsequent  exodus  of 
many  Greek  scholars  from  the  centers  of  learn- 
ing in  the  Orient  to  the  west,  their  infusion 
of  new  views  and  ideas  into  the  decaying 
system  of  European  scholasticism,  revived  the 
study  of  the  ancient  classics,  and  a  just  appreci- 
ation of  their  ever  true  and  youthful  spirit. 
Italy,  first  of  all,  received  these  fresh  germs  for 
the  development  of  free  and  humanistic  concep- 
tions, tin' further  advance  of  which  to  western 
and  northern  Europe  laid  the  first  foundation 
for  the  subsequent  reformation  of  the  Church. 
This  is  especially  true  of  Germany.  The 
Netherlands,  at  that  time  a  part  of  the  body 
politic  of  the  German  empire,  by  means  of  tin- 
greater  activity  in  political  life,  which  brought 


I 

ques 


n-li 


era  m  education.  in-rani  luoor  i  .140 — i.^-i) 
became  the  founder  of  a  new  school.  Having 
studied  scholastic  philosophy  for  several  years  at 
Paris,  and  become  deeply  imbued  with  the  ad- 
vanced ideas  in  matters  of  education,  he  gathered 
around  himself  a  number  of  spirited  men,  whose 
aim  was  to  combine  with  correct  religious  prin- 
ciples a  practical  and  scientific  activity.  Of 
Groot's  followers  the  most  noted  were  Florence 
Radewin,  the  celebrated  Thomas  a  Kempis.  and 
Johann  Wessel.  They  were  the  founders  of  the 
so-called   BrMer-Hauser  (brothers' houses),  in 

which  they  taught. besides  the  traditional  religious 

ing  to  the  new  Italian  plan.  The  new  school 
spread  its  principles  over  the  Netherlands  and 
northern  Germany  generally.  Rudolph  Lange, 
more  especially,  became  a  reformer  of  the  pre- 
vailing educational  sv.-tem.    II.-  established  or  re- 


turn. The  great  reformers  advocated  strongly 
the  study  of  classic  antiquity,  not  only  for 
the  development  of  rhetoric  and  a  taste  for 
scientific  subjects  generally,  but  also,  and  princi- 
pally, as  important  aids  in  the  establishment  of 
true  evangelical  faith.  The  necessity  of  founding 
schools  for  the  maintenance  and  propagation 
of  the  new  faith  was  strongly  pressed  by  Luther 
in  several  of  his  writing's.  The  course  of  instruc- 
tion followed  in  these  Latin  schools  comprised, 
mainly :  reading,  writing,  vocal  music,  Latin, 
dialectics,  rhetoric,  and  religion.  These  schools 
were  generally  divided  into  three  classes,  in 
which  the  gradation  of  studies  was  as  follows  : 
reading,  learning  of  Latin  vocables,  and  reading 
of  Donatus  and  Cato's  Sententice,  in  the  lowest 
class;  religion,  grammar,  proso.lv,  music,  and 
.selections  from  JEsop,  Mosellan's  Pcedologia, 
Erasmus's  Cotloquia,  Terence,  Plautus,  and  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  in  the  Becond  class;  Virgil. 
Ovid,  Cicero's  B,  Officii*  and  Epistola  adfami- 
liares,  metrics,  dialectics,  and  rhetoric,  in  the 
highest  class.  Latin  composition  and  colloquial 
exercises  formed  an  essential  part  of  the  curricu- 
lum of  the  higher  grades.  The  school  hours  were, 
on  every  week.  lav.  from  5  or  6  o'clock  to  9  o'clock 
in  the  forenoon,  and  from  noon  to  :i  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon.  <  hristian  catechism  was  taught 
twice  a  week  .lining  week-days,  and  every  Bun- 
day.  The  maxim  Repelitio  mater  studiorum, 
was  exacted  with  great  rigidity.  The  singing 
classes  of  these  schools  were  obliged  to  sing, 
under  the  direction  of  the  music-teacher,  before 
the  houses  of  wealthy  citizens  on  high  church 
.lavs,  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  alms.  The 
city  schools,  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation, were 
either   of  a   lower  or  a  liiejicr  order;  the  latter 


ing,    I; 
subject 


of  I 


in  the 

sail 

berg, 

:ul 

Ludwi 

r    \\ 

Dalbei 

g,  b 

'  >--) 

i  of  the  country.     Reading,  writ- 

I  religion  formed  the  principal 
ruction  in  the  former,  to  which 
reek.  Ik-brew,  mathematics,  and 
philosophy  in  the  latter,  or  higher  order  of  city 
schools,  lioth  orders  of  schools  commenced  on 
the  same  basis,  the  principal  difference  between 
them  consisting  in  extra  courses  for  special 
studies,  introduced  in  the  higher  order  of  these 
schools,  which  besides  the  studies  enumerated 
above,  also  taught  rhetoric,  logic,  and,  as  a  matter 
of  course,  music.  In  some  schools,  Hebrew,  and 
mathematics  were  omitted  in  the  course  of 
studies.  These  higher  city  schools,  and  a  con- 
siderable   number    of    convent    and    cathedral 

„  1 Is,  the  latter  especially  during  the  period  of 

the  Reformation,  were  transformed  into  so-called 
tsted    origi- 


,11  J, 


The  study  of  Greek  and  Hebrew,  more  partic- 
ularly advocated  by  Reuchlin,  found  a  stanch 
supportei  in  Erasmus,  and  prepared  the  edu- 
cated and  sei.  nuti.-  classes  of  the  German  na- 
tion to  receive  and  ripen  the  germs  of  the  great 
reformation  of  the  Church  which  was  inau- 
gurated at  that  time.  The  Reformation  im- 
parted   a   new   and    vigorous    spirit   to  eduea- 


ii.l, 


quently  increased  to  live,  and  in  some  instances 
even  to  eight  classes.  LTie  number  of  school 
hours  for  each  class  varied  from  I'll  to  22  per 
week.  Some  of  these  institutions,  in  course  of 
time,  rose  to  the  dignity  of  universities. 

We  find,  throughout  the  middle  ages,  in  most 
of  the  city  schools,  four  hours  of  daily  instruc- 
tion. However,  there  were  some  schools  with 
five,   some  with   three    (Spires.   14th   century) 


one  with  only  two  (Halle,  152G)  ;  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  aw  find  as  many  as  eight  hours 
per  diem  for  the  upper  classes  of  the  Latin 
school  at  Esslingen  (1548).  The  recitations 
were  generally  divided  equally  between  the  fore- 
noon and  the  afternoon.  The  number  of  classes 
in  the  schools  varied  from  two  to  four  and  up- 
ward, with  proper  subdivisions.  The  school  year 
commenced,  in  a  number  of  cities,  regularly  on 
March  12.,  the  day  of  St.  Gregory,  tie  patron- 
saint  of  schools.  In  othercities,  admissi  ins  wen 
allowed  twice  a  year,  at  East  r  and  Michael 
mas.  The  schools  were  not  free  schools;  pupils, 
except  the  children  of  paupers,  were  requested 
to  pay  a  certain  fee  per  quarter,  varying  in 
amount  according  t<>  time  and  locality.  In  some 
places,  the  school  money  was  fixed  according  to 
an  agreement  between  teacher  and  parents. 
Teachers  received,  most  generally,  a  salary  from 
the  municipality,  besides  the  pupils'  fees,  and 
enjoyed  other  emoluments,  tor  assisting  at  divine 


teachers  from  pupils  were 
in  some  cities  were  even  pn 
by  the  authorities.    Of  set 

thi'  proper  sense  of  the  te 
although  we  read  of  occ 
schools  by  prelates  ;  nor  is 

cations.     Tl arliesl   ordi 

cations  is  found  at  Freibtu 
the  fall  vacation  to  two  we 


lie.-t  oplmance  ni.-tit'iting  va- 
t  Freiburg  (1558),  which  limits 
otwo  weeks.  School  was  kept 
throughout  the  year,  in  some  cities  not  even  ex- 
cepting holidays, e.g. i  i  Nuremberg, Landau, etc.; 
but  teachers  and  pupils  could  agree  upon  one  or 
more  holidays,  mostly  in  consideration  of  a  fee 
to  be  paid  to  the  former.  School  festivals  were 
not  frequent.  The  day  of  St.  Gregory  was 
very  generally  observed  as  a  holiday.  A  peculiar 
festival  was  the  Virgatum-gelien,  the  gathering 
of  birches  in  the  woo  Is  by  the  pupils,  for  their 
own  corporal  punishment  at  school,  amid  general 
frolic,  including  procession,  singing  and  in- 
strumental music.  The  application  of  the  rod 
was  the  principal  means  of  maintaining  dis- 
cipline in  the  schools,  the  more  necessary,  a^ 
large  numbers  of  vagrant  scholars  [fdhrende 
Schiller),  who  went,  sometimes  begging,  from 
place  to  place  to  attend  school,  and  who  were 
addicted  to  all  manner  of  vices  and  irregular 
habits,  infested  the  whole  of  Germany  through- 
out the  middle  ages,  and  rendered  strict  school 
discipline  a  verj  difficult  task.  Corporal  pun- 
ishment with  the  rod  was  not  only  officially  re- 
cognized but   minutely   regulated   by  municipal 


were  several   kinds  of  asini,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  offence  :  an  asinus  morum, 


r„/, /,,/,, 


.'/"■'•- 

y  conduet  ;  an 
asinus  (xermanismi,  for  pupils  who  spoke  Ger- 
man instead  ol  Latin;  and  an  asinus  solwcismi, 
for  offendi  ra  against  go  I  Latin  grammar. 
There  are  p  rceptible,a1  thi  period,  many  serious 
defects  in  the  system  of  instruction,  more  espe- 
ili.  I  :  at  want  of  uniformity,  of  harmony 
in  the  intellectual  and  moral  training,  of  rational 
methods,    suitable  text-1 ks,  andof  competent 

i  tractors  tfany  of  the  school-men  of  that 
.  ime  rose  te  great  distinction.  Neander,  Fried- 
1  iml  iTrot/endort  .  I '■uj.enliagcn.   Spalatin,   Lin- 

lemann,  Wolf,  Fabricius,  Rhodomann,  Hoetius, 
Caselius,  Calixtus,  Camerarius,  Hessus,  ETeyden, 
Belwig,  Nigidius,  Goclenius,  Jungmann,  and 
others,  but  especially  Johann  Sturm,  are  noted 
as  prominent  educators  in  their  time.  Sturm  not 
only  gained  wide-spread  renown  as  an  author  of 
many  Latin  works  on  pedagogics,  but  also  as  a 
practical  educator.  His  famous  school  at 
Strasburgj  (1578)  contained  several  thousand 
scholars,  including  the  Lest  elements  of  society, 
many  being  scions  of  the  high  nobility,  and  even 
princes.  'I  his  school  had  not  only  a  German 
national  fame,  for  representatives  of  all  the 
European  nations  flocked  thither  to  sit  at  the 
feet  of  the  celebrated  educator.  Besides  the 
school  at  Strasburg,  Sturm  established  many 
others,    either    personally  or   by   means  of   his 


du- 


first  year  of  age.  From  the  seventh  to  the 
sixteenth  year,  he  ordai I  a  strict  school  educa- 
tion, after  which  he  permitted  a  somewhat 
freer  course  of  instruction  by  lectures.  His 
established  curriculum  of  studies  was  very 
carefully  carried  out,  from  the  very  foundation 
to  the  perfect  master}  of  pure  Latin  speech.  Still, 
even-  thing  considered,  his  system  was  only  a  one- 
sided formalism,  devoid  of  that  harmony  of  intel- 
lect and  heart,  which  is  the  aim  oi  true  education. 


While 

many 


an  I 


uds 


ix  in  their  endeavors  to  build 
ins.  In  this  special  branch 
]n  >se  to  encounter  and  combat 
,•   have    been  successful  in   a 


was  dismissed,  in  L567,because  he  refused  to  flog 
hispupils  on  the  ground  that  some  of  them  were 
19  years  of  age.  and,  therefore,  in  his  opinion, 
too  old  for  such  punishment.  Another  peculiar 
mode  of  punishment  was  that  of  the  asinus,  a 
wooden  frame  in  the  shape  of  a  donkey,  which 
the  culprit  was  obliged  to  mount  in  face  of  the 
class,  as  a  punishment  for  minor  offenses.  There 


tion  of  general  of  his  order,  he  exerted  the  greatest 
influence  in  the  erection  of  Jesuit  schools,  which. 
through  the  energetic  activity  of  the  order, 
spread  rapidly  over  the  whole  European  conti- 
nent, but  were  solely  guided  by  hierarchical 
interests.  Their  educational  aims  were  chiefly 
confined  to  the  pursuit  of  scientific  and  human- 


istic  studies;  but,  at  the  same  time,  an  almost 
absolute  want  of  individual  freedom  of  thought, 
and  a  blind  subserviency  to  established  authority, 
were  their  most  prominent  general  characteris- 
divided  into  two 
wer   order.      The 


ties. 


These  institutions 
classes,  —  a  higher  and 
latter  were  divided  into  Ave  subdivisions,  and 
principally  taught  reading  and  writing,  in  I  atin. 
Cither  studies,  commonly  comprised  in  a  gym- 
nasium course,  were  greatly  neglected,  although 
mentioned  in  the  plan  of  studies;  such  as 
mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  geography, 
and  history.  Rhetoric  and  logic  were  taught 
in  the  driest  possible  manner;  and  even  the 
favorite  Latin  was  wanting  in  thoroughness  of 
grammatical  instruction,  and  in  a  historical  or 
critical  explanation  of  the  classic  authors.  The 
memorizing  of  disjointed  phrases  from  Cicero's 
writings,  and  of  Virgil's  and  other  poets'  works, 
formed  a  prominent  part  of  the  scholar's  pension. 
Implicit  obedience  to  superiors,  the  fear  of  God, 
and  virtue,  were  the  chief  aims  of  Jesuitic  edu- 
cation. The  speakingof  German  was  prohibited, 
the  denunciation  of  offenses  against  the  estab- 
lished rules  was  invite  I  and  encouraged,  the  love 
of  country  and  of  family  was  gradually  extin- 
guished in  'he  heartscit  1  li ■■  si  ln'lars.and  nothing 
remained  but  the  love  of  the  established  church, 
and  the  strictest  obedience  to  the  superiors  of 
the  order. — The  maxims  of  Sturm  and  other 
prominent  educators  of  the  Protestant  school 
remained  the  acknowledged  models  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  secular  schools,  for  a  long  period  of 
time,  especially  in  Wurtemberg,  Saxony,  and 
Hesse.  Bebel  (died  1516)  in  Tubingen,  and 
Reuchlin  (died  L522),  devoted  great  attention 
to  the  promotion  of  the  study  of  the  ancient 
languages;  the  former  especially  in  regard 
to  Latin,  the  latter  in  regard  to  Hebrew  and 
Greek.  The  study  of  the  mother  tongue  was 
officially  ignored,  if  not  suppressed.  'I  he  ordi- 
nances of  Duke  Christopher  of  Wurtemberg 
(1  :">;">!))  encouraged  the  establishment  of  Latin 
schools  within  his  dominions.    With  the  exception 


for  all  the  academic  studies.  The  highest  class 
comprised  the  following  studies:  Melanchthon's 
Latin  grammar;  Cicero's  Be  Officiis, De  Seneo- 


tute,a  i  id  Be  An 
Virgil'si/m/v/zcsta 
rates:  I'vtliauora- 
Be  Liberorum  Bk 


of  the  positive  i 
the  general  cour 
and.  in  its  gener, 
tained  until  qui 
curriculum  of 
in  every  detail 
ments  of  Lath 
with  <  licero's  or 
Mneid;  dialec 
Melanchthon's  ] 
ophon's  Cyropa 
a  favorite  study 
varied  modificat 


jlect  of  the  Ge 


language 
client 


I  reek  grami 


h  the  rudi- 
tcrniinating 
.  and  Virgil  s 
according  to 
lar  and  Xen- 


Musie  was,  and  remained, 
the  grades.  With  slightly 
In  ^  general  plan  of  studies, 
iirtemberg  for  secondary 
ing,  was  adopted,  toward 
0  ntury.as  thi  standard  in 


institutions  oi    learning,   was 

the  close  of  the  1  ili  century.a 
Saxony,  with  the  only  exception  that  more  at- 
tention was  given  to  arithmetic.  The  celebrated 
princes'  schools  [Fursienschulen)  at  Meissen, 
Grimma,  and  Schulpforta,  were  of  a  somewhat 
higher  order.  Theyeach  had  three  classeswith  a 
two  years'  course  in  each,  and  prepared  scholars 


mciilitiup  ijiitrsttones  ; 
d;  Horace's  Odes;  Isoc- 
Carmina;  Plutarch's 

,-   the   /  in'/:  the  rudi- 
ments  of    Hebrew:   dialectics  and  rhetoric  ;   the 

rudiments  of  astr any. etc  Terence's  and  Plau- 

tus's  comedies  were  acted  annually  to  accustom 
i  pupils  to  Latin  speaking.  'I  his  course  of  studies 
was  also  introduced  in  several  other  German 
states.  Erasmus  of  Rotterdam  and  Melanch- 
thon  had,  both,  strongly  advocated  a  certain  at- 
tention to  realistic  studies, — mathematics,  astron- 
omy, and  the  natural  sciences  in  general.  Luther 
also  favored  this  view.  Still,  these  studies  re- 
mained much  neglected,  and  did  not  receive  due 
attention  until  the  following  century,  when  the 
climax  of  one-sided  formalism  had  been  reached, 
and  a  counter-current  made  itself  felt  in  the 
educational  world.  Francis  Bacon  (q.  v.)  was\ 
the  originator  of  the  realistic  principle  iii  edu— -> 
cation;  and  he  found  enthusiastic  disciples  in 
Wolfgang  Ratich  (Lo^l  — 1635)  and  John 
Amos  ( lomenius  ( 1 592-  1  li  1 1 ).  who  became  the 
founders  of  a  new  realistic  method  fo  edu- 
cation in  Germany.  They  principally  aimed  at 
a  development  of  the  reasoning  power  of  the 
mind;  but,  in  their  zeal,  thej  carried  their  aim 
too  far,  by  almost  entirely  ignoring  fancy  and  the 
appreciation  of  the  beautiful.  'I  hey  failed  to  find 
the  proper  blendingof  mere  instruction  and  gen- 
eral culture  :  but.  notwithstanding  their  want  of 
appreciation  of  classic  antiquity  and  historic 
study,  they  are  entitled  to  a  grateful  recogni- 
tion as  the  founders  of  a  realistic  school  which 
exercised  a  very  beneficial  influence  upon  the 
educational  principles  of  their  country.— Soon 
afterward,  the  whole  German  nation  was  shaken 
to  its  very  foundation  by  the  great  denomina- 
tional feuds  between  the  Protestants  and  the 
Catholics,  in  which  the  schools  also  participated. 

Tl logical  disputations  were  the  order  of  the 

day;  and  the  Latin  Bchools,  every -where  in  Ger- 
many, were  diverted  from  their  original  pursuits. 

or  against  Rome  and  the  papacy.  'I  he  religious 
dissensions  finally  culminated  in  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  which  rent  the  German  nation 
into  two  bitterly  hostile  parties,  and  with  fire 
and  sword,  during  an  entire  generation,  devas- 
tated and  depopulated  the  country,  and  almost 
entirely  destroyed  what  civilization,  and  mental, 
moral,  and  material  culture,  had  built  up  in 
centuries.  Germany,  which,  before  the  war. 
had  been  in  a  most  prosperous  condition,  with  a 
population  of  about  twenty  million  inhabitants. 
was  reduced  to  a  vast  desert  with  scarcely  over 
live  million  people.  The  war  had  swept  away 
the  very  flower  of  the  nation,  leaving,  at  its 
termination,  the  once  mighty  empire  in  an  im- 
poverished, helpless  e lition.  an   easy  prey  to. 

the  schemes  and  aggressions  of  foreign  powers. 
In  the  general  state  of  exhaustion  and  demoral- 


GERMANY 


ization,  during,  and  at  the  close  of,  the  war, 
the  educational  institutions  of  the  country 
were  almost  entirely  annihilated.  A  great 
number  of  the  schools  were  closed  for  want 
of  teachers  and  pupils,  very  many  of  them 
were  destroyed,  teachers  and  pupils  were  scat- 
tered, and  an  enormous  increase  of  immorality 
was  perceptible  among  the  students  of  the  few 
schools  which  survived.  The  pea f  West- 
phalia (1648)  found  the  educational  institutions 
of  Germany  in  a  most  forlorn  and  demoralized 
condition.  Gradually,  however,  they  regained 
their  former  standard  ;  but  the  course  of  studies 
formerly  prevailing  had.  in  the  mean  time,  un- 
dergone very  material  changes.  Latin,  which 
had  almost  become  the  ruling  speech  in  the 
higher  schools,  began  to  lose  its  pre-eminence. 
Itwas  still  studied.with  great  attention  :  but  the 
national  language  began  to  assert  its  importance, 
and  even  at  the  universities,  the  German  tongue 
was  gradually  permitted  to  become  the  medium 
of  scientific  instruction.  This  reaction  from 
the  firmer  principles  of  education  continued 
throughout  the  following  epoch.  The  study 
of  Greek,  at  some  noted  schools,  became  en- 
tirely neglected.  At  this  period,  a  marked 
difference  was  manifested  iu  regard  to  the  edu- 
cation of  scholars  ,,f  noble  birth  and  others.  The 
so-called  knights'  academies  [Ritterakademien) 
were  established,  in  which  pupils  were  instructed 
in  history, genealogy, and  heraldry,  and  in  which 
dancing  and  courtly  manners  were  special 
branches  of  instruction.  Other  studies,  such  as 
military  and  civil  engineering,  astronomy, botany, 
and  theoretical  and  practical  philosophy,  found 
their  way  into  the  regular  curriculum.  Generally 
speaking,  there  was.  however,  no  true  idvance- 
mentin  the  educational  standard:  on  the  con- 
trary, the  selection  of  studies  manifested  great 
arbitrariness  on  the  part  of  the  patrons  and 
directors  of  schools  of  an  advanced  order.  In 
some  of  the  German  slates,  the  special  interest 
of  highly  cultured  princes  in  matters  of  educa- 
tion tended  to  elevate  the  standard  by  not  only 
grounding  the  scholars  well  in  the  mechanism 
of  the   classic    languages,   a  cording  to  the  ol  ! 


and 


them  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
classic  authors.  Th  ■  study  ol  the  G 
was  rehabilitated,  together  with  II 
other  more  liberal  kinds  of  culture.  Duke  Ernest 
of  Gotha  (1675)  took  a  leading  part  in  this  refor- 
mation of  the  higher  schools,  and  his  example 
found  many  imitator,,  in  other  German  states. 
Still,  there  prevailed  a  great  diversity  in  educa- 
tional principles  throughout  the  country.  Hu- 
manism, rigid  formalism,  and  rationalism  con- 
tended with  each  other,  and  were  each  fostered, 
and  advocated,  according  to  local  and  personal 
influences.  At  this  time,  Locke's  ideas  on 
education  commenced  to  exert  a  gnat  influ- 
ence on  educational  principles  in  Germany. 
His  maxim  of  imparting  knowledge  mainly 
through  the  senses,  in  opposition  to  idealism, 
although  not  always  carried  out  consistently. 
opened  a  new  view  of  the  principles  of  ration- 


al education.   [See  Locke.)    Another  system  was 
founded   by    August    Hermann   b'rancke  (q. v.). 


cry  beginning,  in  opposition 
laiism.  Among  the  studies 
were   chronology,  astronomy, 

latoniv.  botany,  and    even  the 

icine,  together  with  other  set- 


's ],i 


lie  edl 


ism  was  the  foundation  of 
structure.  The  so-called  Paedagogium  at  Halle 
became  a  model  school  for  the  fl  hole  of  ( iermany. 
It  possessed  a  botanic  garden,  a  museum  of  nat- 
ural history,  philosophical  apparatus,  a  chemical 
laboratory,  and  a,  dissecting  room.  It  was  con- 
sidered  a    normal   school    for   tl dueation  of 

country.  Francke's  system  laid  the  foundation 
to  the'  so-called  real  schools.  .1.  S.  Semler,  in 
Halle,  was  the  first  who  used  this  term  in  an- 
nouncing his  establishment  "t  "a  mechanical 
and  mathematical  real  school"  in  1  Toil,  which, 
however,  was  of  short  existence.  John  Julius 
Ilecker,  also  a  disciple  of  the  Halle  school, 
established  a  red  school  in  lierlin  1 1747), which, 
properly  speaking,  consisted  of  three  different 
departments:  namely,  a  German,  a  Latin,  and  a 
real  school,  but  with  arrangements  to  allow 
pupils  of  the  two  former  to  participate  in  the 
studies  of  the  latter  department.  In  many 
respects  this  real  -  h  "'I  .  n  ried  its  aims  too  far 


lar    insti- 

n  school, 
from  the 
name  of 


preciation  of  thoroughness,  breadth,  and  har- 
mony of  culture, while  the  lower  classes  devoted 
their  attention  almost  exclusively  to  the  prac- 
tical affairs  of  life  and  to  useful  knowl- 
edge. Pedantry  on  the  part  of  the  teachers, 
and  immorality  on  the  part  of  the  students: 
Superficiality   on    the   one    hand,    and    onesided 


dow  (1723—90)  and  his  followers,  of  whom 
■Salzinann  and  Gampe  are  the  most  noted,  who 
are  known  to  the  educational  world  as  the 
school  of  the  Philanthropists.  Their  principal  aim 
was  to  educate  a  youth  to  become  a  man  in  the 
best  sense  of  the  word. — to  guide  the  natural  im- 
pulses and  the  will  by  reason.   Sol f  the  schools 


established  by  the  Philanthropists  attained  con- 
siderable renown,  more  especially  the  one 
founded  by  Salzmann  at  Schnepfentlial,  near 
Gotha,  which  is  still  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
The  method  of  the  Philanthropists,  however, 
.soon  fell  into  disuse, owing  principally  to  their dis- 
rcgard  for  the  classic  authors,  whose  educational 
value  they  underrated,  and  in  the  study  of 
whom  they  were  completely  outstripped  by 
rival  schools.  Although  the  general  current  of 
the  time  favored  utilitarianism,  a  tendency 
encouraged  by  Frederick  the  Great,  still  there 
remained  in  the  German  nation  too  much  la- 
tent love  for  the  ideal  to  allow  the  realistic 
school  to  become  all-absorbing.  Just  then,  the 
first  dawn  of  the  great  golden  era  of  ( icrman 
classic  literature  broke  upon  the  nation,  and  re- 
vived the  love  for  ancient  classic  beauty. 
Winekehnann  and  Lessing  revealed  the  splendor 
of  ancient  art  and  the  eternal  laws  of  the  beau- 
tiful. They  were  followed  by  hosts  of  others. 
The  love  of  the  ancient  classics,  which  was 
awakened  even  in  the  masses  of  the  people  by 
excellent  translations  of  ancient  authors  into 
(icrman,  inaugurated  by  J.  H.  Voss's  admi- 
rable translation  of  Homer's  works,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  the  German  language,  which  had 

lowing  classic  peri. >  I  of  national  literature,  were 
broughl  into  happy  harmony,  and  their  union 
became  fruitful  of  the  best  results  in  the  whole 
intellectual,  moral,  and  esthetical  life  of  the 
nation.  As  a  matter  of  course,  the  cause  of 
education  also  participated  in  the  general  ad- 
vancement of  the  mental  and   moral  culture  of 


a  triumvirate  of  educators  who  knew  how  to 
awaken  a  deep  interest  in  the  study  of  the  an- 
cients,— to  introduce  their  scholars  to  the  beau- 

a rding   to    his  own   individual   predilections. 

without  losing  sight  of  the  special  requirements 
of  their  own  time,  or  of  the  general  harmony  in 
the  purposes  of  a  really  liberal  education.  In 
elementary  education,  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi 
(174(1 — 1827),  commenced  to  be  more  widely 
known  and  appreciated  in  Germany,  where  the 
great  educators  aim  to  elevate  the  lower  classes 
of  the  people  through  a  well-adapted  domestic 
education,  and  his  invention  of  a  rational  system 
of  primary  instruction,  founded  upon  teaching 
from  the  object,  and  upon  a  gradual  progres- 
sion from  the  simple  to  the  complicated,  were 
rapidly  adopted,  and  whence  great  numbers  of 
teachers  flocked  to  Pestalozzi's  home  to  acquaint 
themselves  more  thoroughly  with  his  methods. 
The  downfall  of  the  German  nation  before  the 
victorious  arms  of  the  French  emperor,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  far  from  curb- 
ing the  national  ambition,  gave  a  new  impetus 
to  national  life,  which,  in  its  turn,  awakened  the 
spirit   of  the  nation  to  new  exertions   in    the 


tin 


aid  sii 


many  names  th  inutility  renieii 
quent  generations.  J.  M.  Gesi 
rector  of  the  Thomas  School  in 
sequently  professor  of   ancient    literature   and 

founder  of  the  philological  seminary  at  Gottiu- 
gen,  became  a  stanch  supporter  and  propagator 
•of  the  new  humanistic  school.  J.  A.  Krnesti 
1781),  at  Leipsic,  and  C.  G.  Heyne  (1812),  at 
(iottiiiicen.wcre  also  enthusiastic' advocates  of  the 
study  of  the  ancient  classics.  They,  and  many 
others,  introduce  1  their  students  to  the  beauties 
of  the  classics  without  wearying  them  with  dry 


man  Nation  {Reden  an  die  devische  Nation) 
demanded  a  thorough  reconstruction  of  the 
schools,  and  a  universal  public  education  of  the 
nation.  A  fresh  breath  of  life  was  inspired  in- 
to the  whole  intellectual  and  moral  being  of  the 
nation;  and.  in  the  darkest  hours  of  her  misfor- 
tunes and  humiliation.  Germany  sowed  the  seed 
of  future  greatness,  mainly  by  elevating  the  na- 
tional spirit  through  her  institutions  of  educa- 
tion, by  the  reformation  of  the  old,  and  by  the 
establishment  of  new  schools,  in  which  earnest- 
ness of  purpose,  thoroughness,  morality,  and 
harmony  in  the  general  development  of  mind 
to  this  day.  charac- 
first  half  of  the  pres- 
osion,  combined  with 


liockh.  Gottfried  Hermann.  Karl  Reissig,  and 
Karl  Otfried  Miiller.  At  first,  a  close  connec- 
tion between  thestudy  of  the  ancient  classics  and 
of  German  literature  was  strictly  observed;  but, 
subsequently,  when  the  latter  had  gained  suffi- 
cient Btrength  and  classic  i  haracter,  this  connec- 
tion was  gradually  loo-end.  Although  one- 
sided Latinisni  repeatedly  ,i— ertcd  its  opposi- 
tion to  the  study  of  the  German  language  and 
literature,  it  could  never  regain  its  former 
undisputed  prerogative;  while,  on  the  other 
hand.  Greek  had  recovered  all  the  territory  for- 
merly lost.     Wolf,  Hermann,  and   liockh  form 


and  heart  became,  and 
teristic  traits.  During 
ent  century,  a  constant 
greater  depth,  in  the  tr< 
became  every-where  ] 
centuries,  the  schools 
almost  exclusively  ser 
church.  The  Bible  an 
as  far  as  they  could  b 
the  service  of  the  <  Inn 
importani  elements  of 


:  of  all  the  sciences, 
ible.  In  former 
higher  order  had 
e    interests  of  the 


education.     Every  thing 

•  relation  to  theolog)  and 
diaries.  \\  hen.  in  the  course  of  time, 
ilopmentoi  intellectual  freedom  gained 
and  strength,  and  when  purely  religious 
ion  lost   its  supremacy  and  was  limited 

•oper  sphere,  other  sciences  could  raise 
lims  to  be  admitted  as  important  educa- 
ilements.  The  proper  classification  of 
to  attain  a  complete  humanistic,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  scientific,  education  of  the  rising 


is  a  difficult  problem,  which  still  awaits  a  satis- 
factory solution.  Of  noted  representatives  of 
more  modern  German  pedagogy,  mention  should 
be  made  of  Johann  M.  Sailer,  who  gained  con- 
siderable influence  in  the  Catholic  districts  of 
Germany,  of  F.  A.  W.  Diesterweg  (q.  v.),  and  of 
Friedrieh  Froebel  (q.  v.). 

Primary  Instruction. — The  development  of 


purely  elementary  instruction  by 


of  pub- 


lic schools,  in  Germany,  is.  comparatively,  of 
recent  date.  Elementary  schools  in  cities  (Dent- 
ache  Schulen)  are  traceable  to  a  very  remote 
period,  their  foundation  being  contemporaneous 
with  the  establishment  of  the  earliest  city 
Latin  schools.  These  schools  were  quite  nu- 
merous. In  Hesse  alone,  there  were,  in  the  13th 
century,  14  cities,  which  supported  theirown  ele- 
mentary schools.  All  official  documents  relating 
to  elementary  education,  which  have  come  down 
to  our  time,  make  reference  to  city  schools  only. 
In  the  country,  in  villages  or  hamlets,  schools  for 
elementary  education,  worthy  of  tin-  name,  were 
almost  unknown.The  sextons  of  country  churches 
were  required,  in  a  general  way.  to  instruct  the 
children  in  the  catechism;  and  it  is  from  this 
primitive  foundation  that  public  elementary  edu- 
cation has  been  built  up  to  its  present  condition. 
In  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg,  the  first  regular 
country  schools,  for  children  of  both  sexes,  were 
established  after  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  in  the 
17th  century,  under  the  reign  of  the  Great 
Elector.  Frederick  William:  but  we  know  very 
little  of  the  condition  of  these  schools.  With  the 
aggrandizement  of  the  electorate,  denominational 
differences  commenced  to  manifest  themselves. 
Thus  we  find,  at  an  early  period,  a  recognized 
distinction  between  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
/  schools.     At  Wesel,  we  find,  as  early  as  1  (is;,  a 

i seminary  for  the  education  of  school-masters. — 

An  ordinance,  emanating  from  the  church 
authorities  in  Pomerania.in  1563,  relating  to 
elementary  instruction,  makes  no  mention  at  all 
of  village  schools,  but  has  reference  to  city 
schools  only,  subordinatingthem  in  every  respe  t 
to  the  authority  of  the  Church,  and  prescribing 
especially  the  study  of  reading,  writing,  and 
arithmetic,  besides  the  catechism  and  choral 
singing. — The  general  condition  of  elementary 
instruction  throughout  the  majority  of  the 
German  states  was  about  the  same. — Even  in 
the  electorate  of  Brandenburg,  a  school  ordi- 
nance of  1658  plainly  shows  that  village  schools. 
although  their  establishment  wasstrongly  urged, 
had  not  as  yet  become  a  living  reality.  When, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  1  stli  century."  the  elect- 
orate of  Brandenburg  and  the  duchy  of  Prussia 
became  a  kingdom,  feeble  attempts  were  again 
made  to  establish  public  elementary  schools 
throughout  the  royal  dominions;  but,  as  there 
was  no  supply  of  trained  teachers,  and  the  efforts 
where  neither  persistent,  nor  well  directed,  the 
general  condition  of  elementary  education  in  the 
rural  districts  remained  pretty  nearly  unchanged. 
The  elementary  teachers,  in  those  times,  were 
generally  forlorn  and  discarded  students  of  the 
higher    schools ;    and   in   villages,   mostly    me- 


chanics, dismissed  servants  of  noble  families,  or 
invalid  and  discharged  soldiers.  King  Frederick 
William  I.,  the  second  king  of  Prussia,  paid 
especial  attention  to  elementary  schools  for  the 
mass  of  his  people,  with  the  design  of  educat- 
ing them  to  a  strict  obedience  to  secular  and 


Frederick  William  1.  was  the  protector  of  the 
pietistic  school  of  educators,  at  Halle;  and, 
through  the  exertions  of  Francke  and  his  fol- 
lowers, Prussia  received  the  first  trained  pro- 
fessional instructors.  Teaching,  for  the  first  time, 
became  a  recognized  science;  and  the  theory  of 
pedagogy,  and  practical  methods  of  instruction, 
were  made  indispensable  requirements  for  the 
office  of  a  public  teacher.  A  royal  decree,  regu- 
lating educational  affairs  in  the  monarchy,  and 
relating  to  institutions  of  all  grades — in  fact,  the 
first  general  school  law  for  the  Prussian  mon- 
archy— was  issued  October,  1713.  A  few  years 
afterward,  in  a  number  of  royal  decrees,  the 
first  initiatory  steps  were  taken  toward  obli- 
gatory education  throughout  the  kingdom.  The 
directing  and  supervising  power  was  placed  en- 
tirely in  the  hands  of  the  church  authorities. 
The  founding  of  teachers'  seminaries  by  the 
state  was  not  then  thought  of.  By  private  enter- 
prise, a  teachers'  seminary  was  established  in 
Stettin,  Pomerania,  in  1735;  and.  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  another  was  founded,  by  order  of 
the'  king,  at  the  convent  of  Bergen,  near  Magde- 
burg.— Although  the  number  of  schools  increased 
very  considerably  during  the  reign  of  the  ener- 
getic second  king  of  Prussia,  still,  the  qualifica- 
tions of  the  teachers  and  the  general  condition 
of  the  elementary  schools  remained  in  quite  a 
primitive  state  ;  and  the  only  important  progress 
made  was  the  gradual  development  of  the  idea, 
among  all  classes  of  the  people,  that  education, 
to  some  extent,  had  become  an  absolute  neces- 
sity.— Frederick  II.  (the  Great),  although  him- 
self a  highly  cultured  monarch,  had  very  little 
time  to  devote  to  the  advancement  of  elementary 
education,  until  after  the  close  of  the  .Seven 
Years'  War,  when  he  promulgated  a  code  of 
"general  school  regulations",  which  contained 
all  the  leading  features  of  the  later  Prus- 
sian school  laws,  prescribing  tin-  general  obliga- 
tion to  attend  school,  fixing  the  obligatory 
school  age  of  the  pupils,  the  payment  of  school 
money,  and  fines  for  non-attendance,  and  char- 
ging the  church  authorities  with  the  duty  of 
supervising  public  schools.  This  code  of  school 
regulations  emanated  from  the  pen  of  Johann 
Julius  Hecker  (q.  v.);  and  the  king,  after  many 
consultations  with  other  recognized  authorities, 
gave  it  his  sanction.  The  execution  of  these  laws, 
however,  met  with  many  serious  difficulties  in 
several  parts  of  the  monarchy,  partly  on  account, 
of  religious  differences  between  Catholics  and 
Protestants,  in  regard  to  the  supervisory  author- 
ity intrusted  to  the  church;  partly  on  account  of 
the  obstinacy  of  the  peasantry  in  refusing  the  pay- 
ment of  school  money;  partly  from  various  other 


364:  GEBJ 

causes  arising  from  local  differences,  which,  in 
the  end,  necessitated  many  modifications  of  the 
original  general  plan,  for  certain  districts  of  the 
kingdom.  Soon  afterward,  the  necessity  was 
felt  i  if  regulating  the -system  of  city  school  edu- 
cation in  a  manner  similar  to  that  prescribed  fur 
the  country  schools.  The  exceedingly  meager 
remuneration  of  teachers  throughout  the  country 
was  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  securing 
of  well-qualified  instructors,  and  led  to  the 
establishment  of  a  state-aid  fund,  from  the 
interest  of  which  a  small  subsidy  was  granted 
to  meritorious  teachers.  The  king  never  re- 
laxed his  interest  in  common-school  education. 
The  newly  acquired  province  of  Silesia,  with 
its  majority  of  Catholic  inhabitants,  enjoyed  his 
special  care.  A  Catholic  teachers'  seminary  was 
founded  at  Breslau,  in  1765;  where,  two  years 
afterward,  a  Protestant  teachers'  seminary  was 
also  founded,  the  latter  dependent  mainly  upon 
private  support.  Under  the  reign  of  Frederick 
William  II.,  the  successor  of  Frederick  theCivat. 
the  care  of  the  government  for  popular  educa- 
tion was  undiminished. — Inl7H7.au  Ohrr-Srhn/- 
GoUegium  (High  School  Commission), consisting 
of  professional  members  only,  was  established 
at  Berlin,  for  the  examination  of  teachers,  with 
esign  of  appointing  only  well-qualified 
ersons  as  teachers,  without,  on  the  other  hand, 
interfering  with  the  established  rights  of  school 
patrons  to  fill  vacancies.  In  the  Prussian  t'mit- 
111,111  Law  of  17!»t,  all  educational  institutions, 
including  universities,  were  declared  state  insti- 
tutions ;  and  a  foundation  was  laid  for  a  legally- 
recognized  educational  system  for  the  entire  mon- 
archy, which,  in  its  fundamental  principles,  has 
remained  intact,  to  the  present  day.  During  the 
first  years  of  the  reign  of  Frederick  William  III., 
no  material  changes  were  made  in  the  elementary 
school  system  of  the  kingdom.  I  Jrcat  difficulties, 
however,  impeded  the  general  progress  of  ele- 
mentary school  education  throughout  the  king- 
dom ;  and  the  education  of  females  was  even 
more  backward  than  that  of  males.  Ernestine 
von  Krosigk  was  the  first  who  had  sufficient 
courage  to  establish  a  seminary  for  female  teach- 
ers,— in  Berlin,  in  1804.  The  great  national  ca- 
lamity which  befell  Prussia,  and  Germany  in  gen- 
eral, shortly  afterward,  brought  all  the  various 
efforts  for  the  advancement,  of  public  education 
to  a  stand-still  for  some  time.  King  Frederick 
William  III.,  however,  declared,  '-although  we 
have  lost,  territory,  power,  and  prestige,  still  we 
must,  strive  to  regain  what  we  have  lost  by  ac- 
quiring intellectual  and  moral  power;  and,  there- 
fore, it  is  my  earnest  desire  and  will,  to  rehabil- 
itate the  nation  by  devoting  a  most  earnest  at- 
tention to  the  education  of  the  masses  of  my 
people."  National  e  luc.ition,  which  hail,  hither- 
to, be, -ii  intrusted  to  the  care  of  a  subordinate 
committee,  under  the  state  ministry  of  justice, 
became  a  distinct  and  important  branch  of  the 
/state  administration,  as  a  separate  department 
of  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  and  so  remained 
until  the  close  of  1811,  under  the  immediate 
charge  of  the  celebrated  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt; 


afterward,  until  1817,  under  Yon  Schuckmann, 
who  was  very  efficiently  assisted  by  Nicolovius 
ami  Silvern.  The  laws  regulating  national  and 
popular  education,  hitherto  a  dead  letter  in  many 
respects,  became,  for  the  first  time,  a  reality, 
and  commenced  to  show  their  beneficial  influence 
upon  the  advancement  of  national  culture.  Re- 
newed and  energetic  efforts  were  made  to  edu- 
cate teachers  in  accordance  with  the  most  ap- 
proved sy.-tem  of  the  time.  Many  instructors 
were  invited  from  other  states  to  accept  engage- 
ments in  Prussia  ;  others  were  trained  under 
the  immediate  supervision  of  Pestalozzi.  A  new 
spirit  commenced  to  pervade  all  classes  of  the 
people,  now  a  homogeneous  nation.  In  1818, 
Yon  Altenstein  was  appointed  to  the  newly 
established  ministry  of  educational  affairs,  be- 
ing still  assisted  by  Nicolovius  and  Silvern. 
National  education  soon  attained  a  high  degree 
of  development,  considering  the  scanty  appropria- 
tions, both  state  and  municipal,  for  the  support 
of  educational  institutions  of  all  grades.  At  the 
time  of  Altenstein's  death,  there  were,  in  Prussia 
(including  then  only  the  eight  old.  provinces),  0 
universities.  1 2d  ci  illi  ges.  am  I  a  still  larger  number 
of  real  schools.  38  teai  hers  seminaries,  and  about 
.'10,0(111  public  schools,  in  a  tolerably  flourishing 
condition.  Every  sixth  inhabitant  of  the  king- 
dom was  attending  school.     In   L840,  Minister 

F.ichhorn  was  appointed  to  the  depart nt  of 

educational  affairs.  Two  decrees  of  this  minister 
especially  stigmatize  his  administration,  —  the 
dosing  of  the  Protestant  seminary  at  Breslau, 
and  the  discharge  of  Diesterweg  (q.v.);  but  the 
revolutionary  year  lsls  swept  away  Eichhorn 
and  his  system.  It  is  the  merit  of  Friedrich 
Stichl.  a  modified  Pestalozzian,  who  entered  the 
state  ministry  of  educational  affairs  as  a  col- 
laborator, not  only  to  have  maintained  the  orig- 
inal gnat  principles  of  national  education,  but 
to  have  developed  the  same  under  the  adminis- 
trations of  all  the  successors  of  Eichhorn,  down 
to  Vim  Mulder.  At  the  close  of  1861,  there 
were,  in  the  eight  old  Prussian  provinces,  with 
a  population  of  L8,476,500  (of  whom  3,090,294 
were  within  the  obligatory  school  age  from  6  to 
14  years),  2,875,836  children  actually  attending 
school.  The  number  of  schools  was  24,763  (2,935 
in  cities,  21,828  in  villages,  etc.).  with  36,783 
classes  (10,290  in  city  schools,  26,493  in  coun- 
try schools) ,  and  35,372  teachers  (33,615  males 
and  1,755  females).  Two-thirds  of  these  schools 
( 1  6,540)  were  Protestant;  about  one-third  (8,082), 
Catholic,  and  141,  Jewish.  Of  licensed  private 
schools,  there  were,  in  1861,  1,434.  with  2,944 
classes  and  84.021  pupils.  Thus  the  aggregate 
of  registered  elementary-school  children,  in  I  sill , 
amounted  to  2,959,857,  leaving  130,437,  who, 
either  received  no  education  at  all,  or  were  com- 
prised in  the  number  of  pupils  attending 
higher  educational  institutions.  ( If  the  children 
attending  public  schools,  there  were,  in  I  SCI, 
Protestants,  1,775,888;  Catholics,  1,063,805; 
■Tews,  30,053  ;  miscellaneous,  6,090.  The  sum 
total  of  public  elementary-school  teachers' salaries, 
in  1861.  amounted  to  7,449,224  thalers  (I  thaler 


=  $0,714)  (excluding  the  principality  of  Ilohen- 
zollern,  which  had  an  independent  school 
budget),  which  sum  was  raised  as  follows: 
2,320,968  thalrrs,  school  money  paid  l>v  pupils; 
4,799,958  thalers,  raised  by  the  communities; 
328,298  thalers,  state  appropriation.  Other  re- 
quirements of  public  elementary  school  education 
demanded  a  further  disbursement  of  2,453,472 
/W.rs.swciline,  thea__r  uatctexocnditurcsfor 


for  public  elementary    education,   in    Prussia, 
31.16  per  cent  was  raised  from  the  pupils ;  64,44 

percent,  by  the  taxati >l    communities,  and 

only  4.40  per  cent,  by  appropriations  on  the  part 
of  the  state.  The  prevailing  principle,  at  pres- 
ent, in  Prussia,  tor  the  support  of  public  schools. 
is.  that  all  the  schools  must  be  made,  as  far  as 
possible, self-sustaining, by  the  paymentof  school 
money,  and  by  local  taxation,  the  state  granting 
aid  only  in  cases  of  the  inability  of  communities 
to  maintain  the  schools  in  the  legally-prescribed 
manner.  The  city  of  Berlin,  with  a  free-school 
system,  in  1874,  supported  77  common  element- 
ary schools,  with  an  aggregate  of  950  classes 
(488  for  boys,  with  484  male  and4female  teach- 
ers ;  and  4li2  classes  for  gills,  witn  2s4  male  and 
178  female  teachers).  The  whole  force  of  teach- 
ers, including  assistant  and  special  teachers, 
amounted  to  1,279.  The  average  number  of 
classes  to  each  school  was  12;  the  average  number 
of  pupils  to  each  class.  5] ;  to  a  school,  640.  The 
average  number  of  pupils  in  free  schools  was 
48,420;  besides  10,500  children  in  corporate  or 
private  institutions  aided  by  the  city;  making  a 
grand  total  of  59,000  children  enjoying  free  ele- 
mentary education  at  the  expense  of  the  city. 
The  cost  of  elementary  free  schools  supported  by 
the  city  amounted  to  Siill.000  thalers  :  whereas 
the  aid  granted  to  Jiigher  city  schools,  besides 
the  school  money  paid  by  pupils,  required  an 
'  extra  expense  of  25  tha'.rs  per  pupil.  The  aver- 
age yearly  salary  of  a  principal  of  a  common  ele- 
mentary school,  in  Berlin,  is  1.180  thalers  :  of  a 
class  teacher,  745  thalers;  of  a  female  teacher. 
487  tiialers;  of  female  teachers  of  needle-work, 
109  thalers. — In  Prussia,  a  fund  has  been  es- 
tablished for  the  pensioning  of  teachers'  widows 
and  orphans,  which,  in  1861,  amounted  to 
1,682,158  thalers,  with  a  yearly  revenue  of 
139.331  thalers,  from  which  (J ,01 7  teachers,  or 
their  willows  and  orphans,  were  pensioned.  Sim- 
ilar pensioning  funds  for  teachers  and  their 
widows  and  orphans  are  founded  in  all  the  Ger- 
man states. —  The  following  are  the  principal 
items  of  school  statistics  for  the  other  German 
states:  Bavaria,  in  1874,  supported  7,1116  public 
elementary  schools  1,893  Catholic,  1,938  Prot- 
estant,124  Jewish,  61  miscellaneous),  with  9.431 
male  and  i-'.Hl  female  teachers.  Total  number  of 
pupils,  632,599  (310,713  male.  321,886  female; 
438,945  Catholic.  187,387  Protestant,  5,883 
Jewish,  384  miscellaneous).  Of  the  7,016  public 
elementary  schools,  5,764  levied  school  money  on 


their  pupils,  amounting  to  1,025,4  ID  florins  a  year. 
Baden,   in   1874,  had   1,765  elementary  public 


on  instead,  //esse  Darmstadt 
ublic  elementary  teachers.  Sa.ee 
■d  7M  teachers,  who  instructed 


ing  statistics  (1872):  Total  number  of  public 
elementary  schools  (estimated)  about  60,000; 
teachers,  about  110,000;  pupils,  about  6,500,000, 
or,  more  than  15  per  cent  of  the  entire  popula- 
tion. The  proportion  of  pupils  to  the  entire  pop- 
ulation, in  the  several  German  states,  varies  as 
follows:  of  every  1000  of  the  population,  there 
are  school  attendants,  in  Saxony.  184,  in  Prus- 
sia. 155,  in  YVurtemberg.  132.  in  Bavaria.  126, 
in  Mecklenburg.  1 'Jo  :  while  in  Brunswick,  An- 
lc.lt,  Oldenburg,  and  the  Thuringian  principal- 
ities, the  proportion  varies  from  160  to  184. 

School Administr,  !  /'     ss    (.—All  edu- 

cational institutions  of  the  monarchy  are  govern- 
ed, primarily,  by  the  state  ministry  of  ecclesias- 
tical, educational,  and  medical  affairs,  in  Berlin. 
Every  province  has  its  own  provincial  school 
commission  for  the  general  administration  of 
schools,  and  a  scientific  commission,  with  proper 
subdivisions,  for  the  examination  of  teachers. 
The  provincial  state  school  authorities  are  as- 
sisted, in  the  larger  cities,  by  committees  elected 
for  this  purpose  by  the  administrative  bodies  of 
the  municipal  it     i(Sc)       D  nen);  and  in 

villages,  by  other  officials.  The  law  of  March  1 1 ., 
1872,  confers  the  right  of  supervising  all  educa- 
tional institutions,  public  and  private,  upon  the 
state.  Consequently,  all  supervisory  power  is 
derived  from  the  state,  and  exercised  under  its 
authority.  The  co-operation  of  local  authorities, 
as  established  by  law,  is  recognized  by  the  state. 
In  Ihirnriii.  educational  institutions  are  subordi- 
nate to  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  through  the 
department  of  church  and  school  affairs  I  0/,,-,-slrr 
Sclinl-llath)  and  a  committee  for  examinations, 
appointed  annually.    Saxony,  Wiirtembi  y,  and 

the  minor  German  states,  administer  their  si  1 1 

affairs  in  a  similar  manner.-     A  federal  -.  1 1 

commission  has  lately  been  established  in  IVrlin. 

Secondary  Instriieliaii. — Secondary  school  in- 
struction, in  Germany,  aims  to  give  a  sound  basis 
for  general  scientific  and  literary  education. 
This  grade  of  education  is  directed  to  two  clearly 
distinct  ends, — that  of  a  general  philosophical 
and  liberal  education,  as  represented  in  the 
gymnasium  or  pro-gymnasium ;  and  that  of  a 
more  practical  education,  as  represented  in  the 
real  schools,  of  the  first  or  second  order,  and  the 
higher  burgher  schools.    A  complete  gymnasium 


of  seco 
to  havi 


366  GER 

has  at  least  six  grades  [sexta  being  the  lowest, 
prima,  the  highest).  The  upper  grades,  from 
the  third  toth  ■  first,  are  mostly  subdivided  into 
two  divisions     a  lowerand  a  higher.  'The  course 

of  instrueti ompriscs  !•  years,  of   which  the 

lower  grades  generally  require  one  year  each;  the 
higher,  one  year  for  each  division.  A  pro-gym- 
nasium comprises  the  gymnasium  classes  from 
the  lowest  to  the  third  or  second  grade  of  a 
full  gymnasium,  with  a  course  of  five  or  six 
years.  A  complete  real  school  of  the  first  order 
has  six  grades  and  a  nine  years'  course;  one  of 
the  second  order,  six  grades  and  a  seven  years' 
course.  The  higher  burgher  schools  have  only 
the  five  lower  classes  of  a  real  school.  With 
most  of  these  secondary  schools,  preparatory  de- 
partments, comprising  one.  two,  or  more  grades, 
are  connected.  Candidates  for  the  lowest  class 
stitutions  are  generally  required 
ted  their  !)th  year  of  age,  and  to 
pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  the  elementary 
branches  of  a  common-school  education.  —  In 
Bavaria,  there  are  Studien-Anslalten,  or  clas- 
sical gymnasia,  with  '.<  grades  and  a  course  of  9 
years,  the  5  lower  of  which  constitute  the  Latin 
school,  and  the  4  higher,  the  gymnasium  proper. 
The  so-called  Latin  schools  are  frequently  sepa- 
rated from  the  higher  grades,  and  form  distinct 
institutions.  Real  gymnasia,  which,  in  Bavaria, 
consist  of  a  real  school  and  a  gymnasium,  have  a 
six  years'  course  of  instruction.  In  Wwrtemberg, 
there  are  full  gymnasia,  founded  upon  nearly  the 
same  basis  as  those  in  Prussia;  or  lyceums,  anal- 
ogous to  the  Prussian  pro-gymnasia;  or  Latin 
schools,  as  preparatory  schools  for  institutions  of 
a  higher  order.  In  Saxony,  Baden,  and  the  other 
German  states,  secondary  institutions  of  learning 

are  genera  ll\  < ■ -t .i  I  -I  i -I i-  ■,  I  ii] the  same  basis  as  in 

Prussia.     The  following  schedule  presents,  in  a 
general  way,  the  course  of  study  followed  in  a 
Prussian  gymnasium  (I.  designating  the  highest 
grade  ;  VI.,  the  lowest) : 
Number  of  Weekly  Recitations 

Studies.                  VI.  V.  IV. 

Religion 3  3  2 

German 2  2  2 

Latin 10  10  10 


and  the  realistic  courses  l 
unanimous  opinion  of  i 
neither  gymnasia  nor  re; 


Cli  uuo 


French 

History    and    Geog- 

Geomc'try  and    Arith- 


Physics 

Natural   history. 
Drawing 

Penmanship 


This  does  not  include  Hebrew,  singing,  or  gym- 
nastics (Tit men),  these  being  taught  out  of  the 
regular  school-hours. 

In  1874,  there  were  in  Germany,  547  gym- 
nasia, pro-eviiniasia.  and  real  evmnasia,  with 
G,7o  1  instructors  and  10M,212  pupils;  and  426 
real  and  higher  burgher  schools,  with  4,422  in- 
structors and  7'.). si's  pupils. — In  the  German 
Empire,  one  pupil  in  every  377  of  the.  aggregate 
population  receives  a  classical,  and  one  in  every 
4fi8,  a  non-classical,  secondary  education. — For 


the  higher  education  of  females,  there  were  in 
Germany  (in  1873)  278  schools  of  the  secondary 
order,— in  Prussia  and  Alsace-Lorraine,  207; 
Bavaria.  7:  Saxony,  6;  Baden,  lit;  Hesse.  !);  An- 
halt.  5;  the  Mecklenburgs,  4.— There  are  also 
many  private  institutions  of  great  excellence  not 
included  in  this  enumeration. 

The  salaries  of  instructors  vary  greatly,  the 
lowest  salary  of  an  assistant  teacher  being  about 
1,500  marks,  that  of  an  ordinary  teacher  from 
3,000  to  6,000  marks,  and  that  of  a  director  sel- 
dom exceeding  9,000  marks.  In  October,  1873,  a 
conference  was  held  iii  Berlin,  convened  by  the 
Prussian  minister  of  public  instruction,  to  discuss 

questions   oi    sec ary    instruction.     The   old 

dualism  in  tins  grade  ot  education  formed  an  im- 
>tli  the  classical 

f  discussed.  The 
irence  was,  that 
i  should  be  con- 
sidered special  schools,  lint  that  their  common 
object  should  be  the  advancement  of  general 
education.  The  majority  of  the  meeting  seemed 
to  think  that  the  gymnasium  and  the  rial  school 
should  each  pursue  its  own  way,  without  inter- 
fering with  the  other.  On  the  quest] f  bi- 
furcation, opinions  were  much  divided,  but  the 
opinion  generally  prevailed  that  none  of  the 
existing  secondary  schools  could  be  considered 
superfluous. — In  regard  to  the  question  whether 
real-school  graduates  should  be  admitted  to  the 
universities,  the  prevailing  opinion  was.  that 
such  graduates  should  be  admitted  according 
to  the  existing  regulations,  but  only  to  those 
state  examinations  (Staats-Examina)  which  were 
required  for  obtaining  the  position  of  teacher 
of  mathematics,  natuial  sciences,  or  modern  lan- 
guages. Many  other  points  of  importance  re- 
lating to  secondary  education  were  exhaustively 
discussed;  and  Minister  I'alk.  in  closing  the  con- 
ference, said  that  the  discussions  of  the  meeting 
would  be  taken  into  careful  consideration  by  the 
ministry  of  public  instruction. 

Teachers'  Seminaries. — Xo  class  of  the  edu- 
cational institutions  of  ( ieiiiiany  has  won  more 
general  admiration  than  the  teachers' seminaries. 
Gradually  developed  in  Prussia,  through  the 
efforts  of  Francke,  llecker,  and  their  successors, 
they  have  now  become  the  training  schools  in 
which  nearly  all  the  teachers  of  the  elementary 
schools  receive  their  education.  All  political 
and  even  all  religious  parties,  in  G.ennany.  agree 
in  attributing  the  highest  importance  to  the 
professional  training  of  elementary  teachers  in 
these  seminaries  ;  and  the  appreciation  in  which 
they  are  held  abroad,  is  best  attested  by  the 
fact  that  the  system  has  spread  from  Prussia 
over  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  the  civil- 
ized world.  (See  Teachers'  Seminaries.)  The 
age  required  for  admission  to  these  schools  now 
varies  from  the  14th  to  the  lfith  year.  Admis- 
sion is  every-where  made  contingent  upon  the 
result  of  a  rigid  examination,  at  which,  in  many 
I  cases,  a  school  councilor  (Scktdraffl)  is  present. 
The  candidates  receive  the  preparation  needed 
I  for  the  examination  either  by  private  instrue- 


tion,  or  in  special  preparatory  schools,  called 
Proseminarien  or  Pr'aparandu  n.  In  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony,  these  preparatory  schools  were, 
in  1874,  organically  united  with  the  .-.cminaries. 
which  now  have  six  classes.  In  Prussia,  the 
course  of  instruction,  as  well  as  the  examination 
of  candidates, has  hern  re-organized  by  theGen- 
eral  Regulations  i  .1"/  /,'-     nmungen)  of 

Oct.  15.,  1872.  A.ecordina  to  these  regulations, 
the  royal  seminaries  have  three  classes, each  \\  nli 
an  annual  course  of  instruction.  The  two  lower 
classes  are  instructed  in  pedagogics  (2  hours  a 
week),  religion  (4  h.),  German  language  (oh.), 
arithmetic  (3  h.j,  geometry  (2  h.),  natural  sci- 
ence (4  h.),  geography  (2  h.).  history  (2  h.).  mu- 
sic (5  h.i.  drawing  (2  h.),  penmanship  (2  h.  in 
the  lowest.  1  h.  in  the  middle  class),  gymnastic 
exercises  (2  h.),  either  French  or  Latin,  accord- 
ing to  the  option  of  the  pupils  (3  h.).  The 
course  of  studies  in  the  highest  class  drops  pen- 
manship, and  devotes  t  he  same  amount  of  time  to 
pedagogics,  history,  music,  and  gymnastic  ex- 
ercises, but  reduces  the  time  allowed  for  other 
subjects  (religion,  2  h. ;  mother-tongue,  2  h. ; 
arithmetic  and  geometry,  1  h.:  natural  science. 
2  h.;  geography,  1  h.;  drawing.  1  h.;  French  or 
Latin,  2  h.).  In  some  of  these  subjects,  the 
course  of  studies  is  now  more  comprehensive 
than  formerly.  Thus,  the  instruction  required  in 
pedagogics,  is  henceforth,  to  embrace  the  most 
important  points  of  psychology.  Instruction  in 
German  must  illustrate  the  divisions  of  lyric, 
epic,  didactic,  and  dramatic  poetry.  The  pri- 
vate reading  of  the  pupils  must  especially  be 
devoted  to  the  classic  writers  of  the  last  three 
centuries.  In  addition  to  the  history  of  Ger- 
many and  Prussia,  the  pupils  receive  a  course  of 
Greek  and  Roman  history. — The  course  of  in- 
struction in  the  seminaries,  in  the  other  ( ierniau 
states  (also  in  Austria),  is,  substantially,  the 
same.  In  the  kingdom  of  Saxony,  a  new  course 
of  studies  was  introduced  in  1874,  which  makes 
the  study  of  Latin  a  part  of  the  regular  course. 
The  other  German  states  provide  for  no  in- 
struction in  a  foreign  language ;  and  Austria 
provides  for  French  only.  —  The  number  of 
teachers'  seminaries,  in  1875,  was  (according  to 
Brachelli,  Die  Staaten  Europa's,  1875),  in 
Prussia,  101,  and  in  the  other  states,  73.  The 
total  number  of  pupils  in  the  Prussian  semi- 
naries, in  May,  1875,  was  6,456,  being  1,670  more 
than  in  1874. 

The  Universities.  —  The  following  list  gives 
the  names  of  all  the  universities  of  Germany,  and 
of  the  German  part  of  Austria,  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  chronological  order  of  their  foun- 
dation :  Prague  (1348).  Vienna  (1365).  Heidel- 
berg (1386),  Cologne  (1388,  discontinued  in 
1798),  Erfurt  (1392—1816).  Leipsic  (1409),  Ro- 
stock (1419).  Greifswald  (1456).  Freiburg  (1457), 
Ingolstadt  (1472,  transferred  to  Landshut,  in 
1802,  and  to  Munich,  in  1826),  Treves  (1472 
—1798),  Tubingen  (1477),  Maycnce  (1477— 
1790),  Wittenberg  (1502,  transferred  to  Halle. in 
1817),  Frankfort  on  the  Oder  (1506,  transferred 
to  Breslau,  in  1811),  Marburg  (1527),  Konigsberg 


(1544),  Dillingen  (1549—1804),  Jena  (1558), 
ffehnstadt  (1576— 1809),  Altorf,  near  Nurem- 
berg 1578-  L809),Olmutz(1581  L855  ,\\  iirtz- 
burg  15-2  .  Herborn  L584  1-iT  Gral  I  586) 
Giessen  (1607),  Paderborn  (1615  L803  ,  Stad£ 
hagen  (1619— 21),  Rinteln  (1621— 1810),  Salz- 
burg (1622—1811),  Osnabruck  (1630—1633), 
Minister  (1631.  in  1818  transferred  to  Bonn), 
Bamberg  (1648—1804),  Duisburg  (1655—  1802 
Kiel  (1665),  fnnspruck  (1672).  Lingen  (1685 
L819),  Halle  (1694),  Breslau  (1  702), Vulda  ( 1734 
-1805),  Gottingen  (1737),  Erlangen  (1743), 
Biitzow  (176U  1789),  Berlin  (1809),  Bonn 
(1818),  Munich  (1826),  Strasbourg  (1872).  The 
early  history  of  the  German  universities  agrees. 
in  iis  essentia]  features,  with  that  of  the  uni- 
versities of  other  nations.  (See  University.)  At 
first,  a  papal  decree  was  regarded  as  indispen- 
sable for  their  establishment;  but.  later,  they 
were  established  upon  imperial  authority,  with 
or  without  papal  sanction;  and,  in  1495,  the 
emperor  Maximilian  granted  to  every  elector 
the  right  to  establish  one  in  his  dominions. 
The  original  classification  of  the  students  was 
according  to  nationalities,  each  of  which  elected 
a  procurator;  but,  simultaneously,  there  existed 
an  organization  according  to  the  four  facul- 
ties. The  rector  of  the  university  was.  at  first, 
elected  from  the  philosophical  faculty,  but, 
soon  after,  in  turn  from  each  of  the  four 
faculties.  Every  faculty  elected  a  dean  from 
the  lecturing  magistri,  who,  in  their  turn, 
formed  the  faculty  council.— The  students  of 
Germany,  like  those  of  other  countries,  for- 
merly gave  a  great  deal  of  trouble  by  their  riot- 
ous and  immoral  conduct,  as  well  as  by  some 
abuses  to  which  the  younger  students  were 
subjected  by  the  older.  *  The  student  was  intro- 
duced to  university  life  by  a  singular  ceremony, 
called  the  beania,  or  deposition,  which  con- 
sisted of  a  series  of  painful  castigations.  This 
habit  gave  way  to  the  still  more  absurd  /<>  nnat 
ism,  which  kept  the  freshman  in  a  state  of  hu- 
miliating servitude  to  the  senior  students.  The 
final  suppression  of  pennalism  and  of  the  large 
students'  associations  by  the  united  action  of 
the  universities  and  governments,  was  attended 
with  considerable  public  disturbances,  and  led  to 
the  formation  of  secret  orders  or  associations 
[Landsmannschaften  or  Corps),  which  tried  to 
perpetuate  pennalism,  or  the  dependence  of  the 
younger  upon  the  older  students  in  a  modified 
form.  Each  association  elected,  for  the  term  of 
one  year,  a.  senior,  and  the  convention  of  seniors 
(Seniorenconvent)  represented  the  common  in- 
terests of  these  associations.  A  strong  esprit  de 
corps  was,  in  this  way,  created  and  fostered 
among  the  students,  and  many  habits  peculiar 
to  these  German  institutions  were  developed. 
Among  the  worst  of  these  habits  was  dueling, 
which,  in  spite  of  all  the  laws  against  it.  has  main- 
tained itself,  though  not  to  the  same  extent  as 
formerly,  to  the  present  day.  The  awakening  of  the 
German  people,  which  attended  and  followed  the 
national  war  against  Napoleon,  led,  in  1815,  to 
the  establishment  of  the  B urschenschaft,  an  as- 


sociation  of  students,  for  promoting  the  moral 
and  intellectual  condition  of  their  country. 

The  modern  German  universities  have  main- 
tained many  of  the  characteristics  of  the  earlier 
times,  at  least  in  their  general  organization  and 
administration,  while,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the 
number  and  quality  of  the  studies  pursued 
■widely  differ  from  the  original  standard.  The 
leading  characteristics  of  a 


German  uni 
wing  account. 
ration  of  ordi- 
-.  licensed  pri- 
and  the  im- 
the    necessary 


vate  lecturers   (PrivatrDoceni 

matriculated  students,  besidi 
officials  and  their  adjuncts.  The  studies  pur- 
sued are  generally  classified  into  four  grand  sub- 
divisions, or  faculties:  the  theological,  the  juris- 
tical, the  medical,  and  the  philosophical  ;  the  last 
embracing,  besides  mental  philosophy,  mat  hemat- 
ics, the  natural  sciences,  philology,  history,  and 
cameralistics,  or  political  and  international  econ- 
omy. Bach  faculty  forms  an  independent  sub- 
division of  the  university  'I  lie  general  adminis- 
tration of  a  university  is  intrusted  to  a  select 
body  of  professors,  called  the  Senate,  presided 
over  by  the  rector.  The.  relative  rank  of  the 
professors  is  determined  according  to  seniority 
in  oilie,-,  like  that  of  an  ordinary  professor  at  any 
university.  The  several  faculties  are  officially 
represented  by  the  body  of  ordinary  professors  of 
each  discipline.  Jn  a  wider  sense,  the  extra- 
ordinary professors  and  /irinttim  u'urr,,/  s  are 
id  ml  members  of  their  respective 
faculties.  The  faculties  are  obliged  to  exercise 
a  certain  supervision  over  the  attendance  and 
conduct  of  the  students  inscribed  upon  their 
respective  faculty  rolls.  Each  faculty  is  respon- 
sible for  the  completeness  of  the  instruction 
offered  to  students,  within  the  limits  of  the 
faculty  studies,  inasmuch  as  three  (for  students 
of  medicine,  four)  years  must  comprise  a  full 
curriculum  of  the  main  studies  pertaining  to 
each  discipline.  —  Each  faculty  annually  elects 
a  dean  for  the  administration  of  its  special 
affairs.  The  dean  is  the  president  and  chief 
executive  officer  of  his  faculty.  The  rector  and 
the  senate  are  elected  annually  by  a  plenum 
(full  meeting)  of  the  ordinary  professors.  The 
senate  usually  consists  of  the  rector,  his  ini- 
mediati  pi    lecessor  in  office,  the  faculty  deans, 

and  five  i bers  elected   from   the  number  of 

ordinary  professors.  This  body,  under  the  pres- 
idency of  the  rector,  exercises  supreme  author- 
ity in'  all  matters  concerning  the  university  as  a 
whole,  and  the  highest  disciplinary  power  rel- 
ative to  students.  The  rector  is  the  highest 
functionary,  and  the  foremost  representative, 
of  a  university  in  all  its  external  relations. 
In  the  discharge  of  academic  jurisdiction,  a 
syndic  is  added  to  the  senate,  who  has  the  rank 
of    an    ordinary    professor.       The   syndic   is  the 

professional  adviser  to  rector  and  senate  in  all 
questions  relating  to  statute  law  or  to  the  state 
constitution.  Academic  jurisdiction  is  vested 
in  the  rector,  the  syndic,  or  the  full  meet- 
ing of  the  senate,  according  to  the  character  of 


the. offense.  Students  are  admitted  to  the  uni- 
versity and  academic  rights  by  the  act  of  matric- 
ulation. If  a  native,  the  student  must  produce 
a  certificate  of  graduation  from  a  gymnasium; 
if  he  is  a  foreigner,  a  certificate  is  required  tes- 
tifying to  his  good  moral  character.  By  the  act 
of  matriculation,  the  student  acquires  all  the 
academic  rights  and  privileges  granted  to  stu- 
dents by  statute  law.  Disciplinary  measures  and 
punishments,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
offense,  are  a  private  reprimand  by  the  rector, 
a  public  reprimand  before  the  senate,  incarcera- 
tion, warning  of  the  consilium  abeundi  (advice 
to  leave),  the  consilium  abeundi  proper  (tem- 
porary removal,  mostly  for  one  term,  or  six 
months),  and,  lastly,  the  relegatio  (expulsion),  or 
the  relegatio  cum  in/amia  (dishonorable  expul- 
sion). .Students  expelled  cum  in/amia  cannot  be 
admitted  to  any  other  university.  The  right  to 
lecture  is  granted  only  to  the  appointed  profess- 
ors, ordinary  or  extraordinary,  and  authorized 
private  lecturers  (Privat-Docenien),  who  must 
have  attained  the  degree  of  Doctor  ;  or,  in  the 
theological  faculty,  the  degree  of  Licentiate.  All 
are  carefully  excluded  from  the  privilege  of 
hearing  lectures,  who  have  not  attained  the 
necessary  degree  of  mental  or  moral  maturity, 
more  especially  undergraduates  of  gymnasia,  and 
all  who  have  forfeited  their  matriculation.  Lect- 
ures for  the  succeeding  semester  are  publicly 
announced  before  the  termination  of  the  current 
semester.  The  first  course  of  lectures  commences 
in  the  fall  of  the  year,  at  about  the  middle  of 
(  tatober,  and  terminates  towards  the  latter  part 
of  March;  the  second  course  commences  in  the 
beginning  of  April,  and  terminal  a  in  the  latter 
part  of  August.  At  the  beginning  of  1*77.  the 
German  Empire  had  20  compl  te  universities, of 
which  9  were  in  Prussia,  3,  in  Bavaria,  2  in 
Baden,  1  each  in  Saxony.  Wiirtemberg,  Hesse, 
Mecklenburg,  Saxe  Weimar,  and  Alsace-Lorraine. 
The  number  of  professors  and  students  at  each 
of  these  universities,  in  1870,  was  as  follows: 


NAME 

Professors 

Students 

matriculated 
hearers) 

100 
107 
54 
53 
51 

57 

104 

01 
83 

150 
05 

110 
39 
SO 

67 

4,105 

Bonn         ••         

73C 
1,141 
42S 

254 

1  .  iv;;:-";'::::::::::: 

352 
1.005 
452 
888 

4S8 

459 

i  Bnigsbi  rg  (Prussia) .'.'.'.'.'.... 

215 
615 

411 

1,232 

153 

707 

1,019 

Each  of  these  universities  has  the  four  time- 
honored  faculties.    Bonn,  Breslau,  and  Tubingen 

have  each  two  theological  faculties,  one  I  atholic 
and  one  Protestant,     -Munich,  AVurtzburg,  and 


Freiburg  have  only  a  faculty  of   Catholic  theol- 
ogy; and  each  of  the  others,  one  of  Protestant 


thei 


there  is,  in  Munich,  Wurtzburg,  and  'I  iibingen. 
one  of  political  economy;  and  in  Tubingen,  one 
of  natural  sciences.  The  academy  of  Minister, 
■which  has  only  two  faculties  (Catholic  theology 
and  philosophy)  is  also  classed  among  the  uni- 
versities. At  the  Swiss  universities  of  Bern, 
Basel,  and  Zurich,  at  the  Russian  university  of 
Dorpat,  and  at  the  Austrian  universities  of 
Czerhowitz,  Gratz,  Innspruck,  Prague,  and 
Vienna,  the  German  language  is  exclusively  or 
predominantly  in  use. 

Professional  and  TecJtnical  Instruction. — In 
1875,  there  were,  in  Germany,  10  technical,  or 
polytechnic,  high  schools;  namely,  (1)  Berlin,  the 

of  machines  and  engineering,  chemistry,  mining, 
and  naval  construction)  ;  (3)  Hanover,  prepara- 
tory and  polytechnic  school,  with  24  ordinary,  3 
extraordinary  instructors.  6  assistants,  and  633 
students);  (4)  Ais-la-ChapeU  .  general  prepara- 
tory school  and  special  departments  of  architect- 
ure, engineering,  machines  and  mechanical  tech- 
nics, chemical  technics,  and  mining,  with  20  or- 
dinary, 2  extraordinary,  15  assistant  instructors, 
and  4H7  students;  (.'')  Munich, general  introduc- 
tory school,  and  departments  tor  engineering, 
architecture,  mechanical  technics,  chemical  tech- 
nics, and  agriculture,  with  21  ordinary,  5  extra- 
ordinary, 32  assistant  instructors,  9  private  lect- 
urers, and  1053  students;  (ii)  Dresden,  general  in- 
troductory school;  departments  of  engineering, 
mechanics,  architecture;  chemical  technics, math- 
ematics, and  natural  sciences,  with  20  ordinary, 
5  extraordinary.  0  as.-i.-d ant  instructors. 3 private 
lecturers,  and  366  students;  ■■  &  lart,  de 
partments  of  architecture,  i  ogineering,  machine 
building, chemical  technics,  mathematics. natural 
sciences,  with  23  ordinary,  25  a  sistant,  11  private 
instructors,  and  537  stu  1  ints;  (8)  <  'arlsruhe,  de- 
partments of  matlr-matics,  engineering,  machine 
building  mechanical  technics,  architectare, chem- 
istry and  chemical  technics,  and  forestry,  with 
35  ordinary,.  1  extraordinary,  10  assistant  in- 
structors, 1  private  lecturer,  and  010  students; 
(9)  Darmstadt,  a  general  preparatory  school  and 
departments  of  architecture,  engineering,  ma- 
chine building,  chemical  technics,  mathematics, 
and  natural  sciences,  with  28  ordinary  and  I  as- 
sistant instructors,  and  179  stud  .  ;  i  Br 
wick,  a  general  preparati  >ry  scl 1  <  .f  arts  and  sci- 
ences; departments  of  architcc;  mc  ciiL'iiieeiinL.-. 
machine  building,  chemical  technics,  pharmacy, 
and  forestry,  with  24  ordinary  and  5  assistant 
instructors. and  15.'!  students.  There  are  also  tei  li- 
nical  academics  at  Cassel,  Nienburg,  and  other 
places.  Of  technical  schools,  there  were, in  1875, in 
Prussia,  32  provincial  technical  schools  ( i  .',■»■ .-, -/ '-.-. 
Schnlen)  ;  in  Bavaria,  36  (including  commercial 
and  agricultural  schools);  in  Saxony,  9;  and  in 
Saxe  Coburg-Gotha,  3. 

Scientific  Instruction. — Military  Academies.  - 
There  are  schools  of  military  science,  especially 


for  the  education  of  general-staff  officers,  at  Ber- 
lin and  Munich;  the  imperial  naval  academy  and 
school  at  Kiel  ;  and,  for  the  education  of  army 
officers,  the  combined  artillery  and  military  en- 
gineering schools  at  Berlin  and  Munich,  the  war 
schoolsat  Pots. lam.  Erfurt,  Neisse  I  og<  rs,<  !assel, 
Hanover,  Anclam,  Metz,  and   Munich,  and  the 

several  cadet  corps  in  dilfeiviil  states;  also  the 
military  surgical  in-tmite.  and  veterinary  school 
at  Berlin.  Thereare  numerous  military  schools  for 
non-commissioned  officers  throughout  the  Ger- 
man -i  ites.  Veterinary  academies  are  estab- 
lished at    Berlin,  Munich,  and   Banover;  acad- 


j.olvtcclmicschoolsat  licrlinand  Aix  la-l  hapelle; 
agricultural  academies,  at  Berlin,  Hofgeisberg, 
Gottingeri,  Eldena  (near  Greifswald),  Proskau 
(near  Oppeln),  Poppelsdorf  (near  Bonn),  Tha- 
randt,  Ilohenheim  (near  Stuttgart). ami  Wcihen- 
stephan;  and  pomological  institutes  at  Proskau 
and  Geisenheim.  Schools  of  navigation  exist  at 
Memel,  Pillau,  Dantzic,  Grabow  (Stettin),  Earth, 
Stralsund,  Altona,  Flensburg,  Apenrade,  <  ieeste- 
milnd,  Leer,  Papenburg,  Emden,  and  Timmel; 
also  7  preparatory  nautical  schools.  'I  here  are  cmi- 
servatories  of  music,  at  Berlin,  Munich,  and  nu- 
merous other  cities;  and  commercial  colleges  (15) 
at  Dantzic,  Berlin,  Breslau,  Dresden,  Leipsic  (2), 
Chemnitz,  Zwickau.  Gera,  l.iibeck.  Osnabriick, 

Bildesheim,  II; ver,  Munich,  and  Nuremberg. 

— The  institutions  for  spi  ial  instruction  axe  the 
following:  (1)  for  the  deaf  and  dumb:  in  Prus- 
sia, 37;  Bavaria,  12;  Saxony,  3;  Wurtemberg,  4; 
Baden,  2;  Hesse,  2;  Mecklenburg,  Oldenburg, 
Saxe  Weimar,  Anhalt.  Pruu-w  ii  k,  Saxe  I  'oburg- 
Gotha,  Saxe  Meiningen,  Reuss,  and  Hamburg, 
each  1;  (2)  for  the  blind:  ii  Prussia,  15;  Bavaria, 
3;  Saxony.  2;  Wurtemberg,  2;  Baden,  Hesse, 
Mecklenburg,  each  1;  other  states.  6;  in  all.  31. 

Educational  Publications. — In  1873,  there 
were  published  in  the  German  empire  8  I  papers 
devoted  to  education  (Prnssia  41;  other  German 
states,  l"  See  Si  bhid,  En,  n  qpddie,  articles 
Preuss    ,.!■■■■    ■-.-'■       ■  n    I:  -     / - 

Pi  -  .    Engl,  trans,  by  Barnard)  ;  Schmidt, 

Geschicftte  a  .-•/'.  ;   Barnard,  National 

Eduea  >n  vol.l.;  Gir  dors  of  Information  of 
the  Bureau  of  Education,  No.  2  (Washington, 
1-71  ;  Wit:-;--.  Verordnungen  und  Gesetzefur 
di  hSh  ■ ,  &  '■>■  n  in  Preussen.  The  Pada- 
gogisch  r  John  bericlit,  edited  by  Dittes  (vol. 
xxviii.,  Leipsic,  1876,  embracing  the  year  1875), 
and  the  Glironik  des  Volksschulwesens,  edited  by 
Seyffarth  (vol.  XI.,  Gotha,  1876,  embracing  the 
year  1875),  give,  from  year  to  year,  a  very  full 
account  of  the  progress  of  education  in  all  the 
( ierman  states.  The  fullest  statistical  account 
of  secondary  instruction  is  given  in  Mdshacee, 
Deutscher  SchulrKalender  (vol.  xxv.,  Leipsic, 
1876;  edited  by  Jenne);  and  the  fullest  account 
of  the  German  universities,  in  Deutsches  akade- 
misches  Jahrbuch  (vol.  n.,  Leips.,  1870). 


::to 


GE8NER 


GESNER,  Johann  Matthias,  a  <  lerman  I 
educator,  born  April  9.,  1091  ;  died  Aug.  .'!., 
1761.  He  studied  at  Jena,  and  after  holding 
several  minor  positions,  became,  in  1730,  rector 
of  the  celebrated  Thomas  School,  in  I^eipsic. 
This  he  found  in  a  very  low  condition,  both  in 
respect  to  studies  and  discipline  ;  but,  in  a  few- 
years,  he  succeeded  in  restoring  its  former  repu- 
tation. In  1734,  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  new 
university  of  I  iottingen,  where,  in  the  position  of 
professor  of  ancient  literature,  he  exerted  great 
influence  upon  the  progress  of  philosophy  in 
Germany. ami  contributed  to  a  thorough  reform 
of  the  literarv  institutions  of  a  higher  grade,  lie 
was  intrusted  with  the  establishment  of  the  first 

spector  of  all  the  Hanoverian  schools,  —  two 
offices  for  which  his  former  labors  eminently  fitted 
him.  In  1757,  he  drew  up  the  new  school  reg- 
ulations, in  which  he  embodied  the  experiences  of 
his  life  as  a  teacher,  and  the  results  of  a  mature 
study  of  the  proper  organization  of  classical 
schools.  He  favored  the  views  of  Ratich  (q.  v.), 
Uomenius  (q.  v.),  and  Locke  (q.  v.),  as  to  the 
best  method  of  facilitating  the  study  of  languages 
and  making  it  attractive.  Notwithstanding  his 
great  official  industry,  he  wrote  a  large  number 
of  important  works  on  pedagogy  and  philology, 
besides  publishing  valuable  e  litions  of  the  clas- 
sics.— See  J.  M.  Gesxkr,  Kduratiaual  Vines,  in 
Barnard's  Journal  of  Education. 

GIFTS,  Kindergarten,  the  term  used  by 
Froebel  to  designate  the  apparatus  devised  by 
him  for  kindergarten  instruction,  inasmuch  aa 
they  are  not  used  by  the  teacher  but i/ircu  to  the 
children,  as  the  material  for  interesting  and  in- 
structive  occupation,  by   the   manipulation   of 


which  their 
witli 


■lilt!. 


,  are  unfolded  ill  accordance 
method  (q.  v.).  These  gifts 
lumbered  from  1  to  20,  and 
r,  of  which,  however,  Nos.  8 


right  and  left,  up  and  down):  also  to  train  the 
eye.  and  to  exercise  the  hands,  arms,  and  feet  in 
various  plays.  (2)  SpJiere,  cube,  and  cylinder, 
designed  to  teach  form,  by  directing  the  atten- 
tion of  the  child  to  resemblances  and  differ- 
ences in  objects.  This  is  done  by  pointing  out, 
explaining,  and  counting  the  sides,  edges,  and 
corners  of  the  cube,  and  by  showing  how  it  dif- 
fers, in  these  respects,  from  the  sphere  and  cylin- 
der. The  manipulation  by  the  child  should,  of 
course,  precede  this  demonstration  by  the  teacher. 
The  child's  self-activity  will  prompt  it  to  place 
these  forms  in  various  positions  and  combina- 
tions, so  as  to  realize  in  its  conceptions  every  thing 
that  is  analogous  or  dissimilar  in  them.  (3)  A 
large  cube  divided  into  eight  equal  cubes,  the  ob- 
ject being  to  teach  both  form  and  number,  also 
to  give  a  rudimental  idea  of  fractions.  (I)  A.  large 
cube  divided  into  eight  oblong  blocks,  designed 
to  teach  number  and  a  simple  variety  of  form 
(cube   and   parallelopiped).     (5)    A  large  cube 


GIFTS 

divided  into  27  equal  cubes,  three  of  the  latter 
being  subdivided  into  half  cubes,  and  three  others 
into  quarter  cubes  (forming  triangular  prisms). 
This  is  a  further  continuation  and  complement 
of  (3),  but  affording  much  ampler  means  of 
combination  both  as  to  form  and  number. 
(ti)  A  large  cube  so  divided  as  to  consist  of  18 
whole  oblong  blocks,  three  similar  blocks  divided 
lengthwise,  and  six  e-ivided  breadthwise, — a  still 
further  continuation  of  the  ideas  involved  in  (3). 
(7)  Triangular  and  quadrangular  tub/els  of 
polished  wood,  affording  the  means  of  further 
exercise  in  reversing  the  position  of  forms  and 
combining  them  ;  and  presenting,  in  addition, 
illustrations  of  plane  surfaces,  instead  of  solids, 
as  in  the  previous  gifts.  This  arrangement, 
placing  the  surfaces  after  the  solids,  recognizes 
an  important  principle  of  education. — that  we 
should  pass  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract 
(see  Form),  the  square  being  a  side  of  the  cube, 
and  a  triangle  deduced  from  the  prism.  (8)  Sticks 
for  laying, , — wooden  sticks  about  13  inches  long, 
to  be  cut  into  various  lengths  by  the  teacher  or 
pupil,  as  occasion  may  require.  These  sticks, 
like  most  of  the  previous  gifts,  are  designed  to 
teach  numerical  proportions.  The  multiplication 
table  may  be  practically  learned  by  means  of 
this  gift.  The  forms  of  the  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet, and  the  Roman  and  Arabic  numerals,  may 
also  be  learned.  (9)  Rings  for  ring-laying, 
consisting  of  whole  and  half  rings  of  various 
sizes,  in  wire,  for  forming  figures ;  designed  to 
develop  further  ideas  of  form,  also  to  afford  a 
means  for  developing  the  constructiveiiess  of  the 
pupils,  and  practice  in  composing  simple  de- 
signs. (Hi)  Drawing  slates  and  paper,  consist- 
ing of  slates  ruled  in  squares,  and  paper  ruled 
in  squares,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  tho 
pupil  to  draw  or  copy  simple  figures,  in  a 
methodical  manner,  the  ruling  aiding  them  in 
the  adjustment  of  proportions.  (11)  Perforat- 
ing paper,  ruled  in  squares  on  one  side  only, 
with  perforating  needles,  affording  more  ad- 
vanced practice  in  producing  forms,  and  execut- 
ing simple  designs.  (12)  'Embroidering  material, 
to  be  used  for  transferring  the  designs  executed 
on  the  perforating  paper,  by  embroidering  them 
!  with   colored  worsted  or  silk   on   card   board. 

(13)  Paper  for  cutting:  squares  of  paper  are 
folded,  cut  according  to' certain  rules, and  formed 
into  figures.  The  child's  inclination  for  using 
the  scissors  is  thus  ingeniously  turned  to  account, 

I  and  made  to   produce  very  gratifying  results. 

(14)  Wearing  paper:  strips  of  colored  paper 
are,  by  means  of  a  steel  or  wooden  needle  of 
peculiar  construction,  woven  into  a  differently 
colored  sheet  of  paper,  which  is  cut  into  strips 
throughout  its  entire  surface,  except  a  margin  at 
each  end  to  keep  the  strips  in  their  places.  A 
very  great  variety  of  figures  is  thus  produced, 
and  the  inventive  powers  of  the  child  are  con- 
i-taniK  In. night  into  requisition.  (15)  Plaiting 
material,  including  sets  of  flats  for  interlacing, 
so  as  to  form  geometrical  and  fancy  figures. 
(10)  Jointed  slats  (go<>,graj,/,s).  for  forming 
angles  and  geometrical  figures.  (See  Gonigraph).. 


GIRARD 

(17)  Paper  for  intertwining;  paper  strips  of 
various  colors,  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  folded 
lengthwise,  used  to  represent  a  variety  of  geo- 
metrical and  fancy  figures,  by  plaiting  them  ac- 
cording to  certain  rules.  (18)  I '<iiff  for  fold- 
ing, consisting  of  square,  rectangular,  and  tri- 
angular pieces,  with  which  varimi-Iv  shaped  ob- 
jects may  be  formed.     (19)  Material  for  peas 

pointed  at  the  ends,  which  are  passed  through 
peas,  that  have  been  soaked  in  water  for  six  or 
eight  hours ;  these  are  then  used  to  imitate 
various  objects  and  geometrical  figures.  Cork 
cubes  are  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  peas,  as 
being  more  convenient.  (20)  Mah  rial  fur 
modeling:  modeling  knives,  of  w 1.  and  model- 
ing boards,  by  means  of  which  various  forms  are 
modeled  in  bees-wax,  clay,  putty,  or  some  other 
soft  substance. — These  gifts  tints  represent  every 
kind  of  technical  activity,  from  the  mere  collec- 
tion of  the  raw  material  to  the  delicate  processes 
of  design  aswell  as  plastic  art.  They  are  designed 
to  develop  not  only  the  constructive  ability  of 
the  pupil,  through  his  natural  impulse  to  activ- 
ity, and  by  the  exercise  of  the  faculty  of  con- 
ception, so  characteristic  of  childhood,  but  by 
their  countless  combinations  of  color  and  form 
to  lay  the  foundation  for  a  complete1  develop- 
ment of  the  esthetic  nature.  They  address,  at 
once,  his  intellect,  his  emotions,  ami  his  physical 
activities ;  while,  as  the  child  works  out  the  re- 
sults himself,  he  gains  confidence  in  his  own 
ability  to  surmount  obstacles,  and  thus  learns  an 
enduring  lesson  of  self-reliance.  Kindergarten 
gifts  ami  occupation  material  suitable  for  schools 
or  families,  are  put  up  in  sets  and  soli  I  in 
boxes,  convenient  for  use. —  See  A.  Douai,  The 
Kindergarten  (New  York);  E.  P.  Peabody, 
Kindergarten  Guide  (New  York.  1869);  H. 
Hoffmann,  Kindergarten  Toys,  and  haw  to  use 
them  (Xew  York)  ;  Aug.  Kckiilkh,  Drr  Kinder- 
garten in  seinem  Wesen  dargesteUt  (N.  Y.);  and 
Die  Praxis  des  Kindergartens  (Weimar) ;  M. 
H.  Kriege,  Friedrich  Froebel  (N.  V..  1876). 

GIRARD,  Gregoire,  a  Swiss  educator, 
born  Dec.  17.,  1763;  died  March  6.,  1850.  He 
entered  the  Franciscan  order  in  his  sixteenth 
year,  studied  theology  in  VVUrtzhurg,  and  after 
being  ordained  as  priest,  held  several  positions  as 
a  teacher.  lie  paid  special  attention  to  the 
common-school  system,  \\  hieh  in  his  native  canton 
of  Fribourg  was  in  a  poor  condition  ;  and  he 
drew  up  a  plan  for  the  re-organization  of  the 
public-school  system  of  all  Switzerland,  which, 
however,  was  not  adopted  by  the  federal  authori- 
ties. In  1804,  he  returned  to  fribourg  to  take 
charge  of  the  schools  of  that  city.  He  remained 
in  that  position  up  to  1823,  when  he  resigned 
in  consequence  of  a  quarrel  with  the  church 
authorities.  From  1827  to  183-f,  he  was  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  Lucerne;  but.  after  the 
latterdate.he  lived  in  retirement  in  his  monastery 
in  Fribourg.  1  lis  administration  of  the  schools 
of  Fribourg  attracted  the  attention  oi  many  of 
the  friends  of  education  throughout  Europe.  He 
paid  particular  attention  to  the   teaching  of  re- 


GLOBB 


371 


ligion  and  language.  I  n  the  former,  he  ignored 
the  doctrines  of  particular  denominations,  and 
favored  general  instruction  in  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  Christian  religion.  His  views 
on  this  subject  are  laid  down  in  the  Premieres 
notions  de  religion,  which  he  declared  was  not 
a  catechism,  but  an  introduction  to  a  catechism, 
lie  also  embraced  Pestalpzzi's  views  on  tho 
teaching  of  languages,  making  the  study  of  the 
mother-tongue  the  basis  of  all  instruction.  Father 
Chard  favored  very  much  the  system  of  mutual 
instruction  as  practiced  by  Dr.  Bell  (q.  v.)  and 

•  Joseph  Lancaster  (q,  v.|  ;  indeed,  he  is  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  that  system  in  Switzerland. 
As  an  illustration  of  its  efficacy,  he  said  that 
"when  he  met  with  difficulty  in  explaining  any 
word  or  subject  to  a  child,  he  often  called  in  a 
boy  more  advanced  to  aid  him, and  usualh  found 
him  to  succeed  entirely,  even  when  till  his  own 
efforts  had  failed."  See  Nawi.i.k.  Notice  biogra- 
phiquesurle  I'.  Girard (Geneva,  1850);  Gibaed, 
The  Mother  Tongue,  Engl,  trans.  (Lond.,1847). 

GIRLS,  Education  of.  See  Female  'Edu- 
cation. 

GLOBE,  Artificial  (Latin,  globus),  a  hol- 
low sphere,  made  of  metal,  plaster,  or  pasteboard, 
used  a.s  a  model  of  the  earth,  and  having  deline- 
ated upon  it  all  the  various  natural  and  political 
divisions  of  the  terrestrial  surface,  together  with 
the  circles,  etc.,  used  in  mathematical  geography. 
Through  its  center,  runs  an  iron  axis  the  two 
ends  of  which  project,  and  are  fastened  to  a  circle, 
or  ring,  of  brass,  within  which  the  globe  can  be 
turned  around.  This  ring,  called  the  brazen 
meridian,  is  graduated  so  as  to  indicate  degrees 
of  latitude,  and  by  rotating  the  globe  can  be 
made  to  represent  the  meridian  of  any  place. 
The  artificial  globe  is  also  usually  surrounded 
with  a  broad  horizontal  ring  of  wood,  called  the 
mooden  horizon,  which  has  two  slots  in  which 
the  meridian. and  with  it  the  globe  move,  so  that 
either  pole  'nay  be  elevated  or  depressed,  and  the 
horizon  adapted  to  any  place.  The  upper  surface 
of  the  wooden  horizon  is  divided  into  several 
concentric  circles,  representing  degrees  of  ampli- 
tude and  azimuth,  signs  of  the  zodiac,  the  points 
of  the  compass,  the  divisions  of  the  year  into 
months  and  days,  etc.  Such  a  globe  is  called  a 
terrestrial  globe.  A  celestial  globe  differs  from  it 
iu  representing  the  appearance  of  the  starry 
heavens,  constellations,  etc.,  as  if  seen  from  the 
center  of  the  globe.  Globes  of  much  simpler 
construction  are  made  for  elementary  instruction. 

The  artificial  globe  is  supposed  to  have  been 
invented  by  Anaximander,  about  580  B.  C. 
Rules  for  the  use  of  the  terrestrial  globe  were 
first  given  by  Ptolemy,  150  A.  D.  The  two  old- 
est globes  now  extant  (both  celestial  globes)  are 
of  Arabic   construction.     One  made   in  1225,   is 

Veile'tri';  the  ot,ier!made  ill  Vl'">.  is'pn  ,,  i'\"i''|  i„ 
the  mathematical  hall  of  Dresden.  In  the  15th 
century,  the  use  of  globes  in  schools  rapidly  in- 
creased, and  among  those  who  distinguished 
themselves  in  their  construction,  are  mentioned 
.Martin  Belicius,  Gerhard  Mercator,  ami  Tycho 


372 


GLOME 


Brahe.  The  most  celebrated  globe  is  the  so-called 
Gottorp  globe,  which  was  constructed.  I>v  order 
of  the  duke  of  Holstein-I  IqI  torp,  by  ( (learius  and 
Busch,  in  16(14.  it  was  11  feel  in  diameter,  and 
was  at  first  set  up  in  Gottorp,  near  Scbleswig, 
whence  it  was,  in  1713,  transferred  to  St.  Peters- 
burg. The  national  library  in  Paris  has  two 
globes  over  14  feet  in  iHameter;  and  the  Mazarin 
library  and  the  museum  of  the  Louvre  have  each 
a  magnificent  copper  globe.  The  georama  is  a 
peculiar  and  colossal  kind  of  globe  which  bears 
the  delineation  of  places,  etc.,  on  the  inner  sur- 
face A  globe  of  this  kind.  51  feet  in  diameter, 
was  constructed  in  185]  by  Mr.  Wyld,  in  Lon- 
don. An  attempt  to  combine  the  terrestrial  and 
the  celestial  globe  was  made  by  Lohsc.  in  Ham- 
burg, in  1829,  the  terrestrial  globe  being  inclosed 
in  a  glass  sphere  bearing  on  its  surface  delineations 
of  the  constellations.  A  similar  globe  was  con- 
structed and  patented  in  New  York  in  1867. 
Globes  have  also  been  made  of  india  rubber,  to 
be  inflated  for  use ;  others  of  thin  card-paper, 
made  in  sections,  so  as  to  be  folded  up  and  laid 
away  when  not  needed.  Embossed  globes  show. 
in  exaggerated  relief,  the  elevations  and  depres- 
sions of  the  earth's  surface.  The  hand  hemi- 
sphereglobe  is  very  useful  for  elementary  instruc- 
tion ;  it  consists  of  two  half-globes,  or  hemi- 
spheres, connected  by  a  hinge,  each  flat  surface 
containing  a  planisphere  map  of  the  correspond- 
ing convex  surface.  This  arrangement  shows  the 
learner  at  once  the  relation  of  map  to  globe,  also 
why  the  lines  on  the  map  which  represent  the 
circles  must  be  curved.  It  is  usually  made  so 
small  that  it  can  be  passed  from  hand  to  hand 
while  the  teacher  is  explaining  the  lesson.  The 
wul>  hfmisphere  i/lul/e  is  designed  to  afford  a 
similar  illustration.  It  is  so  constructed  that  the 
two  hemispheres  can  be  hung  up  side  by  side, 
against  a  wall,  and  contrasted  with  hemisphere 
maps,  suspended  above.  Globes  without  any 
auxiliary  appendages,  such  as  stand,  meridian,  etc. 
are  often  constructed  so  as  to  rest  on  brackets, 
and  thus  form  part  of  the  esthetic  decoration  of 
the  school  room,  when  not  in  use.  Globes  having 
a  black  slate  surface  — slated  globes  —  are  very 
useful  for  many  kinds  of  instruction.  In  using 
these  globes,  the  pupil  draws  the  circles  —  merid- 
ians, equator,  and  parallels,  and  delineates  the 
countries,  etc.,  with  chalk,  cither  from  a  map  or 
from  memory.  The  knowledge  of  geography 
thus  acquire  1  is  more  practical,  and  is  more  per- 
manently based  on  the  intelligent  conceptions  of 
the  pupil.   These  globes  are  of  great  use  in  the 

study  of  advai I  geography,  as  well  as  in  that 

of  spherical  geometry,  trigonometry,  navigation, 
etc.  Excellent  globes,  of  every  pattern  and  de- 
scription, are  made  by  Schedler,  of  New  York, 
who  has  invented  a  method  of  manufacture, 
which  renders  them  quite  cheap  and  exceedingly 
durable.  They  are  also  remarkable  for  the  scien- 
tific accuracy  of  their  delineations. 

The  globe  has  many  advantages  over  the  map, 
as  an  apparatus  for  teaching  geography,  because 
(1)  it  represents  the  earth  in  it's  natural  form. 
and  shows  clearly  the  relation  of  each  and  every 


GOETHE 

part  of  its  surface  to  the  whole ;  hence,  its  use 
should  always  precede  that  of  the  map  ;  (2)  it 
affords  ii  better  means  of  explaining  those  points 
and  mathematical  lines  a  clear  conception  of  the 
use  of  which  forms  the  very  groundwork  of  geo- 
graphical science  :  (3)  by  means  of  it  the  teacher 
can  illustrate  the  earth's  motions,  the  causes  of 
the  seasons,  day  and  night,  etc.;  and  (4)  many 
useful  problems  may  be  solved  by  means  of  it, 
as  finding  the  longitude  and  latitude  of  places, 
the  difference  of  tune,  the  time  of  sunrise  and 
sunset,  and  the  length  of  the  day  at  particular 
places,  etc.  Pupils  in  geography  and  astronomy 
should  be  thoroughly  practiced  in  the  working 
out  of  these  problems  on  the  globe,  since  they 
not  only  gain  thereby  much  useful  information, 
but  acquire  clear  and  durable  conceptions  of  the 

GOETHE,     Johann   Wolfgang  von,  an 

illustrious  German  poet,  clitic,  and  thinker,  born 
in  Frankfort  on  the  Main.  Aug.  28..  1749;  died 
in  Weimar.  March  22..  1832.  He  was  educated 
at  the  universities  of  Leipsic  and  Strasburg,  and, 
in  1775,  at  the  solicitation  of  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Saxe-Weimar,  whose  interest  in  him  had  been 
aroused  h\  his  novel.  Tltr  .Sorrows  if  W'rriln'r.  he 
visited  Weimar,  which  he  afterwards  made  his 
permanent  residence.  Philosophy,  history,  sci- 
ence, art,  almost  every  subject  of  inquiry,  in  fact, 
claimed  his  attention,  and  led  to  frequent  publica- 
tions in  the  shape  of  novels,  histories,  plays,  and 
poems.  It  is  to  ( Joethe  that  botany  owes  one  of  its 
fundamental  conceptions,  now  generally  admitted, 
that  the  various  parts  of  a  flower  are  modified 
leaves.  With  regard  to  education.  Goethe's  idea 
was,  that  its  great  aim  should  be  the  development 
and  preservation  of  individuality.  Every  child  is 
different  from  every  other,  and  has  special  powers 
of  its  own:  and  the  value  of  education  consists  in 
maintaining  and  developing  these  individual 
differences,  and  not  in  producing  a  dead  level  of 
character,  'i  he  necessity  of  education  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  child  is  undeveloped:  and  educa- 
tional efforts  must  all  be  based  on  the  principle 
that  the  germs  of  knowledge  are  in  the  soul. 
I  fence,  all  true  development  must  be  from  within 
outward.  Education  is  not  a  pouring  of  knowl- 
edge into  the  mind,  as  into  an  empty  vessel, 
but  the  development  of  faculties  which  are 
already  there,  as  the  growth  of  a  plant  from  the 
seed.  This  development,  too,  must  be  general,  in 
all  directions.  To  cultivate  any  one  faculty  at 
the  expense  of  others,  produces  monsters,  not 
men.  Nothing  was  more  repulsive  to  Goethe 
than  the  mechanical,  atheistic  conception  of  the 
world.  He  insisted  upon  finding  an  ever-present 
Divinity  in  both  nature  and  life.  The  recogni- 
tion of  this  constitutes  religion,  and  should  be  the 
aim  of  all  education.  This  feeling  should  be  so 
cultivated,  that  no  circumstances  can  disturb  in 
us  a  conscious  sense  of  the  Divine.  Religious  teach- 
ing should  begin  in  the  earliest  childhood;  not, 
ho\\e\er.  by  means  of  the  catechism, or  any  other 
form  of  dogmatic  instruction;  but  the  child's 
imagination  must  be  made  familiar  with  the 
conception  of   a  Divine   Spirit  underlying  and 


(iOMtil!  AI'll 


COYKRNMF.NT 


r,\i 


interfusing  every  form  of  life,    Ethics  refer  to  i  Ct.,  Aug.  L9.,  1793,    and   died  in  New    York, 

moral  eon. Inn:  iienee.  etliieal  culture  must  chiefly     May  'J..   lS(i(l. 


lie 


consist  m  i 
the  bad  is 
moral  as  w 
of  morals 


ig  more  especially  of  juv 
11  is,  books  of  trave 
e  works  on  the  ar 
books,  especially  1 
text-l ks  in   seho 


Bible,  familiarity  with  the  history  of  the  great 
and  good  is  the  most  important  means  of  moral 
ami  religii  ms  culture.  Instruction  in  the  narrower 
sense  of  imparting  knowledge  must  be  rather 
synthetic  than  analytic.  Building  up  teaches 
more  than  tearing  down.  Classical  study  is 
practically  worthless  so  long  as  it  is  conducted 
solely  by  grammar  and  dictionary.  We  must 
work  ourselves  into  the  lite  of  classical  times  in 
order  to  understand  them.     The  study  of  Greek 


their  \va 


he    regarded     as    far    superior,    for    tutoress  in  a  family,  to  conduct  the  education  of 


literatu 

purposes  of  culture,  to  Latin  literature  :  becaus 
the  Greeks  were  far  broader  men.  They  s; 
nature  and  life  in  all  their  aspects;  while  t 
Romans  saw  only  man  :  and  him  they  regard 
only  as  a  warrior  or  a  slave.  ( roethe  did  nothi 
for  the  systematic  development  of  pedagog 
His  views  in  regard  to  teaching  are  scatter 
through  his  works,  and  consist  of  hints  ratli 
than  formulated  rules.  The  great  endeavor 
his  philosophy  is  to  mediate  between  individu 
ism  and  the  stern  necessities  of  society. —  S 
Schmidt.  Geschichle  der  Padagogik. 

GONIGRAPH    ((Jr.    yuvia,  an   angle,   at 

garten  exercises  and  in  object-teaching,  to  ilh 
trate  the  nature  and  formation  of  angles  ai 
polygons.  It  consists  of  a  series  of 
jointed  slats  of  equal  length,  by  the  different 
combinations  of  which,  figures  of  various  shapes 
may  be  formed.  The  number  of  slats,  or  links. 
varies  from  3  to  as  many  as  16,  or  even  more. 
As  a  piece  of  kindergarten  apparatus  (gift),  the 
gonigraph  may  be  made  the  means  of  much 
instructive  entertainment  to  a  young  child,  who 
from  its  manipulation  will  acquire  ideas  of  a 
great  variety  of  figures.  In  the  more  advanced 
object-teaching,  in  connection  with  the  subject 
oiform,  it  will  be  found  very  useful,  as  well  as 
attractive.  Gonigraphs  are  usually  sold  in  sets 
as  a  part  of  the  apparatus  necessary  for  kinder- 
garten work,    i 


istoryofthe  Animal  King- 

1.  he  was  appointed  Ended 


GOVERNESS,   or  Governante  (Fr.  Gou- 
'it''),   a   woman    employed    as  a  resident 


children  or  young  women.     The  employment  of 

sses  began  in  the  second  half  of' the  17th 
when  the  French  language  and  manners 
to  use  among  the  upper  classes  of  society 
out  Europe.  When  a  young  lady  who 
able  to  speak  French  fluently,  and  was 
:  conversant  with  Paris  fashions,  came  to 
d  upon  as  lacking  in  refinement,  it  was 
that  mothers  should  be  anxious  to  secure 
ices  of  French  teachers,  especially  I'aris- 
ns.  to  give  to  their  daughters  the  requisite 
aining.  The  practice  of  employing  governesses 
■came,  in  a  short  time,  equally  common  in 
ugland,  Germany,  and 
ode  of  educating  young 


the 


from   Franc 

ency  of  the 
tion,  had  be 
nesses  cami 
Switzerland 
the  sending 
England  an< 


■Ills 


popular, 
ly  taken 
social  ascend- 
if  the  revolu- 
aative  eover- 


and  Germany  and 
lete  with  France  in 
ten  of  education  to 
a  livelihood  in  this 
which  female  educa- 
very   considerably 

influence  of  gover- 
some  extent,  also  in 


in.  r 


■du 
lished  for  the  purpose.   In  F: 


inicn    receive   their 

ligh  schools  estab- 

itself,  where  ; 


GONZAGA  COLLEGE,  at  Washington,  governess  is  usually  called  inslitutrice,  the  num- 
D.  C.,  was  incorporated  in  1858.  It  was  for-  ber  of  governesses  has  always  been  comparatively 
merly  known  as  the  Washington  Seminary.  It  smaller  than  in  England,  Germany, or  Russia.  In 
is  conducted  by  the  Father,  of  the  Sa  ' 
Jesus.     The  college  is  intended  for  days 


only,  irrespective  of  creed  or 
The  entire  course  covers  seve 


•   Society  ot  the  I   luted  Mate.-,  a  larger  proportion  of   young 
lay  scholars    women  than  in  any  European  country,  finish  their 

i  profession,  education   in  female  academics  and  high  schools, 

comprising  and  more  recently  in  colleges  to  which  both  sexes 
a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department,  with  are  admitted.  Only  in  England  has  the  employ- 
a  classical  and  a  non-classical  course  of  studv.  incut  of  governesses,  to  anv  considerable  extent, 
In  1875— fi.  there  were  5  instructors  and  107  1 n  maintained.  Governesses  are  generally  pro- 
students.     The  library  contains  1(1,000  volume,,  fessional  teachers  who  have  received  th 

The  cost  of  tuition  is  $10  per  quarter  in  either  tion  in  training  scl Is;  and  in  French  -  - 

course.     The  Rev.  Charles   K.  Jenkins,  S.  J.,  is  land,  there  are  special  schools  for  the  instruction 

(187(>)  the  president.  I  of  governesses. 

GOODRICH,    Samuel    Griswold,    better  I      GOVERNMENT,   School,  like  the  govern- 

known  as  Peter  Parley,  was  born  in  Ridgefield,  ment  of  a  state,  must  be  based  upon  the  estab- 


374 


GOYKRXMKXT 


lishment  of  authority  (q.  v.),  which  includes  not 
only  the  right  to  make  laws,  but  the  power,  as 
well  as  the  right,  to  execute  them.  These  powers, 
in  every  civilized  state  and  community,  are  dis- 
tributed among  different  persons,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent centralized  authority  leading  to  despotism  ; 
but.  in  the  little  community  of  the  school 
they  must,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.be 
by  one  person.  Genera]  rules  for  the  manage 
ment  of  a  school,  it  is  true,  may  be  prescribed  by 
the  school  officers  to  whom  the  teacher  is  ame- 
nable ;  but  the  actual  government  of  the  school, 
that  which  converts  it  from  a  chaotic,  disorder- 
ly crowd  of  children  into  a  regular  organization, 
under  control  and  discipline,  must  be  exclusively 
the  work  of  the  teacher,  hence  called  the  school- 
mrisler.  Formerly,  the  powers  of  a  school-master 
were  much  less  limited  than  they  are  at  present ; 
indeed,  they  were  almost  absolute,  the  law,  as  in 
the  case  of  parental  government,  only  stepping 
in  to  protect  the  child  from  injury  to  life  or 
limb.  At  the  present  time,  the  teacher's  author- 
ity is  carefully  hedged  around  not  only  by  the 
law,  but  by  the  rules  of  school  boards  and  super- 
intendents, so  that  the  complaint  is  sometimes 
made  by  the  teacher  that  he  has  scarcely  enough 
authority  left  to  enable  linn  to  govern  his  school. 
The  policy  of  circumscribing  the  authority  of 
the  teacher  to  so  great  an  extent  is  an  unwise 
one,  and  endangers  not  only  the  efficiency  of  the 
school  as  an  organization,  but  destroys  its  effi- 
cacy as  an  instrument  of  education.  Besides, 
it  implies  that  the  teacher  is  unfit  to  exercise 
authority,  either  by  lack  of  competency  or  of 
conscientiousness,  which  is  equivalent  to  pro- 
nouncing him  unfit  to  be  a  teacher  at  all. 

The  character  of  the  school  government  de- 
pends upon  the  manner  as  well  as  the  degree  in 
which  the  teacher's  authority  is  established  ;  anil 
the  influence  of  the  school  upon  the  intellectual 
and  moral  character  of  its  pupils  will  depend 
upon  the  kind  of  government  maintained.  No 
school  can  be  efficient  without  order  (q.  v.),  and 
order  can  only  result  from  judicious  anil  effective 
government.  The  latter  must,  in  all  cases.depend 
upon  (1)  the  rules  or  requirements  laid  down, 
and  (2)  the  manner  in  which  they  are  enforced. 
Government  is  often  impaired  by  unwise  legis- 
lation— unwise  in  the  kind  of  laws  enacted,  or  in 
their  number.  The  rules  made  for  the  govern- 
ment of  a  school  should  be  as  few  and  as  simple 
as  possible.  A  multiplicity  of  set  regulations 
confuses  the  pupils,  and  tends  to  multiply 
offenses.  Besides,  the  children,  by  the  habit  of 
complying  with  a  kind  of  written  law,  are  apt 
to  think  every  thing  right  that  is  not  specifically 
forbidden,  and  thus  fail  to  exercise  their  con- 
science ;  that  is,  in  their  attention  to  the  mala 
prohibila,  they  lose  sight  of  the  mala  per  se. 
"  If  a  school,"  says  I).  1'.  Page,  "  is  to  be  governed 
by  a  code  of  laws,  the  pupils  will  act  upon  the 
principle  that  whatever  is  not  proscribed  is 
admissible.  Consequently,  without  inquiring 
whether  an  act  is  right,  their  only  inquiry  will 
be,  is  it  forbidden  ?  Xow,  no  teacher  was  ever 
yet  so  wise  as  to  make  laws  for  every  case  ;  the 


consequence  is,  he  is  daily  perplexed  with  un- 
foreseen troubles, or  with  some  ingenious  evasions 
of  his  inflexible  code,  in  all  this  matter,  the 
worst  feature  is  the  fact  that  the  child  judges 
of  his  acts  by  the  law  of  the  teacher  rather  than 
by  the  law  of  his  conscience,  and  is  thus  in 
danger  of  perverting  and  blunting  the  moral 
sense.''  Government  by  positive  enactments  is, 
therefore,  to  be  dispensed  with  as  much  as 
possible  ;  but  such  rules  as  are  made  should  be 
strictly  and  uniformly  enforced.  These  rules  con- 
stitute what  may  be  called  school  legislation, 
and  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  requirements 
of  a  less  formal  character,  which  the  pupil's  own 
intelligence  and  sense  of  right  are  to  be  trained 
to  recognize  without  particular  enunciation,  nor 
with  those  moral  precepts  which  are  addressed 
rather  to  the  pupil  as  an  individual,  and  there- 
fore do  not  directly  concern  the  organization  of 
the  school.  We  here  treat  of  school  govern- 
ment in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term.  In  the 
enforcement  of  school  legislation,  however,  we 
are  to  keep  in  view  the  good  of  the  pupil  as 
well  as  the  good  of  the  school,  but  primarily 
the  latter,  'i  he  principle  is  this :  The  school 
is  an  organization  designed  to  be  the  means 
of  affording  an  education  to  a  large  number 
of  pupils,  and  the  school  laws  are  made  to 
protect  that  organization,  and  render  it  effective 
in  the  carrying  out  of  its  proper  object ;  hence, 
the  welfare  of  the  school  must  be  paramount 
to  that  of  any  individual  pupil.  The  violation 
of  a  rule  may,  indeed,  be  sometimes  overlooked 
without  injury  to  the  offender,  perhaps  to  his 
benefit;  but.  as  such  a  course  tends  to  weaken 
or  destroy  the  school    government,  the  law  must 

be  uniformly  enfoi d,     No  enforcement  of  law 

cau  be  accomplished  without  the  punishment  of 
the  offender  ;  hence,  the  kind  of  school  punish- 
ments that  are  suitable  under  the  various  cir- 
cumstances that  arise  becomes  a  matter  for  the 
careful  consideration  of  the  teacher.  Whether 
in  enforcing  obedience  to  wholesome  regulations, 
corporal  punishment  should  be  resorted  to,  and, 
if  so.  to  what  extent  and  in  what  manner,  forms 
also  an  important  part  of  the  general  discussion 
of  school  government.  (See  Corporal  Punish- 
ment.) But  there  must  be  prevention  as  well  as 
correction — rewards,  as  incentives  to  obedience 
and  good  conduct,  as  well  as  punishments  to 
chastise  the  wrong-doer,  and  deter  others  from 
wrong-doing.  A  system  of  rewards  has  a  very 
important  bearing  upon  school  government  wheu 
they  are  dispensed  with  uniformity  and  equity. 
Under  this  head  are  included  merit  marks,  certif- 
icates and  diplomas  of  proficiency  and  good  con- 
duct.and  prizes.  Man\  questions  arise  in  connec- 
tion with  the  administration  ot  school  government 
in  this  respect.  (See  I'im/i  -  i  'I  he  general  efficacy 
and  propriety  of  rewards  cannot  be  doubted. 
They  appeal  to  a  principle  of  human  nature  uni- 
versally operative.  •■Whatever,"  says  Jewell, 'may 
be  possible  in  the  mature  man,  in  the  line  of  that 
sublime  abstraction,  'Virtue  is  its  own  reward,' 
the  child  is  neither  equal  to  such  abstractions, 
nor  are  they  demanded  of  him."  (See  Rewards.) 


GOVERNMENT 

The  efficacy  of  school  government  must  depend 
very  much  on  the  manner  in  which  the  teacher 
exercises  the  authority  conferred  upon  him  in 
virtue  of  his  office.  If  he  bases  it  upon  force,  if 
the  language  he  addresses  to  his  pupils  he  uni- 
formly that  of  command,  threatening,  or  angry 
rebuke,  there  will  be  engendered  in  their  minds  a 
feeling  of  antagonism,  from  which  will  result 
disobedience,  and  occasionally  open  rebellion.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  he  is  kind  and  considerate, 
but  at  the  same  time  firm  and  resolute,  he  will 
gain  first  the  respect  of  his  pupils  and  then 
their  affection.  When  that  is  accomplished,  the 
government  of  his  school  will  be  quite  easy.  (See 
Authority.)  The  following  are  wise  suggestions 
in  regard  to  the  proper  course  of  the  teacher  in 
obtaining  and  preserving  the  control  of  his 
school:  "(1)  Endeavor  to  convince  your  scholars 
that  you  are  their  friend, — that  you  aim  at  their 
improvement,  and  desire  their  goo  1.  It  will  not 
take  long  to  satisfy  them  of  this,  if  you  are  so  in 
reality.  (2)  Never  give  a  command  which  you 
are  not  resolved  to  see  obeyed.  (3)  Try  to 
create  throughout  the  school  a  popular  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  order  and  virtue.  It  is  next  to 
impossible  to  carry  into  effect,  for  any  length  of 
time,  a  regulation,  however  important,  which  is 
opposed  to  public  opinion."  Fellenberg  strongly 
insists  upon  this  as  the  most  efficient  meansdf 
school  government.  "  The  pupil,"  he  says,  "  can 
seldom  resist  the  force  of  truth  when  he  finds 
himself  condemned  by  the  common  voice  of 
his  companions,  and  is  often  more  humbled  by 
censure  from  his  equals,  than  by  any  of  the  ad- 
monitions of  his  superiors."  To  the  above  im- 
portant injunctions  for  the  teacher  should  be 
added  the  following:  Observe  in  your  conduct 
toward  your  pupils  a  strict  impartiality.  Chil- 
dren are  keen  observers,  and  at  once  detect  the 
slightest  indications  of  favoritism  ;  and  nothing 
more  effectually  than  this  destroys  their  respect 
for  the  teacher,  and  undermines'  his  authority. 
Tact  and  self-control  will  enable  the  teacher  to 
dispense,  to  a  very  great  extent,  with  any  decided 
demonstration  of  authority.  "  There  is,"  says 
Page,  "  such  a  thing  as  keeping  a  school  too  still 
by  over-government.  A  man  of  firm  nerve  can, 
by  keeping  up  a  constant  constraint  both  in  him- 
self and  pupils,  force  a  death-like  silence  upon  his 
school.  You  can  hear  a  pin  drop  at  any  time, 
and  the  figure  of  every  child  is  as  if  moulded 
in  cast-iron.  But  be  it  remembered,  this  is  the 
stillness  of  constraint,  not  the  stillness  of  activity. 
There  should  be  silence  in  school,  a  serene 
and  soothing  quiet ;  but  it  should,  if  possible, 
be  the  quiet  of  cheerfulness  and  agreeable  devo- 
tion to  study,  rather  than  the  'palsy  of  fear.'" 
(See  Fear.)  One  of  the  most  important  means 
of  effective  school  government  is  to  keep  the  pu- 
pils constantly  busy,  to  awaken  in  their  minds 
an  interest  in  their  studies,  to  vary  the  exercises 
so  as  to  prevent  tedious  monotony,  to  have  spe- 
cial methods  of  relief,  after  their  minds  have  be- 
come wearied  by  close  attention.  For  this  pur- 
pose, in  primary  schools,  in  which  very  young 
children   are   taught,   movement  exercises  of  a 


GRADED   SCHOOLS 


375 


simple  character  may  be  resorted  to  ;  and.  in  all 
schools,  vocal  music,  which  always  exerts  the 
most  pleasing  and  satisfactory  influence.  Calis- 
thenics and  gymnastics  may  be  employed  with 
good  effect.  In  short,  if  the  school  is  conducted 
ni  such  a  way  as  to  recognize  the  peculiar  nature, 
disposition,  and  wants  of  children, 


•ol 


NY. 


Theory  and  Practice 

WlCKEKSH  IM.  School 

Economy  (Phila.,  1864)';  Dunn,  The  School 
Teacher's  Manual  (Hartford,  ls:{!») :  Northend, 
The  Teacher's  Assistant  (Boston,  1859);  Mor- 
rison, Manual  of  School  Management  (London); 
Le  Vaix.  The  Science  and  Art  ttf  Teaching 
(Toronto,  1875). 

GRADE   (Cat.  gradus,  a  step),  the  relative 

standing  of  scl Is.  classes,  or  pupils,  in  a  system 

of  education.  Thus  education,  or  instruction,  is 
designated,  according  to  its  grade,  primary  or 
elementary,  secondary,  and  superior  or  higher. 
A  course  of  study  is  divided  into  grades  for 
convenience  in  classification,  all  the  pupils  in 
each  class  being  supposed  to  be  nearly  of  the 
same  degree  of  proficiency.  The  number  of 
grades  into  which  a  course  of  study  shoidd  be 
divided  is  dictated  by  considerations  of  expedi- 
ency and  convenience.  The  grades,  however. 
should  be  arranged  so  as  to  assign  proper  pro- 
portions of  work  for  the  several  portions  of  tune 
into  which  the  school  year,  or  the  period  of  the 
entire  curriculum,  is  divided.  The  arrangement 
of  grades  is  also  beneficial  iii  definitely  marking 
the  progress  of  the  pupil,  and  thus  affording  him 
encouragement  to  proceed  by  regular  promotion 
from  grade  to  grade.      (See  ( !l,  IBS.) 

GRADED  SCHOOLS  are  usually  defined 
as  schools  in  which  the  pupils  are  classified 
according  to  their  progress  in  scholarship  as 
compared  with  a  course  of  study  divided  into 
grades,  pupils  of  the  same  or  a  similar  degree  of 
proficiency  being  placed  in  the  same  class.  An 
ungraded  school,  on  the  other  hand,  is  one  in 
which  the  pupils  are  taught,  individually,  each 
one  being  advanced  as  far,  and  as  fast,  as  circum- 
stances permit,  without  regard  to  the  progress  of 
other  pupils.  The  grcnicd  si/strm  is  thus  based 
upon  classification  ;  and  its  efficacy  as  a  system 
must  depend  very  greatly  upon  the  accuracy 
with  which  the  classification  has  been  made. 
Grades,  however,  are  not  to  be  confounded  with 
classes;  the  former  are  divisions  of  the  course  of 
study  based  upon  various  considerations,  the 
latter  are  divisions  of  the  school  based  upon  uni- 
formity of  attainments.  In  a  small  school,  the 
same  number  of  grades  may  be  needed  as  in  a 
large  school,  the  course  of  study  being  the  same, 
and  the  promotions  being  made  with  equal  fre- 
quency ;  hence,  as  the  number  of  classes  must 
be  smaller,  it  will  be  necessary  that  each  class 
should  pursue  two  or  more  grades  simultaneous- 
ly or  in  succession  ;  that  is  to  say,  the  promo- 
tions from  grade  to  grade  will  be  more  frequent 
than  from  class  to  class.  On  the  other  hand,  in 
a  large  school,  the  number  of  classes  may  bo 


3T(J: 


IRADKD    SCHOOLS 


greater  than  that  of  the  grades,  which  will  ne- 
cessitate the  forming  of  two  or  more  classes,  un- 
der separate  teachers,  in  the  same  grade.  In  the 
management  of  a  large  school,  this  will  lie  found 
to  be  better  than  a  subdivision  of  the  grades,  re- 
quiring either  an  extension  of  the  time  for  com- 
pleting the  course,  or  greater  frequency  in  the 
promotions.  In  the  small  district  schools  of  the 
United  States,  the  ungraded  system  prevails,  be- 
cause each  school  is  taught  by  a  single  teacher. 
and  sometimes  there  is  a  want  of  uniformity  in 
text-books ;  but  in  the  cities  the  graded  system 
prevails.  The  advantages  of  the  graded  system 
have  been  thus  enumerated  :  (1)  They  economize 
the  labor  of  instruction ;  (2)  They  reduce  the 
cost  of  instruction,  since  a  smaller  number  of 
teachers  are  required  for  effective  work  in  a  clas- 
sified or  graded  school ;  (3)  They  make  the  in- 
struction more  effective, inasmuch  as  the  teacher 
can  more  readily  heir  the  lessens  of  an  entire 
class  than  of  the  pupils  separately,  and  thus  there 
will  be  better  opportunity  for  actual  teaching, 
explanation,  drill,  etc.;  (4)  They  facilitate  good 
government  and  discipline,  because  all  the  pu- 
pils are  kept  constantly  under  the  direct  con- 
trol and  instruction  of  the  teacher,  and,  besides, 
are  kept  constantly  busy  ;  (a)  They  afford  & 
better  means  of  inciting  pupils  to  industry,  by 
promoting  their  ambition  to  excel,  inasmuch  as 
there  is  a  constant  coni]>etition  among  the  pu- 
pils of  a  class,  which  cannot  exist  when  the  pu- 
pils are  instructed  separately.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  objections  have  been  urged  against 
the  system  of  graded  schools,  chief  among  which 
is.  that  tin'  interests  of   the  individual  pupil   are 

often  sacrificed  to  those  of  the  many,  the  indi- 

anism, '  says  E.  E.  White,  in  Problems  in  Graded 
Sehool  Management,  a  paper  read  before  the 
National  Kdueational  Association,  Aug.  4.,  1874, 
"it  [the  graded  system]  demands  that  pupils  of 
the  same  grade  attend  school  with  regularity, 
and  that   they  possess  equal  attainments,  equal 

ance  and  opportunity,  and  that  they  be  instructed 
by  teachers  possessing  equal  ability  and  skill. 
But  this  uniformity  does  not  exist.  Teachers 
possess  unequal  skill  and  power.  Pupils  do  not 
enter  school  at  the  same  age;  some  attend  only 
a  portion  of  each  year  ;  others  attend  irregularly; 
and  the  members  of  the  same  class  possess  un- 
equal ability,  and  have  unequal  assistance  and 
opportunity.  This  want  of  uniformity  in  con- 
ditions makes  the  mechanical  operation  of  the 
system  imperfect,  and  hence,  its  tendency  is  to 
force  uniformity,  thus  sacrificing  its  true  function 
as  a  means  of  education  to  its  perfect  action  ;us  a 
mechanism."  There  is  no  doubt  that  this  diffi- 
culty is  inherent  in  the  system,  and  that  no  ad- 
ministration, however  excellent. can  wholly  elim- 
inate it.     Various  methods  of  procedure  have. 

however,l n  suggested  to  dimmish  its  injurious 

effects.  That  proposed  by  Superintendenl  W". 
T.  Harris,  of  St.  Louis,  and  carried  out  in  the 
public  schools  of  that  city  is  frequent  discrimi- 
native promotions.    The  following  are  the  points 


on  which  the  system  is  based:  (1)  The  different 
rate  of  progress  iu  study  on  the  part  of  pupils 
of  the  same  class,  due  to  a  difference  in  age, 
capacity,  regularity  of  attendance,  and  op- 
portunity; and  (2)  The  continual  diminution 
of  the  size  of  classes,  particularly  of  the  higher 
grades.  "  Provision,"  he  says,  "  must  be  made 
for  this  difference  in  rates  of  progress  by  fre- 
quent reclassification;  otherwise  the  school  will 
become  a  lifeless  machine."  This  arrangement, 
however,  was  a  reaction  against  the  system  of 
annual  promotions,  which  necessarily  require 
wide  grades  and  unfrequent  changes  in  clas- 
sification. The  other  extreme,  according  to  the 
views  of  many  educators  experienced  in  school 
management  and  supervision,  was  approached 
in  the  recommendation  by  Superintendent  Har- 
ris to  require  promotions  as  often  as  every  ten 
weeks,  and,  besides  that,  to  permit  pupils  "  to 
move  forward  as  fast  as  their  abilities  might 
permit.''  The  objections  to  incidental  discrim- 
inative promotion  are  the  following  :  (1)  It  en- 
courages precocity  in  the  pupils;  (2)  It  pro- 
duces  a  tendency  in  the  teacher  to  give  an 
exclusive  attention  to  the  bright,  intelligent 
pupils  to  the  neglect  of  the  dull  ones,  because 
in  this  way  promotions  are  secured,  which  re- 
dound to  the  teachers  credit;  (3)  It  deprives  the 
pupils  thus  promoted  out  of  the  regular  course, 
of  the  means  of  properly  pursuing  certain  grades. 
or  parts  of  grades,  inasmuch  as.  if  placed  from  a 
lower  grade  into  a  class  of  pupils  already  ad- 
vanced in  the  next  higher  one,  they  must  take 
up  the  studies  of  that  grade  at  the  advanced 
point,  without  acquaintance  with  the  preceding 
part  of  the  grade,  thus  contusing  tin-classification 
and  embarrassing  the  teacher.  Semi  annual  pro- 
motions seem  to  be  approved  by  the  majority  of 
educators,  with  such  an  adjustment  of  the  num- 
ber of  the  grades  of  the  course  of  study  and  the 
requirements  of  each,  as  will  enable  pupils  of  an 
average  capacity  to  complete  the  amount  of 
study  prescribed  in  the  half  year.  There  is  an- 
other danger  connected  with  the  graded-school 
system,  as  sometimes  administered,  to  which  al- 
lusion is  often  made.  It  /<,;sri-if,rs  too  much, 
le  scope  for  the  ex- 
Igment.  and  intel- 
:,"  says  Mr.  White, 
■oinplish  the  same 
week  by  week.      Nothing 


leaving  to  the  tern  1 
ercise  of  indn  idut 

ligenee.       "It   is  no' 

•■  that  the  several  t 
result  day  by  day, 

is  more  ridiculous  than  the  attempt  to  parcel 
out  primary  instruction,  and  tie  it  up  in  daily 
or  weekly  prescriptions,  like  a  doctor's  doses. 
This  week  the  class  is  to  take  certain  facts  in 
geography;  to  count  by  twos  to  fifty  (to  sixty 
would  be  a  fearful  sin!);  to  draw  the  vertical 
lines  of  a  cube ;  to  learn  to  respect  the  aged, 
etc.!"  This,  however,  with  many  other  ohjections. 
which  are  urged  against  the  system  of  graded 
schools,  is  only  a  fault  in  administration.     A 


this,  ably  seconded  by  well-trained  and  expe 
rienced  teachers,  it  will  approximate  to  individ 
nil   teaching,  and,  in   the  powerful   and   whole 


GRADUATE 

some  stimulus  which  it  constantly  applies  to  the 
pupil,  prove  much  more  effective. 

Graded  schools  are  far  more  numerous  in  the 
Gnited  States  than  in  England,  or  in  most  of 
the  countries  of  continental  Europe.  The  system 
is, however,  beginning  to  be  introdu I.  "The  plan 

,,f   t . -.-i.  1 . 1 1 . ■  ■    ■•la-os   or  -tale,  in  separate  school- 


Loih 


I  believe,  and  has  given  great  satis- 
faction." So  essential  has  it  been  considered  in 
the  United  States  to  the  efficiency  of  a  school 
that  it  shoidd  be  graded,  that  no"  aid  is  given 
from  the  Peabody  Fund  except  to  graded 
schools.— See  Wells,  The  Graded  School  (New 
York,  1862);  Wickersham,  School  Economy 
(Phil.,  L868);  Kiddle,  etc,  Howio  Teach{H.Y., 
1874).     (See  also  Cuss,  and  Grade.) 

GRADUATE  (Lat.  graduare,  6 i  gradus, 

a  step  or  degree),  to  confer  an  academic  degree, 
thus  advancing  to  a  higher  rank  in  scholarship: 
also,  to  receive  a  degree  from  a  college  or  uni- 
versity. A  person  is  said  to  graduate  when  he 
takes  a  degree,  and  the  college  or  university  is 
said  to  graduate  a  student  when    it   admits  him 

ferring  a  degree.  The  person  who  thus  takes  a 
degree,  is  called  a.  i/rniliiii/".     (See  Degrees.) 

GRAEFE,  Heiurich,  a  German  educa- 
tor, horn  March  3.,  1802  ;  died  July  22..1860. 
He  was  successively  rector  of  the  real  school 
and  professor  at  the  university  of  Jena,  rector 
of  the  burgher  school  in  ('assel.  principal  of  an 
educational  institution  at  Geneva,  and  director 
of  the  industrial  school  at  Bremen.  He  was 
also  an  influential  writer  up  in  educational  topics. 
His  discussions  of  the  metho  Is  of  <  Jerman  public- 
school  instruction  are  his  most  important  pro- 
ductions. His  general  theory  of  education  is 
similar  to  that  of  Graser.  Like  him.  he  was 
strongly  opposed  to  merely  general  culture,  be- 
cause the  idea  of  education  is  not  only  to  develop 
the  faculties,  but  to  tit  one  for  the  duties  of 
life.    The  true  end  of  man,  according  to  Graefe, 

of  education  is  to  bring  the  individual  into  active 

ourselves,  but  to  do  the  will  of  God  by  filling 
the  place  in  society  which  belongs  to  us.  this  is 
the  end  of  our  being.  Graefe  made  very 
valuable  suggestions  for  the  modification  of 
public-school  instruction  in  the  direction  of 
securing  a  more  natural  arrangement  of  study, 
and  better  physical  culture. — See  Schmidt,  Ge- 
sckickte  der  Padagogik,  vol.  iv. 

GRAHAM,  Isabella,  celebrated  for  her  ef- 
forts for  the  relief  and  education  of  the  poor,  and 
in  behalf  of  other  philanthropic  objects,  was  born 
in  Lanarkshire.  Scotland,  in  1742,  and  died  in 
New  York,  in  1814.  She  was  the  wife  of  Dr. 
John  Graham,  an  army  surgeon,  after  whose 
death,  in  the  West  Indies,  in  1  77 1.  she  taught 
school  in  Paisley  and  in  Edinburgh.  In  I  789,  she 
came  to  New  York,  and  opened  a  seminary  for 
young  ladies.    Her  active,  benevolent  disposition 


GRAMMAR  :J77 

had  shown  itself  in  her  native  country  ill  the 
format  ion  of  the  Penny  Society,  mm  the  Society 
for  the  Relief  of  Destitute  Sick.  In  \,u  York. 
mainly  through  her  efforts,  were  established 
the  Society  foi  the  Relief  of  Poor  \\  idows,  the 
Orphan  Asylum  Society,  the  Society  for  Pro- 
moting  industry  among  the  Poor,  and  a  Sunday 
School   for   ignorant  'Adults,    the   first    of  it's 

kind    in    the    United     States.      Her    benevolent 


enterprise  were  very  extensive.  Her  memoirs 
were  published  by  Dr.  Mason  (1816),  and  her 
correspondence,  by  her  daughter,  Mrs.  Bethune, 
mother  of  G.  W.  Bethune,  D.  D.  (1838). 

GRAMMAR  (Gr.  ypd/jpa,  that  which  is 
graven  or  written,  a  written  character,  a  letter) 
means,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  the  science 
of  language  in  general,  and  specially  an  exposi- 
tion of  the  organism  of  language  and  the  laws 
of  its  structure.  The  first  scientific  investigations 
in  language  are  met  with  in  the  writings  of  the 
Creek  philosophers:   thev  are.  however,  not  of  a 


nki 


in  of 


language.  ■bucn  sp<  i  uJat s  are  tound  in  Plato, 

Aristotle,  and  the  Stoics  The  first  attempt  to 
construct  a  grammar,  in  the  present  sense  of  the 
word,  was  made  in  the  second  century,  I!.  ('..  at 
Alexandria.  The  Greek  grammarians,  at  that 
tim 

,'IIH 


e,  expl 
an.'ily. 

ined  the  works  of  the  classic  authors, 
■xplanations   embraced   the  definition 

Tt.'.'-ix"/.!..",.  :  .I'.'hx'.'i""  .-xl-l'.i  aliLnV-f 

logv.a 
lained 
hors.   , 

v  mad. 

■  of  the  classics,  definitions,  etymology, 
d  criticism.  The  Roman  grammarians 
the  work,  both  ot  Latin  and  Greek 
lying  special  attention  to  theexpla- 
archaic  and  obscure  expressions;  but 
no  real  progress  in  the  development 

thorns 
•ks   of 
val  of 

■Ives  with  teaeliu,..  latin  troni  the 
he  later  Roman  grammarians.  rl  he 
•lassieal  studies  and  the  Reformation, 
■enth  century,  led  to  a  more  thorough 

ed  the 

views   of   era una,,,  l,v  adding  the 

Latin  and  Greek.  Several  I  atin,  Greek,  and  He- 
brew grammars  were  published,  and  a  beginning 
was  made  in  the  preparation  of  grammatical 
works  on  some  of  the  modern  languages.  The 
first  attempts  at  general  and  comparative  gram- 
mars were  made  in  the  17th  century.  A  new 
impulse  was  given  to  grammatical  studies,  after 
the  Sanskrit  language  and  literature  had  become 
more  generally  known  among  philologists.  A 
solid   basis  for  comparative    grammar   was   laid 


languages  :  and.  in  the  great  work  of  his  life,  the 

i ' parativeGrai ar  of  Sanskrit.  Zend,  <  Ireek, 

Latin,  Lithuanian,  Old  Slavic.  (Jothic,  and  Ger- 


378 


GRAMMAR 


man  (Verqleichende  Grammatik.  5  vols.,  1833 
—52;  3d  ed.,  1868—71 ;  translated  into  English 
and  French)  traced  back  the  Indo-European  lan- 
guages to  their  origin,  and  pointed  out  their  pres- 
ent relations  to  each  other.  The  idea  of  a  historical 
grammar  was  fully  developed  by  Grimm  in  his 
German  Grammar  |  Deutsche  Grammatik,  4  vols., 
1819—37),  which  traces  the  history  of  all  gram- 
matical forms  in  the  Germanic  dialects  through 
the  different  periods  of  the  language.  Other  mas- 
ter-works in  the  literature  of  comparative  gram- 
mars are  those  by  Diez  on  the  Romanic  languages 
(Vergleichende  Grammatik  der  romanischen 
Sprachen,  3  vols.,  1836 — 12),  by  Miklosich  on 
the  Slavic  languages  (  Vergleichende  Grammatik 
der  slavischen  Sprachen,  1852 — 71),  and  by 
Schleicher,  on  the  Indo-Germanie  languages 
(Compendium  der  vergleichenden  Grammatik, 
3d  ed.,  1871).  Comparative  grammars  on  Indo- 
European  Languages  by  English  authors  are : 
Clark,  Student's  Handbook  of  Comparative 
Grammar,  applied  to  the  Sanskrit,  Zend,  Greek, 
Latin,  Gothic,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  English  Lan- 
guages (London,  1862) ;  Ferrar,  Grammar  of 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  Latin  (vol.  I.,  Land.,  1869); 
IIelfenstein,  .4  Comparative  Grammar  of  the 
Teutonic  Languages  (London,  1870);  Beames, 
Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Modern  Aryan 
Languages  of  India:  Hindi,  Panjabi,  Sindhi, 
Gujarati,  Marathi,  Urija,  and  Bengali.  But 
few  comparative  grammars  have  as  yet  been 
written  on  other  than  Indo-European  languages. 
The  more  important  of  them  are :  Bleek, 
A  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  South  African 
Languages  (vol.  I.,  London,  1869)  ;  Caldwell, 
Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Dravidian  Lan- 
guages (London,  1861);  Pimektel,  Cuadro  de- 
scriplivoycomparaHvode  la,  lenguas  indige- 
nas  ile  Mexico— Descriptive  and  comparative 
table  of  the  native  languages  of  Mexico  (Mexico, 
1874);  and  Epstein,  Cuadro  sinopiico  de  las 
lenguas  indigenas  de  Mexico  (Mexico,  1874). 
The  most  important  work  on  the  philosophy 
of  language  is  still  the  classic  work  by 
Wilhelm  von  Humboldt,  Uelier  die  Verschie- 
denheit  des  menschlic/ien  Spraehbaues  (1836), 
which  originally  appeared  as  an  introduction 
to  his  work  on  the  Kavi  language.  Among 
other  important  works  for  the  study  of  gen- 
eral grammar,  are :  Heyse,  System  der  Sprach- 
wissenschoft  (Berlin,  1856),  and  Steinthal, 
C'haracterislik  </er  l/aiiptsdi-hlichslen  Ti/pen  des 
Spraehbaues  (2d  edit.,  I860)  ;  also,  for  "an  excel- 
lent and  familiar  exposition  of  linguistic  science 
and  history,  Max  Mueller,  Lectures  on  the 
Science  of  Language  (2  vols.,  Ijondon,  1861 — 4); 
and  Whitney,  The  Life  and  Growth  of  Lan- 
guage (New  York  1876). — The  study  of  gram- 
mar now  constitutes,  in  every  civilized  country, 
an  essential  part  of  the  learning  of  languages, 
both  the  vernacular  and  foreign.  Opinions, 
however,  still  widely  differ  as  to  the  place 
which  grammar  should  occupy  in  the  study  of 
language,  the  method  by  which  it  should  lie 
taught,  the  point  of  time  at  which  it  should  be 
begun,  and  the   amount  of   time  which  should 


be  devoted  to  it.  There  is  at  present  a  more 
general  agreement  among  educators  than  at  any 
previous  time,  that  not  only  is  a  grammatical 
knowledge  necessary  for  a  good  command  of  any 
language, but  that  thorough  training  in  the  rules  of 
grammar  is  one  of  the  best  means  to  develop  the 
faculties  of  the  mind,  and  is  especially  calculated 
to  promote  correct  and  logical  thinking.  (See 
Grammar,  English  ;  English,  Study  op  ;  Clas- 
sical Studies;  Modern  Languages;  and  the  spe- 
cial articles  on  Greek,  Latin,  Hebrew,  French, 
German,  etc.) 

GRAMMAR,  English,  has  for  its  special 
function,  an  exposition  of  the  specific  organism 
and  the  structural  peculiarities  of  the  English 
language.  There  are  certain  relations  existing 
between  thought  and  language  which  must  un- 
derlie every  form  of  human  speech;  these  consti- 
tute the  basis  of  general  grammar.  Every  lan- 
guage has  its  peculiarities  of  (1)  literal  represen- 
tation and  combination  (letters  and  words  — 
orthography),  (2)  inflectional  forms  (etymology), 
(3)  sentential  structure  (syntax),  and  (4)  vocal 
utterance  (prosody).  These  peculiarities  it  is  the 
office  of  specific  grammar  to  explain,  so  that  they 
may  not  only  hi  grasped  by  the  understanding  but 
worked  into  the  habitual  use  of  the  language,  in 
speaking  and  writing.  English  grammar  has 
been  defined  as  "  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing 
the  English  language  correctly;"  and  as  an  art, 
doubtless,  this  states  correctly  its  practical  ob- 
ject, for  it  can  have  no  other.  This  was  the  view 
taken  by  the  early  grammarians.  "The  principal 
design  of  a  grammar  of  any  language,"  says 
Bishop  Lowth,  "  is  to  teach  us  to  express  our- 
selves with  propriety  in  that  language ;  and  to 
enable  us  to  judge  of  every  phrase  and  form  of 
construction,  whether  it  be  right  or  not."  Those 
who  teach  grammar,  as  well  as  those  who  com- 
pile grammatical  text-books,  should  constantly 
keep  this  practical  aim  in  view,  eliminating  from 
their  systems  of  instruction  every  thing  that 
does  not  directly  bear  upon  it.  "  To  explain." 
says  Mulligan  (Grammatical  Structure  of  the 
English  Language,  N.Y.,  1852),  "the  laws  of 
artificial  language  is  the  particular  province  of 
him  who  proposes  to  teach  the  science  of  gram- 
mar ;  to  guide  to  the  proper  use  of  the  signs  of 
artificial  language,  and  to  the  correct  interpreta- 
tion of  the  thoughts  of  others  embodied  in  lan- 
guage, so  far  as  this  can  be  effected  by  reference 
to  the  laws  and  usages  of  language,  is  the  prov- 
ince of  him  who  proposes  to  teach  grammar  as 
an  art."  1  'roccsses  of  analysis  and  rules  of  syntax 
are  entirely  useless,  except  so  far  as  they  contrib- 
ute to  this  end.  Viewed  from  this  stand-point, 
very  much  of  the  machinery  of  English  grammar, 
so  called,  as  taught  in  schools,  is  of  no  practical 
value  to  the  pupil,  but,  on  the  contrary,  serves  to 
waste  his  time  and  intellectual  energies.  This 
has  arisen  from  the  application  of  a  traditional 
nomenclature  and  system  of  definitions  and 
rules  to  the  English  language,  which  belonged  to 
the  Latin.  "The  manuals,  by  which  grammar 
was  first  taught  in  English,"  says  Goold  Brown, 
were  not  properlj  English  grammars.   They  were 


GRAMMAR 


3(9 


translations  of  the  Latin  accidence  ;  and  were 
designed  to  aid  British  youth  in  acquiring  a 
knowledge  of  the  Latin  language,  rather  than 
accuracy  in  the  use  of  their  own.  The  two  lan- 
guages were  often  combined  in  one  book,  for  the 
purpose  of  teaching  sometimes  both  together, 
and  sometimes  one  through  the  medium  of  the 
other."  Richard  <  Jrant  White,  in  Words  and  iheir 
Uses  (N.  Y.,  1870),  also  says,  in  this  connection, 
"It  was  not  until  English  had  cast  itself  firmly 
and  sharply  into  its  present  simple  mould  that 
scholars  undertook  to  furnish  it  with  a  grammar, 
the  nomenclature  and  the  rules  of  which  they 
took  from  a  language  —  the  Latin  — with  which 
it  had  no  formal  likeness,  and  by  the  laws  of 
which  it  could  not  be  bound,  except  so  far  as 
they  were  the  universal  laws  of  thought."  This 
circumstance,  it  has  been  frequently  asserted, 
has  led  to  a  complexity  in  English  grammar 
which  is  not  found  in  the  language  itself  ;  and 
hence  also  it  has  been  claimed  that  the  practical 
results  of  teaching  English  grammar  can  be 
reached  by  a  much  shorter  and  more  effective 
process.  Without  doubt,  according  to  the  modes 
of  instruction  long  prevalent,  too  much  time  has 
been  given  to  impressing  upon  the  memory  mere 
theory,  —  technical  definitions  and  rules,  without 
a  corresponding  amount  of  practice  in  the  actual 
use  of  language.  This  also  has  been  traditional, 
emanating  from  the  practice  of  teaching  Latin. 
The  more  recent  methods  adopted  by  practical 
teachers,  as  well  as  embodied  in  text-books,  have 
introduced  considerable  reform  in  this  respect. 
(See  English,  the  Study  of.) 

The  first  attempt  at  an  English  grammar  was 
Paul's  Accidence,  an  English  introduction  to 
Lily's  Latin  grammar,  written  by  I  >r.  .lohu  •  'ulet. 
■dean  of  St.  Paul's,  for  the  use  of  the  school 
founded  by  him,  and  dedicated  to  William  Lily 
(q.  v.'|,  the  first  high  master  of  that  school  ( 1  51(l|. 
Lily's  grammar  was  the  exclusive  grammatical 
standard  in  England  for  more  than  1100  years,  hav- 
ing received  the  sanction  of  royal  authority ;  but 
the  first  book  exclusively  treating  of  English 
grammar  was  that  of  William  Bullokar  (A  Bref 
Grammar  for  English,  Ixmdon,  1586).  This 
was  followed  by  John  Stockwood's  English  Ac- 
cidence (4to,  London,  1590).  During  the  next 
•century,  several  works  of  the  kind  appeared, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned,  Ben  Jonson's 
English  Grammar  for  the  benefit  of  all  strangers, 
out  of  his  observation  of  the  English  Language, 
now  spoiken  and  in  use  (London,  1034); 
(Jharles  Butler's  English  Grammar  (4to,  Ox- 
ford, 1633),  which  we  find  quoted  by  Dr.  John- 
son in  the  Introduction  to  his  Dictionary ;  and 
the  Rev.  Alex.  Gill's  English  grammar  written 
in  Latin  (Logonomia  Anglieu  Grammatiealis, 
London,  1619 — 21);  also  an  English  grammar 
written  in  Latin  for  the  use  of  foreigners,  by  Rev. 
John  Wallis,  D.  D.  (London,  1653).  from  which, 
it  is  said.  Johnson  and  Lowth  borrowed  most  of 
their  rules.  The  Treatise  of  English  Particles 
(1684),  by  William  Walker,  the  preceptor  of  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  was  a  work  of  great  learning  and 
merit.     This  was  also  written  in  Latin, 


these,  there  were  several  others  of  lesser  note. 
1  luring  the  18th  century,  many  grammars  ap- 
peared previous  to  the  more  noted  ones  of  Lowth 
and  Murray.  The  latter  enumerates,  as  the 
authors  to  whom  he  was  ehietlv  indebted  in  the 
compilation  of  his  work,  Harris,  Johnson,  Lowth, 
Priestley,  Beattie,  Sheridan,  Walker,  and  Coote. 
Many  of  these  writers  appreciated  the  grammat- 
ical simplicity  of  the  English  language,  and  to 
some  extent  adapted  their  grammars  to  it.  Bish- 
op Lowth  remarked  in  his  preface,  "the  con- 
struction of  this  language  is  so  easy  and  obvious, 
that  our  grammarians  have  thought  it  hardly 
worth  while  to  give  us  any  thing  like  a  regular 
and  systematic  syntax.  The  English  grammar, 
which  hath  been  late  presented  to  the  public,  and 
by  the  person  [Dr.  Johnson]  best  qualified  to 
have  given  us  a  perfect  one.  comprises  the  whole 
syntax  in  ten  lines,  —  for  this  reason  :  '  because 
our  language  has  so  little  inflection,  that  its  con- 
struction neither  requires  nor  admits  many  rules.'" 
Brightland's  Grammar  of  the  English  Tongue, 
with  the  Arts  of  Logick,  Rhetorick,  Poetry,  etc. 
(London,  1711),  was  a  valuable  and  celebrated 
work,  said  to  have  been  composed  by  some  of  the 
most  prominent  literary  men  of  Queen  Anne's 
reign.  It  was  not,  however,  extensively  adopted. 
Bishop  Lowth'a  Short  Introduction  to  English 
Grammar  was  published  in  1758.  "It  was  cal- 
culated," he  states  in  his  preface,  "for  the  use  of 
the  learner,  even  of  the  lowest  class";  and  for 
fuller  information  he  refers  to  the  Hermes  [A 
Philosophical  Inquiry  concerning  Language  and 
Universal  Grammar,  1751 1  of  dames  Harris, 
which  he  styles  "  the  most  beautiful  and  perfect 
example  of  analv.-is.  that  has  I n  exhibited  since 

the  days  of  Aristotle."  'I  he  learned  Dr.  Priest- 
ley's Rut  linn  nts  of  Eng  ish  Grammar  (London, 
L762)  was  designed  only  as  a  brief  introduction 
to  the  subject;  indeed,  he  considered  that  the 
forms  and  usages  of  the  language  were  not 
sufficiently  settled  and  uniform  to  admit  of  a 
complete  grammar  of  the  language.  Lindley 
Murray  published  his  first  Grammar  in  1795 
(English  Grammar,  York),  soon  followed  by 
various  other  auxiliary  works,  all  of  which,  al- 
most immediately,  secured  an  introduction  into 
schools.  Of  the  Abridgment  (12mo,  1797),  very 
many  editions  have  been  issued,  both  in  England 
and  the  United  States.  The  annual  side  of  the 
book  in  England  has  been  estimated  at  50,000 
copies.  The  most  valuable  part  of  the  materials 
of  which  this  work  is  composed,  was  taken  from 
Lowth,  as  well  a.s  its  general  plan.  Dr.  Cheever 
(in  Y.  Amer.  Rev.,  xxxi.,  377)  calls  it  "an  en- 
larged copy  of  Lowth."  and  says  of  the  latter. 
"  Although  Lowth's  treatise  was  written  so  early 
as  the  year  1758,  yet  we  doubt  whether  there  is 
at  the  present  day  a  single  work  of  equal  excel- 
lence in  the  same  compass."  Murray  also  copied 
extensively  from  Priestley;  "with  several  of  the 
best  English  Grammars  published  previously  to 
his  own,"  says  Goold  Brown,  "he  appears  to  have 
been  totally  unacquainted."  This  laborious  writer 
who,  in  his  Grammar  of  English  Crammars 
(New  York,  1851),  so   mercilessly  reviews   and 


GRAMMAR 


criticises  the  works  of  his  predecessors  and  con- 
temporaries in  grammatical  authorship,  exposes 
and  condemns  with  unmeasured  severity  the 
plagiarism  and  defects  of  Murray's  grammar. 
"There  is  no  part  of  the  volume,"  he  says,  "more 
accurate  than  that  which  lie  literally  copied 
from  Lowth.  To  the  Short  Introduction  alone, 
he  was  indebted  for  more  than  a  hundred  and 
twenty  paragraphs;  and  even  in  these  there  are 
many  things  obviously  erroneous.  Many  of  the 
best  practical  notes  were  taken  from  Priestley, 
etc."  (Gram,  of  Eng.  Gram.,  ch.  tit.)  And,  in 
the  same  critical  inactive,  he  pronounces  the 
following  wholesale  condemnation  :"  It  might 
easily  be  shown  that  almost  every  rule  laid  down 
in  the  book  for  the  observance  of  the  learner, 
was  repeatedly  violated  by  the  hand  of  the  mas- 
ter. Nor  is  there  among  all  who  have  since 
abridged  or  modified  the  work  an  abler  gramma- 
rian than  he  who  compiled  it."  But  whatever 
the  merits  or  demerits  of  .Murray's  grammar,  and 
whatever  may  be  the  source  of  its  materials,  it 
doubtless  owed  its  extraordinary  success  as  a 
school  book  to  its  practical  adaptation  to  the 
purposes  of  school  instruction,  and  to  the  demand 
which  previous  publications  had  created  for  such 
a  work.  Since  its  publication,  the  number  of 
English  grammars  published  is  "legion."  among 
which  those  of  Goold  Brown  may,  without  doubt, 
claim  precedence  for  popularity  and  extensive- 
ness  of  sale  in  the  United  States.  This  author 
laid  down  a  canon  in  regard  to  grammatical 
authorship  which,  while  it  is  perhaps  alleging  too 
much  to  say  that  he  has  strictly  obeyed  it',  it  is  to 
be  wished,  might  receive  a  more  general  atten- 
tion: "He  who  makes  a  new  grammar  does 
nothing  for  the  advancement  of  learning,  unless 
his  performance  excel  all  earlier  ones  designed 
for  the  same  purpose  ;  and  nothing  for  his  own 
honor,  unless  such  excellence  result   from   the 

exerc E   his  own  ingenuity  and  taste."     The 

earliest  of  Brown's  grammars  was  Tlie  Institutes 
of  English  Grammar  (New  York.  1823,  revised 
ed„  1854),  which  was  full. .wed,  the  same  year, 
by  The  Fir*/  Lines  of  I-;,,,,!,*!,  Grammar,  an 
abridgment  of  the  former.      These  books  have 

hail  an  ii aise  circulation,  and  are  still  (18761 

very  extensively  used  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  Grammar  of  English  Grammars, 
the  most  comprehensive  work  on  the  subject  yet 
published,  was  completed  in  1851.  Maiiy  other 
textbooks  upon  English  grammar,  of  great  merit, 
have  been  published  both  in  England  and  this 
country,  for  the  titles  of  which,  see  English,  the 
Study  of,  and  Text-Books. 

The  methods  of  instruction  embodied  in  Mur- 
ray's and  Brown's  grammars,  and  in  those  of 
most  of  their  competitors  for  public  favor,  con- 
sisted mainly  in  committing  to  memory  defini- 
tions and  rules,  in  applying  these,  for  the  purpose 
of  practice,  to  various  styles  of  composition  by 
parsing,  and  in  the  correction  of  false  syntax. 
Most  of  the  later  grammars  vary  or  precede  these 
exercises  with  the  tmah/sis  of  sentences,  afford- 
ing practice  in  the  principles  of  genera]  gra lar, 

as  preliminary  to  special    rules.'   (See  ANALYSIS, 


Grammatical.)  Still  more  recently,  a  different 
class  of  elementary  grammatical  text-books  have- 
appeared,  under  the  name  of  Language  Lessons, 


ysis  and  parsing.      I 'n  ilia  I 
that  has  I n  taught  with 


ctciit.for  anal- 
is  no  subject 
a  disregard  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  teaching  as  English 
grammar;  and  there  is  certainly  none  that  has 
so  imperfectly  attained  its  practical  aim  —  cor- 
rectness in  the  use  of  language.  'I  his  has  arisen 
from  two  errors  of  procedure:  (I)  an  attempt 
to  teach  definitions  without  developing  in  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  the  ideas  underlying  them, 
and  rules  previous  to  an  illustration  of  their  ne- 
cessity ;  and  (2)  confining  the  instruction  to 
merely  theoretical  and  critical  work,  without 
sufficient  practice  in  the  application  of  principles 
and  rules  to  the  actual  use  of  language.  'I  he  intro- 
duction of  analysis  was  the  result  of  an  effort,  to 
reform  the  first  of  these  emirs;  and  (he  language- 
lesson  system,  a  reaction  againsi  the  second. 
Grammar  being,  distinctively,  the  science  of  the 
sentence,  the  preliminary  Btep  in  all  grammatical 
instruction  must  be.  to  give  to  the  pupil  a  clear 
and  correct  idea  of  what   constitutes  a   sentence, 


Ulich      he 


position,  and  how  other  parts  are  used  as  ad- 
juncts. (See  Analysis.  Grammatical.)  The 
outline  of  a  complete  scheme  of  teaching  gram- 
mar in  all  its  stages  is  presented  in  the  following 
points:  (1)  Principles,  definitions,  and  rules 
should  be  progressively  taught  by  requiring  the 
pupil  to  analyze,  and  also  to  construct,  classified 
sentences  commencing  with  those  of  the  simplest 
construction,  and  passing  gradually  to  such  as 
are  of  the  most  complex  structure  ;  (2)  No  defi- 
nition or  rule  should  be  committed  to  memory 
and  formally  recited  until  the  pupil,  by  sufficient 
practice,  has  obtained  a  clear  conception  of  the 
office  of  the  word  defined,  and  the  nature  of  the 

USaee  which  the  rule  is  intended    to    guide.       For 


h  alone  they  can  occur  are 

[erst 1  at  that  stage.  And 

require  a  child  to  commit 
A  verb  must  agree  with  its 


the. structures  in  u  1 

too  complex  to  be  u 

it  is  equally  absurd 

to  memory  the  rule. 

subject  or  nominative  in  person  and  number." 

until  by  the  comparison  of  a  number  of  sentences 

illustrating  this  usage,  ho  is  made  to  understand 

what  is  meant  by  agreement  in  grammar,  and 

how  expressions  may  be  incorrect  by  a  failure  to 

observe  this  rule.     According  to  this  method,  the 

pupil  is  first  made  acquainted  with  the  distinc- 


tly 


verb  and  the  noun.  From  this  point,  the  sentence 
may  !»■  complicated  by  the  successive  insertion 
of  modifying  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  so  as  to 


illustrate  not  only  the  nature  and  use  of  each 
of  the  parts  of  speech,  but  every  peculiar  struct- 
ure. This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following 
example  of  a  sentence  thus  expanded  :  (1)  Boi/s 
learn.  (2)  The  buys  learn.  (3)  The  studious 
boys  learn.  (4)  The  studious  boys  learn  rap- 
idly. (5)  The  studious  boys  learn  their  lessons. 
((>)  The  studious  boys  learn  their  lessons  in 
school.  (7)  The  boys  and  girls  learn.  (8)  The 
boys  learn,  but  the  girls  do  not  learn.  (9)  The 
buys  who  study  will  learn.  Of  course,  each 
sentence  here  given  is  only  a  specimen  of  what 
may  be  used  at  each  step;  and  when  these 
several  steps  have  been  taken,  the  pupil  will 
have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  functions  of 
the  different  parts  of  speech.  Thus,  in  ill,  he 
learns  the  noun  and  the  verb  :  in  (2),  the  article 
is  added;  in  (3),  the  adjective;  in  (4),  the  ad- 
verb;  in  (5),  the  pronoun  ;  in  ((>),  the  preposi- 
tion; in  (7),  the  conjunction,  as  a  connective  of 
words;  in  (8),  the  conjunction,  as  a  connective 
of  sentences;  in  (9),  the  relative  pronoun.  After 
much  preliminary  oral  instruction  of  this  kind, 
the  pupil  may  be  required  to  learn  simple  defi- 
nitions. Underlying  the  whole  process,  it  will 
be  perceived,  is  the  analysis  of  the  sentence, 
parsing  coming  in  at  a  later  stage,  as  the  appli- 
cation to  particular  sentences,  according  to  a 
given  praxis,  of  the  definitions  and  rules  learned. 
This  is  the  method  recommended  by  prominent 
educators  of  the  present  day.  "  The  analysis  of 
a  sentence,"  says  Wickersham,  "  consists  in  find- 
ing its  elements,  or  in  reducing  it  to  the  parts  of 
Bpeech,  of  which  it  is  composed.  Parsing  con- 
sists in  finding  out  these  pans  of  speech  and  de- 
termining their  properties  and  relations.  Both 
should  be  combined,  as  is  the  case  in  similar 
operations  in  other  sciences.  The  botanist  ana- 
lyzes a  plant,  ami  then  names  and  describes  its 
several  parts.  The  anatomist  dissects  a  subject, 
and  then  characterizes  the  organs  thus  brought 
to  his  notice.  Grammar  can  be  studied  success- 
fully in  no  other  way.  Parsing,  without  a  pre- 
ceding analysis,  can  lead  but  to  a  very  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  organic  structure  of  sentences." 
To  the  value  of  the  analytical  method,  Prof. 
Whitney  thus  hears  witness:  "Give  me  a  man 
who  can.  with  full  intelligence,  take  to  pieces  an 
.English  sentence,  brief  and  not  too  complicated 
even,  and  I  will  welcome  him  as  better  prepared 
for  further  study  in  other  languages  than  if  he 
had  read  both  Caesar  and  Virgil. and  could  parse 
them  in  the  routine  style  in  which  they  are  often 
parsed."  Parsing  should  not  be  made  a  routine  ; 
when  it  becomes  such,  it  is  worse  than  useless. 
The  constant  application  of  complicated  defini- 
tions and  rules  derived  from  a  language  of  in- 
flections, to  English  words  and  sentences  having 
scarcely  an  inflection,  is  to  the  pupil  a  senseless 
3,  and  must  only  tend  to  dull,  instead  of 


cultivating  and  sharpening,  his  intellectual  fac- 
ulties. It  makes  him,  as  lias  been  said,  a  "  pars- 
ing machine."  The  definitions  and  rules  of  En- 
glish grammar  should  be  simplified,  recognizing 
the  fact  that  English  is  not  an  inflectional  lan- 
guage, except  in  a  very  few  particulars  ;    and 


MAR  381 

hence,  that  the  principles  of  agreement  and  fjor- 
eriuiif  ill  have  scarcely  any  application.  The  mul- 
tiplying of  rules  that  regulate  nothing  is  idle; 
Thus,  of  what  use  is  it  to  cause  a  child  to  repeat, 
in  parsing,  twenty  i  n  s  perha]  in  a  ingle  les- 
son, the  so-called  syntactical  rule,  "  Adjectives 
relate  t ins  ami  pronouns,"  when  he  has  al- 
ready learned  as  a  definition  that  "  Adjectives 
are  words  added  to  nouns  and  pronouns?"  The 
editor  of  the  last  edition  of  Brown's  Institutes  of 
'English  Grammar  remarks,  in  an  Observation 
on  the  treatment  of  Syntax  in  that  work. 
"Nearly  one  half  of  the  twenty-six  rules  of 
syntax  laid  down  in  this  work  are  rather  a  rep- 
etition of  the  definitions  comprehended  in  ety- 
mology than  separate  rules  necessary  to  guide  us 
in  the  construction  ot  sentences":  and  the  same 
may  probably  be  said  of  most  grammars.  All 
such  needless  machinery  should  be  eliminated. 
The  application  of  the  terms  case,  gender, per- 
son, and  all  other  designations  of  inflectional 
variations  of  words,  should  be  kept  within  the 
narrow  limits  prescribed  by  the  simplicity  of  the 
language.  In  most  systems  of  grammar,  how- 
ever, we  find  these  terms  used  in  so  ambiguous 
a  way  as  almost  hopelessly  to  obscure  the  sub- 
ject and  perplex  the  learner.  Sometimes,  for 
example,  case  is  used  to  indicate  a  form  or  in- 
flection, at  others,  a  mere  relation  without 
change  of  form  ;  while  the  fact  to  be  taught  is, 
that  where  there  is  no  inflection  there  is  no  case. 
The  rule  that  "a  noun  which  is  the  subject  of  a 
verb  must  be  in  the  nominative  case  "  is,  in  En- 
glish, useless  and  absurd.  The  senseless  machin- 
ery of  English  grammar,  as  ll  has  lieeii  goiierally 
taught,  lias  brought  the  whole  subject  under  rep- 
robation, as  being  useless  in  an  elemental y  si  In  ml 
curriculum,  and  as  superseded  in  that  of  the 
high  school  and  college,  by  the  study  of  Latin  ; 
while  there  is  no  doubt  that  college  graduates,  in 
the  United  States,  are  generally  m  nothing  so 
deficient  as  in  a  practical  and  critical  knowledge 
of  their  own  language.  While  it  is  very  true 
that  the  use  of  every  language  is  a  matter  of 
habit  rather  than  of  rule;  every  writer  and 
speaker  knows,  that  there  are  myriads  of  in- 
stances in  which  the  ear  and  the  memory,  how- 
ever trained  by  habit,  wdl  not  serve  as  a  guide, 
and  that  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  and 
usages  oi  language  in  regard  to  nice  points  of 
construction, is  indispensable.  "Since  language," 
says  ( 'urrie.  "  is  the  instrument  of  all  thought,  a 
more  commanding  knowledge  of  it  than  habit 
alone  can  give  must  be  deemed  a  necessity  of 
education,  and  particularly  of  all  education 
which  pretends  to  cultivate  the  mind."— See 
Cdreie,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Common- 
School  Education  (Edin.  and  Lond.);  Wells, 
The  Graded  School  (X.  Y.,  1862);  Wicker- 
sham, Methods  or  Instruction  (Phila.,  1865); 
Kiddle  &c  How  to  Teach  (X.  Y..  1874); 
Brown,  Grammar  of  English  Grammars 
VS.  V..  1851);  White,  Words  and  Their  Uses 
N.T.,  1870);  Marcel,  TheStudyof  Languages 
IN.  Y..  L876).  (See  also  English,  Tut:  Stcdy 
of,  and  Grammar,  English.* 


382 


GRAMMAR   SCHOOLS 


GRAMMAR  SCHOOLS,  so  railed,  not  be- 
cause they  gave  instruction  in  English  grammar, 
but  from  the  fact  of  their  making  the  teaching 
of  Latin  and  Greek  —  particularly,  and  some- 
times exclusively,  the  former — their  especial  aim, 
existed  in  England  from  the  earliest  times.  They 
discharged  the  same  function  as  the  old  cathe- 
dral schools  (q.  v.).  or  the  cloister  schools  of  the 
monasteries,  and  were  established  and  supported 
either  by  the  endowments  of  benevolent  individ- 
uals, or  by  governmental  aprpopriations.  In  Eng- 
land, the  endowed  grammar  schools  are  very 
numerous  and  many  of  quite  ancient  foundation. 
Quite  a  number  of  Royal  Grammar  Schools  were 
established  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII., 
Edward  VI.,  and  Elizabeth,  from  funds  obtained 
out  of  the  spoils  of  the  religious  houses  of  the 
Catholics,  broken  up  at  that  time.  To  a  certain 
extent,  they  were  free  schools.  "A  few  of  the 
poor,"  says  Barnard,  "  who  were  unable  to  pay 
for  their  education  were  to  be  selected  —  some 
according  to  the  parish  in  which  they  were  burn 
or  lived,  some  on  account  of  the  name  they  bore, 
—  and  to  receive  instruction  in  the  learned  lan- 
guages, and,  under  certain  conditions,  to  be  sup- 
ported through  the  university.  These  Public 
Grammar  Schools  were  thus  the  nurseries  of 
the  scholars  of  England,  in  them  the  poor  and 
the  rich,  to  some  extent,  enjoyed  equal  advantages 
of  learning,  and.  through  them,  the  way  to  the 
highest  honors  in  the  state,  and  the  largest  use- 
fulness in  the  church  was  opened  to  the  humblest 
in  the  land  "  Endowed  grammar  schools  whose 
foundation  dates  back  to  quite  early  times  exist 
in  almost  all  the  principal  towns  of  England. 
They  are  generally  both  day  and  boarding 
schools  Of  these  the  Grammar  School  of  King 
Edward  VI.,  at  Bromsgrove,  is  an  example,  of 
which  the  tercentenary  commemoration  of  the 
foundation  was  celebrated  March  31.,  1853. 
(See  Proceedings,  8vo,  Bromsgrove,  1853.)  As 
a  curious  old  book  on  this  subject  see  Brinsley's 
Ludus  LUerarius,  or  the  Grammar  Schoole 
(London,  1612).  The  course  of  instruction  is 
about  the  same  as  in  the  Public  Schools,  such  as 
Eton.  Harrow,  etc.,  latin  and  Greek  being  quite 
prominent;  and,  in  both  classes  of  schools, 
pupils  are  prepared  for  admission  into  the  uni- 
versities. These  grammar  schools  are.  therefore, 
the  same  as  what  have  been  called  classical 
schools,  belonging  to  the  class  of  middle  schools, 
and  representing  secondary  instruction.  They 
correspond  to  the  gymnasia  of  Germany  and 
the  lycees  of  France ;  iu  the  latter,  however, 
there  is  a  course  of  instruction  in  modern  lan- 
guages, running  parallel  with  the  ancient  course, 
for  all  pupils  beyond  a  certain  age.  Ix>ng  before 
the  Reformation,  there  were  grammar  schools  in 
all  the  principal  towns  of  Scotland,  in  which 
the  Latin  language  was  taught.  In  the  lecture 
schools  children  were  also  taught  to  read  the 
vernacular  language.  In  Glasgow,  a  grammar 
school  was  in  operation  in  the  15th  century  ;  and 
the  Edinburgh  High  School,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  Kith  century.  An  act  of  James  IV. —  the 
earliest    Scottish    legislation   on   the   subject  of 


education  (1494) — refers  to  the  grammar  school, 
especially  : 


the 


:of 
ires  to  the 
Re,  and  till 
ill  they  be 


Realmu  that  all  Hamming  ami  In 
substance  put  their  eldest  sonn 
schules  fra  they  be  sex  or  nine  y< 
they  remain  at  the  Grammar  Scl 
competentlie  founded  and  have  )>t 

Grammar  schools,  in  the  United  States,  were 
originally  of  the  same  character  as  in  England 
and  Scotland.  "By  free  school  and  free  gram- 
mar school,"  says  Barnard,  "in  the  early  records 
both  of  towns  and  of  the  General  Court  of  Con- 
necticut and  .Massachusetts,  was  not  intended  the 
common  or  public  school,  as  afterwards  devel- 
oped, particularly  in  .Massachusetts,  supported  by 
tax  and  free  of  all  charge  to  all  scholars  rich  and 
poor  ;  neither  was  it  a  charity  school,  exclusively 
for  the  poor.  'I  he  term  was  applied  here,  as  well 
as  in  the  early  acts  of  Virginia  and  other  states, 
in  the  same  sense  in  which  it  was  used  in  England, 
at  the  same  and  much  earlier  dates,  to  characterize 
a  grammar  school  unrestricted  as  to  a  class  of 
children  or  scholars  specified  in  the  instrument 
by  which  it  was  founded,  and  so  supported  as 
not  to  depend  on  the  fluctuating  attendance  and 
tuition  of  scholars  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
master.  In  every  instance  in  which  we  have 
traced  their  history,  the  free  schools  of  New- 
England  were  endowed  by  grants  of  land,  by 
gifts  and  bequests  of  individuals,  or  by  'allow- 
ance out  of  the  common  stock  of  the  town',  were 
designed  especially  for  instruction  in  Latin  and 
Greek,  and  were  supported  in  part  by  payments 
of  tuition  or  rates  by  parents.  These  schools 
were  the  well-springs  of  classical  education  in 
this  country,  and  were  the  predecessors  of  the 
incorporated  academies,  which  do  not  appear 
under  that  name  until  a  comparatively  recent 
period."  The  gradual  development  of  the  com- 
mon-school system  in  the  United  States,  joined 
with  the  partial  decline  of  Latin  and  Greek  as 
instruments  of  education,  and  the  demand  for 
studies  of  a  more  practical  character,  that  is, 
more  in  demand  as  a  preparation  for  the  ordinary 
duties  of  life,  have  led  to  a  different  application 
of  the  term  grammar  schools.  The  study  of 
English  grammar  having  taken  the  place  of  Latin 
grammar  in  schools  of  an  elementary  grade,  such 
schools  came  to  be  designated  grammar  schools, 
and  the  former  grammar  or  classical  schools  re- 
ceived the  name  of  high  schools  or  academies.  In 
most  of  the  public-school  systems  of  the  cities  of 
the  Union,  grammar  schools  are  schools  of  agrade 
between  the  primary  schools  in  which  the  first 
rudiments  of  instruction  arc  imparted,  and  the 
high  schools.  Some  of  the  grammar  schools,  so 
called,  have  a  primary,  an  intermediate,  and  a 
grammar  department.  In  these  cases,  the  term 
grammar  schools  has  been  used  with  no  definite 
idea  of  its  propriety,  except  as  designating  a 
somewhat  higher  grade  of  schools  than  those  in 
which  the  simplest  rudiments  of  an  English  edu- 
cation are  afforded  :  since  even  in  these  English 
grammar  is  taught  in  only  the  higher  grades  or 
classes.  See  Barnard,  Education  in  Europe; 
and  Amrrican liiiujraphy,  s.  v.Ezekiel  Oheever. 


GRASER 

GRASER,    Johann    Baptist,  a  Catholic 

priest  and  educator,  born  in  Kltinaim,  Germany, 

able  opposition,  especially  among  the  Catholic 
clergy,  by  his  educational  theories.  Be  insisted 
thai  education  should  not  aim  at  general  culture, 
but  at  a  preparation  for  life.  I 'lass  education  was 
particularly  favored  in  his  doctrine.  His  general 
theory  of  education  was  derived  trom  Schclling's 
philosophy.  The  essence  of  man  is  reason  ;  and 
the  aim  of  reason  is  to  reproduce  the  divine 
likeness.  A  knowledge  of  human  life,  in  its  re- 
lation to  nature  and  Cud,  is  necessary  to  every 
one ;  and  no  power  should  deprive  any  one  of  it. 
The  aim  of  this  general  culture  should  be  to 
produce  a  feeling  of  solidarity.  Every  one 
should  be  made  to  feel  that  he  lives  not  for  or 
in  himself  alone.  Specific  education  must  be 
individual,  since  it  aims  to  prepare  each  one  for 
his  future  position  in  life.  The  idea  of  general 
culture  is  contradictory  to  nature,  and  is  dan- 
gerous withal.  It  is  apt  to  produce  restless,  dis- 
satisfied people,  rather  than  useful  members  of 
society.  With  Graser,  as  with  Caesar,  men  who 
think  too  muchwerei sidered dangerous.  In  im- 
parting knowledge,  the  teacher  should  strive  to 
develop  the  student's  powers.  All  teachers  of  what- 
ever subject,  should  consider  themselves  as  teachers 
of  religion,  for  no  knowledge  is  complete  until 
its  object  is  seen  in  its  relation  to  God.  Graser's 
theory,  like  that  of  Fichte,  subordinates  the  in- 
dividual to  the  state  in  so  despotic  a  fashion  as 
to  reduce  the  former  to  a  mere  tool.  It  was 
largely  a  reaction,  in  the  interest  of  government, 
from  the  individualism  which  was  at  that  time 
leavening  all  Europe.  It  was  due,  therefore,  less 
to  an  insight  into  human  nature  than  to  the 
political  exigencies  of  his  time.  His  polemic 
against  general  culture  is  due  to  the  same  cause. 
His  class  education  fits  well  in  a  despotic  system 
of  government,  but  overlooks  the  fact  that  man 
is,  first  of  all.  called  to  be  a  man,  and  not  a 
tradesman  or  a  mechanic.  1  lis  leading  idea,  though 
by  no  means  originating  with  him,  was,  that  edu- 
cation is  properly  a  self-culture.  —  an  unfolding 
from  within.  His  philosophy  had  a  marked 
effect  upon  his  theory  of  religious  views.  As  a 
follower  of  Schelling.  he  believed  in  an  im- 
manent (iod,  and  was  impatient,  therefore,  of 
catechetical  instruction  in  religion.  God  must 
be  found  every-where.  according  to  him. —  in 
man.  in  the  world,  and  not  alone  outside  of  them. 
Catechism  he  considered  as  having  a  tendency 
to  irreligion  and  rationalism.  A  one-sided  mys- 
ticism characterizes  his  theory,  which  gave  rise  to 
the  charges  of  heterodoxy,  which  were  brought 
against  him.  —  See  Schmidt,  Geschichte  der 
Pddagogik,  vol.  iv. 

GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND, 
the  United  Kingdom  of.  This  is  the  official 
title  of  the  British  empire,  Great  Britain 
being  properly  the  name  of  the  island  which 
comprises  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales.  In 
current  language,  however,  the  name  Great 
Britain  alone  is  generally  used  to  designate  the 
whole  imperial  power.     At  present,  the  British 


empire,  in  point  of  extent,  is  the  largest  in  the 
world,  its  area  being  estimated   at  8,700,000  Sq. 


GREECE,  a  country  of  south-eastern  Europe, 
having  an  area  of  1 9,353  sq.  m.  and,  according  to 
the  census  of  L870,  1,457,894  inhabitants,  nearly 
allot  whom  speak  the  Greek  language,  and  are 
connected  with  the  Creek  Church.  'I  he  number 
of  thosa  who  speak  other  languages  is  only 
68,000,  and  the  number  belonging  to  other  relig- 
ious denominations,  only  12,600.  Greece,  an- 
ciently called  Hellas,  is  the  earliest  of  all  the 
European  countries,  that  appear  upon  the  stage 
of  the  world's  history;  and  though  the  Creek 
states  have,  for  many  centuries,  ceased  to  exist, 
the  language  and  literature  of  the  Greek  nation 
have,  in  uninterrupted  continuation,  been  instru- 
ments in  the  education  of  mankind.  The  limits 
of  ancient  (■'recce  were  not  well  defined,  as  the 
northern  boundary  line  considerably  varied  at 
different  periods.  Of  territories  now  subject  to 
Turkish  rule,  the  Sporades.  Crete,  Rhodes,  and 
parts  of  Thcssaly  and  Epirtts  are  generally  in- 
cluded in  ancient  Creece,  and  are  inhabited  by 
Greeks  at  the  present  day.  Numerous  and 
flourishing  colonies  were  established  by  the  an- 
cient Creeks,  or  Hellenes,  in  many  countries, 
especially  in  Sicily,  southern  Italy,  and  Asia 
Minor,  and,  for  a  longtime,  took  an  active  part  in 
the  literary  and  educational  development  of  the 
race.  In  I4(i  B.  C,  ••recce  became  a  Roman 
province  ;  and  for  more  than  four  centuries  the 
Hellenic  nation  remained  subject  to  foreign  rule. 
The  division  of  the  Roman  Empire,  in  395,  cre- 
ated the  Creek  Ian]. ire.  of  which  Constantinople 
was  the  capital,  and  which  embraced,  for  a  long 
time.not  only  the <  J  reek  territory  now  belonging  to 
the  kingdom  of  ( '•  recce,  but  both  the  European 
and  Asiatic  portions  of  the  Turkish  empire.  The 
empire  was  destroyed,  in  1453, by  the  Ottomans, 
or  Turks  :  and  the  Creeks  continued  for  centuries 
without  national  sovereignty,  until,  in  1829, the 
establishment  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece  restored 
to  them  a  place  among  the  independent  nations 
of  the  earth.  We  shall  treat,  in  this  article,  of  (I) 
Ancient  Creece,  (II)  the  Greek  Empire,  and 
(III)  Modern  Greece. 

1.  Ancient  Greece.  —  In  the  history  of  edu- 
cation, the  ancient  (  i  ceks  hold  a  more  promi- 
nent position  than  any  other  people  of  antiquity. 
They  attained  a  far  higher  degree  of  intellectual 
development  than  existed  in  the  Asiatic  or 
African  monarchies  which  preceded  them  ;  or 
in  the  Roman  republic,  the  Roman  empire,  and 
the  rising  monarchies  of  the  middle  ages,  which 
came  after  them.  It  needed  the  revival  of  clas- 
sical learning,  in  the  loth  century,  to  raise  the 
intellectual  culture  of  Europe  again  to  the  level 
of  ancient  I  .'recce.  Sin. v  then,  the  I  [reek  language 
and  literature  have  had  a  prominent  part  in  the 
development  of  modern  civi/.ation.  The  progress 
of  modern  literature,  especially  of  history,  mathe- 


matics,  philosophy,  the  fine  arts,  natural  science, 
and  geography,  is  largely  due  to  the  writings  of 
the  Greek  scholar's  who  were  the  first  notable 
teachers  of  these  subjects,  and  who,  during  the 
last  four  centuries,  have  been  studied  by  so  large 
a  number  of  the  young  students  of  the  civilized 
world.  The  great  orators  of  ancient  Greece  have 
not  yet  ceased  to  be  admired;  and  the  greatest 
poets  of  tin'  English  language  and'of  other  modern 
tongues  have  not  only  derived  from  the  master- 
pieces of  the  Greeks,  inspiration  and  the  laws  of 
literary  composition  of  every  kind,  but  in  many 
cases,  modern  poets  have  borrowed  from  them 
even  the  subjects  of  their  poems. 

The  earliest  feature  of  education  in  ancient 
Greece,  as  we  infer  from  the  Homeric  poems 
ami  other  writings  of  that  period,  was  the  im- 
planting of  a  strongly  filial  attachment  in  the 
minds  of  children,  and  the  ennobling  influence 
of  parental  discipline  and  example.  Reverence 
and  obedience  toward  parents,  respect  for  old 
age,  and  habits  of  modesty,  chastity,  and  silence 
in  the  presence  of  elders  and  superiors  were  re- 
garded as  the  chief  ornaments  of  children.  The 
principle  was  generally  recognized,  that  he  who 
is  to  be  called  upon  to  command,  must  first  learn 
to  obey.  Plainly  and  artlessly,  sons  and  daughters 
were  brought  up  to  be  the  images  of  their  par- 
ents. The  son  found  in  his  father  his  model 
and  his  teacher,  who  instructed  him  in  the  use 
of  arms,  in  gymnastic  exercises,  and  in  the  wor- 
ship and  fear  of  the  gods.  The  daughter  was 
expected  to  grow  up,  under  the  watchful  in- 
struction of  the  mother,  a  skillful,  prudent,  and 
virtuous  woman.  However  uncertain  the  his- 
torical background  of  the  heroic  age  may  be, 
we  know  that  the  ileal  of  a  hero  in  ancient 
Greece,  which  was  held  up  to  the  rising  youth 
to  be  copied,  awakened  more  lofty  aspirations, 
and  exerted  an  educational  influence  far  supe- 
rior to  any  thing  that  is  to  be  met  with  in  the 
early  history  of  the  oriental  monarchies.  A  re- 
liance on  self-activity,  a  longing  for  fame,  an 
earnest  effort  to  subject  physical  nature  to  the 
rule  of  the  mind  ;  and  a  devotion  to  music  and 
gymnastics,  are  some  of  the  features  which  fore- 
shadowed the  eminent  position  which  Greece 
was  to  attain  in  the  annals  of  education.  In  the 
historic  age  of  the  Greek  republics,  we  notice  a 
passionate  ambition,  on  the  part  of  the  noblest 
minds,  for  distinction  in  political  life,  in  art.  and 
in  science.  A  nobler  vie\*  was  taken,  than  ever 
before,  of  the  functions  of  the  state  ;  and  educa- 
tion was  recognized  as  the  most  important  sub- 
ject to  which  state  legislation  could  be  directed. 
The  good  of  the  state  was  an  object  constantly 
held  in  view,  and  the  individual  and  private 
interests  of  the  pupils  were  subjects  of  secondary 
consideration.  No  other  country  ever  had  an 
educational  legislation  likethat  which  isascribed 
to  Lycurgus  (q.  v.),  and  Solon  (q.  v.)  ;  and  no- 
where do  we  find  such  attempts  to  develop  and 
test  new  educational  ideas,  as  those  made  by 
Socrates,  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Aristotle,  Xeno- 
phon,  Epicurus,  Zeno,  and  a  host  of  others.  A 
characteristic  feature  of  the  educational  system 


of  the  Greeks,  from  the  earliest  period  of 
their  history  to  the  downfall  of  their  country,  is 
the  attempt  at  a  harmonious  development  of  the 
powers  of  the  mind  as  well  as  of  the  body.  Gym- 
nastics (q.  v.)  constituted  an  essential  part  of 
Greek  education,  and  was  taught  and  practiced 
in  the  gymnasia,  or  schools  for  bodily  exercise. 
All  that  part  of  education  which  related  more 
especially  to  the  cultivation  of  the  mind,  was 
called  by  some,  Plato  and  Plutarch  for  instance, 
music;  while  others  separated  grammar  from 
music,  and  divided  education  into  three  parts: 
grammar,  music,  and  gymnastics.  The  centers 
of  <  heck  education  were  the  two  rival  capitals, 
Athens  and  Sparta.  Their  educational  systems, 
though  both  embraced  gymnastics  and  music, 
differed  in  many  and  important  respects.  Sparta, 
the  representative  of  the  Doric  tribes,  laid  greater 
stress  on  the  subordination  of  the  individual 
to  the  state  and  preferred  physical  to  intellectual 
culture  ;  while  Athens,  the  representative  of  the 
more  highly  civilized  lonians,  was  the  birthplace 
of  those  grand  theories  which,  in  the  history  of 
education,  are  set  down  as  the  chief  characteris- 
tics of  ancient  Greece.  (See  Athens,  and 
Sparta.)  Though  we  know  but  little  of  the 
schools  and  educational  systems  of  other  Grecian 
cities,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  all  of  them,  as 
well  as  the  colonies,  took  a  greater  or  less  part  in 
the  educational  ideas  which  were  developed  and 
carried  out  in  Athens  and  Sparta.  One  of  the 
greatest  of  all  Greek  teachers.  Pythagoras,  was 
a  native  of  the  island  of  Samos.  and  established 
the  famous  school,  which  has  immortalized  him 
in  the  history  of  education,  in  Croton,  one  of  the 
Greek  colonies  in  southern  Italy.  (See  Pythag- 
oras.) With  the  subjection  of  Greece  to  the 
rule  of  Macedonia,  its  achievements  in  the  work 
of  education  began  to  decline.  Of  considerable 
influence,  in  the  later  history  of  Greece  as  well 
as  in  that  of  the  Roman  empire,  were,  however, 
the  principles  of  the  Epicureans  and  the  Stoics. 
The  founder  of  the  former  was  Epicurus,  who 
died  at  Athens,  in  12 70,  J?,  ('..after  having  taught 
there  with  great  success  for  35  years.  Heregarded 
a  happy  life,  a  quiet  and  cheerful  mind,  and 
an  undisturbed  enjoyment  of  pleasure,  as  the 
highest  attainable  good.  Intellectual  pleasures 
were  valued  by  him  more  highly  than  sensual 

suffering  unavoidable  pain,  and  a  tempi  rate  and 

dinal  virtues.  Epicurus  and  his  first  followers 
were  entirely  free  from  the  licentiousness  which, 
during  the  times  of  the  Roman  emperors,  was 
considered  the  chief  characteristic  of  that  school. 
The  Stoics  were  founded  by  Zeno,  who  died 
at  Athens,  in  2(i0,  I>.  ('.,  after  teaching  there  for 
50  years  with  as  great  success  as  his  contempo- 
rary, Epicurus.  The  name  Stoics  was  given  to 
his  school  because  he  used  to  assemble  bis  pupils 
in  a  otoci,  or  porch.  Zeno  regarded  virtue  as  the 
highest  good,  and  he  defined  it  as  the  firm  ad- 
hesion to  established  principles  of  rectitude. 
A'ice  was.  in  his  opinion,  the  only  evil.  He. 
therefore,  laid  greater  stress  than  Epicurus  upon 


the  control  of  passions  and  emotions,  upon  the  I  thus  existing  through  a  period  of  more  than  a 
subordination  of  the  body  to  the  mind,  upon  re-  thousand  years,  and  spreadinc  out  ,,  vast  extent 
framing  from   sensual  pleasures,  anil  upon  every     of  territory,  this  empire   presents  in    the  history 


kind  of  alt 
itself  shouL 
exercise  of 


Athens  an. 
of  their  ind 
Egypt,  bee 


•liiiouNied    if  it'  h 

indcr. 

enee.     [noppositio 
later  times,  was  tin 
ity.     WMeGreea 

he  educational   ins 
a  perishing  with  tli 

e  tola 

■nee    tl ity  of  Alt 

•xaml 

lie  seat  of  Greek  i 

1-  ob 

system   ot    Neoplato 

liar ize  oriental  t 

tics,  and  to  dislodge 
versal   philosophy. 
teai  lua  -  in  Alexanih 
mation  of  the  first 
gians,  some  of  whom 


ful :  but  the  fact  t 
the  ( 'hristian  chur. 


emed  alike 
the  revolu- 


■  le.  under  Jus- 
ts effect:  and, 
the  islands  of 
hos  offered  the 

ion.  A  tew, if 
■edit  for  having 
'fin.  The  most 
I),  lie  founded 
ty.  with  a  free 
t  of  the  church 
■hers  of  philos- 
higher  gram- 


mar wen.1  a 
tended  thi 
schools  for 

from    the 


elf  at 


Unit  nd  i  a  i 
R&mern  (1851  ;  3a 
der  Griechen 
VermischteSchrij  a 
by  Felton,  in  Class, 
ton,  and  Edwards  (1 
on  education  from  tl 


On 


Theorie  der  Erzie- 
(1813)  :    Schmidt, 

York.  1842);  Wn> 
in    Greece   in   the 


4th  century.  A.D..  Constantine  transferred  the 
capital  of' the  Roman  Empire  to  Byzantium, 
which  from  him  received  the  name  of  Con- 
stantinople, the  predominance  of  the  tlreek 
language  and  literature  in  the  educational  insti- 
tutions of  the  empire  was  firmly  established. 
About  7D  years  later,  in  395,  Theodosius,  at  his 
death,  divided  the  empire  into  the  Western  Em- 
pire which  remained  under  the  influence  of 
Latin  or  Roman  culture,  and  the  Eastern  or 
fiyzantine  Empire,  which,  in  language  and  civili- 
zation, was  almost  exclusively  Greek.;  and  which. 
therefore,  is  sometimes  called  the  Greek  Em- 
pire. It  dragged  oul  awretched  existence, until, 
in  1453,  il  was  conquered  by  the  Turks.  Though  I 


most  brilliant  period.and  I  'on.tantinople  became 
the  central  seat  oi  philological  and  encyclopedic 
erudition.  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  (913- 
'.i-''<  .  c-t.ibh-hed  four  special  schools  for  philos- 
ophy, rhetoric,  geometry,  and  astronomy,  and 
required  in  every  public  officer  of  a  highergrade 
a  knowledge  of  philosophy  and  rhetoric.  Among 
the  succeeding  emperors,  Constantine  Pucas 
especially  encouraged  education  ;  but  no  impor- 
tant or  lasting  results  were,  at  any  time,  ob- 
tained. The  decay  steadily  advanced,  and  the 
empire  was,   from  an  intellectual  no  less  than 

fr a  political  point  of  view,  i nplete  rum 

when  it  fell  a  prey   to   the  completing   arm.-   of 
the  Turks.  —  See  Schmidt,  Geschichie  dm-  Pd- 
dagogik. 
'III.     Modem  Greece.—  i 


s  which  the 
hie  empire 
tile  nation, 
particularly 
jw  scholars 


disastrous  to  Greek  learning.    Tin 

who  .succeeded  in  saving  their  lives,  were  either 
forced    to    fly    to   foreign    lands    or    to   hide   in 

cloisters.     Tl stablishment    of  schools   of   an 

advanced  grade  for  the  instruction  of  Creek 
youth  was  even  more  strictly  forbidden  than  the 
erection  of  churches.     In  consequence  of  these 


386  GEI 

measures,  schools  and  all  other  means  of  culture 
fell  into  entire  neglect  :  and  the  ignoranceof  the 
Greek  population  became,  fn  mi  year  to  year,  more 
dense  and  extensive.  After  a  long  period,  and 
particularly  during  the  eighteenth  century,  the 
Turks,  believing  their  authority  to  be  beyond 
danger  of  overthrow,  began  to  be  less  suspicious 
of  their  Greek  subjects;  and.  in  consequence, 
the  condition  of  the  latter  grew  more  tolerable. 
Gradually,  a  more  frequent  intercourse  with 
other   Christian   nations  of     Europe  awakened 

whiclf  was  easily  gratified  by  their  growing 
wealth.  Public  schools,  beforeso  rate,  began  to 
in  number;  while  there  also  sprang  up, 
of  the  cities,  schools  of  a  higher  grade, 
li  was  taught  ancient  Greek  history,  and, 


were  those  situated  upon  the  islands  of  Patraos 
and  Scio,  at  Cydonia.   Smyrna.  Xagora    i  with   a 

sec I  one  at  Melia.  on  Mt    Pelion  in  Thessaly  . 

two  in  Yanina  in  Bpirus,  one  on  Mount  A.thos, 
two  in  the 'Peloponnesus,  one  at  Kumtchisnie 
on  the  Bosporus,  and  two  in  the  Danubian 
Principalities,  -at  Bucharest  and  Jassy.  These 
schools  which  were  mostly  supported  by  the  en- 
dowments of  patriotic  citizens,  and  by  \olnulary 
contributions,  were,  in  most  cases,  under  the 
direction  of  excellent  scholars,  who  had  receive  1 
their  education  in  Italy,  France,  or  Germany, 
and  who  devoted  their  time  to  the  instruction  of 
youth  ata  merely  nominal  salary-  The  condition 
of  the  elementary  schools  of  that  period  was 
extremely  miserable  ;  an  I  not  until  a  few  year, 
before  the  insurrection,  did  any  improvement 
take  place.  A  learned  Greek,  Georgios  Kleo- 
bulos,  having  become  acquainted  w  ith  the  moni- 
torial system  of  instruction,  introduced  it  into 
Greece,  'litis  was  the  condition  of  public  instruc- 
tion at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution.  During 
the  struggles  that  followed,  this  i dition  gradu- 
ally deteriorated.  In  the  neighboring  Ionian 
Islands,  which  were  under  the  prot  ■■  t  irate  oi 
"beat  Britain, there  had  been,  in  the  mi  anwhile, 

ary  institutions.  Several  Hellenic  schools  and 
a  gymnasium  had  been  established  by  the  govern- 
ment; and  a  university  had  been  endowed  by 

the  liberality  of  Lord  Guilford,  which,  although 
imperfect  in  many  respects,  had  educated  many 
Grecian  youths,  who.  upon  the  establishment  of 
a  regular  government   in   the  new  kingdom  of 

Capo  d'Istria,  upon  being  elected  president,  by 
the  national  convention  in  I  828, erected, besides 
numerous  public  schools,  a  gymnasium  on  tin- 
island  of  .Egina.  whi.h  s became  of  great 

benefit  to  Greece.    DndeT  King  Otho,  the  entire 

system  of  public  education  was  i ganized;  and 

the  relations  of  the  schools  and  of  the  depart- 
ment of  education  were  carefully  regulated. 

Primary  Instruction.  -The  common  schools 
of  ( rreece  are  regulated  by  the  law  of]  833,  which 
makes  school  attendance   obligatory   upon   all 


children  between  the  ages  of  5  and  12  years. 
This  requirement  is.  however,  far  from  being 
enforced,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that,  in  L870, 
but  33  per  cent  of  adult  males,  and  but  7 
per  cent  of  adult  females,  were  able  to 
read  and  write.  There  were  55  communes,  in 
1S70,  in  which  not  one  woman  was  able  to  read 
or  write.  In  the  army,  the  proportion  of  totally 
illiterate  men  was  48|  per  cent,  and  in  the  navy, 
it  was  53  J  percent,  b/very  parish  is  required 
to  have  at  least  one  school;  and,  in  case  its 
means  do  not  suffice  to  support  a  school,  aid  is 
afforded  by  the  government.  There  are  also 
"irregular  schools"  in  towns  which  cannot  sup- 
port the  regul  ir  government  school.  In  the 
irregular   schools,  the  old  method    of  individual 

instrucl is  still  followed.     Separate  schools 

for  girls  arc  found  in  large  cities  only.  A  rule 
adopt,- 1  by  the  educational  department,  without 
any  authority  of  law.  however,  providi  s  that,  in 

every  scl 1  in  which  the  number  of  scholars 

exceeds  I. Mi  or  250,  there  shall  1 ne  or  two 

assistant  teachers  respectively.  Owingto  a  want 
of  funds,  this  rule  has  not  been  fully  carried  out 
except  in  the  chief  towns  of  the  inninirrhi,^ 
(provinces)  and  eparchies  (districts).  The 
schools  of  each  parish  are  governed  by  a  local 
board  of   inspectors,   called   the  ephory.    This 


two  to  four  privaio  eii  i/ens.  Where  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  districts  belong  to  different  faiths, 
a  priest  from  each  of  the  denominations  is 
chosen.  The  ephory  have  the  care. oversight, ami 
iii.inag  iment  of  all  the  si  hools  in  the  parish,  and 
m  ■,     en   nipt    poor    families    from    lasal  ion    for 

se| I  purposes.     They  must  visit  the  schools 

at  1  Mst  once  a  month,  and  report  to  the  eparch 
or  the  nomarch  the  defects  in  the  schools. as  well 
as  the  improvements  which  they  may  consider 
necessary.     They  also   present   a   report  on  the 

financial  conditi if  the  scl I.     Committees, 

similar  in  their  composition  to  the  ephories,  were 
provided  for  the  eparchies  and  nomarchies  by 
the  law  of  1833.  The  eparchs  are  required  to 
visit  the  schools  under  their  charge  semi-annu- 
ally, and  the  nomarclis  the  schools  of  the  nom- 
archy  annually;  and  they  report  to  the  depart- 
ment on  the  condition  of  the  .schools,  and  the 
conduct  of  the  teachers  and  of  the  local  inspec- 
tors. The  principal  of  the  school  at  the  cap- 
ital of  the  eparchy  has  the  supervision  of 
all  the  schools  in  that  district,  as  respects  the 
professional  skill  and  capacity  of  the  teachers; 
and  the  principal  of  the  school  at  the  capital  of 
a  nomarchy  has  a, : similar  supervision  of  all  the 
schools  in  his  province.  It  is  the  duty  of  these 
principals  to  visit  the  schools  under  their  charge 
every  six  months,   and  report  on   them   to  the 


each  of  which  the  scholars  spend  from  one  to 
two  years  ;  and  the  higher,  syndidactic  or  simul- 
taneous, composed  of  two  (in  the  cities  three) 


animal  classes.  All  the  scholars  are  instructed 
in  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  the  rudiments  of 

modern  Creek  grammar,  and  religion.  To  these 
studies  are  added,  in  the  higher  schools,  the 
elements  of  geography,  liihlical  and  Creek  his- 
tory, and  the  grammar  of  the  ancient  Creek 
language.  Religious  instruction  is  general!}  im- 
parted by  the  teacher:  but,  in  a  few  cases. 
where  the  scholars  are  of  different  religion,  the 
parents  of  that  denomination  which  is  in  a 
minority,  provide  separate  religious  instruction 
at  their  own  expense.  The  scholars  are  also 
required  to   furnish  short  compositions.      Miisie 


treasurj  i nthlj   apportioi ml  of  22  lepia 

(100  lepta  equal  to  1  drachma)  for  each  pupil. 
As,  with  the  exception  of  the  islands  of  Syra, 
Tino,  Naxia,  and  Santorini,  the   inhabitants  oi 

which   are    Roman  « 'atholies.   ahn..st    the  entire 


old  of   the  visits  of 


a  register  of  children  who.  throng 
room,  have  been  refused  admission 
honor,  a  record  of  reprimands  and  pti 
a  book  for  each  scholar,  in  which  his 
noted  twice  a  month  by  the  teach 
parents,  registers  of  the  different  cla 
monthly  exhil.it  of  the  condition  of 
not  only  with  resped  to   the  scholars 


[national    schools;    and   hem 

■  the  members  of 

both  churches,  in  these  islands 

send  their  children 

to  the  same  school.   In  some 

la.es.  schools  have 

been  established  by  the  Cath 

ilic  clergy  for  the 

children  belonging  to  that  ch 

trch  :  but  these  arc 

support,,!   ontinlyby   privat 

means.     The  in- 

ivemment  schools 

t-  verj  limited,  nol  exti  ndh  a 

b.  yond  the  super- 

Vrov'"]  of  the    vl'.'.'o'.Tlool'" 

.11. .ii    and   the  ap- 

crease  in  the  niunber  of  sclioi 

1s,  as  well  as  in  the 

school  attendance,  during  tl 

•  present  century, 

has  In  coi    \it\   marked.      Wli 

le,  in    1830,  there 

wen y  71  schools,  with  67 

21  scholars,  and,  in 

1858,    754    eel Is,    with    51 

596     pupils,  there 

were,  in  L872,  991  j  rimarj  » 

iomIs  tor  boys,  and 

186  schools  for  girls,  with  1 

713  male  and  eon 

female    teachers,    and    73,58l 

pupils,  of  whom 

etc 


nomareli.  . 
and  signed 
Two  gene] 
at  the  end 


I'ehrt 


at  the  end  of  August, 

of  which  the  latter  only  is  open  to  the  public. 
The  final  examinations  of  the  highest  classes 
take  place,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  and  are  con- 
ducted by  a  special  examining  committee.  '1  he 
school  laws  are  read  to  the  scholars  and  are 
affixed  to  the  walls  of  the  school  rooms,  when- 
they  remain  during  the  year.  I  'orporal  punish- 
ment is  strictly  forbidden;  the  usual  punishments 
being  the  loss  of  credit  marks,  detention,  re- 
primands, and  expulsion.  Pupils  are  rewarded 
by  certificates  of  merit,  admission  to  the  roll  of 
honor,  and  premiums  at  the  closing  examination 
of  the  year.  A  teachers'  seminary  has  ex- 
isted in  Athens  since  the  first  year  of  the 
kingdom,  to  which  a  model  school  is  attached. 
I  pon  pa-dug  an  examination  teachers  receive 
diplomas  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  grade,  ac- 
cording to  their  degree  of  proficiency.  This 
seminary  also  furnishes  the  Christian  population 
of  the  Turkish  provinces  with  teachers.  Female 
teachers  are  educated  in  the  higher  female 
schools,  particularly  in  the  one  founded  by  the 
Association  of  the  Friends  of  Education,  in 
Athens.  The  minimum  monthly  salary  is  ]U0 
drachmas  (1  drachma=$0.19.3)  for  teachers  in 
the  capital  of  a  nomarchy,  90  drachmas  for 
teachers  in  the  chief  towns  of  eparchies,  80 
drachmas  for  second-class  teachers,  and  M  drach- 
mas for  third-class  teachers.  The  salaries  of 
teachers  at  the  capitals  of  the  nomarchies  and 
eparchies  are  increased  111  drachmas  a  month. 
but  cannot  exceed  140  drachmas.  Besides  the 
salary,  the  teachers  of  all  classes  are  provided 
with  free  lodging,  and  receive  from  the  parish 


were   boys,  and   11,695,  girls.      In    1874, 
here  where  12 2 7  schools,  with  si ,449  pupils. 

Secondary  Inrtrnctiini.  —  Secondary  inst rue- 
ion  is  imparted  in  the  Hellenic  schools  and  the 

rvmnasia.     The  Hellenic  s.  1 Is   correspond  to 

vhat  in  Germany  arc   called  Latin  sdiools,  and 
ilso  to  the  higher  Lurcher  schools,  as  thev  are 


trade.     The  gymnasia  corresj 
classes  of  the   German  gym 

those  for  the  university   who 


■hies 


anil  eacli  oi t   the   lioniarclues.  a   uviiiiiasmm. 

The  secondary  sc Is  are  governed  by  the  royal 

ordinance  of  I  s.'!7.  In  order  to  receive  support 
from  the  state,  they  must  have  no  denomina- 
tional character.  The  Hellenic  schools  of  each 
province  are  under  the  supervision  of  the  prin- 
cipal of  the  nearest  gymnasium,  w  ho  \isits  them 
and  reports  on  their  condition  annually.  The 
Hellenic  schools  comprise  three,  and  the  gym- 
nasia, four  annual  classes.  The  course  of  study 
in  the  Hellenic  schools  is  as  follows:  religion 
and  penmanship  (2  hours  each  per  week  in  all 
three  classes),  history  and  mathematics  (3  hours 
each.,  French  language  .1  hours),  the  Greet 
language  (12  hours),  geography  (3  bom's  in  the 
first  class,  and  2  m  each  of  the  others) ,  and  Latin 
(3  hours,  in  the  third  i  lass  only).  In  the  gym- 
nasia, the  course., f  study  is  as  follows:  religion 
and  natural  philosophy  (2  hours  each  in  all  four 
classes],  mathematics,  history,  and  French  (each 
3  horn  -  Latin  (5  hours),  Creek  (9  hou 
raphy  (3  bonis  in  the  first  two  classes,  and  2  in 
the  two  highest  classes):  the  elements  of  philos- 
ophy are  taught  2  hours  per  week.  Religious 
instruction  is  given  in  the  Hellenic  schools  by 
one  of  the   teachers,  and  in  the   gymnasia  by 


.,** 


c.reeoi 


- :  but,  in 
i  excep 
iv  taught 
ividesfor 


conducted 


regularly  appointed  priests.  In  the  Hellenic 
schools,  chrestomathies  arc  used  ;  and  the  classic 
authors  in  Greek  and  Latin  arc  generally  rei 
in  the  gymnasia.  Text-books  have  been  pre- 
pared tor  all  the  various  branches  of  study,  and 
have  steadily  improved.     The  system   of   class 

teachers  prevails  in  Ihe  Hellenic  sc 
the  gymnasia,  all  the  branches,  w 
tion  of  Creek,  geography,  and  histi 
by  special  professors.  The  law  als 
a  library  for  the  use  of  the  teach-  i 
in  each  Hellenic  school  and  gyn 
very  little  lias,  as  yet,  been  aeconq 
direction.  The  final  examination 
by  the  professors  of  the  gymnasium,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  eplioiy.  and  is  both  oral  and  written. 
The  instructors  ar  i  styled  professors,  tutors,  and 
assistants.  The  title  of  professor  is  given  to  those 
only  who  teach  the  above-nicntione  I  branches  in 
the  gymnasia:  all  others  who  hold  permanent 
positions   as   instructors    in    the    gymnasia   and 

Hellenic  schools,  arc  styled  tutors:  but  those 
who  are  not  permanently  engaged  arc  called 
assistants.  The  royal  ordinance  of  1850  makes 
it  obligatory  on  a  candidate  for  a  position  as 
teacher  m  a  Hellenic  school  to  have  attended, 
besides  a  full  course  in  the  gymnasium,  at  least 
two  years  the  philosophical  and  philological 
course  in  the  university,  and  to  have  taken  part 
in  the  exerciser  of  the  philological  seminary.  In 
the  Hellenic  schools,  the  teachers  arc  divided 
into  three  classes  in  regard  to  salaries,  receiving 
respectively  loo,  i:io,  and  150  drachmas  per 
month;  while  the  principals  receive  200  drach- 
mas. In  the  gymnasia,  the  principal  receives  300 
drachmas,  ami  the  professors  250.  These  salaries 
may  be  increased  one-fifth  after  five  years' 
s.n  i.e.  Hellenic  schools  and  gymnasia  may 
also  be  established  by  private  persons,  upon  re- 
ceiving permission  from  the  government.  Higher 
schools  tor  girls  have  been  established  in  the 
larger  cities:  but  they  are,  with  one  exception, 
private  institutions  Dhe  course  of  study  in  the 
private  institutions  is  of  three  year.-,  and  doc-  not 

differ  from  that  pursued  in  the  Hellenic  scl Is, 

except  that  French  and  Kngli.-li  are  t a lie hi  instead 
of  Latin.  Instruction  is  given  by  both  male  and 
female  teachers:  but  there  must  be.  in  all  eases, 
a  female  principal.  These  schools  are  subject  to 
governmental  supervision,  under  a  special  ephorv. 
'("he  exception  mentioned  above  is  the  Central 
.-.■ho,, I  ,,i  i  l,c  Society  ot  ih  •  friends  of  Kducation. 
at  Athens.  This  school,  which  is  specially  in- 
tended to  train  female  teachers,  has  four  classes. 
The  fourth  class  is  obligatory  for  those  only  \\  ho 
wish  to  become  teachers  in  the  higher  schools. 
In  IhTO.  there  wcr.'  L 5  gymnasia,  and  144  Hel- 
lenic schools,  with  77*0  pupils:  and  2,\i  private 
institutions,  with  15*11  pupils  of  both  sexes.  The 
number  of  gymnasia,  in  1*72. was  17.  According 
to  the  latest  accounts,  the  number  of  higher 
girls  was  L0,  u  ith  about  900  pupils; 
itral  School  has  over  100  pupils. 
Instruction. — The  Otho  University, 
in  Athens, was  founded  in  L837,and  is  organized 

.a  the  plan  of  the  German  universities.     It  has 


made 

cxistelic 


GREEK    CHURCH 


ss  during  the  short  period  of  its 
tudents  that  entered  at  the 

i,  it  has  risen  to  1,205  stu- 
tal  numbcrof  students  that 


!  pr.,  ■  -soi-..  in  I  -7  |.v,a.-  V..:  that  of  students. 
1 ,352.  It  is  composed  of  four  faculties. — theol- 
ogy, law  and  political  economy,  medicine  and 
pharmacy,  and  philosophy.  Each  faculty  elects  its 
own  rector  and  a  representative  :  and  these, with 
the  president  appointed  by  the  king,  constitute 
the  academic  council,  'i  h  i]  rof  ssors  elect  a  repre- 
sentative to  the  uatio.ia!  I, -id. n  urc.  A  philo- 
logical and  pedagogical  seminary  for  the  training 
of  professors  and  teachers  for  the  gymnasia 
and  speci  d  schools,  is  connected  with  the  uni- 
versity. There  are  also  connected  with  the  uni- 
versity a  library,  a  botanical  garden,  a  niii-emn 
of  natural  history,  an  observatory,  a  collection 
of  coins  and  antiquities,  and  a  hospital  for  prac- 
tice and  demonstration  in  medicine  and  phar- 
macy, instruction  is  free,  the  salaries  of  the 
professors  being  paid  by  the  government.  The 
endowments,  of  which  there  are  quite  a  large 
number,  are  used  for  incidental  expenses.  The 
university  of  Corfu  was  abolished  in  1*(>5. 

Special  Instruction.  —  The  following  special 
schools  were  in  operation  in  1*72:  rive  com- 
mercial  schools,   four   theological   schools,  four 

nautical  schools,  one  polytechnic  school,  and 

school  of  agriculture.  Of  the  theological  schools. 
three  were  of  a  lower.and  one  of  a  higher  grade. 
The  course  of  study  in  the  lower  schools,  which 
are  intended  to  educate  village  priests,  is  essen- 
tially the  same  as  that  pursued  in  the  Hellenic 
schools,  the  principal  difference  being,  that  the 
writings  of  the  church  fathers  are  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  pagan  classics,  These  three 
schools  had  about  *o  students.  The  higher  sem- 
inary, known  as  the  Ilhizarian  School,  was 
established,  about  1*15.  by  endowments  from 
two  brothers,  named  Rbizaris.  It  has  five  a 
nual  classes,  in  which  the  students  receive 
thorough  theological  training;  and.  upon  gradu- 
ating, they  are  eligible  to  all  the  church  off 
It  has  about  40  students.  Orphan  asylums 
were  not  established  until  quite  recently.  There 
are  two  in  Athens,  —  one  founded  by  Queen 
Amelia,  for  girls;  and  another,  by  two  liberal 
Greeks,  for  boys.  A  third  one,  in  Syra,  is  sup- 
ported by  the  parish.  These  three  asylums  had. 
in  1869,  L58 pupils.  —  See  Sciimii..  A7/cvc/oy.(o7/c. 
vol.  m;  Barnard,  National  Education  in  Bu 
rope, 


! 


scho 
and 
Sup, 


GREEK  CHURCH  (also  called  Greek 
Catholic,  Orthodox  Greek,  and  Eastern 
Church,)  is  the  name  generally  used  in  English 
to  designate  that  part  of  the  Christian  Church 
which  recognizes  only  the  first  seven  of  the  so- 
called  oecumenical  councils,  and,  in  addition  to 
them,  the  so-called  Q  sexlum  of  Constanti- 
nople, held  in  692,  and  the  council  of  Constanti- 
nople, held  under  Photius  in  879  and  880.  The 
chief  dogmatic  difference  between  the  Creek 
Church  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  relates 
to  the  doctrine  concerning  the  procession  of  the 


GKEEK    LANGUAGE  389 

Holy  Ghost,  the  former  chargine;  the  latter  with  '  hits  in  the  original  tongue.     In  the  middle  ages, 

altering  the   faith    of    the    in n  1  i v ■•  1< -<  1    church  on  the    (I reek     latieuaee    was    Inn     i.uvh     studied; 

oecumenical   councils.     This  church  is  the  state  manj  othei  scholars  are  said  to  have  understood 

church  in    Russia,   Greece,   Montenegro,   Servia,    it.    Toward  the  close  of  the  14th  ce y.several 

and  Boumania;  and  it  predominates  in  European  Greek  scholars,  who  came  as  fugitives  to  Italy, 

Turkey,  and  in  the  Servian  and  Roumanian  dis-  awakened  in  the  learned  institutions  an  interest 

tricts  of    Hungary.    The  population  connected  in  their  language.    Florence  and  Rome  were  the 

with  the  church  numbers  i nt    70   millions,  first  centers  of  the  new  study  ;  but,  in  Italy,  the 

The  church  organizations  in  the  countries  named  study  of  the  Latin  classics  graduallj  super- 
are  all,  in  pointof  government,  independent  of  seded,  to  some  extent,  thai  of  the  Greek  lan- 
each  other;  though  honorary  primacy  is  con-  guage,  which  found  its  most  enthusiastic  admir- 
cededto  theseeof  Constantinople.  The  virtual  era  and  students  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands, 
separation  of  the  Greek  Church  from  the  churches  Erasmus,  Reuchlin,  and  Melanchlhon  were  the 
of  western  Europe  began  in  the  9th  century,  greatest  Greek  scholars  in  western  Europe;  and 
under  Patriarch   Photius,   and    was  fully  con-  they  also  introduced   the  stn.h   of  the  Greek 

summated  in  the  11th.     As  the  state  church  of    classics,  though  to  a  limited  extent, in1 any  of 

the  Eastern  or  Greek  Empire,  this  church  had  a  the  institutions  of  learning.     The  appeal  of  the 

controlling  influence  upon  the  educational  affairs  reformed   churches  from   the   Latin   Vulgate  to 

of    south-eastern    Europe     (see    Greece);    and  the  Uivi-k  original  of  the  New  Testament  greatly 

since,  through  its  instrumentality,  the  larger  por-  increased  the  demand  for  a  knowledge  of   the 

Hoi,  of  the  Slavic  race    were  converted  to  Chris-  Greek.    In  the  17th  century,  there  was  a  general 

tianity,  it  has  b  en  no  less  influential  in  the  edit-    declii f  the  study  throughout  Europe  ;  but,  in 

cational    historj    oi     Russia    and    other    Slavic    the  18th  century,  it  was  resumed  witl wvigor; 

countries.  The  lethargj  into  which  the  Greek  and  it  was  especially  the  Dutch  school  of  Bern- 
Church  appears  to  have  sunk,  is  reflected  in  the  sterhuis  and  Valckenaar  that  promoted  the 
slownessof  educational  progress  in  all  the  coun-  philosophical  study  oi  the  language.    At  the  be- 

triesof   the   Greek   faith,      this    I,  that-v  i-  n..«      <duni f   the  l'/tlieentuiv   dottfned   Hermann 

on  the  wane.   An  aetne  intercom-,   ha.-,  for -o,„e  wreath  improved  the  method  of  teaching  Greek; 

time,  existed  between  Greek  and  Anglican   the-  and,  more  recently,  the  study  of  Greek, Tike  that 

ologians,  and  at  union  conferences  held  at  Bonn,  of  Latin  and  all  the  modern  languagi  s,  ha-  been 

tatives  of  the  Greek   Anglican,  and  Old-Catholic  philology.    Greek  is  one  of  the  mosl  important 

communions,  the  unity  of  these  three  churches     branches  oi    the  [ndo-European  I. lages.     lis 

in   all   essential    doctrines  was  declared.    The  relation  to  the  other  branches  of  this  family  has 

strenuous  efforts  which,  for  some  time,  have  been     not  vet   been  definitely  deter [;   and  opin- 

made,  in  all  the  countries  of  the  Greek  faith,  to  ions  still  differ  as  to 'whether  Creek  and  Latin 

bring  their  educational    systems  to  the  highest  .particularly    the    latter,    are  entirely   indepen- 

state  of  perfection,  will  b    greatly  strengthened  dent   branches,  or  whether  they  spring  from  a 

by  these  church  movements.    Uready,  the  church  single   branch,  now   lost,  which  was  co-ordinate 

has  theological  faculties,  modeled  after  those  in  with  the  Sanskrit,  the  German,  the  Slavic,  and 

(Jennany.  connected  with  all  the  universities,,!'  other  1. ram  lies.    Greek  was  probablj    spoken   as 

Russia  except  Dorpai  ,1  treece,  Servia,  and  Rou-  lone  ago  as  fifteen  centui  ies  before  the  » Ihristian 

mania,  as  well  as  with  the  Austrian  university  of  eta.  and    appears,  in    the   mosl    ancient    traces 

Czernowitz.     The  condition  of  the  ecclesiastical  which  are  left  of  it.  split  into  a  number  of  dia- 

seminaries  has  likewise  greatly  improved.     Many  lects,  the  two  principal  of  which  were  the  Doric 

ofthetl I..-1.-.1I   pi.,t,s-,„-  |m,  received  their  and  the  Ionic.   The  largest  and  most    important 

education  at  the  German  universities;  and  their  portion  of  Greek  literature  was  written  in   the 

efforts  to   raise   the   educat ..I   standard  of  the  l„nie  dialect,    in    the   history  of    which   different 

young  clergy  have  met  with  considerable  success  periods  may  be  distinguished:  the  old  Ionic   or 

\silie  institutions  for  secondary  and  primary    epic   dialect,  which    appear-   in    the   1 ins    of 

instruction,  in  all  the  countries  professing   the  Homer,  and  remained  the  dialect  of  epic  poetry; 

Greek  religion,  have  a  denominational  character,  the   new  Ionic,  in  which  the  history  of  Herod- 

rehtrious  instruction  l,eii,e,.ithere;iven  «,r  super-  otus  is  written:   and   the    Attic   which   is   the 

intended    by  the   clergy,   the    improvement    of  language  of  the  larger  portion  of  Grecian  liter- 

theological  education  exerts  an    influence  upon  ature.    Greek  was  spoken,  in  the  earliest   times 

the  schools  of  every  grade,  and  greatly  aids  the  to  which  we  can  trace  it.  in  Greece  as  well  as  in 

progress  of  education  in  general.  parts  of  Asia  Minor;  subsequently,  the  establish- 

GREEK  LANGUAGE,  one  of  the  two  clas-  ment  of  Greek  colonies  carried  it  as  a  living  lan- 

sical  languages,  which,  as  such,  constitute  an  im-  guage  to   Sicily,   southern    Italy,   and   southern 

Astl riginal  language  oi  the  New  Testament  and  Macedon  gradually  mingled ;  and   new   dia- 

andof  the  early  fathers  of  the  Christian  church,  it  lects   were    produced,    the    most     important    of 

has  a   special  importance  for  I'lni-tian  theoloej-  which  was  that  spoken  tit  Alexandria,  and    used 

ans,  and  for  all  who  desire  to  study  the  Script-  in  the  Greek  translation  of  the  did  Testament. 


:j'.iO 


<;1IKKK    LANGUAGE 


in  the  New  Testament,  and  in  the  early  liter* 
tniv  i 'l'  tli-  Christian  Church.  During  the  first 
three  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  Greek  held 
a  position  similar  to  thai  subs  qu  ntlj  occu] 
for  a  long  time  in  Europe  by  the  I  rench  Ian- 
g  i  tge   b  ling  the  favorite  language  ol   literature 

;illil    i  if     the    e  llleato.l     'la-s  It     continued     1" 

exisl   as  a  spoken   lan-ua-r   in  sunt  hern  Prance 

during  several   centuries  alter   tin'   introd I 

.it'  Christianity;  and  in  Sicily  and  southern  Italy, 
until  th.'  Iltli  century.  Through  the  influence 
lit'  the  Romans.and  subsequently  of  other  nations 
that  conquered  south  -eastern  huiopc,  the  Greek 
la n- u.i-'-.  a-  spoken  I'V  tin-  people,  «  18  I  ons!  Ii  i 
ably  inn  lilicd  :  an  I  -ra  In  illy  tin-  in"  I.  in  tiiivk. 
or  Romaic,  arose,  .it  pi  -  ml  I  n  language  of  the 
entire  population  of  the  kingdom  oi  Greece,  and 
df  the  numerous  Greek  population  of  Turkey. 
The  Greek   alphabet    was   derived    from    the 

manner  in  which.it  was  introduced,  are  still  sub- 
je  :ts  of  learne  1  controvei  sies  V  i  utu  ttion,  as 
well  a~  the  signs  of  aspiration,  are  supp — I  by 
many  to  have  been  invented  by  \n-t,.|  hanes  of 
Byzantium,  and  to  have  been    introduced  about 

200  B.  C,  for  the  purp i   teaching  the  lan- 

-na-y  tii  foreigners.     The   proiuim-iati I   ai 

,  ient  i  ireek  is    till  a  matter  ■■(   discu    ion      Tl 
( treek  sch  il  0  i  who  n  \  ive  I  the  stu  ly  of  the  lan- 
guage in  wesl  in  Europe,  pr mm,  I  it  like  the 

modern  i  .i        oi and   this  system  is 

caUed  iot'icis       ■    R  al    i    R  uchlin 

who  was  its  chief  advoo  h    in    w     tern  i  uro  • 
fnopposition  toit,l  ra  a  ■■■  ■  .ai  itained  that  i  icl 

a  like  the  Italian  a,°  like  the  Italian  i,  v  like  the 
French  u,     and     lil  i  the  Italian  long  and  short 
. .  respectively, and  thai     .........  -.  and   |  h  id 

respectively  the  s  lunds  of  the  1      n  an  ' .  g,  d, 
/./..ami     1.1 

controversy  between  tin-  two  >y-i.  -m.-  i-  ii"l  v,  i 
ended, but  distinguished  a  h  ilai  -.  like  (  Had  ton 

Eichthal,   Groves,  and    Pel rec aend    the 

introduction  of  the  i Ii  in  Greek  pronuni  iation 

into  tli-  Kn-lish.  I-' in  ii  li.  and  American      !■-.'• 

Thedevel    imenl  oi  tl  iGreek  lai  .-... -■  hasbeen 

ively  national  character,  do  influence 

having  b  i  n  exerte  I  upon   it  by  any  foreign  lan- 

The  t  w  words  which   it   received  from 

a  iv  i  -          '  i    ill  'roughly  as- 

.-  i  1 1 1  i  l  it  I  with  itsown.  [t  isrii  h  in  radical  words, 
and  in  com]  It   also  pos- 

though,  t  is  i 

tl Iderb 

!  the  7.  nd. 
eeeded  by  any  laneuaaeiu  the 


ness  of  form,  for  law  and  organism.  Its  syntax 
lias  never  been  equaled  by  that  of  any  language 
in  the  world."   -Ever  since  the  introduction  of 

the  studj  oi  Greek  into  classical  scl Is.  it  has 

been  a  general  rule  to  begin  it  later  than  Latin. 
i  Henry  Stephens  strongly  advised 
tl pposite  i  mrse  :  and  manj  ol  the  si  dis- 
tinguished scholars,  as  1 1,  m-:.  ilnn-.  liulmki'U. 
Gedike,  Herbart,  and  Passow,  expressed  a  con- 
currence in  these  views.  The  vast  majority  of 
educators  have,  however,  been  so  decidedly  in 
favor  of  Latin  as  the  first  classical  language  to 
be  studied,  thai  only  in  exceptional  cases  has  a 
].i.i.  n,  a  I  ait  mpt  to  begin  with  Greek  been  made. 
A-  .,  general  rule,  less  time  also  is  devoted  to 
Greek  than  to  Latin ;  though  some  distinguished 

educators,   like  Rat n   his   Gesckichte  der 

Padagogik),  who  do  not  dispute  the  claim  of 
Latin  to  be  taken  tip  first,  demand  an  equal  or 


.1    sllpel  1,,|- 


.-it  i.  m  t,,r  I  in,  k    in   tin-  hi-her  da.s- 


I Is.     Ii,  il,,  animated  conflict 

II  c,|i|.-.il|.,m.l   ii.~i  it  nt  i.  -ti-  ■•(  a  hl-her 

Greek  has  had  to  bear  thi  brut  I  oi  the 
On  many  si, I,-  < . .i ,. . — i,  .t i.-  have  been 
I,,  Latin,  because  of  its  closer  affinity 
i.i.l,  in  languages,  and  particularly  on  ac- 
,,l  ii-  importance  for  an  etymological 
,1-,-  nt  tin -i-  la 1 1- iiaucs  :  ami  a  readiness 
a  expressed  to  provide  instruction  for  it 
here  Greek  has  been  entirely  excluded. 
,•  tin, I  thai    in  thi    I  nited  States,  in  con- 


d  with  the  ad- 
.  i  -  ientific  and  other 
■  al,  the  study  of 
I  ii,  a  -ivat  many  cases, 
n  retained  In  Germany, 
,,|  the  pn-ili. nun, line  of 
incentrated  their  strength 

,nls    ill    (ippcisitinll     t"  tile 

istence  of  a  large  number 
atin"  is  sufficient  to  indi- 
ite  iii  which  the  twoclas- 
il   by    the   opponents  of 


iferior  to  some  of 

-European    familv. 

But   ii   is  not  cx- 


ticles,  and  in  the  ability  to  expi  by  m  u  oi 
•hem. ii., -in  istvarii  h  'lations  and  i  lodifications 
of  id    ■      Ii  isals„,lis!i,,-uisl„,l  tor  its  euphony: 

and  neither  the  Latin  nor  any  lern  languag 

can  compare  with  il  in  regard  to  rhythmical 
beauty.  "More  than  any  of  its  sister  languages," 
says  Curtius,  "the  Greek  language  must  be  re- 
garded as  a  work  of  art,  on  account  of  its  sense 
ir  symmetry  ami  perteetion  ,,t  sounds  for  clear- 


hod  to  be  pursued  in 
.   a    greati  i    agri  i  ment 

than  in  respect  to  many 
rally  admitted  that  the 

Greek   grammar,  even 


able  that  all  >  ■  ■         ■  ■  ■  'mprehend 

a  knowled-    ,  i  ,  ,      I  -h,,al,l  begin  the 

_     v  ,  rigor  oi  memory 

is  still  b  h  and  its  function  still  prevails  in  the 
course  of  instruction.     II  and  Jacotot's 

metho  Is  find    now-a  days  fi  «    t-   lowers  in  the 
teaching  of  Greek;  and  the  study  oi   grammar, 
-.,   transl    i  m  from   G  I  nghsh  and 

I'.n-li  h  into  '  !reek,i  hi,  iK  occu]  iesth  attention 
of  the  b  -inn,  r.  It  has  be  n  proposed,  and  some- 
times attempted,  to  begin  the  teaching  of  the  lan- 
guage, in  accordance  with  the  development  of 
i  (reek  literature,  with  the  study  of  the  epic  ami 
old  Eonic  dialects ;  but  the  old  practice  to  make 


GREEK   LANGUAGE  301 

the  Attic  dialed  tin-  basis  lias  victoriously  main-     tiniillished  themselves  as  autliors   of  did a  lies 

taineil  its  traditional    ascendency.      Kxciviscs    in     of  Creek    literature,   w  liile  tlieir  "lamina!  eal  la- 


1  wl 


nou  generally  pr< 
here  grammars  at 
in  translation,  th 


general,  the  use  oi  a  rea  ler  before  the 

of  a  particular  author,  i I  inue  1 

Greek  than  in  Latin,  because  of  the  lo 
required  to  obtain  a  good  knowledg 
grammatical  rules  in  the  former.  Wh 
is  far  enough  advanced  to  take  up 
of   Greek  author-,  the  teacher,  in 


from  the  easier  to  the  more 

enough  of  the  selected  w 
students  an  adequate  idea  o 
literature.  The  orations,  phi 
and  dramas  are  particularly 

cla         ii'  rn  ek.  Oi  

is  not  considered  complete 
of.  at  least,  one  of  the  Horn 


Edward    Everett   (Bostot 

.  L822)  ;    A-usf&Ji 

liche 

uaking  the 

Qrv   h   Sprachlehn   (2  s 

.i-.   L819     27,  2i 

ed., 

vnters.  and 

with  valuable  additions  t 
1830     3!  i.    trans,   by    Ei 

ward    Robinson 

1.  V. 

ive    to  the 

Bloomfield  (L Ion,  183 

:   Rosl  i  1816,  71 

1  ed.. 

i  of  < rreek 

1854),  Engl,  translation 

ond.,  1827)  ;   Ku 

incr. 

dialogues 

Schulgrammaiil     trans. 

l,v  B.  B.  Edwards 

and 

r advanced 

S.  11.  Taylor  (Andover, 

1843    ;    and    Aus 

fv.hr- 

a  in  Gn    i. 

1  .    ,     ,        .     Hi       1 1 1  / 

i  -  ■iechis  hen   Sp 

■acJie. 

':",';;ie"i- 

2  vol  '  'i",V'  :■'""''. '■',, 

L86S    1  -71    ;  Wc- 

phal 

uitih 

and  Hsrcdituc  fully 

ers  and  students,  wl 
centuries.  In  regard 
desirable  to  wait  i 
grounded  in  the  Att 


dents,  and  as  th-  j;l 
scribes  is  not  calcula 

interest  in  ancient  C 


nes  are   not   suited   for 
onl\     Sophocles    and 
tended. 

inimatical  treatment  of 
id  hack  to  the  Sophists, 


the  language  can  be  i 

Plato,  and  Aristotle.     Considerable  progress  is 

visible  in  the  works  of  the  Stoics,  who  created 
most  of  the  technical  terms  used  in  Greek  gram- 
mar. The  idea  of  a  systematic  grammar  was 
developed  by  the  Alexandrian  school  of  gram- 
marians, some  of  whom  wrote  upon  the  subject 
of  grammar  in  the  most  limited  sense  :  others. 
upon  different  specific  topics  included  in  it.  as 
.svntax,  meter,  dialects,  and  the  like.  As  the 
author  of  the  firsl  systematic  grammar,  Dionysius 


iend 
ipkin 

ick.  M  Vlmtock, 
Silber.   Smith. 

Wad. 

ell.  Wettenhall, 

Hon 

•of  these  works 
A IC    the    1,0 

/•.  18' 

(I :  chiefly  based 

icons 

in  modern  times 

a  standard  fur  a  long  lime.    The   first    Iexic 

graphic  attempts  were  likewise  made  at  Ale 
andria.    The  central  seat  of  Creek  philology  \v( 
.  later  period,  transferred  from  Alexandria  i 


icon     complete     for 
additional  autliors. 


Constantinople,  where  a  number  of  scholars  dis-  '  tl,, an  urns  of  the  Cr 


a  full 
death 


392 


cpp.kic  language 


of  Passow,  a  nen  edition,  carrying  out  the  plan 
of  the  author,  was  prepared  by  the  joint  labors 
of  Rost,  Palm,  Kreussler,  Keil,  Peter,  and  Ben- 
seler (2  vols..  1841—57).  The  work  of  Pas- 
sow  was  the  basis  of  the  Greek-English  lexicon 
of  Liddell  and  Scott  (Oxford,  1845;  New  York 
edited  by  Henry  Drisler,  1848;  large  Ito  ed 
London,  1870.  .'  Other  large  Greek  dictionaries 
have  been  edited  l,y  .laool.it/  an. I  S.il.i     '.'yok. 


GRIMM 

Campbell,  Crosby,  Jebb,  -Tones.   Smead,  White. 
Weale,  and  Woolsey;  of  Theocritus,  by  Snow; 

of  Theophrastus,   by  .lebb  :    of  Thucydidea    by 
Bigg,  Frost,  Owen,  and  Weale;  of  Xenophon,  bv 

Anthon.  i;„is...  (Why.    Kcndnek,    Owen,    Pl.il- 


1839—46),  and    Pape  (3    vols.,   1850  63;     the 

and  literature  of  ancient  Greece,^  vols.),  Munk, 

3d  vol.,  containing  proper  names,  by  Benseler). 

(2  \ols..   L849— 50)     Nieolai   (2  vols,,  1866 — 7), 

School  dictionaries  have  been   prepared  bv  K.M. 

Pun  .out  i  Histoire  delalitteraturegrecque,2  vols.. 

Benseler,  Schenkl,  Liddell  and  Scott,  and  others. 
Among  English  and  American  authors  who  have 

l-'i'.i  .  Bergk   vol.  i.,1872).  The  standard  gram- 
matical  work    on    the   Creek   language   of  the 

brought   out    Greek   dictionaries,   besides  those 

N<  h    le-umeiit  is  Winer  [Grammatik  des  neu- 

alreadj  mi  utioned,  are  Jones,  Pickering,  Oliver, 

Uriivr's.  lloiin.-an.ai..ll»nnliar.  (SeeDlCTlONAEY. 

Stuari    end    Robinson);    and   other   grammars 

There    is   also'  a  very  rich  literature  of  special 

have    been     written     l.y     Greene    and     Stuart. 

lexicons  for  those  Greek  authors  who  are  com- 

Lexicons to  the   Greek    New   Testament  have 

monly  read  in  schools.     A  cmuparatho  ■■!•: iai 

been  published  bv  Wahl   (1822),  translated  by 

of  Greek  and  Latin  was  written  by   1 Meyer 

Robinson;   Bretschneider  (1824);  Wilke  (1841); 

(•-'vols..  Berlin,   1861     5),  and  an  etymological 

root-dictionary  on  the  basis  of  comparative  phi 

Schirlitz  11851    ■   Robinson    Greek  ■     </'  /■'  ,      1 

lology  by   Benfey   {Griechisdhes  Wurzellexicon, 

l.i  cicon  iif'ihr  New  Testament,   1836)-  Granm 

'-'  vols.,  1839- — 12). 

(1868).  -For   an  account    of   the  Creek  Church 

Among  the  Greek  readers  which  afford  selec- 

tions from  all.  or  nearly  all.  the  authors  who  are 

GREENEVILLE     AND     TTJSCULUM 

suited  for  school  reading,  none  have  Keen  so  ex 

COLLEGE,  at  Home,  Greene  Co.,  Tenn.,  near 

tensively  used  as  those  ••(  Jacobs    and    Dalzel 

Crecneville.  was  organized  in  1868,bythe  union 

Theworkoi  Ja S    i     Oar  ■    >  d  r Gr  ,    hi 

of  Greeneville    College  and  Tusculum  College, 

scht  a  Spi b  oun  in  1  82  1     consist  -  ol   four 

founded   in   1794  and   1847,  respectively.     It  is 

parts,  the  tir-tot  \n  In,  li  U  designed  for  beginners 

the  sec 1  gives  extracts  from  historians  or  ora- 

a preparatory,  and  'a  e..| legate  dei.!mincnt"witli 

tors  relating  to  the  history  of  Athens    the  third 

a  classical  and  a  scientific  course.     The  libraries 

is  composed  of  philosophical,  and  the  fourth  of 

contain  7,000  volumes.     In  1874-    5,  there  were 

poetical,  extracts.  Several  American  translation- 

9  instructors  and   112  students  (senior  class  2  ■ 

of  parts  of  this  work  have  1 a  published  (oni 

by  Prof.  Anthoni,  and  have  1 „  used  by  many 

regular  course,  15  ;  scientific  course,  24;  primary 

Mnj. 


university.  New  editions  were  brought  out  in 
England  by  Dunbar  and  C.  J.  Bloomfield,  and 
in  the  United  States  by  P..]. km  and  \\  heeler. 
other  Creek    readers   have   been    published   by 

Abbott.   Arnold.  Boise,  Colton,   Felton,  G i- 

win,  Merry,  and  Wyttenbach.  Of  late,  the  use 
of  readers  has.  to  some  extent.given  place  to  the 
works  of  particular  authors  of  which  many  an- 
notated editions  have  appeared.  Thus  there  are 
editions  of  works  of  <Eschines,  by  Chatnplin 
and  Simcox;  of  /Eschylus,  by  Drake  Edwards 
Felton,  Sachtlebt  u,  Weale,  and  Woolsey  of  Ari& 
totle.  by  Poste;  oi  Aristophanes,  by  Felton, 
Greene,  and  Weale;  of  Demosthenes  by  Champ- 
lin.  D'Ooge,  Drake,  Heslop,  Holmes,  fcendrick, 
Simcox,  Smead,  and  Tyler;  of  Euripides  by  VI- 
len.  Weale.  and  Woolsej  :  oi  Homer  by  Anthon 
Boise,  Felton.  Mayor,  Merrj  Owen  Searine  and 
Smith;  of  Herodotus,  by  Johnson,  Math,  r  ai  d 
Weale;  of  Isocrates,  by  Felton;  of  Lucian,  by 
Weale  ;  of  I .ysias.  by  Huntingdon.  Stephen,:. 
and  Whitou  ;  of  Pindar,  by  Myers;  of  Plato,  by 
Tyler,  Wagner,  Weale,  White,  and  Woolsey;  of 
Plutarch,  by  llacketi  and  Tyler;  of  Sophoi  les  bj 


ot  tuition  m  the  pro] 
per  \ear  :    in  the  colle 

Rev.   W.   S.    Doak. 
ident. 


GRIMM,  Jakob  Ludwig,  the  greatest  of 
all  Cermaii  philologists,  was  bom  at  llanau. 
Jan.  4..  17S.1.  and  died  in  Berlin,  Sept.  20..1863. 
lie  was  appointed,  in    1  -In.  second   librarian  at 


.  w  ith  six  other  professors, 
holitiori  of  the  state  foii- 
ln  1841,  the  Prussian 
to  Berlin  as  professor  and 
iv,  which  position  he  re- 
.     In    1846  and  L847,he 


lologists,who  universally  recognized  him  as  then 
chief.  Mis  work  on  German  grammar  [Deutsche 
Grammatik,  3    vols.,    1819—37)    established  a 

new  branch  of  literature,  that  of  historical  gram- 
mar :  and  while  it  has  called  forth  a  number  of 
similar  works  in  other  languages,  it  is  still  unsur- 
passed. The  German  dictionary,  which  he  began. 
in  I-:. -J.. jointly  with  his  brother  Wilhelm  occn 
pies  an  equally  high  tank  in  the  history  of  dic- 

arie     [Beutsches  Wbrterbuch,  Lst  vol.,  1852; 

Ith  vol  .  1*7  1).    This  work  was  designed  by  him 


to  contain  every  German  word  from  the  time 
Luther  to  (Jo. -tii.':  and  i  In  volumes  which  he  pi 
lished  exceeded,  in  c prehensiveness  of  ..I 


which  Grimm's  Gen 
have  introduced  int 
languages,  has  also  •_ 
nf  teaching  modem 
vernacular.  The  m 
knowledge  of  the  gi 
guages,  which  is  no\ 
telligent  teachers,  is 
of  millions  of  childn 
of  recent  school  gr, 

which  has  been  exer 
GRIMM.Wilhe 


st  supenority 
ig  books,  etc. 
.  the  influence 
■ks  of  Grimm. 


ii<:il  works  relate  to  physiology,  hygiene. 
lation :  but  soi I  i  hem  have  an  im- 


bearing  on  educati 
tensively    used    for 

Tc'hoc 

■  I  others  have 
'1    instruction. 

ilude:  Animal  Mea 
f  V,  ,e    York  (1844 

i:  Us\ 

n  and  Physi- 
f  the  Laboring 
•s  and  Abuses 

aid  th      Means   for 

the 

Ventilation   of 

gs       1850  :     Hi  spit 

d   Ihi 

" '     (1853); 

',    Brief  Rules 

GROOT,    Gerard.     See  II 
GROUNDS,  School.    See  £ 
GUATEMALA.      SccCkvi 
GUIZOT,    Frangois    Pieri 


Guillaume, 
•  minister  and 


ili. 


the  ( 


works 

,e    was 
eriiian 


tune,  tutor  in   a 
soon  became  conm 
and  the   literary 


Ins  master 
g  returned 
was,  for  a 
y  :  lint  he 
dical  press 
.l.in  1812, 
of  modern 


GRI3COM,  John,  an  American  nln 
born  at  Hancock's  Bridge,  N.  J.,  Sept.27., 
died  at  Burlington,  N.  J.,  Feb.  26.,  1852 
was  of  Quaker  extraction,  and,  for  a 
studied  at  theFrieii.UAca.l.inv  in  Philadc 
Afterwards,  he  took  charge  of  the  Fr 
Monthly    M  k  ting   Si  ho  il,  at    Burlineton 


L; 


of  Pauperism,  and  established  a  prh 
nary,  called  the  New  York  High  Si 
1823,  he  published  .1  Fear  in  Europ 
the  result  of  his  travels  and  visits  ti 
cipal  institutions  of  learning  and  charit 
factories,  etc..  on  the  European  contine 
1831  to  1835,he  was  principal  of  a 
school  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  after  win 
moved  to  Burlington.  One  of  his  las 
the  reorganization  of  the  common-schi 
.f  Mew  Jersey.     His  son.  John    II. 

published   his 'bionraphy  I  Xew  York. 
GRISCOM,   John    Haskins,   a 


he  plans  of  his  col- 
li I-::;  From  1840 
f  foreign  affairs,  and 
it  of  the  French  min- 
ii  of  1848.  he  retired 
,-,1  himself  wholly  to 


fork  College  of  Pharmacy,  from  1836  to  184 
In  1843,  he  was  appointed  physician  to  the  Ni 
York    Hospital,  where    he    remained   till    1*1 


m  Catholics,  even  as  minister  of  public 
n.  His  indefatigable  zeal  and  his 
rits  in  behalf  of   the   promotion    and 


(iUT.SMUTMS 


organization  of  primary  instruction 

were  generally  recogiiizeil.      (iuizut    w 


(JYMNASH\M 


France,  I  took  up  his  resilience  at  < 'niul>ri,lge,  Mass.     In 
one  of    tli.-  wiiiin  ,.i    i-i-     :>.  In-  .!.  Ii\,-i.',|.  in  I  ,,,i..n. 


i  ing  ana  i.  acnmg  geog- 

i.Hi  ..I  scl 1  i.  m  hooks 

!uyot  was  employed,  for 

aehllsctts  hoard  of   cilll- 

s  in   the  n al  schools 

the  teachers'  institutes. 


,i.  Ii 


Innaln 


is   01 

pub- 
cmts  ; 
lined  a 
juishing 
.  I  geog 

Lie,  t    nil 


S ■■  .-I  them,  especially  the  History  of  Civiliza- 
tion in  Europe,  have  been  extensively  intro- 
duced as  text-books  into  very  many  institutions 
of  learning. 

GUTSMUTHS,  Johann  Christoph  Fried- 
rich,  celebrated  for  his  efforts  in  behalf  of 
physical  e.lucation.aii'l  particularly  as  one  oi  the 
founders  of   the  German    system  of  gymnastic 

training  (Turnuiiterri  'it),  was  born  in  Quedlin-  In   1855,  he  accepted   the  appointment  oi 

burg,  a   town  of   Prussian  Saxony,  in  1759,  and  fessor  of  physical   geographj  in   the  Colle 

died  al    fbenhain,  near  Schnepfenthal,  in   1839.  Nev 

II.-   sin  lit-: I    ill  -ologv   al    II. ill.-   fur   three  years,  still 
after   which    he    was    .-jn j .1. >\ . ■  I    to  superintend 
the  gviunastic  exercises  at  Sal/maims  Inslitute. 

ai  Schnepfenthal  (1786).     Here  he  devoted  him-  Common-, 

self  to  the  study  and  elaboration   of  .jvinua-.ii.-s  high  degr 

as  a  branch  of  e  lucation,  an  I  was  the  means  of  feature  is 

introducing  it  into  many  other  institutions  of  raphy.ani 

Germany,     lie  also  wrote  several  works  on  gym-  the  basis  of  a  s.  i.-ntilic  gen. -rali/ntioii.     'lln-iin- 

nasties,  a ag  which  his  Gt/mnastit  fir  dieJu-  derlying  principle  he  thus  ex]  ressed  in  the  pre- 

,/.„./,  I  T'.t::i  li.-.-aai.- a.,  la-i.- u..rkan-l  tli.- I.a-is  liininaiv  section   ,,f  the  above  work,  on  Geo- 

of  most  other  German  treatises  on   the  subject,  graphical  T  tching:  "  I.  was  doI  until  the  first 

An,. .ic'  others  are  Erliobm-,  ■  /■■*  A"..,7,-,-< '-.„■/  Muarter  of   the  present  century,  when    Ritters 

Geisles    fir  die  Jugend    1796),   and    Klein  s  greal  mind   made   its  power  fell  in  his  remark- 

Lehrbuc'h  </■■>■  S  h ,,■;,„ ,„ I,;, ,s'  ,  I  T'.is).     Hisser-  able  •_■  -n.  i.,liAni..i,,  ,,„   the   facts  given  to  the 

vices  in  behalf  of  geographical   in-tru.-iiou  were  world   bj    II boldt,  that   it   began  to  be  sus 

al f  greal    value.     He  was  not   only  an  able  pecte.l  tiiai  g.-n.-.ra|ilii.  al  la.ts  could  be  reduced 

teacher  of  ".-,,  i-a|.liv.  lmi  a  .li-:iii--iii-li.-'l  wrii.i-  t  o  a.  science,  in  which   hold   g I   the  same  laws 

on  the  subject"   The  celebrated  Karl  Ritter  was  of  mutual  dependence  of  cause  and  effecl    thai 

one  of  his  pupils  in  the  institute  at  Schnepfen-  prevail  in  all  il her  physical  sciences."     The 

thai.     Tli. menial  celebration  of  the  birth-  introducti t    this   philosophical    method   of 

day  of  Gutsmuths  was  held  at  Schnepfenthal,  in  teaching  geography,  the  principle  of  w  hi.  1,  has 

1 859,with  great  festivity  and  pomp.     SeeDiTTES,  been  adopted   by  mosl   other  authors  of  school 

Schule  der  Pudagogik  (Leipsic,  1876).  (See  also  text-books  on   this  subject,  has  exerted  an   im- 

Gymnastics.1  bortant  influence   upon   the  general  methods  of 

schools;  and,  in  this  waj  .   I  'rof. 

in-  an    important   service   to   the 

(See  <  i i:\rilY.)    . 


G'JYOT,    Arnold   Henry,   a  distinguished 


study  of  natural  sciei 
passed  through  a  course 
Neufchatel  and  Berlin; 
attention  exi  lusivelj  to  i 
he  w.-iii  to  Paris,  whei 
making  summer  scient 
France,  Italv,    Bels , 


he  began  the 
sequently,  he 

in  il logj  at 

..-ii-.l-  gave  his 


history  and 
ly  of  Neuf- 


GYMNASIUM    (< 


■  lac-  lor 
term 

ho,  .Is 


sei Ian    scl Is  which  hold  a 

between   elementary  scl Is  and 

ies.     In   England  and  the   I  nited 
ii  h  the  colli  -j.s  correspond   to  the 

i.i-i.i    the  l i-v  iiitia-iuia    '  -   hm 

i..i  physical  exercises.     We   treat 
ancient  gymnasium  of  th  i  Irei  ks 
a,,. I  .'_':  of  the  schools  di  signated 
by   this  name   in  Germany   and  other  parts  of 
continental  Europe. 

II!  Gy a-ia  were  first  introduced  in  Sparta 


to   a   .  lass 
middle  pli 

the    llliivcl 


id  Ro 


,ia  wc-c  leveled  and  in 
visions  for  the  several 
if  Bhade,  rows  of  plane- 


GYMNASIUM 


:;;»;■) 


;ivcs  wore  planted,  to  which  afterwards  porti- 
coes with  sitting  ro s    (.'_-;  ,i/P,„).  having  stone 

benches  around  the  walls,  were  added.     At  last, 
the  gymnasia  consisted  of  several  b  dl  '•■><-■  whit  b 

were    joined    i'  >^P  tier,  and   thus  i  formed 

very    spacious    structures.  capable   ,,t    In il.  1m- 


While. 
bodily 
philoso 


studies,  fully  secured   tli-ir  ) in-|i< iiidi-rance.     The 

oppositi nade   to  the  classics  by  the  Philan- 

tl.mpi.t.    Mreu--.l,-„-d    ,.i.l.-r  than    weakened 
U*  ition       \i    the   begim  ins   oi   the   L9th 


1  .., 

.1V,1(1 

minance  of 
e,  provided 

1  of 
the 

the 
ids  o 

'1  In 

intru 
into 

eli-i 
all 
hai 

geography, 
righi  of  the 
nstruction  : 

institutions 
f   the   state 

in  n; 

10W 

bold 

in  theGer- 

pared    with    the 
reign  of  the  einpe 
served  for  the  Bar 

Greek   gj 

tors,  the  j 
,ie  purpos 

1'kiKKSKN.//,^ 

has   been  con  inn  a 
the  time  of  J.  A. 

'\\oi!!'to 

ii  ( rermany,  since 
to  those  schools  which 
prepare  students  for  the  universities.  Some 
of  these  institutions,  while  holding  the  rank  of 
a  gymnasium,  have  different  names,  as  pceda- 
gogiwm,  lyceum,  Geleltrtrim   '•  I  ■  „.;  •,■.*  :     ■ 

FihrstenscJiule.  Thisi  lass  ,,t  -,  ■],  ..,|-  has  gradu- 
ally developei I  from  the  cathedral  and  convent 
schools  (q.  v.)  of  the  mi. Mir  ages,  which  were 
designed  to  impart  to  the  youth  of  the  country 
the  highest  insta  action  aa  essible  in  those  times, 
especially  that  needed  forth-  priesthood.  After 
the  establishment  of  the  universities,  the  cath- 
edral and  convent  school  assumed  the  character 
of  preparatory  schools.  Their  number  increased 
rapidly,  and  the  course  of   studies  was   steadily 


ft 

ssical 


lh-  lr 


municipal  authorities  of  many  of  the  large 
towns,  as  well  as  by  many  princes.  The  reviva 
of  classical  studies,  in  the  15th  century,  great! 
added  to  the  reputation  and  social  position  6 
these  schools.  At  the  time  oi  the  Reformatio! 
Melanchthon   intro  luc  •  1  i,„„-.   ,  \.,lt- I   \i-w-  ., 


-really  reduced.  I  See  Re  w. 
organization  of  the  real  -vm 
in-  completed,  and  governim 
appear  to  be  inclined  to  uph 
rights  of  the  i  lassical  -\  mna 
of  the  course  of  instruction 
gymnasia  chiefly  rest  their  p 


il.  They 
ool  cotm- 
s  a  rector, 


ot  th 1-l.rat-l  institutions  at  Halle,  favored, 

like  all  the  Pietists,  the  realistic,  in  preference 
to  the  humanistic,  studies  and  secured  the  in- 
troduction of  geography  and  history  as  branches 
of  instruction,  and  the  appointment  oi  special 
teachers  of  mathematics.  But  Gesner  (q.  v.), 
Heyne.  [q.  v.),  and  other  champions  of  classical 


ilK 


t.-ion.s,  the  upper 
spent  in  . 

II-I|'T    c!.. 


atory  school  call- I  a  Latin  .-  hool  .  which  com- 
prises five  classes.  In  Austria,  the  gymnasia 
were  thoroughly  r.-or-aiii/.-d  in  IMIl.  and  now 
resemble,  in  their  essential  features,  in  Austria, 
proper  as  well  as  in  Hungary,  the  institutions  of 
Germany.  In  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Norway. 
the  gymnasia  have  the  same  characteristics  as 
those   of   Germany.      In   Italy,  the  gymnasium 


consists  of  five  classes  which  correspond  to  the 

lower  classes  of  a  Herman  gvnmasium.     It  serves 


three 

elasse 


became  places  exclusively  for  physical  education 
and  training.  (See  Athens  and  Gymnasium.) 
There  was  almost  entire  uniformity  in  the  exer- 
of  the  different   gymnasia  in  various  parts 


m 


ligh  schools,  and  only  differ  from  the  English 
public  schools  for  the  upper  and  middle  classes 
in  being  day  schools,  instead  of  the  centers  of 
large    boarding    establishments.     The  literature 

relating  to  evinnasiuins  is  verv  in nnh.       Sec 

on  the  German    gymnasium,  the   i lei  of  the 

others.   Wi-      /'.  .  j  /..     „„.;    1/.  tkodologie 

der  Gymnasialstudien  (1830) ;  Roth.  Gymna- 
sialrPkdagogik  (1865);  Laas,  Gymnasium  und 
Reakchide  L875) ;  Barnard,  Public  Education 
in  Europe  (1854). 

GYMNASTICS  (Gr.  j  u/ivaaru^.  from  :  v/iv6, , 
naked),  a  system  of  bodily  exercises  designed 
to  develop  muscular  strength,  and  to  promote 
general  physical  culture  and  health.  In  the 
article  on  Culi.illif.iiics,  this  subject  has  already 
been  treated  as  far  as  it  comprehends  those 
light  physical  exercises  which  are  especially 
adapted  for  females,  although   frequently  used 


the  bodily  exercises  exchi.-ively  of  boys  ai 
because  those  who  performed  them,  in  p 
in  private,  were  either  entirely  naked, 
wore  a  short  tunic,  called  x.rri>v.  Among 
eieiits.  particularly  the  Greeks,  gymnast 

stituted  the   s1   essential   par)   of  edu 

and  there  was  not  a  Greek  town  of  any 
tance  that  did  not  have  it-  gymnasium,  i 
for  the  regular  physical  n. rol  h 


of  Greece  :  the  1  >orians.  howev 

er.made  the  hard- 

(■nine  of 

the  body,  as  a  prepai 

ttion  for  military 

life,  a  pa 

amount  aim  :  while 

he  Athenians,  and 

the  fdbi 
and  beat 

basis  of 

ins  in  general,  soug] 
.v.  as  well   asstren|t 
■  'lei.ts.  and  to  make'  Y 

t   to  impart  grace 
i,  to  the  body  and 
hysical  health  the 
als   mind.     These 
■  nature  of  games. 

partook  largely  of  tl 

Inch  we  find  mentioi 

ecl  111    that  of  the 

ball    '-.  i 

piau  ,  played  in  varioi 

sways;  (2)thatof 

the  tope 

ti  boy  holding  each  end.  and  one  trying 

to  pull  t 

le  other  across  a  line; 

l.'i)  that  of  the  toi,. 

played  v 

■ry  much  as  in  our  own  time :   (4)  the 

game  of  five  stones  ;-:  r-„/ni,„ ■_).  like  the  iack- 

stones  of 

our  day:  (5)  that  of 

a  rope  drawn  over 

a  post  o 

i  the  opposite  sides  of  which  two  boys 

Stood    ill 

d   tried  to   pull   each   other  up  off  the 

ground. 

Besides    these,    the 

more    important 

exercises 
quoit  ai 
ling,  box 

ical  art, 

consider 

for  a  lar 

were  swimming,  ri< 
d  .javelin,   jumping  a 

1   preserving  health, 
•e  class  of  diseases. 

ing.  throwing  the 
n.i  leaping,  wrest- 
ing.    Among  the 
allied  to  the  med- 
odily  exercise  was 
inly  an  important. 
nit  a  certain   cure 
They  thus  recog- 

athletic  contest*,  and  nmi  eniene  -  also  for  th, 
philosophers,  sophists,  and  teachers,  with  then 
pupils,  and  all  others  who  attended  for  intellect 
ual  instruction  or  amusement  The  laws  of  the  lower  orders 
Solon  regulated  the  management  of  these  gym- 
nasia among  the  Athenian.-,     i  h f  these  laws 

forbade  all  adults  to  enter  a  gymnasium  while 
the  boys  were  engaged  in  then-  exei  ises  ;  but  u 
was  the  practice  for  adults  to  attend  for  exercise 
at  other  times  of  the  day,  or  in  other  portions 
of  the  building,  specially  set  apart  for  men.  IJn- 
til  boys  reached  the  age  of  sixteen,  gymnastics 
constituted  but  a  part  of  their  education  :  but, 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen  it  .-..■ems  to  have  .ab- 
sorbed nearly  their  whole  attention.  At  Athens 
.and  in  all  the  Ionian  states,  females  were  never 
permitted  to  attend  the  gymnasium;  but  at 
Sparta,  and  in  some  of  the  other  Doric  states, 
unmarried  women  attended,  and  took  part  in.  the 
exercises,  dressed  in  the  riruv.  Instruction  was 
given  by  regular  teachers  who  were  supposed 
to  understand  the  physiological  effects  of  each 
exercise,  and  thus  to  be  able  to  assign  to  every 
youth  sueh  exercisesaa  were  best  suited  to  his 
particular  case.  ( monastics,  at  rival  compre- 
hended agonistics  (the  exercises  of  the   public 

eaiuesi    and  nlh/.-lira.  or   prote-sional 

as  prai ed  by  the  athletes ;  but,  in  later  times. 

thi    i     ..  re  entirely  separated:  and  the  gymnasia 


ly  for  military  training  or  drill,  or  the 
knightly  amusement  of  tl»'  tournament.  Among; 
archery,  foot-racing,  wrestling, 
arter-staff,  etc.,  were  common 
nit  there  was  no  such  thing  as 
es  of  exercises  for  muscular 
il  Basedow  (q.  V.)  introduced 
part  of  education,  in  the  PJd- 
-au  :  and  subsequently  (1784) 
1  the  same  system  for  his  in- 
hs  extensively  introduce,!  the 
■ties  into  Prussian  schools,  and 
I,-  on  thesubjeel  [Gymnastik 

L793;  I    Tunibuch/ur  die 

andes,  1817).  A  still  more 
as  Encyclopddu  der  Leibes- 
8),  by  Vieth.  a  pupil  of  the 
Dessau.  Pestalozzi  also  favored 
as  an  important  instrumental- 
1  culture  of  man.  In  1810, 
extended  the  system  :  and  the 
his  direct  ion,  w  as  0]  ened  ai 
ublic  Turnplatz,  th.' object  of 
y  to  encourage  physical  devel- 
)tie  fervor  among  the  young 
to  the  aggressive  si  ni  mi  -  o) 
r  sen  ing  in  the  army  in  de- 
fy, Jahn  resumed  the  i 


merit  of  his  gymnastic  schools:  but  the  govern- 
ment,   fin. liiiLi   their   influence    favorable    to    the 


BIT  397 

at  the  same  time,  to  i:ive  a  pleasing,  recreative 
occupation  to  the  mind.  This  is  especially  the 
case  when  thej  are  regulated  U  the  rhythm  of 
c    See  Calisthenics.)  Those  violent  exercises 


tilt 


countries,  ana  became  wid  Ij  p  ip 
1842,  the  king  of  Prussia  order, 
duction   of   these   exert  ises,    .1-   a 

scl I   -\  stem.      The      r«-w  n  im 

from  Germany  to  the  I  faited  Statt 
are  now   verv  numerous, 

As  a  department  of  education,  gy astics  re- 

[uires  verj  careful  regulation,  having  reference 
to  the  age  and  physical  constitution  of  the  pupil. 

Much  injury  may  be  done  by  requiring  all  the 
members  of  a  school  or  of  a  class  to  perform  the 
same  exercises,  especially  if  they  are  of  a  violent 
character;  indeed,  it  maybe  doubted  whether, 
up  to  the  age  of  16,  for  the  ordinary  purpose 
of  physical  development  and  health,  boys  need 
any  thing  more  than  abundant  "ppni'luiiity  and 
time  for  the  out-door  sports  and  recreations  in 
which  their  natural  activity  will  ueiierally  prompt 
them  to  engage.  Beyond  that  age,  gymnastic 
exercises,  properly  regulated,  may  be  made  the 
means  of  laying  the  foundation  of  permanent 
strength  and  health.  Military  drill  IS  often  in- 
troduced into  schools  and  colleges,  and  is  found 
an  efficient  substitute  for  gymnastic  exercises,  or 
an  excellent  auxiliary  to  them.  The  testimony 
of  educators  is  uniformly  favorable  to  this  kind 
of  exercise  in  boys'  schools,  not  only  as  an  effect- 
ive means  of  physical  culture,  but  as  imparting 
habits  of  attention,  order,  subordination,   and 


',,,/,/ 


gymnastics  by  Dio  Lewis  and  others,  the  dis- 
tinguishing peculiarity  of  which  is  its  complete 
adaptation    to   every    physical    constitution   and 

degr f  strength.     It  dispenses  with  all  fixed 

ami  cumbrous  apparatus,  and  only  employs  such 
implements  as  bags  of  beans,  light  poles,  or 
wands,  rings, india-rubber  straps  with  handles, 
etc.  The  exercises,  being  light  and  simple,  can 
be  performed  in  any  room  or  hall  ;  and  yet  their 
endless  variety  is  such  as  to  bring  into  healthful 
exercise  every  part  of  the  muscular  system  and, 


,  and 
,oscd 


tie  to  Dhvsical 


all  such  inter-coll, 
many  vices,  such 
etc.;  (2)  as  dan- 
ce of    the    excessr 


parents  and  teachers,  by  unduly  exaggerating 
the  value  of  success  in  these  athletic  contests. 
Let  these  exercises  be  commended  and  encour- 
aged as  of  intrinsic  value,  not  as  the  means  of 
attaining  a  useless,  barren  victory  in  a  boat-race 
or  other  contest,  but  as  the  necessary  means  of 
cultivating  those  powers  and  virtues  which  are 
to  enable  the  student  to  run  a  brave,  manly,  and 
Christian  course  through  life,  meeting  all  its 
emergencies  not  only  with  courage  but  physical 
endurance,  and  no  objection  can  possibly  be 
made  to  them.— See  Markby,  Practical  Essays 
on  Education,  s.  v.  Athletics  1  London.  L868); 
Schhebeb,  Kinesiatrik  (Leipsic,  1852);  Nahl, 
Instructions  in  Gymnastics  (San  Francisco, 
1863);  Wood.  Mw'iwiI  <f  Phyxir.il  l-:.,-m ■;.<,* 
(N.  T.,  1867);  Ravenstkix  and  Hclley,  Gym- 
ikisUcs  mi, I  AU/lrtics  (London,  1867).  (See  also 
Calisthenics.) 


HABIT,  a  tendency  to  repeat  the  same 
action,  more  or  less  unconsciously,  or  an  inclina- 
tion for  the  pursuits,  occupations,  or  states  to 
which  the  body  or  the  mind  has  become  familiar 
by  use.  1  labit,  as  an  automatic  tendency,  takes 
a  wide  range,  not  only  extending  over  all  our 
mental  and  bodily  acts,  but  including  likewise 
our  moods  of  mind,  our  sources  of  indulgence, 
pleasure,  ease,  and  recreation,  and  comprehend- 
ing also,  either  by  improvement  or  debasement. 
our  entire  moral  and  spiritual  nature.  The 
singular  facility  which  is  acquired  by  repeated 
action,  in  accomplishing  what  at  first  was  either 


difficult  or  impossible,  has  never  been  satisfac- 
torily explained.     The  fact,  however,  is  univer- 
sally recognized    in   the  old  saying.  "  Habit  is 
second    nature."    as  also  in  the  useful   educa- 
tional maxim,  "  Practice  makes  perfect."     "It 
conditions."  says  Koseiikranz  [Pedagogics  as  a 
81/x/fni).  -formally  all  progress  :  for  that  which  is 
not  yet  become  habit,  but  which  we  perform  with 
'  design  and  an  exercise  of  our  will,  is  not   yef   a 
|  part  of  ourselves."     Physiologists  profess  to  find 
|  a  reason  for  this  power  of  habit,  in   the  sym- 
j  pathetic  nerves;    and  some  psychologists  trace 
|  mental  habits  to  the  association  of   ideas.     The 


extent  to  which  habit  influences  the  daily  life  of 
every  one — even  the  youngest  child.can  scarcely 
he  realized.  Consciously  or  unconsciously,  it 
enters,  in  some  shape,  into  every  effprl  at  con- 
tinuous action,  physical  or  mental,  and  more  or 
less  controls  it.  From  the  .lawn  of  intelligence, 
when  the  child  first  takes  cognizance  of  material 
things,  all  through  the  period  of  self-education, 
which  precedes  systematic  instruction,  it  is  form- 
ing, of  itself ,  habits  of  observation,  comparison, 
and  generalization,  which  are  to  constitute  the 
basis  of  all  subsequent  intellectual  activity.  So 
is  it  also  forming  those  habits  which,  taken  to- 
gether, make  up  what  is  called  disposition,  tem- 
per, etc.  It  is  this  tendency  to  contract  habits 
which  gives  such  plasticity  to  the  minds  and 
characters  of  youth,  and  which  really  underlies 
the  power  and  office  of  education  ;  for  what  we 
call  training  is  nothing  more  than  guiding  and 
regulating  the  formation  of  habit.  This  relation 
ofhal.it  to  education  has  never  been  more  clearly 
or  forcibly  illustrated  than  by  Dr.  Johnson  in 
his  beautiful  allegory  calle  I  the  Vision  of  Theo- 
dore: "  As  Education  led  her  troop  up  the 
mountain,  nothing  was  more  observable  than 
that  she  was  frequently  giving  them  cautions  to 

beware  of  Habits;  and  was  calling  out  t ie 

or  another  at  every  step,  that  a  Habit  was  en- 
snaring them:  that  they  would  be  under  the 
dominion  of  Habit  before  they  perceived  their 
danger:  and  t  hat  those  whom  Habit  should  once 
suli  In  ■  In  I  little  hope  of  reeainiii.' their  liber- 
ty.- While  it  is  the  period  of  formal  education, 
at  which  the  chil  1  especially  nee  Is  to  be  pro- 
tected from  the  influence  of  habit,  to  some  ex- 
tent and  in  some  respects,  the  watchful  care  of 
the  educator  is  required  even  from  the  earliest 
infancy  to  prevent  the  formation  oi  injurious 
and  almost  ineradicable  habits:  indee  1,  there  is 
scarcely  a  child  who,  on   being  sent  to  school  for 

the  first  time,  will  not  be   found   to   havi Q- 

tracted  habits,  both  physical  and  mental,  which 
the  teacher  wiU  find  it  necessary  to  strive  to 
correct.  ( )ne  of  his  most  important  functions 
will  he  to  delect  and  eradicate  bad  habits,  as  a 
kind  ot  morbid  growth;  for,  like  weeds,  these 
habits  not  only  cumber  the  ground  themselves. 
but  render  it  sterile  for  any  other  productions. 
For  example,  what  can  be  done  with  that  most 
troublesome  of  all  cases, — a  "spoiled  child,"  un- 
til the  habits  of  self-indulgence,  self-will,  way- 
ward caprice,  and  despotic  control  of  others, 
which  characterize  it,  are  eradicated,  or  super- 
seded by  other  dispositions'.''  So,  too,  with 
habits  of  deceit,  falsehood,  cruelty,  and  many 
others  that  are  apt  to  spring  up  in  even  very 
young  minds.  In  regard  to  the  intellect,  the 
same  principle  holds  true:  for  that  natural  de- 
velop i, ent    which    precedes   formal    instruction 

may,  ind I, be  luxuriant,  but  cannot  be  regular 

The  mind  of  the  most  active  child,  under  cir- 
cumstances that  present  the  very  best  opportu- 
nities for  development,  if  it  has  I n  left  entirely 

to  itself,  will  be  found  to  have  acquired  settled 
ways  of  observing,  thinking,  and  speaking  which  j 
it  will   be  necessary  to   correct  :  and.  besides,  it 


will  generally  have  become  impulsive,  impatient 
ofanj  continuous  attention,  and  prone  to  pass 
rapidly  from  one  thing  to  another,  in  obedience 
to  a  mere  momentary  fancy  or  impulse.  It  will, 
therefore,  be  generally  found  that  children,  on 
being  first  subjected  to  regular  instruction,  need 
to  have  habits  of  attention  formed,  ill  place  of 
those  of  inattention,  which  have  been  implanted 

ity.  (See  Attention.)  There  are  others,  how- 
ever of  a  less  general  character  which  will  de- 
mand special  effort.  As  an  instance,  one  of  the 
earliest  ot  these  objectionable  habits,  and  per- 
haps one  ot  the  most  common. is  the  unconscious 

for  t li< -  thine  Bymbolized.  'I  his  will  be  mani- 
fested by  most  children  when  shown,  for  exam- 
ple, the  picture  of  a  horse,  and  asked  to  state 
what  it  is.  Usually  the  answer  will  be.  "  It  is  a 
horse:"  from  the  habit  of  confounding  things 
with  their  representatives.  Hence,  the  unre- 
sisting facility  with  which  children  yield  their 

the  effect  of  which  is  to  confirm  the  bad  habit 
referred  to,  and,  in  its  final  result,  to  extinguish 
intelligence  and  destroy  mental  activity.    While 

son f  the  habits  which  demand  the' teacher's 


to 


are 


nation 
recog- 
,  as  an 


parting  facility,  readi- 
hoiit  which  certain  ac- 
he made,  or  if  made, 
useless.  For  example, 
multiplication  table  be 
LOUS  effort  of    mind  at 

of  its  details?    The 

(1  by  the  playing  of  a 
ie  use  of  language  in 
I  by  the  varied  bodily 
ily  life,  (iood  habits 
•lya  period  as  possible; 
that,  when  thoroughly 
rally 


line 


upor 


tance  of  maki 


those 


qualities  and  observances  habitual,  which  con- 
stitute the  elements  of  practical  success  in  every 
walk  of  life ;  such  as  punctuality,  order,  regular- 
ity, ami  perseverance;  to  which  maybe  added 
neatness,  courtesy,  attention  to  the  wants  of 
others,  forbearance,  and  self-control.  For  the 
same  reason,  bad  habits  should  be  eradicated  be- 
fore they  have  reached  that  mature  state,  after 
which  they  scarcely  ever  entirely  disappear.  It 
is.  indeed,  rarely  the  case  that  thoroughly  fixed 
habits  are  wholly  removed ;  hence,  the  tea.  her 
should  strive  to  counteract  their  evil  influence, 
or  neutralize  their  activity,  by  implanting  those 
of  a  contrary  nature.  In  dealing  with  the  had 
habits  of  children,  the  teacher  should  appreciate. 
and  make  due  allowance  for.  the  force  of  habit. 


1 1  A  I) LEY 

He  cannot  uproot  them  at  once  and  In  \  iolence. 

As  time  is  an  important  element  in  their  forma- 
tion.so  i<  it  also  in  their  eradication  :  anil,  there- 
fore, the  child  is  to  be  led  along  a  divergent 
path  whieh.  liy  derives,  will  conduct  liim  away 
from  the  vicious  impulse  which,  all  the  while, 
tends  to  overpower  his  host  resolutions.  ••  Hither 
we  should  not  attempt  the  conquest  of  habit." 
says  Miss  hide. 'Worth,  in  l'r,iri,r,il  Eiliiniliuii. 
"or  we  should  persist  till  we  have  vanquished. 
Tin. ntidence  whieh   the  sense   of   success  will 


ill  probably,  in  his  own  op 
rorthy  of  the  price.     .With 


be  thought  well  worthy 

his    reas  >n   nor  his  will   was  in   fauli  ;    all    lie 

wanted  was  strength  to  break   the  diminutive 

chains  of  habit.whieh.it  seems,  ha \o  power  to 
enfeeble  the  captives  exactly  in  proportion  to 
the  length  of  time  they  are  worn."  Whatever 
force  or  coercion  may  be  found  necessary  for 

this  piii-p.se  should  be  gradually  relaxed,  till  the 


HALF-TIME   SCHOOLS  39t) 

The  same  year,  he  commenced  his  career  asa 
teacher  of  the  Greek  language  in  Yale  l  ollege 
filling  successively  the  positions  of  tutor,  assistant 
profess,,!',  and.  in  L851,  professor,  succeeding 
President  Woolsey  in  the  latter  position.  Be 
was  a  man  of  profound  and  varied  scholarship, 
including  linguistic,  philological,  and  mathemat- 
ical attainments,  lie  was  versed  not  only  in 
the  classical  languages,  but  in  most  ot  the  oriental. 
including  Sanskrit.  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Ar- 
menian: ah,,  in  the  Gothic,  and  in  many  of 
the  modem  languages.  He  was  a  leading  mem- 
luring 
.  1  [e 
ge  for 


'f.v. 


self- 


rill 


lei 


■il   fri 


kranz  says 


the  whole  of  moral  training:  there  must  be  the 
culture  of  eon-ei  iitioi-ii  -s.  of  intelligence,  of 
self-respect,  of  a  constant  impression  ami  recog- 
nition of  the  Divine  presence,  and  of  all  the 
other  principles  of  human  nature,  by  means  oi 
which  it  rises  to  the  higher  plane  of  moral  re- 
sponsibility, consciously  exercising  its  own  facul- 
ties, not  blindly  obeying  habitual  tendencies  re- 
others.  Properly  educated,  the 
r,  in  the  exercise  of  his  own  will  and 
uli-;  -  ill  ■  power  of  habit  in  support 
moral  conclusions,  making  a  useful 
ho  by  which  so  many  others  are 
i -la vi -d.  In  this  connection,  Ko.-en- 
•  Education  must  procure  for  the 
pupil  the  power  of  being  able  to  free  himself 
from  one  habit  and  to  adopt  another.  Through 
his  ir  iedom  he  must  b  •  able  not  only  to  re- 
nounce any  habit  formed,  but  to  form  a  new 
one  :  and  he  must  so  govern  his  system  of  habits 
that  it  shall  exhibit  a  constant  progress  of  de- 
velopment into  greater  freedom.  We  must  dis- 
cipline ourselves,  as  a  means  toward  the  ever- 
changing  realization  of  the  good  in  us.  constantly 
to  form  and  to  break  habits."  And  it  is  in  the 
attainment  of  this  grand  object  of  self-culture. 
that  habit  may  render  the  important  aid  referred 
to,  in  making  the  exercise  of  self-criticism,  con- 
scientious watchfulness  of  our  own  conduct,  and 
obedience  to  the  dictates  of  reason  and  religion, 
easy  and  continuous  by  becoming  habitual. 
Thus  it  is  that  the  man  for  whom  education  has 
done  all  that  it  can  do.  within  the  utmost  scope 
of  its  power,  truly  finds  habit  not  his  master 
but  his  ino-t  useful  servant  and  friend. 

HADLEY,  James,  a  distinguished  American 
scholar  an  1  educator,  was  born  in  Fairfield, 
Herkimer  Co.,  N.  Y,  March  30..  1821,  and  died 
in  Xew  Haven,  Ot..  Nov.  II..  1872.  At  the  age 
of  21,  he  graduated  at  Yale  College, at  the  head 
of  hi-  das, ;  and  iii  1845,  completed  a  course  of 
study  at  the  Theological  Seminary  in  New  1  Iaven. 


after  hi- deat 
HAEHN, 

educator,  bon 


His  essay 

tit"   <  nana 

;;:/-'i,e';; 

tanLn 
whii  h   were 

lid    published 


and 


Johann    Fiiedrich,  a  C 

in  Kin; died  iii  1789.  Afte 


I  fecker  q.  v.),  and,  m  I  7.' 
spector  of  the  hitter's  real  s 
tion  he  perfected  his  metho 

W  r  ite,  besides    other    ti'Xtl" 


He 
ils,  a 
and 


of  the.-,''  -viiops.s.  he- the  peculiarity  of  his  meth- 
od, called  the  to •  or  iter,  method,  accord- 
ing to  which  the  first  letters  of  the  principal 
subjects  of  instruction  were  written  on  the  1  oard, 
with  the  principal  sentences  contained  in  the 
lesson,  which  were  put  down  in  tabular  form. 
By  these  m,  an-  he  ,',,  -i'-i  ,  ,1  to  facilitate  not  only 
the  memorizing  of  the  lessons,  but  to  produce 
thoroughness  and  thoughtfulness  in  the  study  of 
each  subject.  In  every  lesson,  he  illustrated  his 
instruction  as  much  as  possible  by  means  of  ob- 
jects, of  which  he  had  a  large  collection.  His 
method  was  copied  and  perfected  by  Felbiger 
,i|.  v.),  but  gradually  fell  into  disuse  as  being 
sowewhat  impracticable.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  he  was  appointed  director  of  the  gym- 
nasium in  Aurieh,  which  position  he  retained 
until  his  death. 

HALF-TIME  SCHOOLS,  a  class  of  schools 
\\  liieh,  as  the  name  denotes,  hold  their  sc.-.-ioiis 
during  only  one  half  of  each  day.  thus  affording 
an  opportunity  to  a  numerous  class  of  children, 
employed  in  workshops,  factories,  stores,  etc..  to 
attend  school  without  giving  up  their  employ- 
ments. They  are  thus  kindred,  in  object,  with 
evening  schools,  which  in  a  certain  sense,  may  be 
considered  as  half-time  schools.  The  half-time 
system  is  encouraged  in  England  by  a  special 
government  grant,  and  is  said  to  work  well ;  espe- 
cially vi  here,  by  the  co-operation  of  the  employers, 


400 


II  \l,l, 


the  pupils  (half-timers)  are  made  to  attend  school 
with  regularity.  These  half-time  sel Is  are  ex- 
amined according  to  the  same  standards  as  full- 
time  schools;  but  the  amount  paid  for  half-time 
regular  attendance  is  only  half  of  that  paid  for 
full  time.  In  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  some 
of  the  cities  of  the  United  States,  the  half-time 
system  is  said  to  have  met  with  encouraging 
results.  This  plan  originates  in  the  effort  to 
adapt  the  public  schools  to  the  circumstances  and 
needs  of  .ill  i-I.-i~-.i-.-  of  tin-  community;  and  thus. 
in  a  measure  al  least,  supersedes  the  necessity  of 
compulsory  laws.  The  principle,  however,  ad- 
mits of  an  application  without   the  organization 

system  of  education.  The  same  object  may  be 
carried  out,  it  lias  been  suggested,  by  a  Imlf- 
time  course  of  study,  with  grades  and  subjects 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  ".nine;  the  half-time 
pupils  a  good  elementary  education  in  a  reduced 
time.  Of  course,  some  degree  of  uniformity 
would  be  sacrificed  bysuch  an  arrangement;  but 
it  is  claimed  that  no  real  efficiency  would  be  Inst 
in  the  actual  working  of  the  school  system,  or  in 
theeducation  received.  On  the  contrary,  it  is 
urged  ilini  the  union  of  labia-  and  schooling  has 
many  adxantages.  the  one  a  — i-ling  the  uther  :  and 
that  the  half-time  pupils  prove,  .1-  a  rule,  as  apt 
scholars  as  their  full-time  ,-la-s-mates.if  not  so  far 
advanced.  Besides.ii  affords  an  encouragement 
to  manual  labor,  and  gives  it  an  honorable  rec- 
ognition, which  is  of  greal  importance  in  every 
community,  especially  where  the  bo\  who  has 
had  even  an  ordinary  school  education  is  prone 
to  look  down  upon  all  mechanical  trades  and 
artisanship  as  unworthy,  fixing  his  ambition 
rather  upon  mercantile  or  literary  pursuits.  The 
true  interests  of  a  community  depend  in  a  great 
measure  upon  the  productive  industry  oi  edu- 
cated, skillful,  and  self-respecting  artisans;  and 
if  the  half-time  system  can  foster,  in  any  degree, 
this  important  class  of  occupations,  it  deserves 
the  attention  and  support  of  statesmen  and 
educators. 

HALL,  Samuel  Read,  a  noted  American 
teacher,  the  first  principal  of  the  tirst  teachers 
seminary  established  in  the  United  States,  was 
born  in  Croydon,  X.  H.,  Oct.  27.,  1795.  His 
parents  having  removed  to  Vermont,  he  received 
his  early  education  in  that  state:  but  subse- 
quently attended  an  academy  in  New  Hamp- 
shire. He  afterwards  studied  theology,  and 
entered  the  ministry,  during  the  whole  time, 
however,  teaching  school.  In  1823,  he  opened 
a  seminary,  the  special  object  of  which  was  to 
educate  teachers.  This  school  was  composed 
chiefly  of  advanced  students,  but  a  class  of 
vounger  pupils  was  formed  to  serve  as  a  model 
school,  lb-  wrote  and  delivered  a  curs,-  of 
Lectures  on  School-keeping,  and  compiled,  in 
1827,  the  Geography  and  History  of  Vermont, 
which  met  with  much  success.  In  1829,  his 
Lectures  were  published;  and,  about  the  same 
time.  In-  was  appointed  principal  of  the  English 
department  of   Philips  Academy,  at   Andover. 


HAMILTON    COLLEGE 

While  there,  he  founded  the  American  School 
Agents'  Society,  the  object  of  which  was  to  em- 
ploy agents  to  visit  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, for  the  purpose,  by  lectures  and  otherwise, 
of  awakening  an  interest  in  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion. Mr.  Hall  was  one  of  the  original  founders 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Instruction. and.  in 
1833,  read  before  it  a  lecture  on  the  Necessity 
of  Educiting  Teachers,  in  which  he  said,  "In 
this  thirty-tnird  year  of  the  19th  century,  then- 
is  not.  in  our  whole  country,  one  seminary  where 
the  educator  of  children  can  be  thoroughly  quali- 
fied for  his  important  work."  (See  Normal 
Schools.)  Between  L830and  1838, he  published 
a  number  of  educational  works,  and  also  con- 
tributed ([uite  largely  to  the  Annals  of  Educa- 
tion. In  I837,hewas  appointed  principal  of  a 
teachers' seminary  in  Plymouth,  X.  H.,  and  sub- 
sequently tilled  tin-  iiHiee  i if  county  superintend- 
ent in  Vermont.  His  efforts  in  behalf  of  normal 
school  instruction  were  of  the  most  earnest  and 
devoted  character,  and  did  much  to  awaken 
liublic    oiiininn    in    its    behalf. — Sec    Barnard 


American  Teachers  and  Edu 

HAMILTON,  James,  ai 

was  born  about  1  769,  and  died 

He   removed    to  Hamburg  i 


,1,-hi 


reliant . 
..in  1831. 

Where  he 
nethod  of 

i  and  put 

inlmgthe 
caching  it 

idsal k 

nterlinear 
ve  signifi- 
ig  it.     By 


again,  a  good  general  idea  of  the  language  was 
obtained  a  sort  of  rough-cast  for  practical  use. 
By  this  method,  of  course,  all  idiomatic  and  fig- 
urative expressions,  secondary  meanings  of 
words,  etc.  remained  to  a  certain  extent  unintel- 
ligible, the  learner  getting  only  a  general  idea  of 

the    no  ng   of    the   sentence.     To    go    further 

than  this,  however,  was  beyond  1 1, million's  plan. 
The  llainiltonian  method  ha-  had  the  good  effect 
of  inducing  teachers  of  mod,  111  languages  to  dis- 
card the  old  pedantic  method  of  rei|iuring  the  stu- 
dent to  commit  to  memory  a  full  set  of  para- 
digms and  grammatical  rules  before  commencing 
the  actual  translation  of  a  single  sentence,  and 
has  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  system  which  com- 
bines the  advantages  of  the  llainiltonian  method 
with  that  formerly  pursued.  (See  Modern 
Languages.) 

HAMILTON  COLLEGE,  at  Clinton,  Onei- 
da Co.,  Xew  York,  was  founded  in  1812.  It 
is  not  under  the  control  of  any  religious  de- 
nomination, but  a  majority  of  its  board  of  trust- 
ees are  Presbyterians,  or  in  general  sympathy 
with  that  denomination.  The  college  buildings 
stand  in  a  park  of  15  acres.  The  institution  has 
endowments  amounting  to  about  S.'lOO.dtlll.  It 
possesses  a  fine  chemical  laboratory,  unproved 
philosophical  apparatus,  geological   and  mineral- 


II  IMILTONIAN    METHOD 


ogieal  cabinets,  collections  in  natural  history,  an 
herbarium,  and  a  well-equipped  astronomical  < >  1  »- 


schools,  as  follows  :  1 1 1  Sr),.„,l  ,,r  Knqlish  litera- 

t ,„•>■;    (2)  Sch.,,,1  „f   !,/,,,„/,.:■<:    l':{|  Sr'kool  of /„„- 


$75  per  year.  Th 
ships  of  from  8  iO 
of  ihv.1v  and  dese 


The  curriculum  is  the  ordinary  four  years' course 
of  A rican   colleges.     A   Uvss   department  was 

nectedwith  the  college,  12  in-.inn-t.ii-,  and  171 
students    '_>()  law.    1 . >t I   collegiate,  and    I   special]. 

The   whole   number   of   erf  was    1,532,  of 

whom  1,054  were  living;  .it  graduates  of  the 
law  school,  97.  The  presidents  of  the  college 
have  been  as  follows  :  the  Rev.  \.-.  i  Backus, 
S.T  !>..  1812— 16;  the  Rev.  Henry  Davis, S.T.D., 
1817—33;  the  Rev.  Sereno  Edwards  Dwight, 
S.T.  D.,  1833— 5;  the  Rev  Joseph  Penney, 
S.  T.  D.,  1835—9;  the  Rev.  Simeon  North. 
LL.  D.,  S.  T.  1).,  1839—57 ;  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Ware  Fisher,  S.  T.  D..  LL.  1).,  1858—66;  and 
the  Rev.  Samuel  Gilman  Brown,  S.T.D..LL.D., 
the  present  incumbent,  appointed  in  1866. 

HAMILTONIAN  METHOD.  See  Ham- 
ilton-, James. 

HAMPDEN  SIDNEY  COLLEGE,  in 
Prince  Edward  Co..  Va.  7  miles  south  of  Farni- 
ville.  founded  in  1770,1-.  under  1'iv-liyterian  con- 
trol. The  name  of  the  post-office  is  the  same  as 
that  of  the  institution  Thecollege  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  and  the  interest  on  an  endow- 
ment of  $95,000.  It  adheres  to  the  old  college 
curriculum.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $60per  year, 
with  French,  German,  and  civil  engineering  as 
extras.  In  1875  —  (i.  there  were  5  instructors 
and  77  students.  The  libraries  contain  about 
7,(1111)  volumes.  The  presidents  have  been  as  fol- 
lows :  the  Rev.  Stanhope  Smith,  D.  D.,  I  776  -9; 
the  Rev.  J.  Blair  Smith.  D.  D.,  L779  B9 ;  the 
Eev.  Dury  Lacy,  1789—97  ;  the  Rev.  Archibald 
Alexander.  1797— lsof>;  the  Rev.  Wm.  S.  R.-id. 
1806;  the  Rev.  Moses  Hone.  1807  —  20;  Jo- 
nathan P.  Gushing,  A.  M.,  L821— 35;  the  Rev 
Geo.  Baxter,  D.  1).,  1835—6;  the  Rev.  D  I.. 
Carroll,  D.  P..  L836— 8;  the  Hon.  Wm.  Max- 
well, 1838—44;  the  Rev.  P.  J.  Sparrow.  I>.  I) 
1845—7;  the  Rev.  S.  B.  Wilson,  I).  D.,  1847 
—8;  the  Rev.  L.  W.Green,  D.  D.,  1848  —  56; 
the  Rev.  A.  L.  llolladav.  1856;  and  the  Rev.  J. 
M.  P.  Atkinson.  1).  D.,  the  present  incumbent, 
appointed  in  1857. 

HANNIBAL  COLLEGE,  at  1  lannibal.  Mo., 
under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  was  founded,  in  1869,  for  the 
education  of  both  sexes.  It  has  an  endowment 
of  35  acres  of  land,  and  possesses  chemical, 
physiological,  astronomical,  and  other  scientific 
and  philosophical  apparatus.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  fees.  Thecollege  is  divided  int..;:  depart- 
ments: prepan y,  high-school,  and  collegiate. 

These  three  departments  are  sub-divided  into  six 


eluding  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  painting, 
drawing,  wax-work,  and  worsted  work.  A  com- 
mercial course  and  an  evening  school  have  been 
organized.  The  cost  of  tuition,  in  the  preparatory 
department,  is  $10.50  per  quarter;  in  the  aca- 
demic and  collegiate,  $12.50.     In  L875— 6,  there 

were  1  I  instructor.-  and  1  1(1  students.  The  Rev. 
•  I.  I-'.  Hamilton  was  president  from  1869—1871, 
when  the  present  incumbent,  the  Rev.  Leo  Baier, 
was  appointed. 

HANOVER  COLLEGE,  at  Hanover,  Ind., 
organized  in  ls-_<7.  and  chartered  in  1833,  is 
under  the  control  ,,f  the  Presbyterians.  It  has 
a  campus  of  16  acres  and  a  tine  college  build- 
ing. It.-,  entire  grounds  embrace  over  200  acres. 
The  libraries  contain  about  7,500  volumes.  The 
value  of  it*  buildings,  ".rounds,  and  apparatus  is 
$145,000;  the  amount  of  its  productive  funds, 
6100,000.  Tuition  is  free.  The  institution  has 
a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  department,  the 
latter  comprising  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course. 
In  1875 — 6.  there  were  10  instructors  and  135 
students  (74  collegiate  and  61  preparatory).  The 
Rev.  Geo.  C.  Hickman.  D.  P..  is  (1876)  the  pres- 
ident. 

HARMONY  in  Development,  as  regards 
both  the  mental  and  bodily  faculties,  is  now 
ts   as    th.-   most  important 


One 
■  P&dn 


the  pupil  shoul 
sible.  and  all  t 
incuts   of   educ 


wnnout  interruption,  ana  in  One  proportion. 
The  intellect  should  not  be  favored  at  the  ex- 
pense ot  the  moral  and  phvsical  nature:  and 
hygienic  considerations  should  not  be  left  out  of 
view.  The  teacher  should  be  especially  careful 
not  to  accord  too  much  time  and  attention  to 
favorite  branches  of  study."  The  latter  is  a  very 
important  admonition.  Every  course  of  study 
should   be   arranged   with  a  view  to  the  average 

c lition  of  the  growing  mind  and  its  needs; 

and.  therefore,  should  comprise  sin-h  a  variety  of 
subjects  as  will  call  into  exercise  the  different 
mental  powers,  and  thus  become  instruments 
in  their  culture  and  development.  The  scientific 
teacher  will,  however,  watch  for  decided  peculi- 
arities of  character.-- special  aptitudes,  traits  of 
genius,  etc.,  and  will  modify  his  course  of  pro- 
ceeding so  as.  while  giving  scope  for  the  unfold- 
ing of  these  particulai  powers,  or  talents,  not. 
to  permit  them  to  rein-ess  the  growth  of  other 
indispensable  faculties.  Thus,  a  pupil  may  show 
a  special  inclination  and  talent  for  drawing, 
which  may  very  properly  be  allowed  its  full 
development;  but,  in  doing  this,  the  educator 
is  not  to  permit  all  other  mental  or  manual  oc- 


■1  <">•_> 


HARMONY 


eupations  to  be  neglected.  Indeed,  this  special 
gift  may  be  kept  in  abeyance,  and  stimulus  ap- 
plied, for  a  time  at  least,  to  penmanship,  and  to 
the  study  of  language,  science,  or  other  impor- 
tant subjects.  Some  pupils,  as  a  further  example, 
may  be  too  prone  to  the  exercise  of  the  imagina- 
tion ;  in  which  case,  they  should  be  required  to 
study  science  or  mathematics.  ( Ithers  may  show 
an  almost  exclusive  bent  for  calculation  or 
mathematical  reasoning,  which  must,  of  course, 
be  corrected  by  the  pursuit  of  studies  calling 
into  exercise  other  powers  of  the  mind  ;  such  as 
history,  general  literature,  mental  philosophy, 
etc.  Knowledge  is  sometimes  called  the  food  of 
the  mind,  by  the  assimilation  of  which  its  various 
powers  are  nourished;  hence,  to  continue  the 
metaphor,  there  should  be  a  due  variety  ol  this 
food,  and  the  different  kinds  should  he  selected 
with  a  view  to  the  particular  condition  and 
invd<  of  the  system  which  is  to  be  supplied  with 
nutriment.  As  in  physical  education,  if  a  pupil 
manifests  any  signs  of  abnormal  development  or 
morbid  growth,  such,  for  example,  as  distortion 
of  the  limbs  or  curvature  of  the  spine,  continu- 
ous exercises  and  postures  are  prescribed  to 
correct  this  tendency:  so,  in  every  department 
of  education,  a  harmonious  development  can 
only  result  from  a  discriminative  application  of 
those  agencies  which  call  into  active  and  habitual 
exercise  the  powers  of  mind  and  body.  Such  a 
development  implies,  too,  a  full  recognition  of 
all  the  relations  and  powers  of  the  human  being, 
embracing  not  only  the  cultivation  of  those 
capacities  which  concern  him  as  an  individual. 
but  also  those  on  which  his  happiness  and  use- 
fulness  as  a  social  and  moral  hem-  depend  How 
miserable  is  the  mere  student,  the  solitary  genius, 
cut  off  from  the  exercise  of  the  social  sympathies 
and  deprived  of  social  enjoyments  by  a  one-sided 
development!  It  is  no  answer  to  this,  that  the 
world  may  be  benefited  by  his  brilliant  thoughts 
and  his  deep  intuitions  ;  for  the  interests  of  the 
individual,  as  such,  claim  consideration  :  and  be- 
sides that,  the  best  creations  of  genius  have  been 
often  impaired  or  marred  by  the  effects  of  this 
morbid  development.  Of  this  Byron,  Shelley. 
and  Poe  are  examples.  The  educator  must 
recognize  that  there  is  a  body,  a  mind,  and  a 
soul  to  be  addressed  and  cultivated  ;  and  that 
man  has  social,  moral,  and  religious  faculties, 
without  the  harmonious  development  of  which 
he  cannot  properly  fulfil  his  destiny,  nor  attain 
happiness.  The  special  claims  of  particular  vo- 
cations, it  is  said,  demand  one-sided  culture.  Of 
this  there  is  no  doubt  :  but,  preceding  it,  and 
hence  underlying  it,  there  should  be  such  gene- 
ral culture  as  the  circumstances  of  man.  as  man, 
require.  Profession  or  business  comprehends, 
in  general,  but  one  relation;  and  unfortunate, 
therefore,  is  he  who  can  meet  the  demands  of 
only  that  relation,  unable  to  perform  aright  the 
domestic,  social,  political,  and  religious  duties 
which  are  inseparably  connected  with  the  posi- 
tion of  every  person  in  this  life.  In  order  to 
perform  these  duties,  every  pel-son  is  endowed 
with   special    faculties,   which,  by  the  want  of 


HARNISCH 

proper  cultivation  in  early  life,  or  by  disuse, 
may  be  so  enfeebled  as  to  be  unfit  for  exercise  ; 
and  the  harmonious  development  of  these  is  the 
only  true  aim  of  education.  If  all  these  facul- 
ties do  not.  at  an  early  age.  receive  their  due 
share  of  training,  self-education,  at  a  later  period, 
cannot,  but  within  very  narrow  limits,  supply 
the  deficiency.  The  individual  w  ill  always  find 
himself  more  or  less  crippled,  because  no  self- cult- 
ure can  entirely  supply  the  place  of  early  habits. 
To  the  doctrine  ol  harmonious  development. 
it  has  been  objected  that  special  innate  endow- 
ments cannot  be  repri  ssi  d  by  >  ducat  ion  :  and  to 
address  other  faculties  w  ill  only  1 
ing  superficial  accomplishments 
value.     Thus  a  youth  ol   decide 


y  i-i  ,-u It  in  hestow- 
ta  of  no  practical 
ded  mathematical 
genius  could  never  become  more  than  an  im- 
perfect linguist  :  and  .me  with  special  talent  for 
language  would  be  likely  to  make  but  indifferent 

ment,  however,  does  not  require  the  repression 
of  special  endowments,  but  the  cultivation  of 
what  may  In-  called  the  general  powers,  in  such 
a  way  as  to  gm-  support  to  each  particular 
endowment.  A  wise  educational  training,  com- 
menced at  the  earliest  childhood,  and  continued 
through  each  successive  period  of  the  formative 
state  of  human  character,  will  not  only  fit  for 
any  particular  vocation  for  which  there  may  lie  a 
.special  bent,  but  will  also  prepare  the  individual 
for  general  usefulness,  and  render  him  able  to 
enjoj  the  wonders  of  science,  and  the  beauties 
of  nature  and  art.  as  well  as  to  participate  in  all 
other  pleasures  incident  to  his  existence  as  a 
social  and  rational  being.     (See  Genius.) 

HARNISCH.  Christian  Wilhelm,  a  Ger- 
man educator  and  writer,  born  Aug.  28.,  17m',. 
died  Aug.  18.,  1866.  After  studying  at  the  uni- 
versities of  Halle  and  Frankfort  mi  the  Oder,  and 
acquainting  himself,  in  Merlin,  with  Pestalozzi's 
method,  he  was  appointed,  in  1812,  teacher  in 
the  training  school  of  Breslau  :  and.  in  1822, 
director  of  the  training  school  of  Weissenfels. 
In  1847,  he  became  pastor  of  a  church  in  a  small 
town,  and  remained  in  that  position  until  1861. 
S(  ion  afterwards,  he  was  seized  with  insanity,  from 
which  he  never  recovered.  In  his  writings,  as 
well  as  in  all  his  teachings,  he  gave  a  prominent 
place  to  religion,  and  to  bodily  exercises,  such  as 
bathing,  gymnastics,  etc.  He  also  took  great 
interest  in  the  education  of  deaf-mutes.  The 
influence  which  he  exerted  on  the  development 
of  the  common-school  system  of  Prussia,  was 
very  considerable.  Among  his  most  important 
works  are.  Die  deutschen  Volksschulen  (1812), 
which  appeared  in  a  revised  form  under  the  title 
of  Handbuchrur  das  d,  utschi    Folicsi 


I  In 


Volkssch.ule,  zu  Kirche,  Stoat  and  Earn  (1848). 

The  autobiography  of  I  larnisoh  was  published 
after  his  death  by  Schmieder  (Mein  Lebens- 
morgen,  1868). 


HAltV  AKI )  UN  I V  EESITY 


103 


HARTLIB,  Samuel,  was  the  son  of  a  Folisli 
erchant  of   Ebbing,  Prussia.     His  mother,  be- 


at Mi 
Hiss 


the  annuity  above  mentioned,  he  is  thought  to 

have  died  in  want. — See  Barnard's  Journal  <</' 
Edueation,voh.  xi.  and  xn. 

HARTSVILLE  UNIVERSITY,  at  Harts 
ville,  End.,  under  the  control  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  Christ,  was  chartered  in  L851.  It 
grew  out  .if  the  Hartsville  Academy,  which  was 
transferred.by  its  trustees  to  the  church,  in  1848. 
It  is  supported  chiefly  by  donations  and  tnitio,, 
fees.  The  available  endowment  amounts  to 
$20,000;  the  entire  endowment  is  $54,000.  The 
college hasa  good  achromatic  telescope, philosoph- 
ical ami  chemical  apparatus,  and  an  increas- 
ing cabinet.  The  library  contains  between  700 
and  800  volumes.  The  regular  tuition  fees  vary 
from  $15  to  $21  per  year.  It  has  a  preparatory 
and  a  collegiate  department,  with  a  classical  and 
a  scientific  course  :  also  a  theological  department. 
Facilities  are  afforded  for  instruction  in  the  com 
mercial  branches  and  in  music.  In  1*74 — 5, there 
were  9  instructors  and  159  students,  of  whom  71 
were  of  the  collegiate  grade.  The  principals  and 
presidents  have  been  as  follows :  James  Mc.  D. 
Miller.  1849—52;  David  Shuck.  1852—64; 
John  W.  Serilmer.  1864—73;  David  Shuck, 
1873 — 1;  and  the  Rev.  William  J.  Pruner,  the 
present  incumbent,  appointed  in  1874. 

HARVARD,  John,  an  English  non-con- 
formist divine,  who  graduated  at  the  university 
of  ( 'aiiibridge.in  1631, and  emigrated  to  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  where  he  died  Sept.  24.,  1638.  Few 
particulars  of  his  life  are  known.  He  appears, 
however,  to  have  been  active  outside  of  his  pro- 
fession, as  we  find  him  appointed,  in  1638,  "to 
consider  of  some  things  tending  toward  a  body 
of  laws."  At  his  death,  he  bequeathed  £700  and 
about  300  volumes  for  the  founding  of  a  college. 
the  present  Harvard  University  of  Cambridge. 
The  alumni  of  the  university,  in  1828,  erected 
a  granite  monument  to  his  memory  in  the  burial 
ground  of  Charlestown.  The  address  on  this  oc- 
casion was  delivered  by  Edward  Everett,  who 


was  afterwards  president  of  the  university.    (See 
IIakv  m;h  University.) 

HARVARD  UNIVERSITY,  the  oldest 
institution  of  learning  in  the  United  States,  com- 
prehends Harvard  College,  the  Divinity  School 
the  Law  School,  the  Medical  School,  the  Dental 

School,  tile   L, »;;,,.■■    S ■,-;,    >,/,,,/.,!„.   /;,,,. 


•  /„,/, 


./.   the  Botanic 

fen 

Abrary,    the   / 

nil, 

,,/„ 

\rchmology  and 
if  the  University 

ete.l  by  certain' 

Eth 

lull 
liar 

e    all 

Medl 


i. I<il 


Mas>ae 


:d  S, 


:  No.  50  Allen  street.  Boston  :  and  the  Bussey 
istitution.  at  Jamaica  Plain,  now  within  the 
mits  of    Boston.     The  Episcopal  Theological 


struction  given  in  any  other  department,  with 
the  exception  of  exercises  carried  on  in  the  spe- 
cial laboratories.  No  one  is  excluded  from  any 
department  on  account  of  color. 

In  1636,  the  colonial  legislature  agreed  to  give 
€4(iii  toward  a  school  or  college,  but  whether  this 
sum  was  ever  actually  paid  is  doubtful.  In  L639.it 
was -ordered,  that  the  colledge  agreed  upon  for- 
merly to  bee  built  at  ( 'ambridu  fhal  bee  called 
Harvard  Colledge,"  in  honor  of  the  Rev.  John 
Harvard  of  <  harlestown, who, dying  in  1638,had 
left  to  the  institution  about  £700  and  a  library  of 
over  300  volumes.  The  college  was  opened  in  1638, 
and  the  first  class  [D I  graduated  in  1642.  The  same 
year  a  board  of  overseers  was  constituted;  and.  in 
lii.'ili,  a  charter  was  granted,  under  which  the 
institution  became  a  corporation,  with  the  title  of 
the  "President  and  Fellows  of  Harvard  College." 
In  early  times,  it  received  much  legislative  aid, 
and  was  intimately  connected  with  the  govern- 
ment.but  its  connection  with  the  Commonwealth 
was  dissolved  in  1865.  The  corporation  consists 
of  the  president,  five  fellows,,  and  the  treasurer, 
who,  subject  to  the.  confirmation  of  the  overseers, 
fill  their  own  vacancies.  The  board  of  overseers 
is  composed  of  the  president  and  treasurer,  ex 
officio,  and  30  members,  elected  by  the  graduates 
of  five  years'  standing,  and  holding  office  six  years, 
five  being  chosen  each  year.  The  corporation 
nominates  the  professors  and  other  officers  of  in- 
struction constituting  the  different  faculties  of 
the  University,  who  must  be  confirmed  by  the 
board  of  overseers.  The  Medical  School  was 
estalilishi.il  in  1  7*2.  the  Botanic  harden  in  18117, 

the  Law  School   in    1817,  the  Divinity  Sel 1  in 

1819.  and  the  Observatory  in  1839.  'The  Law- 
rence Scientific  School  was  founded,  in  1-17.1  y 
Abbott  Lawrence,  by  a  gift  oi  $  0,1 
i piently  increased.  The  Museum  of  Comparative 
Zoology  was  established,  in  1 85!),  by  a  grant  from 
the  state  and  the  gifts  of  individuals  through  the 
influence  of  Agassiz,  who  was  its  director  till  his 


404 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


death,  and  whose  invaluable  collections  are  here 
deposited.  The  Peabody  Museum  was  founded  by 
George  Peabody,  who  gave  8150,000  in  ism;. 
The  Dental  School  was  organized  in  1868.  The 
Bussey  Institution  was  endowed  by  the  will  of 
Benjamin  Bussey,  in  1842.  The  lands  belonging 
to  the  University  in  Cambridge,  comprise  about 
60  acres.  The  college  yard  contains  about  22 
acres,  tastefully  laid  nut  and  adorned  with  many 
stately  elms.  In  the  yard,  are  21  buildings,  in- 
cluding the  president's  house,  four  professors' 
houses,  the  chapel,  library,  law  school,  and  seven 
dormitories,  the  remaining  six  buildings  being 

used  for  offices,  recitation  r is,  laboratories,  etc. 

The  oldest  of  these  is  Massachusetts  I  [all,  erected 
in  1720,  and  occupied  by  Continental   troops  in 

1775—6.    Adjacent  to  the  yard,  are  i» her 

dormitories,  the  Gymnasium,  Memorial  Mall,  and 
the  Lawrence  Scientific  school.  A  little  north. and 
near  i  ach  other,  are  the  Museum  of  Comparative 
Zoology  and  the  Divinity  School;  and  about  three 
fourths  of  a  mile  X.  \V. and  also  near  each  other, 
the  Observatory,  and  the  Botanic  Harden  and 
Herbarium.  The  most  magnificent  building  is 
the  Memorial  Hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of  sr.'n. no. i 
by  the  alumni  and  friends  of  the  college  in  com- 
memoration of  the  students  ami  graduates  of  the 
University  who  died  in  the  national  service  dup- 
ing the  civil  war  of  1861— 5.  It  is  built  of  red  and 
black  brick,  with  copings  and  wi 
Nova  Scotia  stone,  and  is  310  ft 
wide.  The  interior  comprises  th 
ments  :  a  dining  hall,  1  (',  1  by  60  ft 
capable  .if  seating  100(1  peT80ns 
tibule.  1 1  2  by  30  ft.,  and  60ft.  hij 
ders  theater,  for  commencement 
arranged,  on  the  plan  of  classic 
•  ■oiiiiuodutine;  1.J0II  spectators. 
said  to  be  the  grandest  college  hi 
is  used  for  college  festivals,  and 
Hall  Association,  an  organizatioi 
managed  by  students  for  the  pur 
ing  board  at  cost.  Its  walls  ar 
portraits  of  former  college  worthies,  and 
windows  are  intended  to  be  memorial.  Between 
the  dining  hall  and  the  theater  is  the  memorial 
vestibule,  surmounted  by  a  tower  200  ft.  high. 
The  interior  is  surrounded  by  an  arcade  of  black 
walnut,  with  marble  tablets  inscribed  with  the 
names  of  1  10  students  commemorated,  and  the 
dates  and  places  of  their  death.  The  walls  above 
are  simply  decorated,  in  color,  with  Latin  inscrip- 
tions concerning  patriotism,  duty,  and  immor- 
tality. The  property  of  the  University,  in  1876, 
(not  including  the  buildings,  collections,  and  pub- 

licgroiiiulsi; muted  to  S3.1 .' J '. i ."_!  I  s.   The  income 

of  the  University, in  1874— 5,  was  §473,305.  The 
libraries  of  the  University  contain,  in  the  aggre- 
gate, 211,000  volumes.  They  include  the  follow- 
ing: Mi  College  Library  (in  (hire  Hall),  l.Vi.DIHI 
vols.;  (2)  Library  of  the  Botanic  Garden,  1,000 

vols.;  (3)  Of  the'  Divinity  School,   17. vols.; 

(!)  Of  the  Medical  School.  2. I  vols.;  ,.',)  Of  the 

Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  12.000  vols.; 
(6)  Law  Library,  15,000  vols.;  (7)  Libraries  in 
the     Liwrence    Scientific    School,    3,000    vols.; 


grand  apart- 
d  80  ft.  high, 
emorial  ves- 


hung 


edand 
■upply- 

ith   the 


is,  1  "hillips  Library  at  the  <  Observatory.  3,000  vols. 

There    are    also    1  .1.0110  or    20.000    voiumes   iu    the 

society  libraries  of  the  students.  There  are  two 
physical  and  three  chemical  laboratories,  a  zoolog 

ical,  a  physiological,  and  ago  logical  and  pal; i- 

tological  laboratory  at  the  Museum  of  Com- 
parative Zoology,  a  mineralogical  collection  in 
Boylston  Hall,  and  extensive  natural  history  col- 
lections at  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology. 
The  large  collections  of  the  Peabody  Museum  are 
exhibited  in  Boylston  Hall.  The  Cray  collec- 
tion of  engravings  in  Core  Hall  holds  a  high 
rank.  The  Observatory  is  admirably  ecpiipped 
with  astronomical  instruments,  including  one  of 
the  best  equatorials  in  the  world.  The  instruc- 
tion of  the  College  and  Scieiitilie  Sel 1.  in  prac- 
tical astronomy  and  geodesy,  is  given  at  the  Ob- 
Bervatory;  in  Botany,  at  the  Botanic  Garden; 
and  in  zoology,  geology,  and  paleontology,  at  the 
Museum  of  i  lomparative  Zoology.  The  course  of 
studies  in  the  College  leads  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  covers  fouryears.  The  cur- 
riculum is  extended  and  varied,  being  so  arranged 
that  the  old  prescribed  college  course  may  be 
pursued,  or  other  courses,  according  to  the  taste 
or  purposes  of  the  student.  The  studies  of  the 
freshman  year  are  prescribed.  The  [prescribed 
studies  of  the  sophomore  year  till   four    hours  a 

week  in  history  and  rhetoric;  and  those  of  the 

junior  year,  two  hours  a  week  in  philosophy,  be- 
sides certain  written  exercises.  In  the  senior 
year  only  certain  written  exercises  are  prescribed; 
sophomores  are  required  to  take  ten  hours  a 
week  of  elective  studies  ;  and  juniors  and  seniors, 
twelve  hours.  The  attendance  by  seniors  upon 
recitations  is  voluntary.  Several' of  the  fresh- 
man studies  may  be  anticipated  at  the  entrance 

examination;  and  the  prescribed  Bopho e  and 

junior  studies  may  be  anticipated  at  the  same 
time,  or  by  examinations  at  the  beginning  of  the 
respective  years.  Written  examinations  form  a 
marked  feature  of  the  method  of  instruction,  oc- 
curring frequently,  during  term  time,  in  the  dif- 
ferent branches,  and  at  the  close  of  each  year, 
in  the  studies  of  the  year.  Special  honors 
are  given  at  graduation  for  excellence  in  the 
following  departments  :  ancient  languages,  clas- 
sics, modern  languages,  philosophy,  history,  math- 
ematics, physics,  chemistry,  natural  history. music. 
For  honors'  in  modern  languages,  the  candidate 
must  present  himself  for  examination  in  Italian, 
Spanish,  or  English,  as  well  as  in  French  and 
German.  One  of  the  ancient  languages  must  be 
Hebrew  or  Sanskrit,  in  addition  to  Latin  and 
Creek.  A  grade  of  second-year  honors  in  clas- 
sics and  mathematics  has  been  established,  open 
to  sophomores  and  juniors,  and  to  seniors  who 
intend  to  be  candidates  for  final  honors  after 
graduation.  For  final  honors  in  ancient  lan- 
guages and  classics,  second-year  honors  in  classics 
must  have  been  taken  ;  and,  for  final  honors  in 
mathematics,  second-year  honors  in  the  same 
department.  The  requisitions  for  admission  at 
Harvard  are  higher  than  in  any  other  college  in 
the  country.  Instead  of  passing  the  entire  en- 
trance examination  at  the  time  of  admission  to 


HARVARD   UNIVERSITY  405 

.liege,   candidates  for  the  freshman  class  may    occupies  three  years ;  the  instruction  of  tin-  iii>i 
e  examined  upon  five  or  i «  subjects  the  year    year  is  given  al   the   Lawrence  Scientific  School. 


\\  , stern  students.  In  all  tuition 
rses  were  thrown  open  meritoriou 
md  upward,  nol   candi-    among    Ai 


Harvard  is 


ilect.    Tli.- tail 


A  cilt  rtKMti-  <  it   prutlrlrliry  will   In-    -imii   l.i.-i 

as  pursue  their  studies  for  a  year,  and  pass  sal 
fartury  examinations.  (I'"nr  : i  1 .  1 1 1 1 . . 1 1 . 1 1  .1,1. 
I'l'spri'liiiii  tin'  ri-i|iiisiiiiiiis  f..r  . i- li 1 1 1 — ]•  hi  ainl  i 

in  the  college  is  8150  per  year.  '  »in-  hunch 
ami   four  scholarships    have    been    establi&hi 

varying  in  annual  i le  from  840  to  $300, 

the  aid  of  needy  .nil  deserving  students.     Tib 
an    dso  beneficiary  funds  having  an  annual 
come  of  al.-. lit  ST.1-".  whi.-l,  i-  MMtallv  -liMiil.nl 


-ar.   Ninescholar 


n  is  850 
iblished, 
260;  and 
of  needy 


thi 


scholars  of  high  chat 
s  •l.li.m  or  never  oblij 
of  money."  In  the 
live  regular  courses, 
civil  and  topographi 

ing,  ct  which  the  t 
with  the  first  three  > 
leading  t<>  thedegre  • 
Mia.  Bachelor  of  Sc 


1 1  \ .  .nil  pb 

,-|.-.  fo 

is8150per 

year  1 

School  ...  \ 

was.  in  l-T 

tific  School 

The  1! 

estate  of  3f 
farm,  green 

An,. .1.1    \il 

houses, 

o  the  regular  course 
ttns  or  science  from 

iitit'n-  scl I.  or  pass 

ns  not  candidates  for 
,1   tu  partial   courses 

era! 

Sty 


Massachusel 


II..-1.11.1I.    Willi 


•s  tor 
ictical 
rgery. 


labo-    of  each.   The  degre 

i la-    cine  is  conferred   n 

degre.     and  upward,  w  bo  hi 


I   vars  ;ld 
ine  or  den 


HARVARD   UNIVERSITY 


tistry  three  full  years  (at  least  one  continuous 
year  at  this  school),  upon  presenting  a  satisfac- 
tory thesis,  and  passing  the  required  examinations. 
The  infirmary,  a  department  of  the  Massachusetts 
General  Hospital,  affords  opportunity  for  prac- 
tical instruction.    Th st  of  tuition  is  $200  for 

the  first  year,$l  50  for  the  second.and  $50 for  any 
subsequent  year.  The  degrees  of  Master  of  Arts. 
Doctor  of  Philosophy,  and  Doctor  of  Science. 
imply  a  post-graduate  course  of  study,  and  are 
conferred  upon  examination  only.  The  degree  oi 
A.  M,  was  conferred  in  course  without  examina- 
tion for  the  last  time  in  1872.  The  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Science  is  open  to  Bachelors  of  Science 
or  Philosophy, who  arc  required  to  reside  at  least 
two  years  at  the  University  and  pursue,  during 
three  years,  a  course  of  scientific  study,  embra- 
cing at  least  two  subjects,  aftd  pass  an  examination 
in  the  same.  The  other  two  degrees  are  open  to 
Bachelors  of  Arts.  Candidates  for  the  degree  of 
Master  of  Arts  are  required  to  pursue,  for  at  least- 
one  year  at  the  University,  an  approved  course  of 
liberal  study,  and  pass  an  examination  in  the 
same.  Candidates  for  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Philosophy  are  required  to  pursue,  at  the  Uni- 
versity for  two  years,  a  course  of  liberal  study 
(and  pass  an  examination  in  the  same)  in  one  of 
the  following  departments:  namely,  philology, 
philosophy,  history,  political  science,  mathemat- 
ics, physics,  natural  history,  or  music.  The  degree 
of  Master  of  Arts  is  also  conferred  upon  candi- 
dates who  pursue,  at  the  University,  at  least  one 
year  after  taking  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Laws,  Bachelorof  Divinity,  or  Doctor  of  Medi- 
cine in  Harvard  University,  an  approved  course 
of  study  in  law,  theology,  or  medicine, and  passan 
examination  in  the  same.     Post  graduate  courses 

of  study  have,  accordingly.   1 u   established   in 

the  three  professional  schools,  as  well  as  in  the 
College  and  Scientific  School.  The  fees  for 
these  courses  range  from  $50  to  $150  per  year, 
which,  however,  are  remitted  to  needy  and  meri- 
torious students.  The  examination  fees,  $30  for 
A.M.  and  $60  for  each  of  the  other  two  degrees, 
are  not  remitted.  Six  fellowships  have  been  es- 
tablished, with  an  annual  income  of  from  $600 
to  $1000  each,  to  aid  graduates  of  the  University 
in  pursuing  a  postgraduate  course  of  liberal 
study.  Summer  courses  of  instruction,  especially 
designed  for  teachers,  are  given  in  chemistry  and 
mineralogy,  botany,  and  geology.  The  first  is 
given  in  lioylston  Hall.      Tin'  course   in   pheno- 

sea-shore;  and  that  in  geology,  at  present,  at  Cum- 
berland Cap,  Ky.,  in  connection  with  the  state 
geological  survey.  The  fee  for  the  geological 
course  is  $50;  for  the  others  $25.  In  1875,  these 
courses  were  attended  "by  98  persons,  as  follows: 
chemistry  10;  botany,  27  ;  geology  31.  Among 
those  in  chemistry  and  botany  were  women,  who 


in  English,  French,  physical  geography,  elemen- 
tary botany  or  elementary  physics,  arithmetic, 
algebra  through  <|uadratic  equations,  plane  geom- 
etry, history,  and  German,  Latin,  or  Greek; 
(2)  An  advanced  examination  for  young  women, 
not  less  than  L8  years  old,  who  have  passed  the 


to  those  who  pass  satisfactorily.  The  fee  for  the 
preliminary  examination  is  $15;  for  the  advanced, 
$10.  Two  preliminary  and  three  advanced  cer- 
tificates were  granted  in  1875. —  In  1875 — 6, 
besides  26  proctors,  librarians,  and  other  officers 
there  were  128  teachers  of  various  grades  as  fol- 
lows : 


are 


liilsscy  llistltiltiim 
Divinity  School. . . . 

I.;i\v  School 

Meilii'iil  School 

Dental  School 

Jliiscuinol  Compnr 

ative  Zoology. . . 

Ohservntory 


nous  departments  ol    the    I   Diversity.      In  1S|4. 

examinations  for  Women  Were  established,  of  two 

grades:  (1)  A  general  or  preliminary  examination 
for  young  women  not  less  than  17  years  of  age, 


Total,  deducting 

repetitions     -.-■     -i      -     .-     -•       — 

[n  the  College,  there  are  professorships  of  Ger- 
man ;  Christian  morals  :  astronomy  and  mathe- 
matics: natural  religion,  moral  philosophy,  and 
civil  polity  :  matlieinat  ics  and  natural  philosophy; 
ancient.  Byzantine,  and  modem  Greek;  ancient, 
and  modern  history:  anatomy;  the  French  and 
Spanish  languages  and  literatures:  belles-let- 
tres; rhetoric  and  oratory;  Latin;  the  history 
of  art;  chemistry  and  mineralogy;  political 
economy ;  Greek  literature;  modern  languages; 
history;  mathematics;  and  music.  In  the  other 
departments  of  the  University,  besides  those 
strictly  professional,  there  are  professorships  of 
natural  history:  engineering;  geology  ;  elocution; 
entomology;  the  application  of  science  to  the  use- 
ful arts;  applied  zoology;  astronomy  and  geodesy; 
Hebrew  and  other  oriental  languages ;  zoology; 
agricultural  chemistry  :  topographical  engineer- 
in.' ;  and  palaeontology.  The  whole  number  of 
different  students,  in  1875—6,  deducting  repeti- 
tions, was  1 .2<;;j.  distributed  as  follows  : 

Departments  Number.         Departments.         Number 

Resident  Graduates  54  Scientifio  School  34 
College  Students      776     Medical        "  192 

Divinity  School  19     Dental  "  33 

LaW     '       "  161     Bussey  Institution      5 

Of  the  resident  graduates.  35  were  candidates 
for  higher  degrees,  and  6,  holders  of  fellowships; 
of  the  college  under  graduates,  148  were  seniors, 
l'.U  juniors,  L82  sophomores,  and  252  fresh- 
men. The  following  degrees  were  conferred  at 
the  commencement  in  1876:  A.B.,  136;  S.B.,3; 
C  E  1  ;  D.  M,  l>..  L0;  M.  D.,36;  LL.  B..  49  ; 
D.  B.,  5 ;  A.  M.,  7  ;  Ph.  D.,  5  ;  S.  D.,  1 ;  accord- 


ing  to  the  triennial  catalogue  of  1875,  the  whole 
Dumber  of  alumni  of   the  college  was  8,741.  of 


HAWAIIAN    ISLANDS  407 

HAVEN,  Erastus  Otis,  an  American 
clergyman  and  educator,  born  in  Boston,  Mass., 
Nov.'  I    1820.     After  graduating  a!    Wesleya 


'.  be  taughl 
N'ew  York; 
i  the  Meth- 

-  •M 
thi 

anted 
versitj 

I,  h 

served 

Samuel  Langdon,  177 1  80;  Joseph  Willard, 
L78]  L804;  Samuel  Webber,  1806  L0;  John 
Thornton  Cirkland,  1810—28;  Josiah  Quincy, 
1829—45;  Edward  Everett,  1846 — 19;  Jared 
Sparks,  1849  53;  James  Walker,  1853—60; 
Cornelius  Conway  Felton,  1860—62;  Thomas 
Bill,  1862— 68  ;  and  Charles  William  Eliot,  the 

HATTY,  Valentin,  distinguished  for  his  phil- 
anthropic efforts  in  behalf  of  the  blind,  and  as  the 
inventor  of  an  apparatus  for  their  instruction, 
was  born  at  Saint-Just,  in  France,  in  1745,  and 
died  in  1822.  Be  was  brother  to  the  distin- 
guished French  mineralogist,  Abbe  (Rene  Just) 
Hatiy.  Bis  remarkable  zeal  and  success  in  the 
cause  to  which  he  devoted  his  life,  fully  entitled 
him  to  the  appellation  conferred  upon  him  in 
France,       the  Apostl   oftii  i  Blind.  I  lis  interest 


tin-  presidency  of 
at  Kvanston,  111.; 


night  1 1  it  'i  ii  to  read  by  means  of  carved  lett 
hicli  could  lie  moved,  in  the  grooves  of  a  bo; 
id  combined  into  words  like  type.  The  n 
:'  books  led  him  to  invent  the  raised  print. 


Milled 


and.  in  1  iSli,  he  published  at 
tion  of  the  blind,  in  which  hi 
of  instruction.  The  Aca  len 
it  to  be  the  best  that  had 
fully  endorsed  it.    This  led 


.  In  L869,  he  accepted 
rth-western  University, 
1872,  was  elected  hist 
corresponding  secretary  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal board  of  education.  In  .lime.  Is7t.  he 
was  appointed  chancellor  of  the  Syracuse  I'ni- 
versity,  in  New  York.  His  chief  publications 
are  Tfte  Young  Man  Advised  (N .Y .,  1855),  Pil- 
lars of  Truth  (1860),  and  Rhetoric,a  TextrBook 
for  Schools  (1869). 
HAVERFORD  COLLEGE,  in   Montgom- 


itlic, 


is  the  same  as  that  of  the  institution.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees,  contributions, and  an  en- 
dowment fund  of  about  $120,000.  It  has  fine 
college  buildings  and  grounds.  The  libraries 
contain  about  L1.000  volumes.  It  includes  a 
full  collegiate  course  and  a  scientific  course.  In 
1874  —  ''.there  were  5  instructors  and  49  stu- 
dents. The  president  of  the  college  is  Thomas 
Chase  (1876). 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS,  or  Sandwich 
Islands,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  ocean, 
forming  an  independent  kingdom;  area  ~,  fi'l'.l  sip 

miles;  population,  in  1872,  56,877.  Of  these, 
49,044  were  natives;  889,  Americans;  2,521,  Eu- 
ropeans; '.Ms:.,  half  breeds;  and  1,938,  Chinese. 
The  total  i  'atholic  population, in  L873,  was  about 
23,000;  the  remainder  were  Protestants.  The 
native  race  is  rapidly  dying  out,  having  been 


nt  a 

•ook, 

tury, 


of  2 francs.      In  Ism'.,  he   received,  from   the 

emperor  Alexander,  a  call  to  St.  Petersburg, 
where  he  founded  a  similar  institution;  but  his 
labors  were  interrupted  by  the  war  which  broke 
out.  in  1812,  between  France  and  Russia,  and 
he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  spent  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  in  retirement.-  See  V.  llnu.il 
and  the  Instruction  of  the  Blind,  in  Barnard's 
Jam-mil  of  Education.  (See  also  Blind,  Edu- 
cation OF  TIIE.J 


the  accomplishment  ot reading  became  so  popular. 

island  of  the  group  for  the  purpose  of  introduc- 
ing it.  The  schools  grew  rapidly,  being  at  one 
tune  900  in  number,  with  about  52,000  pupils, 
most  of  whom  were  adults.    Besides  reading  and 


40S 


HAWAIIAN    ISLANDS 


writing,  arithmetic  and  geography  were  taught, 
of  which  twu  studies  the  Hawaiians  are  very 
fond.  The  instruction,  however,  was  necessarily 
of  a  very  primitive  character.  The  American 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions  Sustained,  from  L830 
to  1840,  schools  at  each  of  their  stations,  intended 

as  models  for  the  native  sel Is.   When,  in  1839, 

the  French  Roman  Catholic  mission  had  been 
firmly  settled,  it  established  its  own  schools, 
which,  although  not  so  numerous  as  the  others, 
have  always  been  prominent  in  the  educational 
history  of  these  islands.  The  first  written  con- 
stitution and  laws  were  promulgated  in  1840; 
and  among  the  latter  was  one  for  the  establish- 
ment of  schools,  which  was 'amended  in  1841. 
This  law  had  for  its  model  the  school  law  of 
Massachusetts.  In  1846,  a  minister  of  public  in- 
struction was  appointed,  which  office  was  after- 
wards changed  to  that  of  president  of  the  board 
of  education.  In  1865,  a  new  school  law  was 
promulgated,  which,  with  few  changes,  is  in 
operation  at  the  present  time. 

School  System.  —  There  is  a  board  of  edu- 
cation of  five  members,  appointed  by  the  kino-. 
The  duties  of  the  former  minister  of  public 
instruction,  which  were  transferred  to  the  pres- 
ident of  the  board  of  education,  are  exercised 
by  the  inspector  general.  This  official  is  appointed 
by  the  board,  and  is  required  to  visit  all  the 
schools,  to  direct  what  stud:  s  are  to  be  pursued,  to 

grant  certificates  of  qualification  to  teachers,  and 
lo  ivMiki  the  same  for  proper  i-au-e  No  clergy- 
man of  any  denomination  can  hold  this  position. 
The  board  appoints  a  school  agent  in  each  of 
the  twenty-five  districts  into  which  the  islands 
are  divided,  who  is  the  local  executive  officer  of 
the  board.  The  agent,  the  district  judge,  and 
an  elective  member,  yearly  balloted  for  by  the 
parents  of  the  district,  together  form  a  district 
school  board.  This  board  has  the  power  to  ap- 
point and  remove  teachers. subject  to  an  appeal  to 
the  board  of  education.  The  school  sessions  are  I 
held  from  9  A.  M.  to  2  P.  M.,  with  two  inter- 
missions, one  of  15  minutes  and  the  other  of  30 
minutes.  Every  teacher  is  required  to  have  a 
certificate  of  competency  from  the  inspector 
general,  and  must  attend  the  quarterly 
teachers'  institutes,  of  which  there  are  three  in 
Hawaii,  and  one  in  each  of  the  other  islands. 
There  is  no  normal  school,  but  most  of  the 
teachers  receive  their  education  in  the  Lahaina- 
luna  seminary.  The  usual  salary  of  teachers  is 
50  cents  a  day.  The  Hawaiian  language  is  the 
only  medium  of  instru  -non  in  the  schools,  in 
which  tuition  is  free,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Fnion  school  al  Hilo,  which  is  the  first  attempt 
at  a  gra  led  school  on  the  islands.  English  is 
taught  in  thi~  school  in  the  higher  class.  Ml 
children  betwe  i  the  ag i  and  1  I  are  re- 
quired to  attend  ho  il.  This  law  is  enforce. I  by 
tines  and  oilier  penalties. 

School  a  Uistii  s.    -  The  statistics  for  L872  are 

.as  follows:    Com t  schools,   202,  with   3,574 

boys  and  2,700  girls;  government  boarding- 
schools  3,  with  205 boys ;  govern at  day  schools 

5.  with  34  I  boys,  and  I  18  girls  :   boarding-schools 


HAZING 

aided  by  the  government,  9,  with  170  boys  and 
1  - ' T  girls  :  day  schools  aided  by  the  government. 
8,  with  L68  boys  and  106  girls ;  independenf 
boarding-schools  I.  with  IS  boys  and  7s  girls; 
and  independent  day  schools  14,  with  .'112  boys 
267  girls;  making  a  total  of  245  schools,  with 
4,791  boys,  and  3,496  girls;  or,  in  all, 8,287  pupils. 
The  Lahainaluna  seminary,  in  I-ahaina,  is  a  col- 
lege for  native  males.  It  was  founded,  in  1831, 
by  the  American  mission  ;  but  is,  at  present, 
supported  and  controlled  directly  by  the  govern- 
ment. Like  the  American  colleges,  itr-  course  of 
study  embrace,  a  period  of  tour   wars.     It   had, 


I  lonollllu. 


Ildc 


chartered  in  1849.  It  is  the  principal  institution 
for  English-speaking  youths  of  both  sexes,  and 
has.  at  present.  75  pupils.  There  are  six  female 
seminaries,  with  358  pupils.  These  schools  re- 
ceive a  small  portion  of  their  support  from  the 
government.  —See  Lyons.  Education  in  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  in  the  Report  of  the  U.  S. 
Commissioner  of  Education,  L872 ;  Nordhoff, 
Xmi/nrn  California,  Onyoti,  ami  the  Sand- 
wich   Island*  (1874). 

HAYTI,  a  Negro  republic  in  the  A\  est  In- 
dies. Us  area  is  about  9,232  square  miles,  and 
its  population,  about  572,(100.  of  whom  the  great 
majority  are  of  negro  extraction.  The  prevail- 
ing religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  other 
sects  are  tolerated.  The  language  of  the  country 
i-  French.  The  island  oi  Hayti  was  discovered 
by  Columbus  on  Dec.  ■">..!  192.  The  western  part 
of  this  island  was.  in  1  < '. ! ' T -  formally  annexed  by 
France;  but  the  eastern  pari  remained,  for  a  long 
time,  a  dependency  of  Spain.  See  Santo  Do- 
mingo.)  In  L791,thenegroesol  Bayti  roseagainsl 
the  French  rule,  and,  after  assassinating  all  the 
whites,  proclaimed  their  independence  in  1804. 
Under  the  French  rule,  nothing  was  done  to 
educate  the  negroes.  rI  he  constitutions  of  1816 
and  lslfi  contained  educational  provisions, 
which  were  never  carried  into  effect.  Private 
schools  were  established  in  a  few  places;  but  it 
was  not    until    President    Geffrard     came    into 


According  to  the  latest  a nuts,  there 

t     235     national   schools,   with    about 

ipils.     Port-au-Prince  has  a  scl I  of 

i.  a  law  school,  a   scl 1  of   physicians 

ons.    a    music  school,   with   about    100 

drawing  school,  a   school  of  arts  and 

,  lyceum.  and   a  Inch  school   for  girls. 

\  high  school  for  females  was  also  founded  by 


Indien  undo 
HAZING 


in  Wesi- 

■hievons 
Inch  are 


age:  but.  during  the  last  few  years,  much  elf,. it 
has  been  put  forth  by  those  wh,,  have  the  charge 
of  higher  institutions  of  learning  to  suppress  the 


HEART 

custom,  as  being  shameful,  barbarous,  and  utterly 
demoralizing  to  those  participating  in  it.  In  the 
naval  and  military  academies  of  the  United 
States,  this  custom  was,  a  short  time  ago  ob 
served  in  the  most  revolting  manner,  often  vio- 
lating the  i  lies  of  common  decency,  and  some- 
times inflicting  severe  bodily  injuries.  In  1871, 
a  number  of  cadets  at  the  Wesl  Point  Acadenrj 
were  dismissed  from  the  U.  S.  service  for  being 
engaged  in  acts  of  outrage  of  this  character  :  and 
.  at  Annapolis,  several 
lues  dropped  from  the 
ate  1  "coarse,  cruel,  and 
d  other  members  of  the 


at  the  Naval  : 
midshipmen  had 
roll  for  what   ws 

oppressb 


due 


institution.      In  issuing  tl rder,  the  Secretary 

of  the  Navy  remarked,  that  "youthful  vivacity 
and  mischief"  might  Bometimes  be  overlooked, 
but  that -persistent  blackguardism"  could  not  be 
tolerated.  In  most  of  the  better  class  of  American 
colleges,  this  demoralizing  practice  has  been 
partly  or  wholly  suppressed;  but  nothing  but 
severe  and  persistent  measures,  supported  by 
strong  public  opinion,  will  banish  it  entirely,  iii 
mixed  colleges,  in  which  male  and  female  students 
are  instructed,  it  has  almost  wholly  disappeared  ; 
and,  as  an  illustration  of  the  difference  between 

male  and  f etna] [lege  students,  the  following 

account  of  the  reception  of  new-comers  at  Vassar 
College  is  cited  :  "Upon  a  certain  evening,  a  few 
days  after  the  opening  of  the  session,  the  mem- 

bers  of  the  sophomore  class  n ive  their  sisters 

who  have  just  entered,  with  (lowers,  music,  and 


HEART,  Education  of.  See  Moral  Edu- 
cation. 

HEBREW  LANGUAGE,  the  language  iu 
which  the  Sacred  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament 
were  written,  is  on  thai  accounl  of  Bpecial  impor- 
tance both  for  the  Hebrew  | pie  and  for  Chris- 
tians, more  espcciallv    t! Ioji.m,-,  who   do-ire  to 

read  the  Scriptures  in  theoriginal.  It  is  one  of  the 
Semitic  I.-inunaj  ■-  -oealf-d  b     a  n  -o  chiefly  spoken 


as    ; ,,- 


th. 


Indo-European  worl, 

tints  always  serves  j- 
Iudo-Kuropean  stud 
acquaintance  with  a 
from  their  own.  Its 
edged  on  all  sides  ;  i 
claimed  for  it  an  a 
history  of    mankind 


captivity 


Babylon,  it  gradually  became  mixed  with  ( 'h 
dee.  by  which  it  was  finally  supplanted  as  the 
national  language.  The  knowledge  of  the  Old 
Hebrew  language  was  however  preserved  by  the 
priests  and  scribes,  who  used  it  for  literary  and 
educational  purposes.  From  the  2d  to  the  6th 
century  of  the  ( 'hristian  era.  Hebrew  literature 
shows  an  independent  development  ;  from  the 
8th  to  the  11th  it  was  stationary  and  neglected  ; 


HEBREW    LANGUAGE 

from  the  1 1th  century  to  the  present  time,  i 

I  lel.rcu  literarv  language,  formed  on  the 
ot  the  Old  Hebrew,  and  enriched  by  main 
formations,  technical  terms,  particles,  and  fo 
words,  has  been  extensively  used  by  lei 
Hebrews  in  all  branches  of  literature. 
alphabet  now  used  in  the  Old  Testament  Si 
ures  is  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  1 
soon  after  Ezra.  It  is  called  by  the  ■  !, 
doctors  Assyrian. and  is  generally  admitted 
of  \iaincaii  origin.  Another  alphabet,  tin 
binieal  or  mcdiii-val.    is   chiefly  used    in    lie 

c mentaries  and  in  notes  to  the  OldTestan 


the  vowel  points  w.-re  i  n  t  reduced  about  th 
century  of  the  <  hristian  era,  for  the  purp 
presen  ing  as  ti  as  possible  the  true  prom 
tion  of  the  Ian  magi  .  is  generally  aequiesc 
Like  all  the  -.antic  languages,  with  thesi 
ception  of  Ktlnopii-.  the  liebrewis  read 
right  to  left. 

The  scientific  study  of  the  Hebrew  Ian 
did  not  bee,,,  eve,  a -  the  Jews  them; 


■1.  the 

.  that 
e  7th 
oseof 

ed  in. 

le  CX- 

from 

guage 


his  Jewish  mas 


in  all  that 
but,  from 


end   of 


the  example  of  the  Arabians  to  bestow  careful 
study  upon  ancient  Hebrew:  but,  unlike  the 
Arabians,  they  compared  in  their  studies  the 
whole    Of    the    Semitic   languages.       Among   the 


•hristian-.  the  II, 


the  study  of  Hebrew,  winch  was  especially  culti- 
vated at  the  university  of  Tubingen.  The  real 
founder  of  a  scientific  study  of  Hebrew  at  the 
European  high  schools  was  Reuchlin,  whose 
grammar  and  lexicon   appeared   in    1506,   and 


410 


IIKI'.I.'KW     LAN'OCACE 


closely  followed  the  methods  and  traditions  of  the 
•  l.ui-li  grammarians.  Luther  and  Melanehthon 
strongly  recommended  the  study  of  Hebrew  to 
the  Protestant  theologians;  and  several  Protest- 
ant states  of  i  iennany,  accordingly .  received  ii  in- 
to the  course  of  instruction  of  the  learned  institu- 
tions, though  generally  as  an  optional  study.  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  principal  works 
were  the  grammar  (1526)  and  dictionary  (1529) 
of  Santes  Pagnini,  a  Dominican;  and.  Bomewhat 
later  (1578),  a  greatly  improved  grammar  by  the 
Jesuit  Bellarinin.  who  was  professor  of  Hebrew 
at  the  university  of  Louvain.  In  the  Protestant 
schools,  the  grammars  and  lexicons  of  the  older 
Buxtorff  were,  for  many  years,  the  principal  aids 


the 


school  of  He- 
lie;  of  Alting 
.  7th  century, 
phenomena 
grammatical 
ad  their  basis 
nguage,  and 


to  the  study  of  Heb: 
brew  philology  arose  un 
and  Dauz,  in  the  second 
which  endeavored  to  sir 
which  the  Hebrew  ex] 
point  of  view, — the  intle 

could  be  rationally  evolved   from   definite  prin- 
ciples.     Great    advance nt    was    made,   in    the 

beginning  of  the  L8th  century,  by  the  almost 
.simultaneous  rise  of  the  two  rival  schools  of 
Schultens.in  Holland. and  Michaclis,  in  (iermany. 
In  the  former,  the  predominating  tendency  was 
toward  the  almost  exclusive  OSeof  the  Arabic  for 
the  illustration  of  Hebrew  grammar  and  lexicog- 
raphy. To  this  school  belong  Schroder,  professor 
at  Groningen,  and  Robertson,  professor  at  Edin- 
burgh {Grammatica  II.',..  2d  edit.,  L783  .  The 
principle  a  lopted  by  the  school  founded  by  the 
Michaelis  family,  was  to  combine  the  use  of 
all  the  sources  of  elucidation  for  the  Hebrew, the 
cognate  dialects,  especially  the  Aramaic,  tin'  ver- 
sions, the  rabbinical  \vi ' 
Hebrew  itself,  as  exhi 


States,  grammars  have,  among  others,  been  pub- 
lished by  I.e..  (3d  ed.,  1844),  Greene,  and  Jones. 
Of  the  .numerous  Jewish  scholars  who  have 
written  grammatica]  and  I.  ideographical  works 
on  the  Hebrew  language,  none  is  valued  so  highly 
as  Furst  (RandwSrierbuch,  2  vol....  L857),  who 
illustrates  the  llelnvw  not  only  from  cognate 
tongues,  but  also  from  those  of  the  tndo-Ger- 
manic  class,  and  endeavors,  on  philosophic 
grounds,  to  separate  the  accidental  from  the 
essential, the  radical  from  the  ramified, the  rout 

to  arrive  at  the  laws  which  actually  rule  the  lan- 
guage. Among  the  Hebrew  grammars  published 
in  England  and  in  the  United  States  by  Jewish 
scholars,  are  those  by  Horwitz  (London,  1835), 
Nordheimer  (2  vols..  New  York,  1838—42), 
Kalish  (London,  1863),  Mayer,  and  Eelsenthal 
(Chicago,  1875). 

As  the  study  of  Hebrew,  among  Christians, 
generally  is  not  begun  until  the  students  have 
obtained  a  good  knowledge,  not  only  of  their 
native  tongue,  but  also  of  Latin  and  Greek,  the 
teacher  will  find  it  expedient  to  pursue  a 
method  Very  different  from  that  observed  in 
teaching  young  pupils  the  elements  of  Latin 
and  Greek.   The  mastering  of  the  chief  rules  of 


■Iv    li 


As    tin 


rece 


'//'.  lsl 


L817;   G 

(1814,  llthed.,  L873 

wtirlerbuch,  1810—12;  7th  ed.,  1868;  Latin 
transl.,  2d  ed.,  1846,  English  trans,  by  Edward 
Robinson  and  by  Tregelles  ;  T/irsnnrits,  3  vols., 
1829 — 58)  have  been  more  extensively  used  than 
any  other  works  of  the  same  kind.  I  lis  grammar 
was  translated  into  English  by  Moses  Stuart 
(1826)  and  by  Conant  (1839) ;  his  shorter  dic- 
tionary, by  Gibbs  (1824),  and.  Robinson  (183(1); 
and  both  have  I n  extensively  used  in  Amer- 
ican schools.  Tin- greatest  rival  of  Gesenius  for 
the  headship  in  llelnvw  philology  is  Ewald 
(Krilisch,     Gramm.il, I,:     ls'27.    s'tli    ed..    I-7H; 


1   writ- 
edGe- 

pieteU1 

Hand- 

5K 

tion  with  reading 
tongue  are  rare 
s    strongly    reco 


■nabled 
eachers 

to  that 


illel 


In  I  Jermany,  the  stal 
f  all  the  Protestant  as 
iansa  knowledge  of  th 


higher  classes,  tl 
lectures  given  in 
universities  and  i 


an 


ical  principles,  making  a1  the  Bame  time  a 
extensive  use  .a  thi  cognate  dialects.  \ 
the  numerous  other  Hebrew  grammars  publ 
in  Germany,  those  by  Hupfcldf  Grammatik, 
and  Nagelsbach  (Grammatik,  3d  ed.,  1870 
highly  valued.     In  England  and  in  the  0 


;an  countries,  the 

ir  Christian  thco- 
•  governments  de- 
wel]  as  (  atholic 
■i  language;  and  it 
n  which  all  the 
have  to  pass  an 
he  course  of  in- 
mbraces,  for  the 
lebrew  ;  and  the 
tl  faculties  of   the 

cal  seminaries,  ex- 

s    than     the    tllco- 

the  Hebrew  lan- 
the  Jews,  whose 
from  six  to  Beven 
le  1  lebrew  script- 
eligious  worship, 
uage  is  not  only 
readers,  but  is 
ih  schools.  (See 
ie.)  The  history 
been  written  by 
aischen  Spracke, 
ire  ,i  systeme  des 
>-!).    The  method 


of  teaching  Hebrew  is  treated  of  in  Klingen- 
stein,  Der  Unterrichi  im  Hebraischeii  (1861). 
The  complete  literature  relating  to  the  Hebrew 
language  up  to  1850  is  found  in  Steinsciinei- 
der,   Biblioqraphisches   Handbuch  f%r  hebra- 

HEBREWS,  Education  among' the.  This 
the  middle  ages ;  (III)    In  modem  times. 

I.       .1 //        ■        -         \..t\MTll-~t.ill.lin..     the 


depended     1  In       1 1 1  n  le  I'M  a  n,  1 1 II-   ..I'    the  Scriptures. 

must.  I.,  some  extent,  have  formed  a  pari  .it  the 
strictly  religious  Jewish  education.     Now,  when 


idem  that  the  Hebrews  musl  have  been, 
residents  of   Canaan,  a  universally   edu 

people. 

course,so  long  as  the  education  ol  the  child 
'ed  upon  the  parent,  there  could  not  verj 


any  thine  is  known  of  their  educational  status 
until  after  the  termination  of  Biblical  history. 
From  the  sacred  records  we  simply  learn  that 
the  Law  made  it  the  duty  of  parents  to  teach 
their  children  its  precepts  and  principles.  — 
During  the  Egyptian  bondage,  the  Hebrews 
probably  enjoyed  some  educational  advantages, 
but  to  what  extent  it  does  not  clearly  appear 
from  the  records.  Moses  himself  had  been 
carefully  trained,  and  was  competent  not  only  to 
lead  but  also  to  instruct  the  people  of  Cod. 
during  their  wanderings  in  the  wilderness.  At 
that  time,  the  Hebrews  must  have  been  more 
or  less  subject  to  mental  as  well  as  to  religious 
training.  They  must  have  been  able  to  read 
ami  write;  for  they  were  commanded  of  God  to 
lorUe  the  precepts  of  the  l.iw  upon  their  door- 
posts and  gates;  and  they  were,  moreover,  re- 
quired to  write  tin-  injunctions  upon  great  stones 
■•very  plainly ".  immediately  upon  crossing  the 
Jordan,  so  tint  they  might  easily  be  read  by 
every  Israelite. 

The  end  and  aim  of  all  mental  training  among 
the  ancient  Hebrews,  up  to  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity, was  to  develop  most  prominently  the  re- 
ligious tendency,  in  the  child,  in  order  to  rear 
obedient  servants  of  the  true  Elohim.  Being  a 
peculiar  people  —  the  only  theocratic  people  of 
antiquity  —  engaged  almost  exclusively  in 
pastoral  and  agricultural  pursuits,  their  system 
..I  education  aimed  to  secure  the  energetic  as 
sertion  of  a  nationality  whose  essence  consisted 
in  the  principle  of  faithfulness  to  the  covenant 
of  God.  Hebrew  education,  therefore,  was, 
previous  to  the  captivity,  nothing  more  nor  less 
than  a  corollary  of  religion;  and  teaching  was 
necessarily,  in  tin  -main,  if  not  altogether,  relig- 
ious. It  involved  instruction  in  the  Law,  the 
customs,  and  the  symbolical  observances  of  the 
nation,  as  well  as  the  narration  of  its  history  in 
illustration  of  these  subjects.  We  should  bear 
in  mind,  moreove*,  that  the  understanding  of 
epeculiar  prerogative 


ire  are. 
Baby- 

,ir/,,  rs 


r.    Thus  David  tells 

■is.  In  the  .lays  of 
jaih  sepher.  the  "city 
ems  to  indicate  the 
ablishment  that  had 
aites.  But  to  what  cx- 
iselves  of  such  helps 
ivs  of  Samuel,  again, 
ihetical  age,  there  are 
ttlements  in  several 
hel.  Jericho,  Gilgal, 


■nts, 
sons  of 
ir  rather 


•fully  obser 


rame  very 
lildren.The 
in  <  'anaan. 


raw's  tield  of  kn, 
intellectual  capad 

Babylonish  school 
ken.    and    scatter, 


11  nations      i  et   the   Baby- 
not  without  its  benefits.  The 

enlarge  1 


the  sacred  oracles  w; 
of   the    priestly   OP 

every  Israelite.  This  makes  it  self  ,\i, lent  that 
the  know  ledge  of  reading  and  writing  must  have 
formed  a  prominent  part  in  the  education  of  all 
children.  For  the  same  reason,  too.  arithmetic 
must  have  been  taught;  as  the  days  of  the  week, 
the  months,  the  festivals,  etc.,  were  not  designated 
by  proper  names,  but  by  numerals.  In  fact, every 
art  or  science  which  is  alluded  to  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and   upon   a   knowledge   of   which 


own  country,  a  brilliant  page  opens  in  their  in- 
tellectual history.  True,  when  Ezra,  the  priest. 
first  came  to  Jerusalem  to  re-establish  Mosaism 
in  all  its  former  glory,  he  did  not  find  as 
many  competent  for  the  task  of  instructing  the 
youth. as  there  had  been  previous  to  the  capth  ity, 
but  lie  found  enough  of  highly  cultured  I  leluvws 
to  form  the  nucleus  of  a  college  Uv  the  co- 
operation of  the  most  enlightened  and  learned 
of  the  Hebrews,  he  formed  a  synod,  or  rather  a 
college,  commonly  called  the  Great  Synagogue 
[Jceneselfi  haggedolah)  composed  altogether,  it  is 
said,  of  one  hundred  and  twenty ;  and,  wisely 
organized  these  scholars  into  a  distinct  order, 


412 


continued,  in  a  succession  of  about  as  many 
years,  t lie  work  of  public  instruction  in  Jerusalem. 
From  this  capital, teachers  were  sent  throughout 
the  country  of  Palestine;  and  all  Israel  again 
enjoyed  tin-  training  it  had  been  accustomed  to 
before  the  Exile,  only  with  manifold  improve- 
mi'itts.  ulituined.  by  the  contact  of  their  wise  men 
with  foreign  nations.  Not  merely  was  the 
study  of  the  Law  re-established,  but  the  study  of 
other  languages  besides  tin1  Hebrew  was  intro- 
duced, and,  iu  consequence,  the  critical  examina- 
tion of  other  religious  systems,  as  well  as  of 
philosophical  singulation.  It  need  not  then  be 
a  matter  of  surprise  that  the  Hebrews  soon 
came  to  be  noted  as  scholars,  that,  in  260  !>.  < '.. 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  paid  seventy  Jewish 
scribes  2,500,000  dollars  for  the  septuagint 
version  of  the  Bible,  prepared  by  them  at  Alex- 
andria at  his  request,  or  that  the  greatest  light 
of  neoplatonic  philosophy  was  none  other  than 
Philo  "the  Jew"  (A.  D.  20).  —  Aftei  the  ex- 
tinction of  the  Great  Synagogue,  its  place  was 
supplied  by  the  sanhedrim,  the  president  of 
that  body,  who  was  called  "  prince  "  [nasi)  and 
became  the  supreme  arbiter  and  authority  in  the 
whole  sphere  of  morals  and  education, exercising 
a  rectoral  office  in  the  scholastic  institutions  of 
the  land.  Besides,  many  of  the  members  of  the 
Great  Council  activehj  engaged    in  the  work  of 

instruction   itself.     Oi t   the   brighter    fights 

in  the  history  of  ancient  Hebrew  pedagogy  is 
Simon  ben  Shetach,  who  took  a  wider  range  of 
thought  and  speculation  than  any  of  his  pred- 
ecessors, lie  introduced  high  schools  in  many 
places  and  did  much  to  elevate  the  standard  of 
Hebrew  scholarship.     He  lived  about  80  li.  C. 

lentil,    and  bival'th   of    1  'alest'ine,  and  edueati, '.', 

had  1 ii  made  compulsory.  Kv  ay  Judean  town 

containing  a  certain  number  of  inhabitants  was 

bound  to  maintain  a  primary  scl l.the  chazan, 

or  reader  of  the  synagogue,  usually  being  the 
teacher.  Schools  of  a  higher  grade  were  presided 
over  by  the  rabbins,  and  a  c  irtain  portion  of  tin- 
public  revenue  was  set  apart  for  the  support  of 
these  institutions.  While  there  is  not  a  single 
term  for  school  to  be  found  before  the  Exile,  we 
now  meet  with  about  a  dozen  in  common  use. 
Theetymologies  of  some  of  these  words,  and  the 
signification  of  others, give  us,  in  a  very  striking 
"|; ir.the  progressive  history  of  Jewish  educa- 
tion, ami  tell  us  that  foreign  elements  had  largely 
and  favorably  impressed  Hebrew  pedagogy. 
Some  idea  may  be  formed  of  the  paramount 
importance  which  public  instruction  had  assumed, 
in  the  life  of  the  nation,  from  the  innumerable 
popular  sayings  of  the  period:—  "Jerusalem 
was  destroyed  because  the  instruction  of  the 
young  was  iieeleeted.  "  •■  The  world  is  ,.nlv  siml 
by  the  breath  of  the  school  chil  Iren  '  "  Even  for 
the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple  the  schools  must 
not  be  interrupted."  "  Study  is  more  meritorious 
than  sacrifice."  '-.V  scholar  is  greater  than  a 
prophet."  ••  You  should  revere  the  teacher  even 
more  than  your  father.  The  latter  only  brought 
you  into  this  world,  the  former  indicates  the  way 


into  the  next.  But  blessed  is  the  son  who  has 
learnt  from  his  father:  he  shall  revere  him  both 
as  his  father  and  as  his  master;  and  blessed  is 

the  father  who  has  instructed  his  son.  " The 

character  of  the  schools  may  be  best  inferred 
fromthe  laws  by  which  their  founding  and 
management  were  controlled.  For  elementary 
instruction  a  school  or  teacher  was  required  for 
every  25  children;  when  a  community  had 
40  children,  they  might  have  one  master  and  an 
assistant.  Schools  could  not  be  established  in 
the  most  densely  crowded  part  of  the  town, 
nor  near  a  river  which  had  to  be  crossed  by  an 
insecure  bridge,  so  as  to  endanger  the  health 
or  lives  of  the  children.  The  proper  school  age 
for  a  boy  was  six  years,  until  then  the  father  be- 
ing his  instructor.  (Jreat  care  was  taken  iu  the 
selection  of  text-books,  and  that  the  lessons 
taught  were  in  harmony  with  the  capacity  and 
inclination  of  the  child,  were  practical,  few  at 
a  time  but.  weighty.  "The  parents  must  never 
cease  to  watch  that  their  children  are  in  school 
at  the  proper  time.*' 


3per 


jf  the  Hebrews  was  broken 
nd  their  temple  again  de- 
heir  eoi union  danger,  misery. 
in  only  more  closely  to  one 
•r   had'  the  war   terminated 


than,  iu  p!ace   i 

t  the  temple,  the  synagogue  ap- 

peaiv  I,  and  h  h 

it  at  first  the  priest  had  guided, 

the  rabbi  now  e 

ontroUed.   The  dispersion  of  the 

Hebrews  and  tl 

e  destruction  of  the  temple  and 

sehool  at  Jerusi 

lcin.  therefore. did  not  long  inter- 

fere  with  their  e 

ijovmeiit  of  that  peculiar  nation- 

ality  which  thej 

have  now  maintained  for  nearly 

ies.     A  citizen  of  the  world,  hav- 

ingno  country] 

e  could  call  his  own.  the  Hebrew, 

ed    within   certain    well-defined 

limits,  beyond  i 

hieh.to  him.  there  was  no  world. 

Thus,  though  si 

Ittered  abroad,  the  Israelites  had 

not  ceased  to 

«•  a  nation:  nor  did  any  nation 

feel   its  oneness 

and   integrity  so  truly  as  they. 

Jerusalem,  indee 

d.had  ceased  to  be  their  capital; 

but    the    school 

and   the  synagogue,  ami   not   a 

liable    citadel.' 

■hy.  now   became   their  impreg- 
nd   the   Law    their    palladium. 

The  old   men,  s 

chooled  in  sorrows,  rallied  the 

manhood  that 

emained,  and  the  infancy  that 

multiplied,  resoi 

ving  that   they   would   transmit. 

a  knowledge   o 

their   mission   to   future  gen- 

founded  schools  as  well  as  syn- 

agogues  and  di 

\  eloped   a   grade  of  scholarship 

the  ability  of  wl 

ieh  i^  attested  bv  the  writing  of 

a  code  of  laws  . 

nlv  sec 1  to  that  of  Moses  -  a. 

system    of  tradi 

customs,  intende 

1  to  ke,p  alive  forever  the  pe- 

culiar  spirit  of 

ludaism.      The   high    school   .Ic- 

stroyed at  the  I 

ily  i  iiv.  was  supplanted  by  the 

college  at  Tiberi 

i~:  and  that   pi. ehaiieed   into 

a  kind  of  Jems: 

lem.  where  instead    of    building 

me.  they  employed  workmen  in 

rearing  another 

edifice,  which,  even  to  this , lay. 

after  their  dispe 

sion.  This  was  the   Vishna  and 

the  <•    na      be! 

•r k now,, .,> the /;.,-■,.,' m  Tal- 

mud  theso-calli 

d  Oral  Law  reduced  to  writing. 

arranged,  commented  upon,  and  explained; 
til  it  became,  in  the  course  of  a  few  centur 
complete  digest  of  the  law.  the  religion,  ani 


n-     attention,  as   it    was   regarded    1  >y   the    Hebrew 

.1      f;i^rs  an  essential  part    of  education.      The   most 


oks.   Piety 

estimation 
dily  work. 


d  Ushach.  At  first,  the  organizatioi 
riischools  was  very  simple.  Besides 
ent,  who  was  the  chief  teacher,  and 
t,  there  were  no  offices  or  ranks.      G 


coming  lectures:  and  so  arduous  became  the 
as  the  number  of  di.-j-iplcs  iuereased.  tha 
time,  no   less  than  seven  -deans-  had   to   b 


ot  ( letoiier).  ami  elating  witn  nrwr  (new  moon 
of  March).  In  the  concluding  month  of  each 
half  vear.  the  studies  of  the  session  were  re- 
viewed. On  these  occasions,  there  were  academic 
disputations  which  created  extensive  interest, 
and  were  attended  by  thousands  of  hearers. 
The  academical  degree  of  chaber  was  conferred 
by  the  resh,  who  laid  his  hand  on  the  head  of 
the  candidate,  with  the  words. -lie  thou  chaber1" 
As  such  he  was  entitled  to  a  i-eat  in  the  schools 


It.llo 


e  English  -fellow.-,.'  The  mode  o 
is  chiefly  catechetical.  After  tl 
livered  his  exposition,  for  which 
d  prepared  the  students  and  tl 
d  followed  with  their  comments, 
icstioned  the  teachers.  No*  all 
ovement.and  debate;  Question    < 


up  in  allegories  or  parables,  until  the  inqu 
was  brought,  to  deduce  the  questionable  p 
for  himself  by  analogy,  when  a  memoraml 
was  made  of  the  conclusions  reached.  'The  c 
riculum  of  study  wasquite  varied, as  much  ,~ 
in  any  modern  university.  All  manner  of  .- 
jects  were  brought  forward  in  these  I  hi, 
colleges.  Theology,  philosophy,  jurisprudej 
astronomy,  astrology,  medicine,  botany.  g( 
raphy,  arithmetic,  architecture,  were   all   the] 


that  time,  and  shows  that,  in  many  department 
of  science,  these  Jewish  teachers  anticipated  som 
of  the  modern  discoveries.  SeeB  mm  v..av..I!,,, 
Encyklopadie  fur  Bibel  und  Talmud  (Hamb 
1866—74).  The  principal  subjects  of  stud 
were,  of  course.  Biblical,  including  hermeneutici 
or  scripture  interpretation ;  hataka.oi  the  con 
Stitutions  of  the  traditional  law  :  popular  ethic; 
legendary  history,  sacred  poetry,  and  the  scieiic 
of   the  calendar.     Etiquette  received  very  grea 


lonty.  lie  then  also  dropped  his  simple 
tonal  name,  and  took  the  briefer  but  more 
orable  designation  oi  '  thi  son  of"  [ben); 
.Joshua  the  son  oi  Bethira, called  himself 
B«         i      Thi    highei    degree  was  that   of 

or  rabbi;  in  Babylon,  mar.  It  was  given 
he  same  form  as  the  oJiaber,  with  the  be- 
'ment  of  a  key  symbolizing  that  there  was 

conveyed  to  the  recipient  a  power  of  open- 
tbe  law  by  authoritative  exposition,  and  of 
ing  up  or  releasing  the  consciences  of  men. 
named  men  and  women  were  not  allowed  to 
teachers  oi  boys      As  to  girls,  we  have  but 


of  Proverbs  is,  probably,  a  pretty  full  descrip- 
tion of  what  was  the  education  of  a  woman  and 
house-wife  in  the  Old  Testament  period  among 
the  Hebrews:  but.  aside  from  this,  the  fact  that 
mothers  had  to  take  part  in  the  education  of 
their  children,  would  of  itself  .-how  that  their 
education  must  have  been  attended  to.  It  is 
certainly  clear  that  the  prophetical  schools  in- 
eluded  within  their  scope  the  instruction  of 
females,  who  were  occasionally  invested  with 
authority  similar  to  that  of  the  prophets  them- 
selves, it  will  be  remembered  also,  that,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  other  oriental  people  man} 
female  poets  and  learned  women  ligure  in  the 
history  of  the  ancient  .lews. 

11.  The  establishment    of   the  Mohammedan 
power  opens  a  new  epoch  in  Hebrew  education. 


414  HEB] 

The  severe  treatment  of  the  Romans  had  been 
superseded  l>y  a  milder  government  at  the  hand 
of  the  Abassides;  but  the  Hebrew  found  con- 
siderate masters  first  in  the  Mohammedan  rulers 
from  Arabia.  For  centuries,  the  external  con- 
dition of  the  Hebrews,  under  the  eastern  caliph- 
ate, was  undisturbed  by  any  great  vicissitudes: 
and.  from  the  7th  to  the  11th  century,  their 
schools  reached  the  height  of  prosperity.  Thou- 
sands of  students  repaired  to  those  fountains  of 
instruction,  not  a  few  of  whom  came  from 
distant  parts  of  Europe  and  Africa,  to  carry 
back  the  means  of  promoting  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation in  their  adopted  countries.  In  the  11th 
century,  however,  a  less  tolerant  spirit  ruled  the 
eastern  caliphates;  and,  in  consequence,  we  meet 
with  a  decline  in  literature,  which,  had  it  not 
been  for  the  humane  policy  of  the  western  or 
white  caliphates,  would  have  resulted  in  an  entire 
suspension  of  literary  activity  among  the  dews. 
So  far  was  the  intolerance  of  the  eastern  caliphs 
carried,  that,  by  the  middle  of  the  11th  century, 
the  schools  of  Palestine  and  Babylon  were  shorn 
of  all  their  ancient  splendor,  and  Spain  alone 
stood  as  the  world's  representative  of  Hebrew 
scholarship.  In  the  Iberian  peninsula. the  Hebrew 
had  had  representatives  from  time  immemorial; 
but.  up  to  the  close  of  the  10th  century,  the  Jews 
there,  though  numerous  and  wealthy,  were 
greatly  behind  their  eastern  brethren  in  intel- 
lectual development.  No  schools  of  any  account 
are  met  with  among  them  until  the  intolerance 
of  the  Eastern  caliphs  drove  over  to  Spain  some 
of  the  most  renowned  Hebrew  scholars  the  East 
could  then  boast  of.  It  was  thus  that  Hebrew 
science  received  so  decisive  an  impulse  in  the 
peninsula  as  to  inaugurate  a  new  era  in  Jewish 
intellectual  progress.  Indeed,  the  period  from 
the  opening  of  the  11th  to  the  close  of  th.-  15th 
Century,  may  well  be  denominated  the  golden 
period  of  medieval  Hebrew  learning,  'the  Bame 
spirit  of  broad  tolerance  which  had  prevailed  for 
over  three  centuries  in  the  East,  now  marked  the 
rule  of  the  "white"  or  western  ealiphs.  Schools, 
colleges,  and  libraries  were  multiplied  in  the 
great  <enters  of  the  population.  The  learned  of 
other  countries  were  invited  to  take  positions 
munificently  endowed,  and  ere  long  the  univer- 
sities of  Spain  became  the  resort  of  students  from 
the  East  and  the  West.  Among  both  students 
and  teachers,  the  dews  counted  largely;  and  the 
fountains  of  knowledge  which  sent  forth  their 
streams  from  the  Arabian  universities  of  Cor- 
dova and  Toledo,  were  fed  1  iv  Jews  as  freely  as  by 

Christians  and  Saracens.  (See  Arabian  So is.) 

Besides  freely  entering  the  common  as  well  as 
literary  walks  of  life,  and  contesting  with  the 
other  religionists  the  different  avenues  thus 
liberally  opened  to  them,  the  dews  maintained 
a  school  system  very  much  akin  to  that  of  the 
eastern  countries  in  the  preceding  period.  They 
not  only  sought  to  influence  the  training  of  their 

children  in  tl arliesl  youth,  but  founded  many 

collegiate  establishments  of  their  own,  where  a 
liberal  education  could  be  prosecuted  by  Hebrew 
young  men   aud  women   under  rabbinical  in- 


fluence. Such  schools  arose  in  Aragon,  Castile. 
Catalonia,  and  Navarre,  and  in  the  towns  of 
Barcelona,  Aleala,  Burgos,  Cordova,  Saragossa, 
Toledo,  Tarazona,  and  Lucena.  In  these  institu- 
tions, under  the  care  of  some  of  the  most  eminent 
scholars  of  the  age,  a  multitude  of  men  were 
trained  whose  works  have  been  ever  held  in  esti- 
mation not  only  by  Israelites,  but  by  the  learned 
of  the  Christian  world  as  well.  (See Tickkoe, 
History  of  Spanish  Literature,  3d  ed.,  vol.  i.) 
The  principal  of  each  college  bore  the  title  of 
nagid or  prince,  equivalent  to  that  of  rrsl/  me- 
Ihilth.i  in  the  eastern  schools.  Of  course,  rabbin- 
ical learning  was  made  the  basis  of  other  forms 
-it  instruction.    The  Hebrem  professors  of  these 

scl I-  \ci\  naturally  wished  the  minds  of  their 

students  to  be  preoccupied  with  their  own  na- 
tional doctrines  and  traditions.  Thus  a  nagid, 
Salomo  ibn  Adrath,  went  so  far  as  to  enact  that 
"gentile"  philosophy  should  not  lie  studied  till 
the  age  of  24  years.  (11  should  be  added,  how- 
ever, that  this  proposition  divided  Hebrew 
scholars,  and  gave  rise  to  a  troubles e  contro- 
versy.) There  was  a  tendency  in  the  Spani  h- 
Hebrewyouth  to  forsake  the  distinctively  Jew- 
ish schools,  and  to  avail  themselves  of  the 
greater  benefits  of  the  more  extensive  educa- 
tional movements  which  were  displaying  them- 
selves around  them.  The  rabbins,  of  course, 
saw.  or  thought  they  saw.  imminent  danger  to 
Judaism,  or  rather  to  rabbinism;  and  hence  their 
activity  in  educational  movements.  On  the  whole, 
this  fear, though,  as  it  now  appears, ungrounded, 
was  productive  of  much  good  to  Hebrew  learn- 
ing ;  for  it  stimulated  to  a  healthy  exertion,  and 
resulted  iii  perfecting  Judaism  in  Spain  and  in 
Portugal,  until  it  rivaled  that  uprooted  in  the 
East.  To  facilitate  tahnudical  studies,  the  works 
of  Hebrew  tradition  were  translated  into  the  then 
vernacular  Arabic;  and  thus  the  rabbinical  insti- 
tutes acquired  a  status  in  modern  literature. 
The  critical  study  of  the  Hebrew  was  encouraged, 
and  a  system  of  Hebrew  grammar  developed 
which  maintains  its  hold  to  this  day.  Besides, 
the  ii-eof  the  Hebrew  in  composition  and  the  en- 
largement of  the  Hebrew  ritual  were  encouraged, 
and  thus  a  large  number  of  students,  in  the  west- 
ern peninsula,  learned  to  write  as  freely  the 
Hebrew,  as  their  forefathers  had  written  it  in 
Jerusalem's  most  glorious  day.  In  all  these  ways, 
the  Hebrew  sages  domicilii  in  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal cherished  national  and  ancestral  feelings 
in  the  minds  of  the  rising  generation.  The  result 
of  all  this  labor  was  a  vigorous  religious  life  in 
the  social  condition  of  the  people,  and  an  age  of 
literary  activity  such  as  had  not  been  known  in 
Hebrew  literature  since  the  dispersion.  Numbers 
of  eminent  Hebrew  scholars,  theologians,  poets, 
liiiLtni-ts.  and  physicians  were  brought  into  gen- 
eral public  notice:  and.  besides,  many  works  were 
composed,  treating  of  every  species  of  science, 
including  law,  medicine,  astronomy,  language, 
and  the  fine  arts.  In  philology,  rose  Uavid 
Kinichi;  in  philosophy,  Moses  Maimonides,  of 
whom  it  is  said  by  some  that  he  has  only  been 
excelled  in  wisdom  and  learning  by  .Moses  the 


prophet:  in  poetry,  Jehuda  ben  Levi, pronounced  I 
by  some  the  rival  of  king  Solomon;  in  astron- 
omy, Aben  Ezra  and  Ibn  Tibbon.  But  these  are 
only  a  few  lights  in  the  much-iUiiminated  fir- 
mament,    hi    philosophy    and    astronomy,  the 


tion  was  far  in  advance  of  the  Chinese  and  the 
I  Kndoos  :  for,  in  every  lesson  taught  the  I  lebrew 


Hebre 
however, 

peninsuh 
also,  esp. 
mane  pi  il 
country. 


nt  Montpellier,  Nar- 
illes,  besides  many 
of  which  were  con- 


bonne 
schools  ii 
ducted  a 

colleges  at  Mantua,  Lucca,  Otranto,  and  Bari  not 
only  enjoyed  considerable  reputation,  but  had  the 
support  of  princes  and  of  tin- pontiff  at  Home. 
In  the  eternal  city,  the  Bebrews  supported  an 
academy  which  boasts  as  its  presidents  the  most 
renowned  literati  of  the  middle  ages.  One  of 
them,  Nathan  ben  Jechiel,  who  presided  about 
the  close  of  the  11th  century,  is  said  peritus 
omnia  generis  scientieurum  fuisse. 

III.  The  general  spirit  of  persecution  which 
prevailed  againsf  the  .lews  in  Europe,  from  the 
13th  to  the  17th  century,  largely  stifled  their  liter- 
ary activity;    and   the  educational   history  of 


\\  I. 


lei, 


the  dictates  of  their  conscience,  many  Israelites 
went  to  Holland.  Germany,  and  Poland,  and 
there  established  schools,  which  flourished  for 
centuries.  But  these  schools  were  almost  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  talmudic  study.  No  such  sys- 
tem as  prevailed  in  Spain  and  on  the  continent 
previous  to  the  persecutions  by  the  inquisition, 
has  ever  been  re-introduced;  nor  could  such  a 
system  have  been  maintained  previous  to  the 
present  century.  The  baneful  spirit  of  those 
dark  ages  had' closed  the  doors  of  the  schools, 
common  or  academic,  against  the  dew:  and  thus 
the  liberal  professions  being  made  inaccessible  to 
him,  he  could  not  well  develop  the  scholarship  of 
which  his  forefathers  had  boasted.  But  as  the 
Hebrews  labored  for  centuries  under  such  dis- 
advantages, and  yet  maintained  among  them- 
selves a  high  moral  culture,  and  did  not  sink  into 
that  stale  of  degradation  and  crime  which  would 
have  probably  been  the  lot  of  other  nations,  a 
high  estimate' must  be  placed  upon  the  culture 
and  accomplishments  resulting  from  the  spirit 
of  Mosaism;  and  it  might  as  well  be  confessed 
that  the  theocratic  institutions  of  the  Hebrews 
and  the  foundation  of  their  politics  and  ethics 
on  their  religion  has  produced  a  better  culture, 
mental  and  moral,  in  literature,  than  that  of  any 
other  non-Christian  people.  Their  ancient  educa- 


art- 


the  philologist,  deserve  to  be 
bunders  of  the  t list  Hebrew  free 
'russian  capital  (I  778).  Indeed, 
ilar   was   really   the   ablest   advo- 

lein  method  of   education   : mg 

I  lms.  he  not  only  exerted  himself 
ilso  at  Vienna,  and  elsewhere  in 


e  cle- 
ii  1  fi  .r 


his  co-relic i. mists 
1801,  a  school  at 
and  later,  he   labo 


Hebrew  culture.  Next  to  him  in  rank.  Abraham 
Ceiger  of  Prussia,  and  S.  L.  Rappaport  of  Gali- 
cia,  in  Austria,  deserve  a  place.  In  Italy  S.  II. 
Luzzato  has  done  more  in  this  direction  than 
all  his  contemporaries.  In  France,  the  place 
of  honor  belongs  to  Salomon  Munk  and  J. 
Salvador.  —  There  are.  at  the  present  time. 
good  schools,  both  public  and  private,  pretty 
widely  distributed  in  Germany,  Austria.  Den- 
mark, France,  and  even  in  Kitssja  and  Poland, 
where  efficient  elementary  instruction  is  afforded 


tiotis  of  the  Hebrews  who  r 
schools  are  located.  In  some  of 
u  here  many  dews  resides  the 
provide  separate  training  for  tl 


416 


HECKEB 


girls  giving  special  attention  to  needle-work  and  ligion.     But  notwithstanding  these  institutions, 

other   female  accomplishments;  those  for  boys  it  is  claimed  for  London  that  it  is  probably  the 

giving  sufficient  classical  training  to  admit  them  only  city  in  which  illiterate  Hebrews  reside.  But 

to  the  5th  or  6th  year's  course  of  the  gymnasia,  lor  the  degraded  condition  in  which  the  very 

where  the  course  extends  over  a  period  of  ten  poor  Hebrews  in  this  city  exist.it   might  safely 

years.    Since  1873,  the  German  government  has  lie  asserted  that   the   Hebrews  every-where  are 

also  supported  several  Hebrew  theological  chairs  educated  :    and  that,  t li-nuli  belonging  to  all  na- 

at  the  Berlin  university,  and  afforded  aid  to  a  tionalities,  and  scattered    promiscuously  all  over 

"seminary"  (normal  school)  for  the  training  of    the  face  of  the  eartl Israelites  can  be  found 

teachers  to  be  employed  solely  in  schools  for  He-  who  cannot  read  or  write,  if  not  in  the  domicil- 

brews.  The  Hebrew  normal  -  liooLsat  Berlin  and  iary  language,  certainly  in  the  Hebrew. —  In  the 

Breslau  are  regarde  I  as  among  the  best  institu-  United  States,  the  .lews  have  always  occupied  a 


tions  of  the  kind  in  Ccrinany.  Hundreds  of  teach- 
ers are  annually  trained  there.  The  Hebrews 
also  support  two  greatly  noted  seminaries  for 
theological  training;  the  one  (founded  in  L847),at 
Breslau.  Prussia;  the  other  (founded  in  L828),  at 
Padua,  Italy.  At  the  Berlin  university,  Hebrew 
students  in  theology  enjoy  since  1-71.  not  only 
the  training  of  their  co-religionists  but  of  all  the' 
professors  employed  in  that  institution. — In  Eng- 
land, much  has  been  done,  in  recent  times.for  the 
education  of  poor  Hebrews,  who  are  mostly  of 
foreign  birth.  In  the  country,  the  schools  main- 
tained by  1  lebrews  are  intended  simply  for  relig- 
ious instruction.  In  London,  a  number  of  Hebrew 
private  schools  exist,  and  several  for  the  educa- 
tion of  poor  children.  The  most  noted  of  these 
institutions  is  the  Jews'  Infant  School,  where 
the  gutter  children  of  Spitalflelds  and  White- 
chapel,  from  the  age  of  'I  to  7,  are  taught  to 
speak,  read,  and  write  in  English,  and  to  recite 
their  Hebrew  prayers,  in  addition  to  other  ele- 
mentary instruction.  From  7">0  to  1(1(10  children 
now  find  admission  there.  The  government  has 
the  supervision  :  and  it  is  pronounced  bythe  Earl 
of  Carlisle"  one  of  the  finest  schools  in  Eng- 
land." The  Free  School,  in  the  same  city, 
is  of  a  more  advanced  grade.  It  admits  those 
who  desire  instruction  after  leaving  the  Infant 
School.  This  Free  School  is  pronounced  the 
largest  scholastic  institution  in  England,  if  no! 
in  Europe.  About  2,500  children  are  here  in- 
structed, the  sexes  separately;  the  branches  in  the 
highei  classes  being  beyond  the  range  of  element- 
ary study.  The  teaching  staff  is  made  up  of 
90  masters  and  mistresses.  This  school  also  is 
under  government  inspection,  and  is  supported 
mainly  by  voluntary  contributions.  It  has  re- 
ceived -everal  munificent  legacies,  amounting 
thus  far  to  over  £50,000.     Another  noteworthy 

Hebrew   scl 1    is    the    London    Jews'   College. 

founded  to  afford  good  education  at  a  moderate 
charge  to  the  children  of  the  middle  classes. 
Many  of  its  pupils  are  trained  for  university 
degrees  and  in  some  instances  for  the  Jew- 
ish ministry.  There  is  also  a  society  called 
The  Jewish  Association  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Religious  Knowledge  which  supports  schools 
and  synagogues, and  circulates  publications, aim- 
ing, in  all  these  ways,  "to  impress  upon  the 
Jewish  mind  proper  notions  of  the  principles 
and  observances,  the  spirit  and  mission  of  Juda- 
ism, and.  by  appeals  to  the  reason  rather  than 
to   sentiment,  to    develop    and  foster    a    most 


he  value 
untry, 
ns  for 


ist  honorable  position.  B 
of  the  political  and  social 
they  have  not  only  main 
the  training  of  their  children,  but  have  sup- 
ported education  in  the  public  schools.  Sunday- 
schools  are  now  maintained  in  the  cities  for 
the  religious  training  of  Hebrew  youth  ;  and 
where  no  such  facilities  are  provided,  the  rabbi 
or  rl,,i:,ni  (public  reader  of  the  synagogue) 
usually  assumes  the  task.  At  Philadelphia, 
where  there  are  several  distinctively  Hebrew 
schools  for  general  mental  training,  the  Mai- 
monides  College  was  founded,  in  loiiN  iU„i.  f,„. 
a  few  years,  it  struggled  in  vain  to  secure  stu- 
dents, though  its  facilities  were  superior,  and 
the  president  one  of  the  ablest  educators  and 
scholars  in  the  country.  In  1872,  a  movement 
was  Bel  on  foot  for  the  union  of  all  American 
Israelites:  and.  supported  priucipalh  by  congre- 
gations in  the  Western  states  as  a  Union  of 
American  Hebrew  Congregations,  a  college 
n  ted,  in  1875,  with  Dr.  I.  M.  Wise  as 
president.  There  are  reported  to  be  17  students 
in  the  institution,  which  is  located  at  Cincinnati. 
<  ilii.i.  Thus  far,  the  instruction  is  confined  to  the 
Hebrew  language  and  literature.  In  May,  1876, 
the  i  mgregation  of  New  York,  supported  by 
many  of  the  congregations  in  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  Chicago,  and  other  cities,  held  a 
convention  in  New  York,  and  determined  to 
found  a  Hebrew  Theological  Seminary,  for  the 
education  of  Hebrew  preachers  and  teachers 
first,  and  for  general  culture  afterwards.  The 
opening  of  this  high  school  will  probably  be  pre- 
ceded by  the  founding  of  schools  for  instruc- 
tion in  the  rudiments  of  the  Hebrew  language 
andin  Jewish  history.  -See  C1:  ,,,,.  Geschiehte 
d  ■•/  d  -vim.  -xi.:  .l.~i:  <;■„/„,/,/,■, /rsj„. 
denihums;   B      ■.  -  einer  Get 

Er  hunffunddesDhterrichts  bei  den  Israeliien 
32  ;  Kuiiuni;]'..  History  of  Hebrew  Liter- 
,1,'nri'  (revised  and  enlarged  by  Wonnan  and 
Pick,  N.  Y.,  1876)  ;  Weber  and  Hoi.t/.maxn. 
GeschiclUe  der  Israditen  ;  Salvador,  Histoir, 

-AS     o-s/,/e'.- ,  1/    ,-  './/'..'       /.,-',-•- 


J.  IT.  Worman,  Jews,  in  McCuntock  and 
Strong's  Cyclopaedia  of  Bibl.  Theol.  and  Eccles. 
Literature. 

HECKEB,  Johann  Julius,  an  eminent 
German  educator  of  the  ISth  century,  died  June 
2  {.,  1  7CS.     I  Ie  was  one  of  the  foremost  followers 


fervent  conviction  of  the  truths   of    their  re-  |  of  A.  II.  Francke  (q.  v.),  with  whom  he  became 


IIEDDING    COLLEGE 

acquainted  while  studying  al  the  university  of 
Halle.  Ili-  was  appointed,  in  I  "•'!.">.  inspector  ot  the 
orphan  house  ni    I'ntsil.-mi.  ami.  in    1739,  pastor 


HEGIUS 


m 


devoted  i"  the  elaboration  of  a  new  system  of 
philosophy,  he  exerted  considerable  influence  on 

theeduci ial  system  of  Germany.     While  a1 

Nuremberg,    he   received    from    the     Bavarian 
eovernmenl   (1813)   the  am tme i  sc I 


id  in 


Reahchule, 
(See  RealS 
definitely  or| 
Berlin,  and  < 
school  (Pa-u 

11  ;ii  sel I 

with   ii   in 
great  renowi 
his  assistant, 
to  the  new  p 
tothespellii 


form,  practical  education 

making  me ral.     The 

if  nature  :  awl.  to  become 
be, as  ii  were,  reborn — must 
;i]  iiilo  tin-  self-conscious 
n.     To  aid  this  transition 


der  Padagogit     Leipsric,  L8Tfi)  :   and    Barnard, 

German  Educati ,1  Reformers,  and  Journal  of 

Education. 

HEDDING   COLLEGE,   al   Abington,  III  . 
founded  in    1854,   is   under   the  control   of  the 

Aletll.iIlM    Kl.i-eo;,;,!    I    I, null.         Il     ;..|luil.     Iioll, 


teacher  of  humanity 

U]ioli   authority    in 
The  attempt   u>  <  1.  \ 


HEDGE-SCHOOL, 
given,  in  Ireland,  to  a  , 


hedgfrficl I  or  oot  In  some  parts oi  the 

States,  such  schools  arecalled, 

For  an  aniiiMiu  « I .  - . - 1 1  j . t  i -  ■  1 1  ■  •  t  . i  1 1 . - .  1  •_: , -  - .  1 1 . 

it-  teacher,  see  w  illit larle -    Trot 

Stories  of  the  Irish  Peasantry   Dublin  1831 

The   Ige-scl Imasters    resembled   sod 

the    German    bacchants      i  it  s     vag 

and  were  of  ten  men  of  quite  respectable 
ments  in  scholarship.  The  popular  i 
C'arleton,  whose  work  is  referred  to  aboi 
partly  educated,  near  the  beginning  of  tin 
cut  century,  in  a  hedge-school. 

HEGEL,  Georg  Wilhelm.  Friedrich, 
"i  Germany's  most    distinguished   philosopl 
was  bora  in  Stuttgart,  Aug.  27.,  IT 
in  Berlin,  Nov.  I  I..  1831.     In  L80] 


things.  II. 
idies  as  t lu- 
lu gi  neral, 
m  theory  of 
i  I  iles  of  his 
isis  forsui  h 
ive.  in  part, 


HegeCsAnsichtentiber 
!■'.  (3  vols .  1853-  I.: 
Zeit  (1857);   Schmidt, 


HEGIUS,  Alexander, 


pres- 

between  1  131 

1498.     His 

.  one 

times,  was  de 

lllel-S. 

educated  by 

1  ha 

i    il, 

Heck,   i 
ml  died 

W 

is  birthp 
Thomas 

ace. 

professor  at  the  gyiuiuisiiiiii  in  Nuivinlieii; :  in 
1816,  professor  in  Heidelberg;  and,  in  1818,  pro- 
fessor in  Berlin.     Though  his   life  was  chiefly 


lirated  schools  of  that  age.  Ami mg  his  pupils  were 
Erasmus  (q.  v.)  and  Pope  Adrian  VI.  Hegius 
greatly  encouraged  the  study  of  the  Greek  Ian- 


418 


IIEIPELBERH    C()IJ,K(.'K 


guage,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  promoters  of  a 
better  method  of  teaching  the  Latin  classics.  A 
collection  of  his  works  was  published  at  [Vvcntcr. 
They  are  enumerated  in  Ebhard,  Qeschickte  des 
Wiederaufbluhens  wissens  r/tli  er  Bildung 
in  Deutschland,  vol.  I.  (See  also  Nbtheei  ujds.) 
HEIDELBERG  COLLEGE,  at  Tiffin, 
Ohio,  was  founded   in  1850,  under   the  auspices 

for  the  education  of  both  sexi 
dowment  of  about  $80,000, 
society  libraries,  with  that  < 
seminary,   contain   about    5,0 


HERBART 

HENDERSON  COLLEGE,  at  Henderson, 
Tex.,  was  founded  by  the  Methodist  Episcopal, 
Church  as  Fowler  Institute,  in  1840,  and  contin- 
ued under  Methodist  control  till  1870,  wheD  it 
was  rechartered  as  Henderson  College,  and  be- 
came non-sectarian.     It  is  supported   by  tuition 


dlege  and 
beological 


institution   comprises  a  colli 
witli  a  classical  course  oi   foi 

giate  departmen 

entific  course  of  three  year-.; 

nd  an  academyi 

preparatory  department,  witl 
English  course.     Special   faci 

ities  are  afiorde 

for  the  study  of  German.     II 

delbei     1      il< 

ical  Seminary,  though  under  I 

separate  board  i 

i ,  is  intimately  connei 

ted  with  the  co 

lege.    The  cost  of  tuition  in  t 

1 lassical  cur- 

is  S'_»i;  per  annum  ;  in  the  sci< 

ntific  cur-,'  $21 

and  in  the  academy,  SI  7. 

ii   the  il logic 

seminary,  it   is  free.     In    18 

5     6,  the  coSeg 

had  6  professors,  and  the  theo 

ogica]  seminary, 

The  number  of  student-  wa- 

189  :  namely,  co 

lege,90;  academy, 75  ;  tl Ii 

The  whole  number  of  the  all 

', t  the  coliee 

was  L38 ;  of  the  theological  .- 

linn  n  s    II?.   Tl 

president    of  the  college    i-    |Je 

liard.D.D.  (1876).    ' 

,  George  W  .  Wi 

HEINICKE,  Samuel,  a 

German  educati 

and  teacher  of  deaf-mutes,  born  April  lo.,  172 

died  April  30.,  1790.   Having 

grown  up  withoi 

education,  he  joined  the  nrm\ 

years  old,    and    by   a   careful 

use  of  his  leisu 

bours  acquired  some  knowled 
tion.     In  1760,  he  became,  tl 

rough   the   recoi 

:,tory 


there  were  6  instructors  and  '-'ok  students. 
II.  Cooper  has  been  the  president  since  t 
ganization  of  the  college. 

HENRY,  Joseph,  a  distinguished  Am 
physicist,  born  in  Albany,  N.  V..  Dec.  17. 
lie  was  appointed  professor  of  mathemat 
the  Albany  Academy  in  1826;  and,  shortly 
began  a  series  of  experiments  in  electricity. 
led  to  the  theoretical  invention  of  the  ma 
telegraph,  several  years  before  its  practical 


M. 


ie  Smithsonian  Institution,   at  Washington,  in 
S46,  Prof.  Henry  was  appointed  its  secretary, 
hich  position  he  still  holds. 
HERBART,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  distin- 
li.-bcd     philosopher    of    Ccrnianv    wh ade 


inn 


a  new  method  for  the  instruction  of  that 
class  of  people.  Differing  from  the  Abbe  de 
I'Epee  (q.  v.),  who  taught  deaf-mutes  to  ex- 
press themselves  by  means  of  sr_'ns  and  p.into- 
niMiih   gestures,  and  in  writing.  Heinicke  strove 

to  teach  them  to  speak  in  the  com i  language 

of  articulate  sounds,  so  that  tliev  might    under- 


very  body 


The 

!  to  an 


pi.', 


quite  successful,  a  number  of  deaf-mutes  were 
sent  to  him  from  different  countries  for  educa- 
tion.    In  1778,  at  the  request  of  the  elector  of 

Saxony,  he  returned  to  his  nativ mitry  ;  and. 

in  the  same  year,  founded,  at  Leipsic,  the  first 
German  institution  for  the  instruction  of  deaf- 
mutes.  But  Heinicke  was  anexcellenl  educator 
generally.  He  did  much  to  improve  the  wretched 
condition  of  the  common  schools,  and  zealously 

advocated  the  substitution  of  the  pi ic thod 

of  spelling. — See  II.  E.  Stiktzmc.  Samuel  Hei- 
nicke, sein  Leben  und  Wirken  (1H70). 


once  began  to  elaborate  a  system  of  pedagogy. 
His  pedagogical  studies  led  to  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  IYstaloz/i.  wheat  that  time, 
was  tcaehin"  at  I'.urudorf  in  the  canton  of  Bern. 


lsii 


privatrdocent  (lecturer)  at  the  university  of 
Gottingen.  In  1805, he  was  promoted  to  an  ex- 
traordinary professorship  ;  in  1  SOU,  be  received 
a  call  as  ordinary  professor  to  Kbnigsberg  ;  and, 
in  1833,  he  returned  to  Gottingen,  In  ail  these 
academic  positions,  he  lectured  on  pedagogics  as 
well  as  on  philosophy, and  gathered  around  him- 
self a  number  of  young  men  thoroughly  imbued 


instruct  a  select  number  of  boys  according  to  his 
educational  principles.  1  terbart  says,  that  his  in- 
vestigations were  chiefly  due  to  the  settled  con- 
viction that  very  many  of  the  tremendous  gaps 
in  our  pedagogical  knowledge  are  attributable 
to  defects  in  our  psychology,  and  that  these  must 
be  remedied  before  a  science  of  education  is  pos- 


Bible.     His  educational  principles  flow  directly 

from   III.-  philosophy.      I  lis  psychoid'.  > 

mi  predetermined  capacities  in  the  soul  which 
direct  its  future  development.  The  soul,  in  it- 
self, contains  only  the  power  of  reacting  against 

external    influences,       .'-lull    reaction    constitutes 


HEBDER 


419 


considerable  length  and  with  greal  energy.    I'n  a 

ri'i't.'lin  extent  also,  In'  viewed  stalc-mali-hip  as  a 
liranrli  of  |n.-il:itrc>Lfics.  The  .iii.i  educational 
works  of  I  I.  i  ii.n  T  arc:  .  {//,/.■„,,■, „,■  Pdda- 
gogik  (1806),  and  Umriss  piidagogischer  Vor- 
lesungen   (1835  ;    2d  edit.,  1841  |.     Among   the 


ti e  for 

the   edn 


nthout  a  knowledge  of  his 
in.  which  is  chiefly  explained 
1  works,  Psychologie  ili  vols.. 
remeine  Metaphysik    2  vols., 


ciul  nf  clncatiiiii.  Imt  tin-  development  ol  tin 
iniliviilual  himself.  Kvery  thin--  Imt  the  imli 
vidua!  is  an  abstraction,  ami  valueless  except  a 
it  serves  to  advance  his  interests.  Pedagogics 
therefore,  with  Herbart  is  a  department  o 
ethics,  or  rather  the   method  by  which  ethic: 

secures  its  aim:  namely,  the  perfectii f  tin 

imliviilual.  The  work  of  education  has  threi 
parts:  discipline,  instruction. and  training.  Tin 
child  has  no  control  of  himself.  He  is  the  pre] 
of  whatever  lawless  inclination  may  claim  him 
To  overcome  this  is  the  office  of  discipline 
Society  and  the  family  furnish  a  part  of  tin 
needed  discipline,  but   imt  enough;  it  must  In 


tinned  any  longer  titan  is  necessary.  Imt  care 
hum  also  lie  taken  not  to  relax  it  too  soon.  In- 
struction must  not  lie  limited  to  the  aequire- 
ni.  tit  ut  knowledge,  or  "t  technical  skill.  Its 
chief  aim  is  the  culture  of  the  will;  that  is.  to 
impart  an  insight  into  ethical  relations  ami 
the  ability  to  realize  ethical  ideas.  Discipline 
ami  instruction  must  be  united,  in  order  to 
bring  forth  many-sidedness  in  km i\\  1. •. Iu. '  ami  in 
character.  Training  aims  to  fix  .the  moral  les- 
sons into  abiding  forms  of  character,  and  to 
bring  the  student  to  a  point  where  he  can  un- 
dertake the  work  of  self-culture.  It  followsfrom 
Herbart's  psychology,  that  tie  would  not  be  con- 
tent with  unrelated  knowledge.  According  to 
him,  the  so-called  faculties  are  produced  and 
developed  purely  by  the  a.-oeiation  of  ideas. 
Mental  vigor,  therefore,  can  be  secured  only  by 
a  habit  of  looking  at  things  in  their  relations; 
hence,  the  true  order  of  teaching  is  to  begin  as 
soon  as  possible  to  give  not  merely  the  facts, 
but  their  bearings  ami  connections.  In  this 
way,  knowledge  acquires  an  intellectual  interest 
for  the  student,  and  amoral  interest  also;  for 
the  most  important  relations  are  ethical  ones; 
and  the  Inchest  aim  of  instruction  is  to  enable 
one  to  see  all  things  in  their  ethical  relations, 
and  to  act  accordingly.  These  points  are  con- 
stantly repeated  by  ilerbart,  and  illustrated  at 


luiatiir-lux.    iiioretullyde- 

ril      Stoy,  and  Ziller.    A 
was  published  bj  Harten- 

if  the  smaller  philosophical 
3  vols.,  1842-  Mi.— See  also 
der  Pddagogik,  tv.,  trans- 
of  Speculative  Philosophy, 
.  1876,  his  native  citj  cele- 
iniiitv.  hi.- centennial  birth- 


HERDER,    Johann    Gottfried  von,   one 

anthill's,  and  teachers,  was  born  at  Mohrungen, 
Aug.  25.,  1744,  and  died  in  Weimar,  Dec.  18., 
1803.  He  early  distinguished  himself  by  his 
prueiv-s  in  scholarship;  and   his  literarv  attain- 


ll      -tllllie 


he  soon   rellouliccil  these. 

and  resolved  to  devote  himself  to  theology.     In 

1  .(if.  he  was  appointed  teai  her.  ami  aftei  wards 
preacher,  at  the  cathedral  school  in  Riga:  and 
while  thee,  he  attraccl  much  attention  by  his 
writings  as  well  as  by  the  brilliancy  and  eloquence 

in  Germany,  France,  ami  Italy:  ami  while  at 
Strasburg  was  intimately  associated  with  Goe- 
the. In  177H.  he  became  court  preacher,  general 
superintendent,  ami  counselor  of  the  Upper 
Consistory  at  Weimar,  where  he  passed  the  re- 
mainder of  his  lite,  in  constant  communion  with 
the  most  gifted  minds  of  that  brilliant  period  of 
German  literary  history.     Here,  too,  he  labored 

for  the  improvement  of  the  scl 1.-.     In  17*.'-!. 

he  drew  up  a  plan  for  their  management,  and 
secured  an  increase  of  salary  to  the  teachers.  A 
teachers'  seminary  was  established  in  1787, 
through  his  influence.  In  the  lower  schools  he 
introduced  the  Pestalozzian  method  as  far  as  it 
was  practicable  under  the  circumstances.  Her- 
der's views  on  education  present  many  points  of 
interest  and  value.  His  leading  principle  was. 
that  the  aim  of  education  is  to  develop  human- 
ity. First  and  foremost,  he  says,  we  are  re- 
quired to  be  men ;  and  any  educational  system 


420 


HERMANN 


■which  aims  at  less  than  the  full  culture  of  all  I 
the  powers  of  manhood  is  treason  toward  God 
and  humanity.  It  is  only  the  purest  and  must 
gifted  persons  that  should  be  teachers ;  for  the 
teacher  must  not  onh  know  what  the  pupil  is 
to  learn,  but  he  must  lie  what  he  aims  to  nave 
his  pupil  become.  Bis  connection  with  his 
pupils  must  l>e  of  the  must  intimate  character. 
ilis  intellectual  instruction  must  be  given 
with  all  the  freshness  of  original  discover;  : 
and  his  moral  teaching  must  have  all  the 
fervor  of  conviction,  and  the  authority  of 
absolute  truth.  In  teaching  science  and  history, 
it  is  not  isolated  facts  that  must  be  presented, 
but  their  relations  and  their  aggregate  logical 
significance.  Especially  should  the  student's 
self-activity  be  thoroughly  aroused  ;  and.  hence, 
he  favored  the  Socratic  method  of  leading  the 
pupil's  mind  to  develop  truth  for  itself  from 
fundamental  principles.  The  whole  of  education 
must  be  permeated  with  the  spirit  of  humanity 
and  with  a  fervent  piety.  Notwithstanding 
his  enlarged  views  and  deep  insight,  he  was 
quite  conservative.  He  condemned  in  unmeas- 
ured terms  the  raw  and  presumptuous  reformers 
of  his  day  ;  and  the  Philanthropinists  did  not 
entirely  escape  his  censure.  In  one  of  his  ad- 
dresses, he  remarks   that  "instead   of  the  good 

old  word  school,  a  fashion  has  been  introdu 1 

of  using  new  and  more  showy  terms,  such  as 
Educational  Institution,  and  P7iilanthropinum; 
and  that  much  is  said  of  'genius',  'original 
genius',  which  dues  every  thing  for  itself,  and 
has  no  need  of  any  other  instructor;  and 
of  wonderful  self-development  by  one's  own 
powers.''  He  strongly  opposed  a  "French  edu- 
cation", instead  of  teaching  in  the  native  lan- 
guage. He  also  advocated  that  the  lower 
classes  of  real  schools  should  train  useful  citi- 
zens, and  that  the  upper  ones  should  form  a 
scientific  gymnasium.  His  viewson  the  teaching 
of  language  were  eminently  sound  and  practical. 
"Grammar,"  he  said,  ••must  be  learned  from 
the  language,  and  not  the  language  from  gram- 
mar :  style,  from  speaking,  and  not  speaking 
from  an  artificially  formed  style."  He  was.  in 
every  respect,  a  practical  educator,  and  was 
proud  to  be  considered  such.  "  In  my  nineteenth 
ice  he  said,  " I  began  teaching  in  the  highest 
class  of  an  academical  institution,  and  from 
that  time  to  this   I   have  never  been  free  from 

the    res] -il.ilities  of   a   teacher,  or  else  oi   a 

school  officer."  The  complete  edition  of  his 
works  I'  vols.,  L805  22)  contains  a  large 
number  ot  address's  and  essays  on  educational 
subjects. — See  Schmidt.  Gesckichte  der  Pada- 
gogik,  vol.  iv. :  Raumeb,  Gesckichte  der  Padago- 
gik  (translated  in  Barnard's  German  Teachers 
and  Educators). 

HERMANN,  Gottfried,  one  of  the  great- 
est classical  scholars  of  modern  times,  born 
Nov.  28.,  1772,  died  Dec.  31.,1848.  He  studied 

at  the'  university  of  Leipsic,  where  he  became, 
in  IT'.l-l.  /irirat-i/oft'i/l  ilcctureri:  in  1  "!•*,  extra- 
ordinary professor:  and.  in   1803,  ordinary  pro- 

tcs«iii'     \t  the  time  of  his  death,  he  was  the  senior 


HEYNE 

professor  of  the  university.  He.  had  a  vigorous 
delivery,  an  unfailing  memory,  a  fine  perception 
of  the  beauties  of  poetry,  and  a  complete  mas- 
tery of  the  Latin  language,— all  qualities  which 
rendered  him  an  excellent  teacher.  When,  in 
1834,  the  philological  seminary  in  Leipsic  was 
revived.  Hermann  was  appointed  to  conduct  the 
Greek  instruction,  lie  banished  all  practical 
exercises  in  teaching  from  the  seminary,  because1 
he  believed  that  a  man  who  had  become  a 
thorough  scholar,  would  also  be  able  to  teach. 
He  trained  his  pupils  to  translate  back  into  I  dvek 
a  translation  from  a  (Ireek  prose  writer,  so  that 
the  mistakes  might  be  detected  by  a  comparison 
with  the  Creek  model,  and,  at  the  same  time, 


Ihc 


of  a  more  rational  treatment  of  Greek  grammar, 
and  as  having  thus  indirectly  exerted  a  consider- 
able influence  upon  the  improvement  of  gram- 
matical science  in  general.  His  views  on  this 
subject  are  chiefly  laid  down  in  his  work  Be 
,  mendanda  ratione  Graces  grammatical  (1801 1, 
and  in  his  learned  notes  to  Viger's  De  prepcipuis 
Gnror  dirti, wis  idiotismis  (1802;  4thed.,1834). 
His  endeavors  to  elucidate  the  intellectual  life 
of  the  ancient  world  chiefly  through  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  language  and  of  the  metrical 
form,  involved  him  in  literary  controversies  with 
Bdckh,  K.  <  i.  Midler,  and  Creuzer.  His  editions 
of  the  tragic  Greek  poets  and  of  other  Greek 
writers  are  still  highly  valued.  Memoirs  of  his 
life  and   works  have  been  published  bj  0.  Jam] 


HESPERIAN  COLLEGE,  at  Woodland 
Cal.,  under  the  control  of  the  Christian  denom- 
ination, was  founded  in  L869.  It  admits  both 
sexes.  In  1875 — 6,  it  had  10  instructors,  150 
students,  and  productive  funds  to  the  amount 
of  Sail  .nun.  The  value  of  its  buildings,  grounds, 
an  1  apparatus  is  $30,000.     B.  H.  Smith,  LL.  D. 


HESSTJS,  Eohanus,  one  of  the  foremost 
German  educators  of  the  time  of  the  Refor- 
mation, bora  in  I  188,  died  in  1540.  Be  was  ap- 
pointed, in  1516,  professor  at  the  university  of 
Erfurt  :  accepted,  in  1525,  a  call  to  the  newly 
established  gymnasium  of  Nuremberg,  returned 
in  1534  to  Erfurt,  and,  in  1536,  became  profes- 
sor of  history  at  the  university  of  Marburg, 
lb-  was  an  intimate  friend  of  Reuchlin,  Me- 
lanchthon,  and  other  eminent  men  of  the  age; 
and  his  reputation  as  a  teacher  was  so  great. 
that,  as  professor  at  Erfurt,  he  is  said  to  have 
had  at  one  time  1500  hearers.  He  was  one 
of  the  best  modern  Latin  poets  :  and,  as  author 
no  less  than  as  teacher.  largely  contributed  to 
a  better  knowledge  of  I^itin  and  (ireek.  Special 
works  on  the  life  of  llessus  have  been  written 
by  Camerarius  (1553),  Lossius  (1797),  Berz 
(1860), and  Schwertzeli  (1873).  An  interesting 
account  of  Bessus  is  also  given  in  the  work  of 
D.  F.  Strauss  on  llutteii   (I'd  edit..  L871). 

HEYNE,  Christian  Gottlob,  a  German 
,  scholar  and  educator,  bora  Sept.  25.,  1729,  died 
I  July  14.,    181  'J       lie  studied  in   the   university 


IIIKKOXYMIANS 


men  schools 


..i  Leipsic,  and  after  holding  several  minor  posi- 
tions, received,  in  L 763,  a  call  to  the  university 


ing  called  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life.  Among 
its  other  distinguished   members,  were  Gerard 


nary,  he   educated  a 
teachers;  and  as  libra] 
the  university  library 

la rue   n 
an,hes 

showed  great  talent 

■ope.     . 

tel. 


the  se 


.llll-lo.j 


Hanover,  which,  through  his 
great  celebrity  throughout  <  tei 
corded  as  one  of  the  greatest  I 
of  the  18th  century.  Besides  editing  several 
Latin  and  (ireek  classics,  lie  wrote  numerous 
works  on  classic  antiquity.  His  life  was  written 
by  Heeren  (1813).  —  See  also  Kaemmkl,  in 
Schmid's  Encychpadie. 

HIERONYMIANS,   or  Brethren  of  the 
Common    Life,    a  religious  order,  which  did 

ern  Germany,  during  the  1  tih.  15th,  and  L6th 
centuries,  [t  was  founded  by  Gerard  Groot  (also 
written  Groote  or  Grote),  a  native  of  Deventer. 
He  was  born  in  L  340,  and  studied  in  Paris  from 


to 


uttli,  while  the  remallldel  were  absorbed  l>V 

csuits.  Although  they  eared  for  the  edu- 
ot  all  the  people,  they  were  particularly 
gui.-hed  tor  their  zeal  in  receiving  the  poor 
en  of  both  Bexes,  and  educating  them. 
They  laid  particular  stress  on  the  religious  ele- 
ment. The  plan  pursued  in  their  instruction 
was  simple  in  the  extreme,  and  may  be  gathered 
from  the  following'  words  of  the  founder: 
"Spend  no  time  either  on  geometry,  arithmetic, 
rhetoric,  logic,  grammar,  poetry,  or  judicial 
astrology.  All  these  branches  Seneca  rejects; 
how  much  more.  then. should  a  spiritual! v-niiiided 
Christian  pass  them  by,  since  they  subserve  in 
no  respect  the  life  of  faith.    Of  the  sciences  of 


d\    si, 


magic,  astrolo 


books, 

merely 


houses  soon  follow.' 
Netherlands;  and 
I  iennaiiv.  Female  a 
with  similar  objects 
tutions  of  their  owl 


ucation  :  since  to  st 
ist  be  instructed  in 
ily  to  writing  ;  and 


•e  sown,  which  sprang  up 
■  Reformation.  Because  of 
promoting    education,    the. 

times  called  the   Scholastic 


the  ele 


they  had  spread  from  the  Scheldt  tothe  Vistula. 
They  regarded  Hieronymus  St.  Jerome  and 
St.  Gregory  (the  Great    as  their  patron-saints, 

and  hence  called  them-  Ives  Hieronymians,  or 
(f'i-i-i/<iriiiiis.  Gerard  only  lived  long  enough  to 
see  the  commencement  of  the  work  ot  the  order, 
as  he  died  in  1384.  He  appointed  as  his  suc- 
cessor Florentius  Radewin,  who  was  horn  in 
1 . ".Mi.  studied  at  Prague,  and  became  canon  at 
Utrecht.  As  soon  ashe  had  heard  of  Gerard's  in- 
fluential career  at  Deventer,  he  had  given  up  his 
position  in  Utrecht,and  had  gone  to  Deventer  as 
ii  vicar,  where  he  soon  became  an  intimate  friend 
of  Gerard.  He  died,  after  a  life  of  great  useful- 
ness, in  the  year  14011.  It  was  he  who  proposed 
the  living  in  common,  which  led  to  t  he  order's  be- 


Delprat,  Oner  de  Bra 

(1836;  German  translal 

HIGH  SCHOOLS, 

ondary  or  academic  in- 


derP&dagogik; 
m  Educators; 
wm    G.   Grote 

[OHNIKE,  1840). 

j  schools  of  sec- 
corresponding, 


which  they  perform  the  office  ot 
schools.  Some  of  these  schools  an 
as  to  comprise   academic,  normal. 


422  HIGH   SCHOOLS 

cial   departments.     In  small  cities  anrl  towns,  j  have  worked  well,  especially  in  its  effect  upon 
high-school  classes  or  departments,  taught  in  the    the  high  scl Is  themselves,  as  subjecting  them 


same  building 
the  place  of  se 
great  want  of  i 
acter  of  these  s 
different  cities 
simply  of  a  li 
schools  :  thai  i 


nar  schools,  take  j  to  go* 
's.     There  is  a 
rade  and  char- 


tig  them 

liversitv. 
existing 


high 

tortus  a  very  i 


ortant  function,  both ; 


elementary  and  superior  or  university  education,     thercti 

portioi 


stimulating  the  one  and  supporting  the  other. 
The  establishment  of  public  high  schools  in  the 
United  States  is  of  quite  recent  date;  although, 
in  Massachusetts,  as  earlj  asl797,  the  academies 
were  virtually  incorporated  into  the  system  of 
public  schools,  by  receiving  endowments  of  land 
from  the  state.'  In  L834,  an  act  of  the  New 
York  legislature   required    the    regents  of   the 


lite 


si: 


so  small  a 
it  is  urged 
ijoy  the  ad- 
t In-    whole 

ir  influence, 
stimulating 

i.     ■'  I    will 


leticial 

ittieult 


of  the  legisl 
vote  the  rest 
the  measure, 
tion  is  now 
York.  Bosto 
L853;  and  tl 
stitution  for 


litical.  social,  and  industrial  intcr- 
■ munity  are  greatly  advanced. 

forces  in  every  community  renter 


less  than  tw 

so  extensive 
ll|i  ill  the 
states,  the 
than  in  othi 
of  stu.lv.  bo 


.elves     tell      ill     a     tree     col  I  mill  II  il  V .     should 

re    ,i,  I  less  of  wealth  or  social  grade,  full 
innitv  of  reeen  in--  such  an   education  as 


ipso  facto   into   the    university       I  a 

i.    there    is    an    arrangement     by    which 

nils  that  desire  a  recognition  from  the 


men   SCHOOLS 


e  the  best  in  the  world,  it  is  owing,  in  a  great  |  in  name   from   seminaries,   academies,  classi 
easure,  to  the  fact,  that  the  higher  schools  are    schools,  etc.      In    England,    the    greal     pul 


classical 
lie 


i.vs        HIGHER  EDUCATION.  SeeHlGHS   in 

t  it"      Ski'ONHAKY    InSTKI  CTlll.V  iillll     Si  I'l  I:  lc  .1:    lv-i 


HIGHLAND    UNIVERSITY, 


ladies.      I  li<- 


L45  pre- 


HILLSDALE    COLLEGE,     at     Hillsdale 
Mich.,  under  the  control  of  the  Freewill  Baptists 


prol 
the 

ibit  the  establish 

exai 

lination   was  on 

insti 

Hills 

notion  shall  be 
be  held  to  refe 

il  also 

21  in- 


whi.lll 


St  I'l 


knowle 
that.    1 


teachers  incuts,  anil  i:t  ill  the  thcul.ie.ieal  curse. 

minimum  !       HIRAM  COLLEGE,  at  Hiram,  Portage  Co., 

11. .1,.     .-ill  i  Ohio,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Disciples.     It. 

language,"  '  took  its  present  title  in  L867,  growing  out  oi  the 

for  com-  Western  Reserve  Eclectic  Institute,  founded  in 

iject  of  in-  1850.     It   is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  an 

achina   of  endowment    <>l   .'.limit    shhiui.      'I  !„•    1,1  ,.,,„■* 


Greek,    Latin,  German,  French,  etc.,  was  not  ex- 
cluded;^ that,  as  the  school  in  question  came 

schools,  it  might,  like  others,  be  sustained  by  a 
reasonable  district  taxation. 

High  schools  should  not  be  n Qessly  multi- 

plied,  and  should  be  carefully  prevented  fr 

trenching  u] the  sphere  of  the  elementarj 


and  (4)  a  ladies' 
tiny,  a  normal,  a 
course.     Conside 


their 

illtlllelie. 

"1 

the  n 

[uireme 

as  to  i 

Lai 

schola 

ship  wi 

Inn 

their  1 
the  11 

aitl 

this   i 

flu  mce 

i.or  ivl 

liatim 

3.   bison 

fi  of 

York. 

Boe 

St. 

school 

has   be 

'ii    i 

evening-school 

syst 

tnulate     is  Burke  A.  Hinsdale.  A.M. 
When        HISTORY,  as  a  branch 


schools,  there 

tions    of    a    similar   grade,    which    differ  only    fleurt 


424:  HIS! 

•nail  account  for  the  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  I 
1li,'  proper  method  of  teaching  it,  as  well  as  for 
the  many  obvious  errors  of  method  that  exist. 

Some,  ind I.  have  condemned  it  as  a  school 

study;  on  the  ground  that  the  mere  facts  of 
history,  without  the  general  laws  which  they 
teach,  are  nf  no  account,  while  the  study  i>t  the 
philosophy  of  history  is  too  deep  for  immature 
minds.  On  this  account,  Prof.  Bain  contends 
that  it  is  a  subject  proper  only  for  the  university. 
John  Locke  said.  "As  nothing  teaches,  so  | 
nothing  delights,  more  than  history.  The  first  of 
these    rea tends    it    to    the    study   of    the 

for  a  young  la  1  '.  '  I'hcsc  extreme  opinions  arise 
from  viewing  the  subject  from  different  stand- 
points. There  is  no  doubt  that  the  study  of 
history,  like  that  of  geography,  botany,  astron- 
omy, and  other  school  subjects  may  be  presented 
to  the  mind  of  the  child  in  such  a  manner  as 
not  only  to  be  useless  and  distasteful,  but  actually 

cator  is  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  mind  to 
lie  addressed,  and  the  character  of  the  study 
itself.  Primarily,  history  is  a  narrative;  and 
there  is  nothing  which  pleases  children  so  much 
as  narratives  concerning  things  in  which  they 
take  an  interest,  or  with  which  they  are  familiar, 
[f  children,  therefore,  are  to  study  history,  they 
must  first  In'  interested  in  the  pei-oiisand  things 
that  it  refers  to.  Thus  American  children  will 
1 ager  to  learn  about  the  discovery  of  Amer- 
ica by  Columbus,  because  it  c lerns  the  coun- 
try in  which  they  live;  and  they  will  be  scarcely 
satisfied  with  any  amount  of  detail  in  regard  to 
the  particular  facts  connected  with  that  event. 

Columbus  as  a  great  personage  will  then! imp 

in  their  imagination,  and  their  curiosity    will  be 

e\e,led     to     know     something     ill.ollt     llilll.        Tills 

will  interest  them  in  Isabella,  the  g 1  queen  of 

Spain;  and  something  may  be  said  of  her,  and 

of  the  country  to  whicl 

desultory  way,  and  wh 

to  show  the  relations  i 

cause  and  effect,  the  co 

young  children  may  be 

tory,  and  thus  their  m 

its  regular  study,  by  re 

conceptions  \\  hich  are  c 

formal  histoi  teal  narrai 

understood.     "The  fad 

correspond  to  somethin 

intelligible".     It  is  in  i 

that  Wickersham  rema 

to  know  the  lineage  a 

intrigues  of  courts,  or 

but  it  would  interest  u 

i pie  "'  P^*  times  mi 

their  fields,  or  educated 


i  he  in  Milan-  history  of  a  country;  the  statesman 
and  politician,  to  the  political;  the  agriculturist, 


ny  special  effort 
3  as  to  time  or 
faculty  of  quite 


to  a 
!7— 


tacts 
nging 


'I  lie 


I  cliihl  has  to  be 
e  indicated;  (2) 
formal  study  of 
iniicipally  with 
is;  and  (3)  The 
onus  of  general- 
ig  what  has  been 
a.      In   the   first 


simple 
subject 

lie    pre- 

y  special 

he  great 


"'- 


his 


vents 


history 
alual.le 
study. 
every 
erience 
hat    is. 


of 


cover  the  whole  ground.  As 
id  by  a  celebrated  educationist, 
tome  is  like  giving  a  child  an 
by  heart". 

stage,  while  the  Bame  principle 
v  kept  in  \  iew.  the  study  should 
ma!  and  systematic.  It  is  here 
iportant  questions  arise  for  con- 
irst  of  these  concerns  the  choice 
indium  of  history  and  a  series 
-books  on  different  nations.  The 

M   national  text-1 ks  grew  up 

from  national  patriotism,  each 
•ed  its  own  history  as  foremost 
lers  as  of  secondary  importance  ; 
•  advance  of 
ridgments  of 


has  been    fostered 

learning,  by  a  syst. 
unlaid  works,  or   1 


style  of  dress  they  wore,  what  kind  of  food  they 

eat,  what  1 ks  they  read."     The  latter  classes 

of  fads  are  not,   however,  more  interesting   in 

themselves,  hut   because  they  are  re   nearly 

related  lo  our  individual  experience.     Different 
persons  will  not  be  interested  in  the  same  class 

Of  historical  facts.      The   soldier   will    attend    to 


the  ml 
for  its 
edge  \ 


hem.  I!ut  such 
lit  ions  for  which 
Each  of  these 
existence  of  all 
lepends  on  them 
1  for  that  knowl- 

•ender  the  nana 


BISTORY 


425 


tive  intelligible;  and,  hence,  for  school  purposes,    chrmiistic  wilm,!  \.  Tlie  latter  method,  by  short 


he   abridgments  are   of   little 

general  knowledge  eallllot   lie  supposed     to    I 

Besides  that,  the  large  standard  works  are 

exclusively  |iln'losojiliieal  in  their  character 
arrangement   to  admit   of  an   abridgment 

sel I  purposes.      Narrow  iu;_;   the  field    of 

for  the  purpose  of  scientific  investigation, 
works  naturally  adopt   largely   the  consect 


this     periods,  centuries  fur  iiistai is  useless    for  be- 
ast,   ginners,   as  it   gives  only  a  confused   pict t 


il  wh. 


There  can  be  no  perspective  in  such  a  mode  of 
treatment.  Leading  facts  rank  side  by  Bide  with 
subordinate  ones,  and  the  history  assumes  the 
form  of  dry  annals.  Excessive  detail  in  historical 
text-books  is  always  a  fruitful  source  of  vexatiu  i 
to  both  teacher  and  pupil.  What  is  needed,  h  r 
this  stage  of  instruction,  is  a  skillful  grouping 
of  facts,  which,  while  it  departs  but  little  from 
the  chronological  order,  shows  the  proper  rela- 
tion of  events  —  how  one  brought  about  the 
other.  In  the  history  of  the  world,  as  of  each 
separate  country. and  of  every  great  event,  as.  for 
example,  the  Reformation,  the  Thirty  Year.' 
War,  the  Revolution  in  England,  the  American 
Revolution,  the  French  Revolution,  the  great 
Civil  War  in  the  CTnited  States,  there  are  cer- 
tain conspicuous  stand-points,  or  centers  of  in- 
terest, around  which  other  events  should  be 
grouped,  as  dependent  upon  them.  The  same 
principle  is  oppos  •  1.  in  the  teaching  of  general 
history,  t ntinin-;  tie-  attention  of  the  ounil 


along  by  some  particular  nation  as  the  re 
tative,  for  the  time  being,  of  some  eontrolli 

or  principle,  other  nations  playing  a  subo: 


prominence;  but,  where  this  question  is  in 
doubt,  there  is  always  a  movement,  more  or  less 
general,  to  which  the  contemporaneous  nations 


arated  intervals,  the  share  of  each  particular 
nation  in  such  a  great  movement  as  the  Refor- 
mat   cannot  possibly  impress  the  mind  of  the 

pupil  properly  in  regard  to  it.  In  the  compi- 
lation of  a  compendium   Of   history  suitable   for 

school    use,  a    con  I  promise  is  requisite  bet  Ween  the 

plan  of  teaching  the  history  of  each  nation  by 
itself  {ethnographic  method)  and  thai  i 

by  periods  or  epochs,  the  history  of  each   nation 
in  where  it  belongs  in   the  period    *,,„- 


-ii-ei.  may,  m  successn 
itioii:  and  all  the  othei 
periods.     In  the  middli 


3  will 
ages, 

l-   at 


426 

logic  order,  will  absorl  i  the 

1 1 1 . i \  c i    in  episodieallj 

tin-  ethnographic  princip 
prominence,  before  the  pv 
I  . 1 1 1  ■  ■  1  >■  • . t i i  movements.  MU 
and  the  Thirty  rears'  W 
isfaction    or   benefit.      A 

century,  the  policy  of  <  Ihi 
part,  the  Protestant  ile\ 
Prance,  and  England  com 
17th.  alternately",  the  adv; 
Thirty  Years' War,  and  ti 
claim  an  absorbing  attent 
Englan  I  of  Walpole,  the 

stand-poinl  for  understan 
Chiefly  as  episodes,  in  i 
history,  com  'in  certain  gi 
Saracenic  <i\  ilization,  i  he 
Turkish  ascendency,  the  i 
Portugal  ami  Spain,  th 
the  struggle  of  the  Dutch 
Sweden  and  Russia,  etc. 
be  used,  st/nchr  i 
stantly  requisite  to  a  lull 
relations  oi  i  vents.  "I  hi  - 
of  lists  oi  sovereigns  grot 
arrang  i  I.  -i  le  by  si  I  ■  in  | 
or  leading  events  arrang 
After  the  history  of  any 
hern  studied  in  the  chron 
methods  oi  arrangement  i 
purpose  of  review,  varyin 
ha  been  followed  in  the  i 
the  pupil  may  lie  require: 


HISTORY 

remainder,  except  what  I  a  taste  for  reading,  will  devour  solid  books  of 
.  In  modern  history,  history,  when  not  under  compulsion ;  especially 
le  must  at  first  have  if  they  have  a  strong  frame-work  fixed  in  their 
nil  can  study  theereat    minds  for  ihe  >eparaie  facts  to  attach  themselves 


l  culture.  Dates  are  to 
ut  only  in  connection  with 

To  memorize  the  dates 
worse  than   useless.     The 

events,  marking  epochs, 
cilin  themind.  Asaheady 
aedshould  be  such  as  to 
leconstantlj  in  view;  and 
emorizing  of  many  dates 
",  says  the  German  writer 

most  simple  monitors  of 
■v.r  be  entirely  omitted, 
to  In  limited  for  children, 
na.lc  round  numbers,  for 
nay.  a  sensible  arrangement 

understanding  of  related 
:mld  be  done  by  lone  ex- 
igical  relations  may  be 
is  of  historical  charts,  rep- 
osition   ill    time    of    every 

as  a  map  represents  coun- 

acc.  'I  hoc  should  be  large 
ly  to  the  eye  what  is  rep- 
iffcreiit  nations  slmulil  be 
;  colors.  Of  such  charts, 
■ey's  are    examples.      Pro- 

la  the  states  and  countries. 


uch    as 
IvMnes 


individt 
a    strict 

with  th 
of  recit 

not  mi! 
as  far  a 
lateral 

should, 
and  the 
own  lai 
text-boi 


ih"  best  results  raphy  and  history,  and  afford  an  indication  of 
ed,  but  for  cl-  the  extent  to  which  geographical  study  is  needed 
ixpression.  On  in  connection  with  that  of  history.  It  is.  how- 
cy  in   language    ever,  desirable  that  all  the  places  mentioned  in 

the  liistory  should  be  at  least  pointed  out  on 


insisted  upon; 
,1  to  use  their 


Ihe 


also  afford 
spects.     A  . 


sconnected 

the  mind 

class  drill: 


detail  in    re 

■II, 1     to 

system  oi  ii 

lepende 

members  oi 

a  class, 

to  the  acq 

tisition 

mation,    cai 

1,  pupil 

liution,   to 

,e    offer. 

class  exercis 

■s.     Chi 

will  lead    in  the  tlm 

ing  infor-  thai  Icctu 
,'ii  eontri-  I  The  da 
with  the  be  select© 
ace,   with    is    anothi 


al  movement. 

pupils  iniisi  neces- 
heir  thought, and 
re.    1 1  is,  however, 

,i  historical  study 

place. 
I  oi  material  —  to 

stinly  of  history 
deration    for    the 


HISTORY  42T 

teacher,  as  well  as  for  the  compiler  nf  a  s.l 1    lluenees  which  constitute  the  other  factors  a: 

< ipendium.    There  is  a  great  diversity  in   this    neither  obvious,  nor  established   in   the  gener 


\i  books,  nn  lue  prom 
itical   and   militarj    histi 
og  tn  social  life  being 
the  study   of  much   oi 
aterest.     The  condition 
Je  in  the  elements  oi  cr 


general 


human  character  and  human 
istic  theory  which  attributes  to 


i  I 


..■  which  attrib- 
esin  the  world's 

and  thus  makes 
lurce  ..t  all  the 
the  intellectual, 
ankind.  These 
the  metaphysics 


m  teaches  Inn 
with  either  h 


ats,  h'ke 
only   by 


Wha1  has  already  been  suggested   has  exclu- 
de  reference  to  fai  ts  oi    stat ts  of  facts, 


■<1  stage,  that  of  superior  instr 
has  strong  claims  to  attenti 
sphered  life  in   which   the  s 


history, 

those  wl 
itsadvai 

useful  h 

liistorj  which 
heir  nature  a 

this  :    (1  i    'II 
bit  nt    withh. 

1.1     .  Hill 

Vo  obje 
fding  its 

,..t     SUp] 

lilitj 

Mil     . 

orted 

sources  of 

ami    this 

history  in 

II  be  sul- 

from   all 
by  suffi- 

mankin  I. 
"living  stud 
from  theslo 


pmto 

ami 

Inn,- 


narrative  oi   events,   bu 
them  to  their  real  causes 


udy,   as    n  turn  hold 

:'  the  mind,  ii  is  a  rei 

it.   At  this  ..I   the  ft 

i  a  simple  conditio] 


history,  nays 
tendencies  wl 
and  the  tmi 
brought  then 
are  to  be  lool 
nature  as  con 


it-  principles  which  cuntr.il 
ikiml  in  all  the  elements* 
nee  assumes  an  office  and 


428 


IIIWASSKH    COLLEliE 


connection  with  human  education,  without  which 
it  must  lie  measurably  ineffective  and  iniper- 
fect. —  See  Wickeesham,  Methodsof  Instruction 
(Phila.,  1865);  Ourrie,  Principles  and  Practice 

,,/■    l  ',„„,„,,  ,,-Srhnul     E.hn.ttn,,,     ( K(  lilll  mrgll    allll 

London);  Von  Raumer.  <7e.se/,  ,.7,/e  ,l,r  Pai/.i- 
gogik,  trans,  in  Barnard's  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion^ No.  xx.;  also,  in  the  same,  Catechism  on 
Methods  of  Teaching,  s.  v.  History,  by  Abben- 
rode,  in  which  will  be  found  a  list  of  valuable 
works  for  consultation  on  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing  this  subject. 

HIWASSEE  COLLEGE,  in  Monroe  Oo., 
Tenn.,  7  miles  from  Sweetwater,  was  founded  in 
L849,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  South.  The  name  of  the  post- 
office  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  institution.  It- 
is  supported  by  tuition  fees,  and  has  a  prepara 
torj  and  a  collegiate  department  The  library 
contains  al  ion  I  L  ,500  volumes.  The  tuition  fee 
for  five  months  i-  812.50  for  primary  studies, 
$15  for  intermediate,  and  $12  for  collegiate. 
A  law  department  has  b  .  in-organize  1,  but  it  has 
made  little  progress.  In  1875—6,  the  college 
had  5  instructors  and  186  students.  John  II. 
Brunner,  A  \l..  is  the  president  of  the  institu- 
tion (1876). 

HOBART  COLLEGE,  at  Geneva,  N.  Y., 
was  chartered  in  1825,  growing  out  of  an 
academy  and  divinity  school  established  by  Bishop 
Hobartof  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  in 
1821.  Its  entire  endowment  is  something  over 
$300,000,  of  which,  perhaps.  $60,000  is  repre- 
sented by  land  and  buildings,  while  one  consider- 
able portion  is  in  the  sha] f  free  scholarships, 

of  which  there  are  twenty-six,  leaving  less  than 
$21,000  of  annual  income  from  endowment   for 

the  support  and   inainteiiaii )f  the  college.     A 

considerable  portion  of  the  entire  sum  $4,200  is 
in  the  shape  of  annuities,  contributed  from  New 
fork  City.  The  library  contains  about  13,000 
volumes.  There  arc  twi  i  courses,  a  classical  of  four 
years,  and  a  scientific  of  two  years.  The  tuition 
Ee,  i  -  .ii  .,  pear.  The  scholarships  are  primarily 
designed  for  students  intended  for  the  ministry. 
In  1875—6,  there  were  7  instructors  and  29 
students.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows  : 
the  liev.  Jasper  Adams.  I).  It.,  1826  28  ;  the 
Rev.  Richard  S.  Mason,  It.  It..  1830—35;  the 
Rev  Beni.  Hale.  It.  D.,  1836  57;  the  Rev.  A.b- 
ner  Jackson,  D.  I>„  1. 1..  D.,  L858— 68;  the  Rev. 
Janes  Kent  Stone.  It.  It.,  1869—70;  the  Rev. 
.lames  Rankine,  D.  D.,  1870  -73;  the  Rev. 
Maunscll  Van  Rensselaer,  D.D.,  LL.  D.,  Is;:; 
—76;  and  the  Rev.  William  Stevens  Perry,  I>. 
|t„  LL.  I'.,  the  present  incumbent,  appointed  in 
187G. 

HOFWYL,  Schools  of,  a  group  of  educa- 
tional institutions  established  by  Follciiherg. 
which  very  widely  attracted  attention,  and  a1 
taincd  a  high    reputation    for  the  excellence   of 

the  il y  on    which   thej  were  based,  and  for 

their  practical  success  Hofwyl  originally  called 
Wylhof,was  a  large  estate,abou(  six  miles  from 
Bern,  Switzerland,  which  was  purchased  by  Fel- 
lenberg,  in   1799,  for  the  purpose  ol   enabling 


HOFWYL 

him  to  carry  out  his  peculiar  educational  views. 
Deeply  impressed  with  the  need  of  ameliorating 
the  condition  of  the  poorer  classes  by  affording 
then-  the  means  of  a  practical  education,he  was 
also  convinced  that  the  education  received  by 
the  higher  classes  in  the  universities  and  middle 
schools,  veiy  greatly  needed  reform.  He  de- 
signed, therefore,  to  establish  -an  institution  for 
both  classes, in  which  they  should  be  so  separate,!, 
as  to  prevent  confusion,  and  yet  so  connected, 
that  each  might  observe  the  other,  and  that  oc- 
casion might  be  given  to  establish,  on  a  Christian 
basis,  the  character  of  each.''  Agriculture  he 
believed  best  adapted,  as  an  occupation,  to  de- 
velop the  powers  of  both  mind  and  body  in  their 
proper  harmony.  Hence,  he  conceived  that  an 
agricultural  school  would  form  the  best  basis 
for  the  carrying  out  of  his  proposed  plans.  In 
1829,  Hofwyl  was  described  as  a  village  of  about 
300  inhabitants, comprising  il  )  A  farm, of  about 
600  acres;  ('_')  Workshops,  for  the  fabrication 
:md    reoair    of   a-iiiailtural    implements,    and 


for  those  who  were  destined  for  trade,  or  whose 
circumstances  did  not  permit  a  more  complete 
education;  and  (<'>)  An  Agricultural  Institution 

secluded  situation  of   Hofwyl.  at  a  i venient 

distance  from  a  large  town,  and  surrounded  by 
some  of  the  most  beautiful  objects  of  Swiss 
scenery,  particularly  commended  it  to  Fellen- 

berg.     The  first  of  the  schools  was  eon sneed 

in  1804  ;  but,  in  1829,  the  writer  of  a  series  of 
letters,  published  in  the  American  Annals  of 
Education,  for  1831,  thus  described  the  institu- 
tions of  Hofwyl : 

"On  entering  Hofwyl  from  Bern,  the  traveler 
andahimseli  in  an  extensive  court  or  play-ground, 
furnished  with  instruments  fur  gymnastic  exercises, 
mill  a  hillock  of  clean  sand,  in  which  the  yoiniL'er  Leys 
e\ernse  their  i ii U e 1 1 1 1 1 1 v  ill  digging  eaves  and  imihlmg 
ra-th-.  suiTouncied  on  three  sides  hy  the  1, adding  dc- 
\  i. led  t.i  tin-  literary  institution-,  and  sheltered  on  the 
west  by  a  little  wood,  composed  "1  a  variety  of  trees. 
u  ineli  serve  at  once  as  a  place  for  botanical  observa- 
tions and  a-  a  retreat  during  the  heat  of  summer.  In 
pleasant  weather  the  lessons  are  not  (infrequently 
•  dve'1  h-rc.  in  arl.'or-  furnished  with  seats  for  this  pur- 
pose Tie-  luilieipal  liulldiinr  on  the  east  ol  thi-ouiirt. 
i,  iiiiialuN  >l  I iv  -u  pupil-,  under   the   constant    super- 

•i'!,,,  1,,,. ...  „v  i-    oe"  lllileil    liV     tin'    Ultehell     and 


superintendents; 

i in  :  a  third  ai 

large  and  Lofty  n 
devoted  to  the  i 
lection  of  easts. 
the  dormitories  o 
superintendents, 
every   part  of  tl 


jive  a  complete  educal preparatory  to  professional  I  and  strongly  developed  in  him,  that,  before  the 

studies.     Betw 1  "J"  an.l  .in  u.-tiuctors  a.c  ,- l,,y,l     ,.1m1  ,,f  t|„'.  Vl,n,  ]„.  requested  to  be   placed    with 

...  .  his  esla  . .shine,,,.  .....si    ..I  ,v  ......  res,.  ■■  ...  :im.t  »'i;      ,,„.,.,,  ,j]s.  L,.„  ,„.,,.,,     ,',. ,,„.     h,^,,^    all(l 


garden  spots,  assigned  to  the  p.. ink 
amusement  and  exercise ;  and,  at  a  lit! 
the  side  of  the  I. ill,  a  circular  eold  lull.  . 
!I0  feet  in  diameter,  and  10 feet  deep,] 

Gothic  style.  ' 
chateau, 


On 

(ani.lv 


u.   .Mil.seipientlv 
..f     the    highest 

Alexander  to  be 


823,  a  building  was  erected 

o    li.ai.sii.n.  to   a. von. in. ..late 


ant  (.'iris,  under  the   lediate  direetioi 

lenberg,  and  one  of  her  daughters.     In  t 

rh ■//:'/ m,  a  IT  two  hllihln.es  occupied  by   - 

of  the  Practical  Institution.    These  an  1 

ary  Institution,  and  are  permitted  to  a\ 

of  its  lessons,  and  to  j  ,ait. i  k.'  ■  ■  f  1 1 1  ■  ■  la  ho 


All  tlir  sell. ...Is  at  llofwvl  were  conducted  on 
thesoundest  and  most  approved  principles  of 
education,  and  with  a  devotion,  on  the  part  of 
the  instructors,  that  could  not  but  be  followed 
by  success.      In  L813,a  commission,  at  the  head 


.1.     I'll. 


..I  agriculture,  and  n ive  three  or  foui  hours  oi  in- 
struction daily  in  reading,  writing,  arithmeti.  .   and 

other  useful  bran. die-  \n  int.-. .  -1  n.u  branch  "I  tin- 

Institution  of  Hofwyl  is  the  colony  oi  Meykirk,  at  the 
distance   of  five   or  six  miles.     II  consists  ol  -  or  L0 

poor  hoys  who  were  placed  under  the  di. Uon  of  a 

teacher  on  a  spot  of  uueultivated  mound,  from  w  hud. 
they  were  expeeted  to  obtain  the  mean-  "1  -ub-.-t- 
'i.ii'.  It  is  1 1 1  ■  -  i  ■_- 1 1 1  ■  1 1  as  an  experiment  on  tin-  prac- 
ticability of  providing  for  the  support  and  .-duration 
of  friendless  children,  without  any  further  .-\p.-n-- 
than  that  of  the  soil  which  they  cultivate.  Several 
hours  are  devoted  daily  to  intellectual  and  religious 
instruction,  and  thus  the  children  a. Ivance  in  cultiva-  I 
tion  and  knowledge,  as  well  as  in  hardihood  and  in- 
dustry." 

Itwasaruling  principle  with  Fellenberg, in 
the  management  oi  Hofwyl,  thai  "gradual  prog- 
ress is  the  only  sure  progress.  And  he  care- 
fully avoided  bringing  together  u  large  nuiiilicr 
of  children  of  various  characters,  to  be  subjected 
to  a  kind  of  discipline  entirely  new  to  them. 
He  commenced  with  introducing  two  or  three 
boys  into  his  own  family:  and  afterwards  he 
would  receive  only  a  few  pupils  at  once  into  his 
school,  so  that  they  mighl  fan  insensibly  into  the 
prevailing  habits  and  discipline.  Wehrli,  who 
distinguished  himself  so  highly  as  an  assistant 
of  Fellenberg,  was  thus  taken  into  his  family ; 
and  the  active  benevolent  spirit  was  so  rapidly 


mi  the  lowest  and 
ies  —  some  of  them 
Lterally,  taken  from 
mil  yet  they  lived, 
vernment,  in  perfect 


peace  and  harmony.  Such  was  the  effect  of  the 
sound  principles,  wis.-  administration,  and  de- 
voted labors  of  Fellenberg  and  his  co-laborers, 
in  this  most  interesting  institution.  It  still  re- 
mains under  the  control  of  the  descendants  of 


liter  thorough  renovation  and  repairs. 
!..  1876,  uii.ler  the  management  of 
Andresen,  the  successor  of  l>r.  Ed- 
>r.  For  a  full  account  of  Fell. -nln rg  s 
■    American  Annals  of    Education, 


HOLBROOK,  Josiah,  distinguMi.-d  for  his 
labors  in  behalf  of  science  teaching  in  common 
schools  and  the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge 
among  all  classes,  was  born  in  Derby,  Ct.,  in 
1788,  and  died  near  Lynchburg,  Ya.,  in  1851. 


430 


HOLBROOK 


It  was  while  pursuing-  his  studies  in  Vale  Col- 
lege, that,  under  the  instruction  of  Prof.  Silli- 
inan,  he  imbibed  that  fondness  for  natural 
science,  particularly  chemistry  and  geology, 
which  "ave  direction  to  his  future  life.  For 
some  time  after  graduating,  in  1810,  he  gave  his 
attention  to  agriculture,  managing  his  father's 
farm   at    Derby.     There  he   took   part    in   the 


HOME   EDUCATION 

first  national  convention.  May  4.,  1831,  in  New 
York,  and  adopted  a  constitution.  There  were 
present  delegates  from  Maine  Massachusetts, 
New  York.  Pennsylvania,  Yale  College,  the 
city  of  Washington,  and  other  places ;  and 
lei  ted  its  first 
was    held    each 


Stephen   Van   Rensselae 


he  delivered  It 
1826,  he  publi 
of  Adults  for 
the  Millbury  . 
jected  Americ 
consist  of  atlil: 
mutual  impri 
Union.  Thus 
gates,  to  const 
the  county  bo: 
board :  and  tli 
sented  in  a  gri 
being  to  pro 
spread  of  inte 
dxeds  of  these 
ous  parts  of  I 
defatigable  lal 
whole  time  to 
the  distribute 
personal  visit 
began   the   mi 

sol 1  apparal 

'  j .  ana 


iard  of  education, 
manner,  a  state 
fere  to  be  repre- 


letn 


,-hich,   in 


connection  with  Timothy  « 'laxton.  of  Boston, he 
uiciiK  extended,  into  what  was  afterwards 
known  as  the  Holbroak  School  Apparatus.  In 
L842,  he  undertook  the  organization  of  a  system 
mg  s,  the  object  of  which  was  an 
interchange,  among  schools  in  different  partsof 
the  country  and  in  foreign  countries,  of  speci- 
mens of  pupils'  work:  such  as.  maps,  draw- 
ings, geometrical  solids,  collections  of  minerals. 
etc.  In  this  way.  he  conceived,  the  intellectual 
activity  of  the  pupils  would  be  stimulated  :  and. 
In  i  les  by  becoming  acquainted  with  the  prod- 
w  i-   of  each   other's   labor,  their   standard   of 


excellence  wi 

uid  be  elevated,  and 

their    desire 

for  improven 

ent   increase!.     This 

scheme  met 

with  conside 

able  favor   in  many 

putts  of  the 

country,  part 

cularly  in  the  city  of 

New   York. 

and  for  :i  tin 

>  was  successfully  carried  on.  The 

American  U 

,    n  also  for  a  while, 

greatly  Hour- 

ishcil.     In  18 

--■  a  public   meeting 

was   held   in 

Boston    to  pi 

imote  it-  objects,  at 

vhich  Daniel 

Websl  i  pi 

ded,  and  George  B.  V 

net-son  acted 

as  seen  tarj  . 

.in  1  resolutions  were 

aloptcd  corn- 

mending the 

/ .-.  .   ■  n   to  public  fa 

er  and  sup- 

port.      Li   oil 

Everett  took 

part  in  the  | 

in.    ■  ling   ■  and  subs 

iquently,  out 

of  this  move 

ar  education. 

grew  the  Bos 

usion  ■■>'  USS- 

j'hI  KnowUdi 

e,  t  illowed  - i  after 

i\  the  /•'  ston 

Lyceum  :  at 

1,  p.n  1 1'.  ,i    the  i'   uli 

of  the  aame 

awakening,  t 

•  of  Instruc- 

Hon  was  established  in  1830;  and 

the  Florida  Education  Society  wa 

organized  at 

Tallahassee. 

The  American  Lye 

turn  held  its 

WI 


e  enter- 
his  life, 
burg,  he 


again  seen  until  his  body  was  found  at  the  foot 
of  a  cliff,  from  which  it  was  supposed  he  had 
fallen.  I-Yw  lives  have  been  so' earnest, unselfish, 
and  philanthropic  ;  and  to  very  few  lias  it  been 
given  to  be  the  means  of  stimulating  the  intellect- 
ual activity  of  so  many  thousands.  —  See 
Barn  m:h's  Journal  of  Education,  vols.vin.,  and 
xiv.:  and  American  Educators,  vol.  n.:  Amer- 
ican Annals  of  Education;  Bourne,  History  of 
the  Public  School  Society  (N.  Y.,  1870). 

HOLIDAY.     See  School  Festivals. 

HOLLAND.     See  Netherlands. 

HOLY  ANGELS'  COLLEGE,  at  Van- 
couver. Washington  Ter.,  under  Roman  Cath- 
olic control,  was  founded  in  I860.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees  and  voluntary  contri- 
butions. In  ls7li.it  had  7n  pupils-  Its  presidents 
have  been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  J.  B.  Brouillet, 
1860—62;  the  Rev.  P.  Means,  1862— 72  ;  the 
Rev.  P.  Hylebos,  1872—3;  and  the  Rev.  Louis 
(1.  Schram,  the  present  incumbent,  appointed 
in  1st::. 

HOLY  CROSS,  College  of  the,  at  Worces- 
ter.   Mass.,   was    founded    in     1843  bj  the   Rt. 


Rev. 
olic   I! 
to  the 


the  rei 
the  ile 


Roman  Cath- 
and  was  given  by  him 

sty  of  Jesus,    In  L865, 

j  the  legislature  of  the 
uthority  "  to  confer  such 
I  by  any  college  in  this 
medical  degrees."  The 
i  is  to  prepare  \oittli  for 
ommercial  course  of  life. 
inlnaces.  in  its  whole  ex- 
pand junior  classes,  and 
nor  The  candidates  for 
t  Ait-  musl  undergo  an 
and  natural  philosophy. 
rv.  and  must  be  well  ac- 
Ireek,  and  mathematics. 


The  charge  tor  hoard  and  tuition  is  !>z. ill  per  an- 
num, besides  sonic  extras.  In  1874 — 5,  there 
were  11'  instructors  and  I  77  students.  The  num- 
ber of  degrees  conferred  at  the  commencement 
in  1  s 7 . >  was  13.  The  library  contains  1 1,000  vol- 
umes. The  Rev.  Joseph  B.  O'Hagan,  S.  J.,  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

HOME  EDUCATION  is  that  which  is  car- 
ried on  in  the  home  circle,  or  family,  as  con- 
trasted with  that  which  is  afforded  by  the 
school.     Up  to  a  certain  age,  and  within  a  cer- 


MOM  i:    KMVATION 


431 


tain  sphere,  home  education,  or  its  equivalent, 
is  not   only  indispensable  but  inevitable.     The 

pan  0.t£     are     I  III'     first     teachers.     <  ■  ^  |  .<  ■  i  1 .  1 1 1  \      I  In 

mother;  and  the  educative  influences  of  the 
nursery  nol  only  precede  in  time,  bu1  exceed  in 
power,  ili"-    "i  the  school.    I  [ere  the  foundation 

IS  laid  "ii  which  tin-  school-teacher  inu.-t  sub- 
sequently lmilil :  ami,  comparatively  speaking, 
more  is  accomplished  in  the  period  of  earliest 
childhood,  both  in  storing  the  mind  and  in 
forming  the  disposition  and  character,  than  dur- 
inganj  equal  number  of  subsequent  years.  "  \ 
chiM  gains  more  idea-."  says  Lord  Itrougham. 
"in  the  first  four  years  of  his  life  than  ever 
afterward."  Early  tome  education  consists  pe- 
culiarly in  what  has  been  called  unconscious 
tuition,  L\  means  of  which  the  plastic  nature  of 
the  young  child  is  insensibly  moulded  by  the 
agencies  which  environ  it.  The  mother  chiefly 
controls  these  agencies,  which  may  lie  enumer- 
ated as  follows :  (1)  The  affectionate  tenderness 
which  she  displays,  in  ministering  to  the  wants 
and  gratifying  the  desires  of  the  child,  and  in 
sympathizing  with  and  alleviating  its  distresses  ; 
Cl\  Her  behavior,  as  being  delicate  ami  refined. 
or  coarse  and  rude,  -showing  self-restraint  and 
dignity,  or  manifesting  impulsiveness  and  pas- 
sion :     (3)    The    tones   of  her   voice  -  sweet    and 

her  face,  implying  similar  traits ;  (5)  The  force 
of  her  will,  under  the  intelligent  guidance  of 
educational  principles  and  the  restraints  of  con- 
science. Such  arc  the  element- of  a  mother's 
educative  power,  a  powerthe  exercise  of  which 
results  in  forming  in  the  child  traits  of  character 
that  no  succeeding  agency  of  circumstance,  edu- 
cation, or  self-discipline  can  entirely  efface.  It 
will  be  seen.from  this  enumeration,  that  the 
mother's  influence  is  rather  moral  than  int.  Uec- 
tual :  indeed,  the  special  period  of  its  exercise 
supersedes  the  necessity  of  any  formal  cultiva- 
tion of  the  knowing  faculties.  The  child  dur 
ing  the  first  EeiK  years  of  its  existence  needs 
littl  i  direction  in  this  respect.  Natural  curios- 
ity aud  innate  activity  constantly  stimulate  the 
growth  of  the  mind,  and  till  it  with  those  ideas 
which  are  to  constitute,  in  succeeding  years,  the 
materials  of  thought.  It  is  just  as  absurd  to 
subject  a  very  voting  child  to  formal  instruction 
as  it  would  be  to  attempt  the  development  of  its  I 
physical  powers  by  gymnastic  exercises.  Watch- 
fulness is, however,  constantly  required  to  cheek 
the  formation  of  bad  habits,  which  have  just  as 
strong  a  tendency  to  spring  up  in  the  young 
mind  as  rani  weeds  in  a  virgin  soil.  (See 
Habit.)  The  period  of  exclusive  home  educa- 
tion h  ire  referred  to  being  so  decisive  of  the 
future  character  of  the  child,  and  the  ther 

being  the  first  and  most  effective  of  all  educa- 
tors, it  will  be  apparent  that  the  science  of  edu- 
cation, in  its  most  comprehensive  sense,  should 
constitute  an  essential  part  of  the  curriculum 
of  every  female  seminary  or  college.  Particu- 
larly should  the  future  mother  be  taught  to  ap- 
preciate the  character  of  the  influence,  in  all  its  I 


phases,  which  she  is  to  exert  ;  as  well  as  to  un- 
derstand.how  to  render  it  effectual  in  contribut 
ing  to  the  future  welfare  of  her  child.  The 
father,  at  a  somewhat  Liter  period,  but  in  a 
similar  manner,  is  a  powerful  educator  within 
the  circle  of  home.     Both  by  precept  and  ex- 


"  Would  thai  we  ourselves  did  not  corrupt  the 
morals  of  our  children!  We  arc  delighted  it 
they  utter  any  thing  immodest.  Expressions 
which  would  not  be  tolerated  even  from  the 

effeminate  youths  of  Alexandria,  we  hear  from 
them  with  a  smile  .and  a  kiss.  Nor  is  this  won- 
derful ;  we  have  taught  them:  they  have  heard 
such  language   from  ourselves.      Thej   see  our 

mistresses,  our  male  objects  oi  affeel ;  everj 

dining-room  rings  with  impure  ongs;  things 
shameful  to  be  told  are  objects  of  sight.  From 
-in  h  practices  splines  habit,  and  afterwards  nat- 
ure. The  unfortunate  children  learn  these  vices 
before  they  know  that  they  are  vices :  and  hence, 
rendered  luxurious  and  effeminate,  they  do  nol 
imbibe  immorality  from  the  schools,  but  carry  it, 

lllem-ehe-   into  the  school-."    While  contetm  ,1a  t- 


Whi 


of  society  of  our  times,  could  be  subjected  to 
such  contaminating  influences;  yet,  even  at 
present,  the  impressions,  both  intellectual  and 
moral,  received  by  children  in  very  many  of 
the  home  circle- of  what  are  considered  the' bet- 
ter el.,  -es  of  society,  are  rathe  debasing  than 
elevating.  The  complaint  is  often  made  by 
teachers  that  the  children  placed  under  their 
care  are  so  depraved  by  bad  home  training,  or 
in  consequence  of  absolute  neglect,  that  their 
efforts  to  discipline  and  instruct  these  pupils  are 
almost  useless.  'I  his  is  the  more  to  be  regretted. 
as  school  education  can.  in  most  cases,  only  sup- 
plement that  of  home:  and  because  the  influ- 
ences that  center  in  the  hitter  arc  always  more 
potent  than  those  wielded  by  the  former,  chiefly 
because  school  education  is  primarily  intellectual; 
whereas  that  of  home  is  primarily  moral.  At 
any  rate,  such  is  the  fact  generally. 

Alter  the  period  of  formal  instruction  litis  ar- 
rived, the  question  arises  in  the  minds  of  many 
parents,  whether  it  is  better  to  detain 
at  home  to  be  instructed  by  private  tutors  or  to 
submit  it  to  the  discipline  and  instruction  of  the 
school.  This  question  has  been  much  discussed 
by  educators.  Quintilian,  in  regard  to  this 
point,  .-aid.  in  favor  of  school  education,  that  "it. 
had  the  sanction  of  those  by  whom  the  polity  of 

the  most  eminenl  states  was  settled,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  most  illustrious  author-."  The  fol- 
lowing arguments  are  generally  adduced  to  prove 


432 


HOME    KM'CATION 


that  the  education  acquirer!  in  school  is  to  he 
preferred  to  anythat  is  possible  by  private  tutors 
at  home:  (I)  The  intellectual  training  is  more 
effective;  Bince  the  boy  or  girl  coming  in  com- 
petition with  those  <>t  the  -:unr  ,iu''  i-  .-ti  undated 
to  greater  exertions  than  would  be  possible  in 
any  system  of  home  instruction.  As  Quintilian 
says. '-At  home,  the  boy  can  learn  only  what  is 
taught  himself:  at  school,  he  will  also  learn  what 
is  taught  to  others.  He  will  hear  many  things 
approved:  many  others,  corrected.  The  reproof 
of  a  fellow  pupil's  idleness  will  be  a  good  lesson 
to  him;  as  will,  likewise,  the  praise  of  his  neigh- 
bor's industry,  lie  will  think  it  disgraceful  to 
yield  to  his  equals  in  age.  and  great  honor  to  ex- 
cel his  seniors.  All  these  matters  arouse  the 
powers  of  the  mind;  and  if  ambition  be  an  evil, 
it  is  often  the  parent  of  virtue."  The  child 
educated  at  home  can  never  realize  the  full  ex- 
tent of  his  own  powers,  having  n<>  standard  by 
which  to  measure  them.  Hence,  he  is  satisfied 
with  meager  results,  at  the  same  time  that  he  is 
likely  to  be  filled  with  self-conceit.  It  is,  how- 
ever, scarcely  disputed  that  the  school,  as  a  mimic 
world,  presents  a  variety  of  incentives  which  a 
home  education  could  never  afford  :  and  thai  it 
is  favorable  to  rapid   mental  growth.     But  it  is 

chiefly  called  in  question.  Home  has  been  de- 
picted as  the  abode  of  purity  and  innocence, — 
of  kindness,  gentleness,  and  affection,  of  court- 
esy and  refinement,  of  morality  and  religious 
influence;  and  Buch  it  ought  to  be, and  it  isto  be 
hoped,  often  is.  From  such  an  atmosphere  the 
home-bred  child  is  at  once  introduced  inn,  a  new, 
and  to  him  utterly  unknown, world.      Instead  oi 


thoughtless  disregard  of  all  weakness,  either  of 

mind  or  body,  except,  indeed,  to  turn  it  into 
ridicule.  He  finds  that,  if  he  is  not  mindful  of 
himself,  and  sufficiently  self-assertive,  he  will  he 
borne  down  in  the  mass.  There  is  an  antag- 
onism— an  aggressiveness  in  those  around  him 
that  begets  caution  and  resistance;  there  is  a, 
sense  of  danger  that  cultivates  courage,  and  a 
matter-of-fact  spirit  that  crushes  out  egotism 
and  sensitiveness.  Thus  the  boy,  in  the  little 
world  of  the  school,  is  prepared  for  the  greater 
school  beyond.  Probably,  no  Letter  illustration 
of  tins  fact  i.  afforded  anywhere  than  in  the 
great  Public  Seliools  of  England.  Eton  has  been 
especially  noted  for  the  rough  discipline  to -which 
its  pupils  subject  each  other:  and  yet  we  find 
the  following  cogent  testimony  as  to  the  favor- 
able effects  of  that  sy.-tetn  upon  the  boys' char- 
acters, from  an  entirely  reliable  source:  •■  I  think 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  tendency  of  the 
Eton  system  is  to  make  a  boy  generous  and  firm- 
minded,  to  exercise  his  common  sense  early,  to 
make  him  habitually  feel  a  moral  responsibility, 
to  act  not  under  the  impulse  of  fear,  but  of 
generous  shame  and  generous  emulation,  to  be 
willing  and  determined  to  keep  trust  because  he 
is  trusted: — in  a  word,  to  make  him  a  manly  boy 
and  a  gentleman."       [I'nhlir  Si-hmil  Klm-nliim . 


HOME  LESSONS 

by  Sir  J.  T.  Coleridge.  London.  I860.)     It  has 

been  well  said  in  regard  to  the  corrupting  influ- 
ent  f  school.  ■■  School  indeed  brings  the  knowl- 
edge of  evil,  but  the  innocence  of  childhood  is 
but  tin' innocence  of  ignorance;  by  home  edu- 
cation   it  cannot    be   much  prolonged,  and  when 


pear,  l.-  it  to  unite  the  education  of  a  <j 1  school 

with  that  of  a  properly  ordered  family. in  which 
i bination  the  evils  of  school  life  will  be  neu- 
tralized by  the  stronger  and  purer  influences  of 
home.  Not  home  or  school,  but  home  and 
school,  constitutes  the  proper  agency  for  the 
education  of  children,  whether  hoys  or  girls.  It 
is  the  opinion  of  some,  however,  that  admitting 
the  advantages,  in  general,  of  a  school  education, 
that  of  home  generates  certain  peculiar  traits 
and  excellencies  of  character  which  are  essential 
to  the  welfare  of  society.  This  is  the  argument 
of  Isaac  Taylor,  in  Home  Education,  who  says, 
"the  school-bred  man  is  of  one  sort — the  home- 
bred man  is  of  another:  and  the  community  has 
need  of  both:  nor.  as  I  think,  could  any  meas- 
ures be  much  more  to  be  deprecated,  nor  any 
tyranny  of  fashion  mole  to  be  resisted,  than 
such  as  should  render  a  public  education,  from 

HOME  LESSONS,  or  Home  Studies.  The 
question  whether  home  lessons,  or  home  studies, 
should  be  a  part  oi  the  system  of  instruction  in 
schools  of  differenl  grades,  and  if  so,  to  what 
extent  they  should  be  permitted,  and  in  what 
manner  they  should  be  pursued  and  super- 
vised by  the  teacher,  is  one  of  considerable  im- 
portance, which  is  still  extensively  discussed  by 
writers  on  education.  The  need  of  home 
lessons  for  pupils  of  secondary  and  higher 
schools  has  never  been  disputed.  In  regard 
to  the  schools  of  a  lower  grade,  many  physicians 
have  strongly  objected  to  any  kind  of  home 
lessons,  as  long  as  the  children  are  required  to 
spend  from  4  to  5  hours  a  day  in  the  school 
room.  Their  arguments  are,  however,  chiefly 
directed  against  the  length  of  the  school  sessions. 
From  an  educational  point  of  view,  it  has  justly 
been  urged  by  recent  writers,  that  the  regulation 
of  this  matter  must  chiefly  depend  on  the 
question,  for  what  purpose  should  home  lessons 
be  given.  On  this  point,  educator.-,  at  the  present 
time,  are  much  more  nearly  agreed  than  formerly. 
No  writt  r  of  note  will, nowadays,  maintain  that 

home  lessons  should    be  tor    the  mere  ]  mrpose  of 

preventing  idleness  of  keeping  the  children 
busy,  orasa  pnni-hmeiit  for  delinquencies;  but 
it  i-acrecd  that  all  home  „tudio,  >houM  aim    at 


the  ab 


I 'J 


aid  of  a  teacher.  If  t Hi-  principle  is  accepted, 
several  corollaries  are  self-ei  ident.  1  lorn.-  lessons 
should  not  begin  at  too  early  an  age  Young 
children  need  the  supervision  of  a  teacher  to  a 
much  greater  extent  than  those  of  a  more  ad- 
vanced age.  and  are  much    less    fitted    to   Spend 


HOME   LESSONS 

their  time  profitably  without  direct  guidance. 
Moreover,  while  the  school  sessions  for  young 
children  are  as  long  as  for  older  ones,  the  medical 
warning  not  to  overwork  the  brain,  applies  with 

much  greater  force  to  the  h e  lessons  of  the 

former  than  i"  those  of  the  latter.  Special  care 
should  be  taken  that  all  the  children  fully  un- 
derstand the  work  which  they  are  required  to 
perform  at   home,   and   thai    they   are  compe- 

elass  should  feel  it  necessary  o>  apply  to  hi-*  par- 
rents  or  adult  friends  for  help.  It  is  especial!} 
this  point  that  is  so  apt  to  be  disregarded  by 
teachers.     Parents  have  a  right  to  object  toany 

case  of  diligent  pupils,  any  help  in  addition  to 

that  of  the  teacher.  All  exercises  of  this  kind 
prove  a  torment,  and  are  absolutely  injurious. 
"The  school",  says  Diesterweg,  "must  teach 
the  method  of  home  studies.  It  is  not  enough 
that  the  home  lesson  he  appropriate  in  itself; 
the  pupil  must  be  enabled  to  prepare  it  in 
a  proper  manner.  How  often  i rchildren  tor- 
ment themselves  where  this  is  not  taught  !  The 
teacher  should  show  them  how  to  memorize, 
how  to  prepare  or  review  a  lesson,  how  to  write 
by   previously   memorizing,   prc- 


IIORN-BOOK 


438 


is  of  opinion  that  the  best  arrangement  for  a 
common  school  is  to  confine  all  the  learning  of 
lessons  to  the  school  room,  and  to  set  apart 
special  hours  for  study,  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  the  teacher.  This,  of  course,  i^  an 
extreme  view;    but    it  serves  to  illustrate  the 


of  '/'■  aching  , " is  mosl  rui is  to  the  mind  of  a 

child.     He,  by  the  habit  oi   missing,  comes  to 

think  it  a  small  thing  to  fail  at  recitation.  He 
loses  his  self-respect,  lie  loses  all  regard  for  his 
reputation  as  a  scholar.  Besides,  the  attempt 
to  acquire   an    unreasonable   lesson,  induces   a 


is  more  than  to  be  hi-  master."  Moreover, when 
pupils  are  required  to  write  exercises  at  home, 
the  teacher  should  faithfully  correct  them.  The 
failure  to  do  this  fosters  habits  of  carelessness. 
Many  teachers  greatly  err  in  this  regard, 
burdening  children  with  the  task  of  writing 
pages  ol  exercises,  and  correcting  but  few.  or 
none,  of  them.  Certainly,  no  teacher  who  is 
guilty  of  so  serious  a  mistake,  can  be  regarded 
as  understanding  the  work  either  of  instruction 
or  of  discipline.  Home  lessons  are.  in  general, 
more  frequent  in  European  than  in  American 
schools.  The  opinion  is  entertained  by  many 
European  writer.-,  especially  German  (as  Rol- 
fus  and     blister.    /,'    i  ,  .    vol.    i..    art. 

Aufgabe),  that  home  lessons  are  entirely  un- 
known in  American  schools.  Of  course,  this  is 
not  correct :  but  the  views  strenuously  adv.  icated 
by  the  best  American  educators,  that  home  les- 
sons should  not  begin  early,  and  that  they  should 
occupy  only  a  small  portion  of  the  childrens' 
time  out  of  school  are  fully  concurred  in  by  the 
best  educational  writers  of  Germany.  "Under 
the  guidance  of  the  teacher",  says  I  liesterweg, 
"the  attentive  pupil  will  be  able  to  learn  at 
school,  in  one  tenth  of  the  time,  what  he  is 
sometimes  required  to  learn,  when  distracted 
and  fatigued,  at  home.  Thousands  of  pupils  and 
parents  become  disgusted  with  the  school,  on 
account  of  the  annoyance  which  they  receive  from 
the  home  lessons  heedlessly  assigned  by  the 
teachers;  home  lessons  should,  therefore,  be  re 
stricted  to  the  smallest  possible  amount ;  and  the 
teacher,  before  assigning  such  a  lesson,  should 
ponder  well  the  question  whether  just  this  les- 
son cannot  be  dispensed  with,  or  be  made  un- 
necessary."      Dittes    (Schule  der    Pddagogik) 


superficial  habit   of  study.  - 
the  surface  of  things.     'The 
teacher  should  be,  not  how  m 
lie  should  always  ask.  is    i 
child  can  master  this  lesson, 
he  mill." 
HOPE.     See  Incentives, 

a  skimming 

notto  „f  the 

uch,  but  how 

possible  tha 

and  probable 

over 

icrll. 

the 

that 

Prizes,  and 

Re- 

WARDS. 

HOPE  COLLEGE,  at  Holland.  Mich.,  was 
established  in  L851,  by  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church,  as  the  Holland  Academy.  It  was 
organized  as  a  college  in  1863,  and  incorporated 
in  1866.  Its  especial  design  was  to  furnish  a 
suitably  educated  ministry.  It  has  an  endow- 
ment of  about  $60,000.  The  library  contains 
about  1,200  volumes.  Three  departments  have 
been  organized:  (1)  preparatory,  (21  academic 
or  collegiate,  and  (3)  theological.  In  1874 — 5. 
there  were  9  instructors  and  111  students.  Rev. 
Philip  Phelps,  Jr.,  has  been  the  president  since 
the  organization  of  the  college. 

HOPKINS,  Mark,  a  noted  American 
scholar  anil  teacher,  born  in  Stockbridge,  Mass.. 
Feb.  4..  1802.  After  graduating  at  Williams 
t  'ollege,  and  serving  as  tutor  in  that    institution 


for 

medicine  "in  Ne 
to  Williams  Co 
fessor  of  moral 
L836,  succeeded 
( lollege,  in  whi 
1872,  when  he  J 


nd  rhetoric,  and.  in 
as  president  of  the 

he   remained   until 
ssume  the  duties  oi 


illustrates   best    Ins    peculiarly   lucid  mode    of 

teaching  difficult    subjects  is    An   Outline  Slmhi 

of  Man  (New  York,  1873),  which  is  a  model  of 
the  developing  method  as  applied  to  intellectual 

science,  as  well  as  of  blackboard  illustration. 

HORN-BOOK,  a  book ,i.-tiie_  ,,t  ,-,  ,\u-A>- 

page,  formerly  used  to  teach  children  the  alpha- 
bet and  other  simple  rudiments.  It  was,  in  fact, 
the  first  page  of  the  primer,  pasted  on  a  thin 
board,  which  terminated  in  a  handle,  and  having, 
fastened  over  the  printed  matter,  a  thin  plate  of 
transparent  horn,  to  protect  it  from  being  soiled 
or  torn  by  the  young  learner.  Csually  there  was 
a  hole  in  the  handle  for  a  string,  by  which  the 


434 


HOUSE   OK    KEFUCE 


apparatus  was  slung  to  the  Bcholar's  girdle. 
Hence,  in  a  View  of  the  Beau  Monde(11Zi  I, we 
find  a  lady  described  as  "dressed  like  a  child,  in 
a  bodice  coat  and  leading-strings,  with  a  horn- 
book tied  to  her  side".  Sometimes,  instead  of 
being  mounted  on  a  board,  the  printed  page  was 
pasted  on  the  back  of  the  born  only.  'I  be  horn- 
book was  in  use  in  England  from  the  time  of 
queen  Elizabeth  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century  ;  it  was  also  used  in  some  of  the  Amer- 
ican colonies  until  about  the  Bame  time.  The 
oldest  specimens  contain  the  alphabet,  in  small 
letters  and  capitals  —  in  black-letter  or  in 
Roman  —  commencing    with   a  cross,   which 


to  i 


serv 

by  the  vowels,  and  their  simplest  combination 
with  the  consonants,  the  Lords'  Prayer.and  the 
Roman  numerals.  (See  Christ  Cross  Ron  .  Be- 
fore the  horn-book  was  invented,  i1  is  thought, 
a  cast-leaden  plate  was  used  in  England,  having 
on  its  face  the  alphabet  in  raised  letters ;  as 
ancient  carved  stones  have  been  discovered 
which  appear  to  have  served  as  moulds  for  cast- 
ing such  plates.  There  are  many  allusions  in 
English  literature  to  this  little  implement  of 
elementary  education.  Shenstone  in  his  quaint 
poem,  the  Schoolmistress  (1741),  thus  refers  to  it: 
"Eftsoous  the  urchins  t,>  tln-ir  tasks  repair  : 

Their  books,  .if  stature  small,  they  take  in  hand. 


HOWE 

HOWARD  UNIVERSITY,  at  Washing- 
ton, 1).  C.j  was  chartered  by  Congress  in  18G7, 
and  named  after  I  ren.  O.O.  1  toward,  one  of  its 

founders.  It  occupies  a  commanding  and 
beautiful  site  tit  the  head  of  Seventh  street,  north 
of  and  just  beyond  the  city  limits,  and  has  several 

pecially  designed  for  colored  youth, every  depart- 
'  nieiit  is  open  to  all,  without  distinction  of  raceor 
'  sex ;  and  both  white  aud  colored  persons  of  both 
sexes  tire  found  among  its  instructors  and  stu- 
dents. 'Ihe  university  is  supported  by  contri- 
butions and  tuition  fees.  It  has  libraries  con- 
taining over  8,000  volumes,  a  mineral  cabinet, 
and  a  museum.  The  departments  of  instruction  in 
connection  with  it  areas  follows  :  (I)  Academical 


Which  ■ 


,  in.. 


To  save  from  tine.r  wet  the  letters  fair." 

Cowper,  in  Tirocinium,  or  a  Review  of  Schools, 
( L784),  thus  describes  it  : 

Neatly  secure, 1  from  1»  int.'  soiled  or  torn 
Beneath  a  pane  of  thin  translucent  horn, 

Tis  calle.l  a  hook,  thong!  Lot  a  Bingli  page] 
Presents  the  prayer  the  so.  i..ur  ,1.  mm  ,1  t>,  teach. 
Which  ehil.lrcii  use,  amlp.ii>  >ns-«  h.  n  they  preach. " 

Locke,  in  Thoughts  on   Education,  mentions  the 
horn-book  and  primer  as  the  "ordinary  road."  to 
learning  to  read  in  bis  time.     (See  Pkimer.) 
HOUSE     OF    REFUGE.       See    Reform 

Schools. 

HOWARD  COLLEGE,  at  Marion.  Ala., 
was  founded  by  the  Missionary  Baptists,  in 
L843.  It  has  a' library  of  about  2000  volumes, 
geological  and  mineralogical  cabinets,  and  chem- 
ical, mathematical,  and  philosophical  apparatus. 
The  cost  of  tuition,  board,  etc.  in  the  college  de- 
partment is  $226  per  annum.  Theological  stu- 
dents receive  tuition  free.  The  course  of  study 
is  divideil  into  the  following  distinct  schools: 
(1)  School  of  Latin;  (2)  School  of  Greek; 
(3)  School  of  modern  languages ;  (I)  School  of 
English;  (5)  School  of  moral  science  and  theol- 
ogy:   (6)  School  of  mathematics;   1 7)  School  of 

chemistry,  geology,  and  mineralogy;    (8)  Scl I 

of  natural  philosophy  and  applied  mathematics; 
(!))  School  of  civil  engineering;  (10)  Business 
school.  There  is.  also,  a  preparatory  department. 
The  degrees  conferred  are  B.S.,  A.B..M.  A., and 
('.  E.,  each  of  which  requires  proficiency  in  sev- 
eral schools.  In  1874  5,  there  were  5  instruc- 
tors and  L02  students.  The  presidents  have  been 
as  follows:  B.W.Talbird,  D.D.,  J. L.M.Curry, 
I.I,.  It,  S.  R,  Freeman.  D.  II..  and  J.T.  Murfee. 
I.L  It,  the  present  incumbent  (1876). 


partmeut  ;  (3)  'Iheologieal  department.  The 
normal  department  was,  at  first,  supported  by 
what  was  known  as  the  .Miner  Fund.  The  medical 
students  have  the  advantage  of  the  Freedmen's 
General  Hospital  and  Asylum,  situated  within 
the  grounds  of  the  institution.  The  theological 
department  is  open  to  students  of  every  Chris- 
tian denomination.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the 
law  department  is  $50  a  year  (or  $40,  when  paid 
in  advance)  ;  in  the  medical  and  theological  de- 
partments, it  is  free;  in  the  other  departments, 
$12  per  year.  The  number  of  instructors  and 
students,  in  1875 — 6,  was  as  follows  : 
Departments.  Instructors.  Students. 

Normal  )  34 

Model  school    (  ...  141 

Preparatory     f  "  39 

College  )  33 

Medical  8  24 

Law  2  13 

Theological  3 2,ri 

Total  23  309 

I  .en  Howard  was  president  of  the  University 
till  1 873,  when  he  was  succeded  by  John  M, 
l.aiigston.  I.L.  H..  as  vice-president.  In  1875,  the 
Rev.  Edward  I'.  Smith  was  chosen  president  ; 
and  continued  in  office  till  his  death,  in  1876. 

HOWE,  Samuel  Gridley,  a  distinguished 
American  educator  and  philanthropist,  partic- 
ularly noted  for  his  zeal  and  success  as  a  teacher 
of  the  blind  and  the  imbecile,  was  born  in 
Boston,  in  1801,  and  died  in  that  city,  in  1876. 
After  graduating  at  Brown  University,  in  1821, 
he  studied  medicine  for  a  time;  but,  becoming 
interested  in  the  cause  of  the  Greek  patriots,  he 
entered  the  revolutionary  army,  in  which  he 
served  as  surgeon  till  1827.  About  this  time, 
Dr,  John  D.  Fisher,  who  while  pursuing  his 
medical  studies  in  Paris,  had  become  a.  .jimmied 
with  the  Abbe  Hauy's  institution  for  the  blind, 
proposed  the  establishment  of  a  similar  institu- 
tion in  Boston.  Dr.  Howe,  who  had  returned  to 
the  United  States  for  the  purpose  of  soliciting 
contributions  for  the  cause  of  the  struggling 
decks,  was  invited  to  take  charge  of  the  pro- 
posed institution;  and  having  accepted,  lie  imme- 
diately embarked  for  Europe  to  visit  the  asylums 


HUNGARY 


435 


'or  the  blind  in  England,  France,  and  Germany. 
On   fiirt   return,   the   institution  was   organized, 

the  Blind,  with   Dr.  Howe  at  it-  head  (1832). 
Here  the  education  of  Laura  Bridgman  (q.  v.), 


tion.  attracted  general  attention,  and  placed  Dr. 
Hour  in  the  front  rank  of  teachers;  since  only 
the  most  ardent  zeal,  and  the  most  consummate 
skill.  tact,and  patience  could  have  accomplished 
so  difficult  a  task.  He  was  also  much  interested 
in  the  education  of  the  imbecile ;  and  the  ex- 
perimental school  for  their  training,  which  he 
helped  to  found,  resulted,  in  1851,  in  the  Mas- 
sachusetts School  for  Miotic  and  Feeble-Minded 
Youth,  in  South  Boston.  IK'  was  the  author 
of  a  Reader  far  the  Blind  1839)  and  a  Histor- 
ical Sketch  of  the  Greek   E  o i     L828  . 

HUARTE,  Juan,  a  Spanish  physician  and 
philosopher,  was  born  inNavarre,  about  1535,  and 
died  about  1600.  He  gave  great  attention  to 
psychology,  and  particularly  to  the  external 
physiological  indications  of  character;  and  at- 
tempted to  show  the  practical  value  of  hi-  system 
in  education  ami  otherwise,  in  hi-  great  work 
Ex&men  ,1,   Tngenios  para   S  -      Test  of 

MndsfortheleamingoftJieS s),published 

about  1580,  in  which  he  gave  directions  for  dis- 
covering the  special  talents  of  individuals  for 
the  acquisition  of  particular  sciences.  This  book 
became  very  famous,  and  was  translated  into 
various  languages.  The  Knuli-h  version  was  en- 
titled the  '/'/■•  U  of  Wits,  [t  taught  that  every 
person  is  endowed  with  a  talent  for  some  specialty, 
which  should  be  discovered  and  cultivated;  since 
whatever  attention  he  might  give  to  other  pur- 
suits, he  could  never  rise  above  mediocrity  in 
them.  As  a  means  of  ascertaining  this  special 
gift,  he  laid  great  stress  upon  an  examination 
of  the  form  of  the  head.  thus,  to  some  extent 
anticipating  the  doctrine  of  (Jail  and  Spurz- 
heim. — See  TicKNOR,  History  of  Spanish  Liter- 
ature. 

HTJET,  Pierre  Daniel,  a  noted  French 
scholar,  born  at  Caen.  Feb.  8.,  1630,  died  at 
Paris,  Jan.  26.,  1721.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Des- 
cartes and  Bochart,  accompanying  the  latter  to 
Sweden,  in  1652.  lie, also  visited  Holland,  but 
returned  to  Caen  and  gave  himself  up  entirely 
to  study.  He  became  Doctor  of  Laws,  in  1670, 
and  soon  after,  was  summoned  to  Paris,  where 
he  was  appointed  sub-preceptor,  under  Bossuet. 
of  the  Dauphin,  lie  directed,  for  his  royal  pupil, 
the  preparation  of  the  Delphin  edition  of  the 
classics.  In  1685,  he  was  made  bishop  of  Sois- 
sons,  but  was  transferred  to  the  see  of  Avrau- 
ches,  in  1692,  which  position  he  resigned  in 
1699,  on  account  of  ill  health.  His  complete 
works  were  published  in  lS5(i.  in  l'>  vols. 

HUMANITIES  (Lat.  hin,t,uiior,i  or  litem- 
fiumaniores),  those  branches  of  education  or 
study,  which  are  included  in  what  is  called  po- 
lite or  elegant  learning,  as  languages,  grammar, 
rhetoric,  philology,  and  poetry,  with  all  that  per- 
tains to  what  is  called  polite  literature,  includ- 
ing the  ancient  classics.    The  name  implies  that 


the  stmh  of  these  blanches,  in  opposition  to   the 
physical    sciences,   which   especially    develop    the 


a  truly  cultured  man.  In  the  older  systems  of 
education,  the  humanities  took  the  lead:  in  the 
new,  they  have  been,  to  a  considerable  extenl 
superseded  by  studies  deemed  more  practical, 
from  a  utilitarian  point  of  view.  The  contest 
between  the  humanities  and  the  so-called  prac- 
tical Mudies.  as  branches  of  higher  education,  is 
still  rife.  The  humanities  are,  at  present,  more 
commonly  designated  /nl/ex-lrttres  (cp  v.). 

HUMBOLDT,  Karl  Wilhelm  von,  a  dis- 
tiicjui-licl  <;,■!  man  statesman,  philologist,  and. 
educator,  brothel- of  the  great  scientist,  Alexander 
von  Humboldt,  was  born  June  22.,  17*17.  died 
April  -,.  L835.  He  studied  at  the  universities 
of  Frankfort  on  the  Oder  and  Gottingen,  and 
after  holding  several  positions  in  the  Prussian 
diplomatic  and  stale  service,   was   appointed,  in 


in  the  fields  of  higher  education  that  Humboldt's 
influence  was  felt.  He  prepared  the  way  for.  and 
thus  became  the  real  founder  of,  the  University 
of  Berlin,  and  also  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
future  greatiic-s  of  the  Prussian  gymnasia.  His 
reforms  in  the  study  of  languages,  in  the  schools 
of  Prussia,  exerted  a  far-reaching  influence.  His 
own  linguistic  works  were  of  great  importance, 
especially  that  upon  ICiri.  the  language  of  an- 
cient Javanese  literature  l  Ueber  die  Kawisprache 
auf  d  r  InselJava,  3  vols.,  1836—40),  still  re- 
garded as  a  classic  on  the  philosophy  of  language. 
>i'i.„  :..* i..„*; 1..-..1.  + ,*..  ..»  t'l...  .i;tv,.', , 


I'he  introduction 
of  Ian 
velopi 

separa 


cats  of  the  difiet 


Til  U„  />„S/„-,,e/,,r/ssv„xe/„„7  IP.  r„„  Ilmnhnldfs 

(1848);  IIkvm.  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt  (1856). 
HUMBOLDT    COLLEGE,   at    Humboldt, 

Iowa,  was  founded  in  1869,  by  the  Rev.  Stephen 
II.  Taft.  but  was  not  opened  until  1872.  It  is 
non-sectarian,  and  is  supported  by  voluntary 
contributions.  Tuition  is  free  to  '.students  to 
the  number  of  100.  The  college  building  is  a 
beautiful  marble  edifice,  erected  at  a  eo-t  ot 
over  $40,000.  The  library  contains  1,300 
volumes.  It  includes  an  English,  a  preparatory, 
and  a  collegiate  course.     In  1874 — 5,  there  were 

I  instructors,  and  97  students,  of  both  sexes. 
Rev.  Stephen  H.  Taft  has  been  the 

since  the  commencement  of  the  institution. 

HUNGARY,  one  of  the  principal  divisions 
of  the  Austin-Hungarian  .Monarchy,  i 
of   Hungary   proper,   the    former   kingdom   of 
Croatia,  which,  besides  sending   deli 

I I  iiiigan'aii  diet,  has  a  provincial  diet  of  its  own, 
and  the  free  city  of  Fiume.     Its  entire  area  is 


436 


HUNGARY 


125,045  sq.  m.,  and  its  population,  which,  ac- 
cording to  the  census  of  1809,  was  15,509,455, 
was  estimated,  in  1875,  at  15,993,196.  The 
population  of  Hungary  is  made  up  of  a  number 
of  different  races,  no  single  race  having  an  ab- 
solute majority.  These  races  differ  not  only  in 
language,  but  also  in  dress  and  customs.  Accord- 
ing to  estimates  by  Austrian  statisticians,  the 
races  are  divided  nearly  its  follows:  Germans, 
1,780,000,  funning  11.4  per  cent  of  the  total 
population  ;  Slaves,  4,740.000,  or  30.0  per  cent  ; 
(nearly  L6  per  cent  being  Servians  or  Croats, 
and  1'2  per  cent  Slovacksj;  Italians  and  Rouma- 
nians 2.073,000,  or  17.0  percent:  Jews,  55:i.7oo. 
or  3.5  per  cent ;  Magyars,  5,553,700,  or  35.7 
percent;  and  various  other  tribes  amounting 
to  about  199.000.  or  1.2  per  cent  of  the  total 
population.  The  Magyars,  though  constituting 
considerably  less  than  one-half  of  the  population, 
are  the  ruling  race,  and  are  making  strenuous 
efforts  to  introduce  the  study  of  their  language 
into  all  the  schools  of  the  country.  The  former 
kingdom  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  in  which  94 
per  cent  of  the  people  belong  to  the  Slavic  race, 
preserves  a  certain  degree  of  administrative 
independence  ;  and  the  Croatian  language  is 
used  in  all  the  public  schools.  In  1-09,  the 
different  religious  denominations  were  repre- 
sented as  follows  :  Roman  ( latholics,  7,600,000  ; 
United  Greeks,  1,600,000;  United  Armenians. 
5,200;  Protestants  of  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
l.lll.ooi);  and  of  the  Helvetian  Confession, 
2,031,000;  Oriental  Greeks,  2.590.000;  Grego- 
rian Armenians,  050;  Unitarians.  55.000;  other 
<  Ihristian  denominations,  2.000  ;  Jews,  553.700  ; 
other  non-Christians,  and  persons  of  no  relig- 
ion, 220.  The  ruling  race  of  the  country, 
the  Magyars,  were  a  .Mongolian  tribe,  that  took 

|>  '■        f  Hungary  in  *9I.     Christianity  was 

introduced  under  Duke  Geysa  (972 — 98),  whose 
son  Stephen  was  crowned  king  by  the  Pope.  In 
1  520.  a  part  of  the  country  was  conquered  by  the 
Turks,  ami  the  remainder  was  annexed  to  Austria, 
with  which  country  it  lias  been  connected  ever 
since.  In  1849,  it  was  deprived  of  its  ancient 
constitution,  and  converted  into  a  crown  land 
or  province  of  the  Austrian  empire;  but,  in 
1*07.  its  constitutional  independence  was  re- 
stored; and.  since  that  tinie.it  has  formed  one 
of  the  two  main  divisions  of  the  Austro-IIun- 
garian  Monarchy.  In  consequence  of  the  numer- 
ous civil  wars,  the  oppression  by  foreign  barba- 
rians, and  the  conflicting  tendencies  of  the  rival 
races  ami  religions,  the  progress  of  education  in 
Hungary  has  been  slow.  The  numerous  German 
settlements  of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  even 
in  the  darkest  hours,  never  failed  to  make  provi- 
sion for  the  education  of  their  children;  and  when 
the  majority  of  these  settlements,  in  the  16th 
century,  joined  the  Augsburg  confession,  their 
schools  were  benefited  by  their  closer  connection 
with  the  states  of  Germany.  It  was  thus  that 
the  Cronstadt  gymnasium  was  founded  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  16th  century,  that  gradually 
the  city  schools  in  various  places  were  raised  to 
the  rank  of  gymnasia,  and  that  scarcely  a  com- 


munity of  the  Augsburg  confession  was  without 
a  common  school.  The  same  was  also  true  of 
most  of  the  communities  of  the  Reformed 
( 'hurcli.  The  elementary  education  of  the  <  'ath 
olics  in  the  German  settlements,  was  not  so  well 
cared  for  ;  but  numerous  gymnasia  were  founded 
by  the  Jesuits  in  the  Hungarian  countries,  which 
grew  quite  rapidly.  Very  little  was  done  for  the 
cause  of  education  by  the  government,  until 
Maria  Theresa  appointed  a  commission  on 
schools  and  studies,  in  1774.  The  whole  country 
was  divided  into  nine  districts.  The  provincial 
director,  who  presided  over  a  district,  had  charge 
of  all  the  school-,  with  the  exception  of  the 
national  university,  the  gymnasium  of  Buda, 
and  the  episcopal  lyceums.  In  1778,  the  in- 
spectors of  the  Catholic  common  schools  met  in 
Buda,  and  consulted  on  a  plan,  called  the  pro- 
jectum  Budense,  to  organize  these  schools.  In 
accordance  with  this  plan,  a  normal  school  was 
immediately  established  in  eveiy  district,  and 
common  schools  were  to  be  erected  as  soon  as 
possible  in  every  parish.  In  the  village  schools, 
instruction  was  to  be  confined  to  reading,  writ- 
ing, and  arithmetic,  with  German,  if  desired: 
while,  in  the  city  schools,  a  knowledge  of  Ger- 
man was  considered  necessary  for  all  the  scholars. 
The  schools  of  non-Catholics  were  to  be  grad- 
ually incorporated  with  the  system.  In  1780, 
the  empress  gave  to  the  schools  the  property  of 
the  Jesuits,  amounting  to  about  L0,000,000 
florins  ;  but,  owing  to  the  peculiar  circumstances 
which  existed  under  Joseph  II.,  this  large  sum 
did  not  immediately  produce  the  expected  result. 
Joseph  1 1,  attempted  a  number  of  radical  reforms; 
but  most  of  them  had  to  be  abandoned,  even 
before  his  death.  A  commission,  however,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Reichstag,  drafted  a  new  law, 
which  was  adopted  in  1806  According  to  this 
law,  every  Catholic  community  was  to  haven 
national  school,  with  one  or  two  teachers  :  while 
7.'!  cities  were  to  have  upper  schools,  with  three 
or  four  teachers.  The  ten  normal  schools  were 
to  serve  at  the  same  time  as  schools  for  teachers. 
The  60  gymnasia  were  divided  into  54  full 
gymnasia,  with  six  classes,  and  6  of  four  classes 
each.  After  the  death  of  Joseph  44.  the  Protest- 
ants refused  most  determinedly  to  introduce 
this  new  law  into  their  schools,  and  Catholic 
children  were  prohibit 'd  from  attending  Pro!  -t- 
ant  schools  without  the  consent  of  the  priest. 
A  new  era  began  when,  in  1850,  the  Hungarian 
lands  became  an  integral  part  of  the  Austrian 
monarchy.  Attention  was.  at  first,  given  to  the 
elementary  schools.  New  schools  were  erected, 
the  condition  of  the  teachers  was  improved, 
and  existing  schools  were  enlarged.  Teachers 
were  procured  at  great  expense  from  other  coun- 
tries. Under  the  newly  appointed  district 
officers,  the  school  attendance  increased  rapidly. 
The  long  interruption  of  school  sessions,  generally 
from  March  till  November,  was  abolished;  and 
penmanship. drawing,  and  music  were  introduced. 
for  the  first  time,  into  Hungarian  schools.  An 
entirely  new  idea  were  the  Puszta  or  Panya 
schools,  which  were  designed  to  furnish  instrue- 


in  m;aky 


tion  to  the  numerous  children  living  on  the 
great  plains  in  houses  far  apart  from  each  other, 
ami  whose  parents  »viv  rlmllv  .n.-.i  _;.-.  1  in  hnd- 
ing  horses  for  the  nobility.  After  the  re-estab 
Hshment  of  the  Hungarian  independence,  a  new 

.-rim.. I  law  wa-  I dual., I.  in     I -H>.  which  has 


•  •'i ill..-   of,    at  least,    nine    members.     The 

whole  country  is  divided   into  Bchool   districts, 
for  each  one  of  whirl,   thr  ininisirv  a.. i«, mis  an 


to   til. 


or  associations  may  also  csial.li-li  elementary  ami 
normal  schools,  if  thr  teachers  hold  proper  cer- 
tificates. These  schools  may  heroine  ]iublic 
schools  by  complying  with  the  provisions  of  the 
school  laws.  Every  private  school,  however, 
must  conform  to  the  cour f  instruction  pre- 
scribed  by  law  for  scl I-  of  the  grade. 

Every    community     in    which     del [national 

schools  exist,  and  in  which  there  are  as  many  as 

■  ill  children     of     olhrr    ilr Illations,    lllllst     pl'o- 

viile    an   ele ntary    school.     The    elementary 


study  corn- 
arithmetic, 
latural   phi- 


practical   instruction 
Every   child  must    1, 
tongue.     Wherever 
people  speaking  diffe 
those  languages  mus 
oi    more  than  5,000 
at  least  a  higher  pe 
means  suffice,  a  burgl 
boys  and  girls  must  1 
in  th.ir   own    langui 
comprises  religion,  pi 

in  gardening  and  farming, 
instructed  in  In-  mother 

inhabitants  must  establish 
iple's  school  :  and.  n   their 

erscl 1.   In  these  schools, 

•  instructed  separately,  and 

:■■.       Thr    course    of    study 

mother-tongue,   the 

it  is  nol  thr  in.-  hum  . 
natural   history  and 
raphy  and   history,  tl 
constitutional  history 
and  singing.   In  the  s 
constitutional  histon 
ted,  needle-work  beei 

I  instruction,  maiiematics, 
natural    philosophy,  geog- 

e   eleinents   of    agriculture. 

book-keeping,  gymnastics. 

ho. ,1s  for  girls,  agriculture. 

and   uy  mi  last  irs  ale  oinit- 
Ig    taught    instead  of  them. 

In   the  burgher  schl 
prises  six  years:  and 
In  addition  to  the  sti 
people's   schools,  chi 
elements   of    law    a 

.1-.   th  ■    liovs    course  corn- 
he  girls'  course.four  years, 
h  ■    pursued  in  the  higher 
mistry,  statistics,  and   the 
e   taught    in    the   burghei 

II..-.    .    rlllirr    up0] 

lio..|.  <.r  iipoii  pi 
A  Bchool  law  for 
Iroatian   diet,  in 


:  the  entire  school  system, 
is  compulsory  and  free.  In- 
d  in  the  t  'loatian  language  ; 
I  may  be  used  as  the  medium 
ire  they  are  spoken  by  the 
community  supports  its  ow  a 
habitants  are  ignorant  of  the 
In  all  such  scl Is,  the  study 


year  inclusive.  Fen 
pointed  in  lower  clas 
i.i I   need.     Bui 


Tl 

..  the  twelfth 
may  be  ap- 
inmoii  school 
or  both  sexes 
schools  which 
itl,  the  head 
era' sen  inary 
r.  I  hi'  < ourso 


ot  instruction  comprises  three  yi  a  is. 

In    1-7.'!.   there  were,  in  all   the  lands  oi   the 

Hungarian  crown,  15  II".  -.  I Is,  oi  which  1,542 

were  communal    Bchools,   and     13,903,    den - 

inational  s.l,o,,|s.     I,,  the  same  year,  there  were 

801  communities  without    any   si I  at  all.  and 

the   children   of  which    could    not   even   attend 
neighboring  schools,  on  accoui '  distance.  The 


18,018 

10.1(14 


unu 


boys  and  359,734  girls),  or  marly  10  per  cent  of 

the  children  of  school   age,  received  struc- 

tion.     The  total  number  of  teachers  in  the  same 
year  was  19,598,  of  whom  15,149  were  licensed. 

Thr  number  of  normal  schools  was  f>7  :  ot  win.  h 

15  \\.  re  state  and  32  de ninational  schools  for 

male  teachers,  and   I  state  and  li  denominational 


s,|„ 


for  fel 
id  l.v  -J 


school  is  connected  with  every  normal  school. 
The  schools  are  under  the  direct  authority  of 
the   communities,   each   one  of   which   elects  a 


burgher  scl Is  for  boy 

higher    female   school    in    Buda-Pesth,  and  two 
state  seminaries  for  female  teachers,  in  Buda- 


These  school-  were 
I  -77  malesand  494 
eachers  was  510,  and 
154.  In  1875,  there 
Is  for  boys,  «  iih  agri- 
course  of  gardening 
.  an  tng  school,  and 
for  both  sex,  s.  '.".i 
and    8   for  girls.      A 


iris 


HUNGARY 


Pesth  and  in  Raab,  were  established  in  1875. 
BudarPesth,  the  capital  of  Hungary,  had,  in 
1873,  51  communal,  2  government.  18  denomi- 
national, and  lit  private  schools.  The  school 
population  was  51,532.  The  day  schools  were 
attended  by  27,864,  and  the  review  schools  by 
4.7'J(i  pupils,  making  in  all  about  79  per  cent  of 
the  school  population.  The  courses  for  adults 
were  attended  by  L,922  pupils,  and  the  trade 
school,  by  1,510  pupils. 

Secondary  Instruction. —  Secondary  instruc- 
tion is  imparted  in  gymnasia  and  real  schools, 
which  correspond  to  the  institutions  of  the  same 
name  iu  Germany.  In  1872,  there  were  147 
gymnasia  with  1,842  teachers  and  27,360  stu- 
dents. Of  these,  20,775  were  Magyars,  2,418 
Germans,  2,195  Roumanians,  and  l.siiM  Slaves. 
The  number  of  real  schools,  in  the  same  year,  was 
31,  with  315  instructors  and  5,803  students,  of 
whom  3,815  were  Magyars.  L,530  Germans,  326 
Slaves,  and  115  Roumanians.  The  Hungarian 
language  is  taught  in  all  these  schools.  In  Hun- 
gary proper,  it  is  the  medium  of  instruction 
in  all  secondary  schools;  though  in  some,  one  or 
more  other  languages  are  also  used  for  some 
branches  of  instruction.  In  Transylvania,  the 
medium  of  instruction  is  German  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  gymnasia  of  Hennaiinstaf.lt  and  ( 'ron- 
stadt,  and  in  all  schools  belonging  to  the  Evan- 
gelical Church  :  Roumanian,  in  the  gymnasia  of 
the  (i reek  Church;  and  the  Hungarian  laii^ua^e, 
in  all  other  schools. 

Superior  Instruction. — There  are  three  uni- 
versities in  Hungary:  in  Buda-Pesth,  in  Klau- 
senburg  (founded  in  1872),  and  in  Agram 
(founded  in  1874).  The  university  of  Buda- 
Pesth  had.  in  the  winter  term  of  1875—6,150 
professors  and  2,630  students.  Klausenburg  had. 
in  the  same  year, 61  professors  and  tl  7  students. 
In  the  Universits  ol    Lgram,  270  students  were 

1875 — (i,  the  number  of  students  was  .'119.  and 
that  of  professors,  31.  The  universities  of  Hun- 
gary have  substantially  the  same  organization  as 
those  of  Germany  and  of  Austria  proper. 

Special  Instruction. —  Hungary  had  the  fol- 
lowing Bpecial  schools  in  1875:  A  royal  poly- 
technic in-fit  lit.-,  in  Buda-Pesth.  with  57  profess- 
ors and  862  students;  9  royal. and  4  evangelical 
law  academics,  a  commercial  high-school,  in  Buda- 
Pesth,  a  royal  agricultural  academy,  in  Alten- 
biirg.  4  other  agricultural  academics,  in  Hebrec- 
zin,  Keszthely,  Caschau,  and  Elausenburg,  the 
royal  academy  of  forestry,  in  Schemnitz,  the 
Croatian  sehool  of  agriculture  and  forestry,  in 
Ereuz,  5  lower  agricultural  schools,  3  schools  of 
vine-culture,  a  royal  mining  academy,  in  Schem- 
nitz. 2  lower  mining  schools,  an  academy  of 
music,  in  Buda  Pesth,  a  royal  school  for  the  edu- 
cation of  officers  of  the  landwehr  cavalry,  in 
Jaszbereny,  the  Ludovica  Academy  in  Buda- 
Pesth,  for  the  landwehr,  a  preparatory  school,  in 
Giinz,  and  a  naval  academy  in  Fiume.— See 
Schmid,  Encyclopadie,  vol.  v.,  s.  v.  Austria; 
Klin,  Statistik  mm  Oesterreich-Ungarn  (1876); 
Brachelli,  Statistische  Skizze  der  Staaten  Eu- 


ropa's  (1875) ;  and  Statistische  Skizze  der  Bster- 
n  it  hisch-ungarischen  Monarchie  i  1874),  being  a 
supplement  to  Stein  and  Wait.ius,  Handbuch 


HYGIENE,   School, 


is  reference  to  that 
stration.  which  per- 
if    physical   health. 


or  developing  of  the  body;  while  hygienic  prin- 
ciples and  rules  have  for  their  object  to  preserve 
that  condition  of  health  in  which  all  pupils  are 
supposed  to  enter  school,  and.  by  their  constant 
though  unobtrusive  influence,  to  make  that  con- 
dition permanent.  The  value  of  the  maintenance 
of  physical  health  will  hardly  be  questioned  by 
any  thoughtful  person,  certaiiilv  not  by  any  educa- 
tor; for  while  the  mind  does  sometimes,  indeed, 
appear  to  act  independently  of  the  body,  there 
are  numerous  instances  on  record  which  show- 
that  not  only  intellectual  iiictlieielicy  is  directly 
traceable  to  ill  health,  but  moral  obliquity  also. 
If  the  effect  of  positive  disease,  then  fore,  be- 
comes so  evident  in  specific  instances  as  to  reveal 
this  direct  connection,  the  cases  in  which  that 
connection  is  obscure,  and  the  effect  apparent 
only  in  a  general  way,  must  be  numerous.  Il- 
lustrations of  this  are  not  wanting  in  the  experi- 
ence of  every  observing  person.  So  well  estab- 
lished has  this  connection  become,  and  so  im- 
portant, consequently,  has  the  subject  of  physical 
health  in  education  been  deemed,  that  no  prom- 
inent educational  writei  has  tailed  to  notice  it. 

of  physical  health  in  the  school  involves  the  fol- 
lowing considerations :  (I)  the  character  of  the 
site  on  which  the  school  building  is  erected; 
(II)  the  mode  of  construe  ting  the  building,  as 
well  as  the  location  and  construction  of  the  out- 
buildings.—  water-closets,  etc.;  illl)  the  eon 
struction  and  arrangement  of  the  class-rooms; 
(IV)  the  size,  number,  and  distribution  of  the 
windows  for  the  admission  of  light;  (V)  the 
mode  of  ventilation  ;  (VI)  the  manner  of  heat- 
ing the  rooms,  and  the  average  temperature 
preserved  in  them  by  artificial  heat  ;  (VII)  the 
adaptation  of  the  school  furniture  to  the  physical 
wants  and  condition  of  the  children  :  ( V  III )  the 
kind  of  discipline  employed,  in  regard  to  hygi- 
enic principles;  (IX)  the  degree  of  attention 
given  to  the  personal  condition  of  the  pupils,  so 
as  to  preserve  cleanliness  and  prevent  the  com- 
munication of  disease :  and  (X)  the  means  af- 
forded for  physical  exercise.  Each  of  these  will 
be  considered  in  its  order,  according  to  the  above 

I.  Site. — Modern  sanitary  science,  fortunately, 
has  given  each  particular  attention  to  the  sub- 
jects of  site  and  exposure,  and  has  impressed  the 
public  mind  so  thoroughly  with  the  necessity 
of  their  healthf ulness, that  only  willful  ignorance 
or  obstinacy  will,  in  our  day,  permit  a  building 
designed  for  human  occupancy  to  be  placed  in 
a  manifestly  unhealthy  location.  The  healthful- 
ness  of  a  school  site  depends  upon  (1)  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil ;   (2)  its  elevation;    (3)  the  cir- 


■eumstane.es  which   facilitate  or  obstruct  proper  I 
drainage;    (4)  its  remoteness  from  any  stagnant 


at  least  108  cubic  feet  of  air  space  to  each  pupil. 

anil   '.'  square  feet    of    floor-space.       The    height     of 


timi  decidi 

these   cons 

ami  a  deci 

intermedii 

rise  cf  go< 

medical  an 

their  fitnes 

the  difficul 

opportunit 

best  judgu 
the  nature 

regard  to  an 
arist  between 
ion,  all    manni 


earth  from  a  distance,   and    depositing   it   over 

snots  originally  low  and  swampy  :  or  the  filling 
itself  may  be  composed  of  refuse  and  garbage 
which  are  destructive  of  health.  A  scientific 
test  of  such  ground  will  ordinarily  show  a  slow 

Modern  examinations,  also,  as  to  the  distribu- 
tion  of   diphtheria,  fever   and   ague,  and  some 

Other  diseases,  show  that  these  usually  follow 
the  lilies  of  old  water-eonrses.    The  leakage  of 


22™di 

absolutely  necessary    to  furnish  to 
ie  amount  of  air  necessary  for  health. 

1 V .     TIu 
School  Edu 

>'/:■'.   Sum!,, r.  <i,nl  Dixlrihiitiun  if 
es. —  On    this   subject,    Currie,    in 
wft'ore,  remarks:  "The  provision  for 

(1)  a    pro,,, 

distribul 

deficiency  o 

■  amount   of  light,  and    (2     us  just 
The  effect  either  of  an  excess  or  a 

light  is  to  strain  the  eye  and   cause 
of    spirits,   especially    as   the   day 

;,!!':  r ;;::;': 

per  of  .-mailer,  straggling   apertures, 
of     lighting    a     school    are     these  : 

equable,  am 

dows  may  1 
room,  or   in 

.1.1     the    roof,    as    It     is    then    stea.lv. 
free    from    shadow.       (2)    The  wil'l- 
■   plaeed    ill     the    ends  of    the     sellool 

two  adjacent   sides, so  as  to  admit 

be  such  a-  to  avoid  these  influences  so  hostile  to 
health.  The  soil  should  be,  if  possible,  light  or 
sandy,  or  a  coarse  gravel,  since  clayey  soil  holds 

the  rain,  and  8 i  causes  wet  feet,  with  all  their 

accompanying  diseases;  while  the  vegetable  mat- 
ter, deeomposed  by  the  sun  and  standing  water, 
frequently  gises  ris  •  to  eonsumption.  and  fevers 
of  various  kim Is.  If  such  a  soil  must  be  used, 
there  should  be  a  sloping  surface,  or,  if  unavoid- 
ably level,  nothing  short  of  the  most  thorough 

II.  Construction  of  School  Building. — The  con- 
struction of  the  school  building  will  depend  on 

the  number  of  pupils  to  he  a omodated  :   the 

kind  of  school,  as  regards  the  sexes;  and  the 
grade,  —  whether  primary,  grammar,  or  high 
school.  (See  School-House.)  In  regard  to 
water-closets  and  urinals,  it  is  hardly  necessary 
to  say,  that  they  should,  for  convenience,  be  as 
near  the  school  house  as  possible,  without  being 
near  enough  to  allow  the  perception  of  any  odor. 
The  approaches  from  the  school-house  should  be 
undercover,  the  ventilation  and  the  supply  of 
light  should  be  ample.  They  should  also  In-  en- 
closed from  observation. 

III.  Construction  and  Arrangement  of  Class 
Rooms.— This  varies  with  the  conditions  under 
which  the  school-house  is  built.  The  rooms,  how- 
ever, should  always  be  constructed  so  as  to  allow 


sch. 


imluly.  nor  too  glaring,  so  as  to  dazzle  the 
'reflection.  Of  the  colors  commonly  em- 
1 ;  namely,  the  white,  the  ocher,  the  stone 
and  the  lightish-brown,  the  last  two  are 
isly  to  be  preferred."  If  the  lighting  of 
liool  room  is  from  the  roof .  care  should  be 


light  will  be  intolerable  in  hot  weather,  ami 
their  regulation  by  blinds  will  be  difficult.  If 
the  lighting,  on  the  other  hand,  is  by  side  win- 
dows, "the  height  of  the  window  sill-  from  the 
floor."  says  Kohson,  -should  always  be  con- 
siderable, and  the  heads  near  1 1 ling       Mini; 

of  the  cheerfulness  of  a  school  r especially 

in  a  town,  depends  on  the  amount  of  sky  which 
can  be  seen  from  the  windows.  The  height  of 
the  sills  from   the  floor,  therefore,  should  never 


440  HYU 

be  less  than  five  feet,  and  may  be  even  more 
with  advantage.  This  will  enable  the  top  or 
head  to  be  placed  nearly,  if  Dot  quite,  up  to  the 
ceiling,  and  then  the  upper  stratum  of  vitiated 
air  ran  lie  mure  readily  removed."  The  impor- 
tance of  this  subject  m  regard  to  health  is  very 
great.  Liebreieh,  in  his  report  to  the  College  of 
Preceptors  of  London  (July,  L872),  attributes 
several  diseases  of  the  eve  to  this  cause  alone ; 
and  Dr.  Colin  asserts  that  of  410  students  ex- 
amined by  him,  only  one-third  possessed  good 
eyesight,  the  remaining  two-thirds  having  had 
their  sight  injured,  in  his  opinion,  by  the  de- 


ficient lighting  of  the  school  rooms  i 
studied.  A  rough  calculation,  from  r 
made  on  the  subject,  gives  200  square 
window  glass  as  the  proper  number 
scholar.  In  the  above  remarks  by  Ci 
left  side  has  been  designated  as  the  i 
which   the   lijht   shoul  I  come.  Ii.-eaii.~e 


i-  th 


suivs  the  fullest    Him 
the  least   inconveniei 

the  eve.       When  Ugh 

front  of  the   room,  t 

fare  either  of  teachei 

posed  to  face  each 

hind,  the  shadow  of 

upon   the   page;    if  from   the    right 

shadows  of  the  arm  and   hand,  in    tl 

writing, equally  obscure  it.     Thelight, 

should  fall  from  the  left  si  le,  and.  as  t 

sible,  from  above.     In  eve g  si  hools, 

iug  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  equ 
by  day.  If  gas  is  used,  the  glass  cj  lim 
reflecting  shade  is  recommended,  for  th 
of  steadying  the  light  and  making  it  str 
whiter.  <  .round  glass  shades  are  now 
discountenanced,  then-  effect  being  to  c 
heht.  for  general  illuminatm-  pur, 
are  desirable,  as  in  the  parlor  or  cone, 
but  arc  out  of  place  in  the  school  ro 
any  room  where  the  object  is  to  cc 
light  upon  a  particular  spot. 
V.     The  Mo, 


cool  and  foul  air  is  forced  out  at  the  other 
through  the  flue  of  the  grate,  in  which  a  tire 
is  usually  kept  to  facilitate  the  current.  This 
method,  while  perhaps  the  least  objectionable  of 
any.  has  been  opposed  on  the  ground,  that  by  it 
the  stratum  of  air  nearest  the  ceiling  is  kept 
warmest,  while  that  nearest  the  floor,  which 
should  be  the  warmest,  is  least  so.  To  obviate 
this  difficulty,  it  has  even  been  proposed  to  make 
the  floor  of  stone  and  warm  it  after  the  manner 
of  an  oven,  i,  e.,  by  kindling  a  fire  under  it. 
Whatever  method  is  adopted,  however,  fluctua- 
tions of  temperature  should,  as  much  as  possible, 
be  avoided,  and  the  air  of  the  room  should  be 
kept  steadily  at  from  65  to  70  decrees. 


'II.  Furniture.  Several  diseases  have  been 
ed  to  faultily-constructed  school  furniture, 
if  among  which  is  curvature  of  the  spine,  with 
diseases  consequent  upon  it.  This  is  some- 
estheresult  of  insufficient  lighting;  but  more 
uentlv  it  arises  from  the  improper  construc- 
Of  the  desk  and  seat    or  the  arrangement  of 


VIII.   ]> 


1  School  Manag 

intent. — 

ne  which  militate  against 

mately    growing 

less   in 

as  more  studj  IS 

given  to 

,.     [tmaybesa 

d  briefly 

■  tends  to  bodil 

deteri- 

Id  be  discounts 

anced.as 

is  to  train,   not 

O   break 

s,  under 

anagement,  whii 

h   affect 

id  those  which  a 

ise  from 

\ly  school  session 

These 

le  to  the  fact  flu 

t  courses 

first,  with  thevi 

w  of  ac- 

result,   and   tli 

■   pupils' 

form  to  them. 

By  this 

method,  session 

of  five 

of   Ventilation 


I.VTiOX. 

VI. 

Maim, 


sometimes  ordered;  this  can  result  only  in 
physical  injury.  The  reversal  of  this,  /.  e.,a  study 
of  the  childs  physical  necessities  first,  and  a. 
School  course  based  on  them,  will  insure  the  adop- 


id  con- 
anged, 


stove,  the  cellar  furnace,  and  all  devices 
warming  air  by  passing  it  over  heated  m 
surfaces  are  now  entirely  discountenanced 
having  been  discovered  that  a  highly  poison 
gas  is  set  free,  and  passes  through  heated  m 
as  through  a  sieve.     The  steam  coil,  placed  < 

side  of  th,'. school] n  and  heating  a  eolumi 

air  which  is  drawn  fi i  il utside,  and,  a 

heating,  ascends  into  the  room,  has,  of  late,  I 
extensively  used.  At  the  opposite  end  of 
room,  a  grate,  varying  in  size   with   that  of 

in    is    placed  ;    the    theory   being   that,  as 

heated  air  ascends  in  one  end  of  the  room, 


(2)  The  number,  length,  and  distribution  of 
recesses  must  vary  vs  ith  the  different  ages  of  the 
children  to  such  an  extent,  that  the  only  practi- 
cable guide  for  their  regulation  must  befoundin 
the  discretion  of  the  teacher.  It  may  be  said,  in 
general,  however,  thai  the  weariness  of  the  pupil, 
which  is  shown  by  his  restlessness  and  want  of 
attention,  furnishes  the  best  indication  of  the 
time  when  the  ordinary  text-book  studies  should 
be  superseded  by  physical  exercises,  or  by  the  ab- 
solute recreation  of  the  play-ground.  In  tropical 
climates,  the  middle  of  the  day,  for  exercise  of 


any  kind,  should  be  avoided.  Pfature,  however, 
has  pointed  this  oul  so  mniiistakaMv.  that  there  is 
little  liability  to  error.  (3)  The  nwmbi  r,  length, 
and  distribution  of  vacations  are,  in  a  genera] 


with  such  modifications 
climate,  prevailing  con- 
r  conditions.  The  ten- 
the  I  oited  States,  has 


ENE  141 

than  we  can  tell  him  within  it.     The  teacher 

shunM  subdivide  his  lesson  lather  than  trespass 
beyond  this  limit  Lessons  of  different  kind.-. 
i.   '•.,  upying  different    senses     should    follow 

each  other ;  this  is  a  great  relief.     It   is  absurd 

to  speak  of  these  frequent  changes  as  causing 
loss  of  time".  Kxeiteinent  and  overwork,  also, 
should  be  avoided.  The  same  general  directions, 
however,  given   in   regard    to  the  number  and 


tedl\ 


— with  a  slight  iiitenni-.-ion  of  a  week  durin; 
holidays  till  the  following  June  or  July, 
this  arrangement,  a  long,  continuous  vacate, 
insured  during  the  wannest  season  of  the  ; 
when,  it  is  claimed,  rest  is  most  needed.  It 
been  objected  to  this,  and  perhaps  with  res 
that  the  heat   of  the  summer  months  rei 


which 
atten- 


,1   lie 


,1  h, 


■aim  or  pupils  w, 
rather  by  confining  them  indoors.  As  long, 
however,  as  the  summer  heats  are  avoided  h\ 
a  flight  to  the  sea-sl,ore  or  the  mountains,  this 
practice  will  probably  prevail  :  and  though  i; 
may  be  said  that  the  poor  of  cities,  who  are  by 
far  the  largest  patrons  of  the  public  schools,  can- 
not afford  to  leave  the  city  for  summer  retreat.-, 
it  must  be  remembere  I.  on  the  other  hand,  that 
the  greater  prevalence  of  fatal  diseases  in  cities, 
during  the  summer  months,  renders  a  vacation 
desirable  even  in  their  case.  (4)  The  regulations 
of  the  school  may.  by  their  severity,  seriously 
interfere  with  bodily  health,  by  checking  or 
entirely  repressing  that  activity  which  is  so 
marked  a  characteristic  of  childhood  and  youth 
Reid,  in  his  Principles  of  Education,  says," 
There  is  nothing  in  which  parents  arc  often  more 
tyrannical  and   unreasonable  than   in   expecting 

children  to  be  quiet  and  g 1,  and  give  them 

little  trouble,  when  they  will  not  put  themselves 
to  the  least  trouble  to  find  suitable  occupation 
fen-  the  active  ami  restless  faculties  of  their 
children.  The  trouble  that  a  child  gives  to  those 
in  charge  of  it.  should  very  often  be  viewed  as 
an  effort  of  nature  to  recall  them  to  their  neg- 
lected duty."  The  degree  andkindof  restraint, 
exercised  over   pui.il-.  therefore   deserve  careful 


.  /'.  /-s,,//,// 1  \,,nliliiHi  nf  Piijiils. —  [  1  )  ( 'lcan- 
-.  being  a  necessary  condition  of  health. 
Id  I..-  strenouslj  insisted  upon.  Cleanliness 
•  person  will  sometimes  be  found,  especially 

tools  among  the  very  ] r.  to   be  neglei  ted. 

danger  of  the  outbreak  of  disease,  or  of  its 
nunication  from  this  source,  is  always  great 
rge  schools:  and.  therefore,  the  frequent 
if  the  lavatory,  in  such  cases,  is  necessary. 
iliness  of  clothing  is  no  less  necessary  to 
•nt  the  communication  of  di.-ea-e.  1:,  ali/ing 
leglecl  of  a  proper  care  of  the  .  ;.  I  hing, 
pal  to  children  through  though  li  ssness  many 
,1  1,    ,  lc   hi  ye  made  tb  da   5  dusting  and 


precision  cm  at 
leanliness  of  habits 
ion  of  good  health, 
ir  as  may  be  and 
e  prevention  of  ill 


nools 
■nits. 
nted, 
pre- 


and  skin'  di-. ','-,-.  whether  of  the'  hc'ad'or  the 
body,  are  cases  of  this  kind.  A  slight  knowledge 
of  the  symptoms  should  apprise  an  intelligent. 
teacher  of  the  danger  at  once,  and  secure  the  re- 
moval of  the  case  to  the  home  or  the  hospital. 


demned  all 

any  considi 


is  a    lie.'. 

re]  iressii  >i 


line,  that  innate  activity  which 
ie  child's  very  being,  and  the 
■h.  though  not  immediately  and 
actively  productive  of  disease,  becomes  passively 
so  by  the  condition  of  atrophy  which  it  tends  to 
produce.  Want  of  exercise  is  frequently  as  in- 
imical to  health  as  excess  of  it.  The  number 
and  h-nijtli  if  ii-xsimx.  also,  by  their  excess  may 
become  physically  injurious.  -With  young  chil- 
dren," ( 'urrie  says,  "a  lesson  should  not  average 
in  duration  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and 
on  no  account  exceed  twenty  minutes.  It  is  hard 
enough  to  sustain  the  attention,  even  for  this 
period  ;  and  no  child  will  be  able  to  retain  more 


die  .1    ...-■    I n  .  -   epidemic,  if    the    puj.il    has 

never  1 n  vaccinated,  the  operation  should  take 

place  at .•:  ii  be  has,] f  -1 Idberequired, 

either  iii  the  shape  of  marks,  or  a  certificate, 
which   should   establish   three   facts:    that   the 

operation  was  performed  by  a  ipetent   and 

responsible  person,  that  it  was  effective,  and  that 
it  was  done  recently  enough  b .  ensure  its  efficacy 
in  averting  disease  at  the  time  the  proof  is  re- 
quired. 

X.  P/,i,si,Y,/  K.,; rc/se.— That  this  is  one  of  the 
most  effective  of  all  agencies  in  preventing  dis- 
ease, is  now  generally  admitted,  though  the  ex- 


442 


cess  to  which  it  is  often  carried  in  our  day  has, 
for  winic  time,  been  creating  a  reaction  against  it. 
The  phase  of  the  question  which  rails  for  atten- 
tion here,  is  its  use  not  so  much  as  a  means  of 
development,  as  in  promoting  health.  On  this 
account,  one  of  the  most  important  acces- 
sories of  the  school-house  is  the  play-ground. 
Whether  this  is  used  as  a  place  for  continuing 
the  discipline  of  the  school  room,  or  simply  as  a 

pursue  their  games,  its  size,  location,  and  exposure 
shoidd  be  carefully  considered.  It  theplot,on 
which  the  school-house  Btands  is  large,  but  en- 
tirely, or  almost  entirely,  surrounded  by  other 
buildings,  the  planting  of  shade  trees  around  the 
limits  of  the  enclosure  is  recommended,  in  order 
to  give  seclusion.  These  should  never  stand,  h  iw- 
ever,  so  near  the  building  as  to  exrlu  le  light,  or 
cause  dampness.  Robson  says  in  i  igard  to  this, 
"The  play-ground  shoidd  cot  bi  "i  a  straggling, 
inconvenient  form,  but  compact  and  without  re- 
cesses or  places  where  children  can  remain  long 
out  of  sight.  A  northerly  or  easterly  aspect  should 
never  be  wantonly  provided  when  a  Boutherly  or 

westerly  one  could  have  1 n  as  easily  obtaine  1 

by  no  other  outlay  than  that  of  a  little  common 
sense.  A  portion  should  l>e  covered,  BO  that  in 
wet  weather  the  children  may  not  be  compelled 
to  play  in  their  school  rooms.  In  the  case  of  in- 
fant schools,  this  covered  portion  is  absolutely  in- 
dispensable, as  already  shown,  because  inarching 
forms  so  important  an  clement  in  their  prepar- 
atory instruction.  It  can  generally  be  obtained  in 
the  form  of  a  light  shed  open  on  one  side;  but. 
in  some  cases,  and  where  land  is  dear,  it  may 
be  convenient  to  raise  the  boys' and  girls' schools 
on  a  low  story  of  eight  to  nine  feet  high,  and 
thus  to  obtain  some  portion  of  the  covered  play- 
ground underneath.  In  such  cases,  care  will  be 
required  to  prevent  a  cold,  drafty  result.  As 
to  the  size  of  play-groin  ids  for  different  schools, 
it  is  difficult  to  be  precise.  ( >n  account  of  their 
more  active  out-door  games,  requiring  space,  the 
boys  should  undoubtedly  have  the  lion's  share, 
while  the  infants — too  young  to  develop  all  the 
uses  of  a  play-ground  —  will  be  happy  in  one 
much  more  limited.  Perhaps,  a  space  of  about  ; 
twice  the  size  of  the  school  room  and  classrooms 
is  necessary  for  the  latter.  Where  land  is  dear, 
and  in   consequence    limited,   one   play-ground  | 


may  suffice  both  for  the  girls'  school  and  the  in- 
fants',an  arrangement  being  made  by  the  respec- 
tive mistresses  for  its  use  at  separate  times. 
W  nlioui  Mich  arrangement,  there  is  risk  of  dis- 
order, no  one  being  responsible  for  the  discipline 
of  nil.  If  there  are  two  infant  schools  or  depart- 
ments on  the  same  site,  the  girls  should  be  pro- 
vided with  a  separate  play-ground,  because  then 
the  numbers  are  sure  to  be  too  great  for  one." 
By  what  means  these  play-grounds  should  be 
separated,  is  still  a  matterof  discussion,  different 
method.-  being  employed  in  different  places,  with, 
thus  far,  equally  satisfactory  results. 

In  dismissing  the  subject  of  school  hygiene,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  influence  of  school  life  on 

physical  health,  if  properly  managed,  is  not  only 
not  injurious,  but  positively  l»  ncticial.  This 
might  be  inferred,  a  priori,hom  the  fundament- 
al law  of  existence.  It  is  amply  continued,  how- 
ever, by  actual  statistics.  Efforts  to  prove  the 
contrary  have  been  made  by  inferences  drawn 
from  false  premises  based  on  over-exertion,  and 
many  erroneous  theories  prejudicial  to  the  cause  of 
education  have  thereby  become  prevalent.    The 

interact! if  mind  and  body,  however,  is  not  only 

an  i  stablished,  but  a  conceded  fact  :  and  just  as 
surely  as  the  body,  by  proper  exercise,  contrib- 
utes to  the  efficiency  of  the  mind,  so  surely  does 
the  mind. by  duly  regulated  action,  contribute  to 
that  of  the  body.  The  annals  of  medical  science 
i  < n if i ii n  this  in  the  most  unmistakable  man- 
ner. The  difficulty  is  to  assign  to  each  its  proper 
amount  of  exercise.  <>n  this  point,  differences 
will  probably  always  exist;  but  the  foundation 
ha*  been  carefully  and  substantially  laid  ;  and. 
each  year,  by  increased  interest,  refinement  of 
processes ,  and  patient  investigation,  something 
is  added  to  our  knowledge  of  this  most  important 
subject,  and  the  probability  of  our  possession  of 

.i   scl 1    course  capable  of   accomplishing  the 

great  desideratum  of  modern  life — a  true  educa- 
tion— is  more  assured  —  Sec  Ci  1:1:11  .  Prim  iples 
,1,,,11'rtftir,  afCuNimi.i'-SrlKvlEdvcation  Edin. 
andLond.);  Ronsox.  School  Architecture  (Lond., 
1874):  Pappenhbim,  ffandbuch  der  Sanitats- 
I'nlhri,  nacli  eigeiieii  rntersuchungen  bearbeitet 
(2  vols..  Berlin,  1858—9);  Siegel,  The  Schule 
und  iln-  Einfluss  auf  die  GesundheU  (1868); 
Passavant,  Ueber  Schulunterricht  vom  writ- 
lichen  Slandpunkte  (1868). 


IDAHO  was  organized  as  a  territory  March  children,  between  five  and  eighteen  years  of  age. 

3..  lsi;.'{.  being  formed  from  portions  of  Dakota,  The  whole  number  of  children  of  school  age  in 

Nebraska,  and  Washington   territories,  and  in-  t  he  territory  was  estimated  at  that  time  as  1500. 

eluding  then  the  present  territory  o)  Montana  and  dp  to  1870,  little   progress  had  been  made,  the 

nearly  all  of  Wyoming.  Its  present  area  i*  86,294  census  returns  showing  only  466  pupils  attend- 

sq.  m.;  and  its  population,  in  1870,  was  14,999.  ing   the   schools  of   the   territory.     The   whole 

Educational  History. — Soon  after  the  organ-  number  of  school  children  in  the  territory,  be- 

ization  of  the  territory,  provision  was  made  for  tween  the  ages  of  five  and  twenty-one,  in  1871, 

the  support  of  public  schools,  and  a  school  system  was  1,596  j  in  1872,  1,909  ;  in  1873,  3,473;  and 

was  established.     In  1866,  the  number  of  pupils  in  L 874,  4,010. 

enrolled  in  the  schools  of  eight  counties  was  re-  School  System. — The  school  law  has  been  re- 
ported as  436,  out  of  a  school  population  of  71)2  peatedly  changed.     That  at  present   (1870)  in 


IDAHO 

force  was  passed  in  .January.  1875.  Its  leading 
provisions  are  the  following  : — 

The  territorial  controller  is.  ex  officio,  territo- 
rial superintendent  of  public  instruc and 

his  duties  are,  to  exercise  a  general  supervision 

l>are  blanks  fur  reports  of  county  superintend- 
ents, trustees,  teachers,  etc.;  to  apportion  the 
school  fund;  ami  to  make  a  detailed  report  to 


3  libraries,  containing  1  OS  volumes.     The  num- 
ber of  children,  between  rive  and  twenty-one  was 


file  trustees  of  sel 


e  interest  of  whieli  i-  iqipni  tii>in-<l  iiiiiini.r  tin- 
unties.     The  county  scl 1  fund  is  obtained 

■  a  tax  of  not  less  than  two,  or  more  than 
e,  mills  mi  each  dollar  of  taxable  property 
every  county.  All  moneys  arising  from  fines 
rabreachof  the  penal  lawsof  the  territory 

■  set  apart  by  the  county  treasurer  as  a  part 
the  county  school  fund. 

Measures  were  taken  in  July,  1874,  to  estab- 
1]  in  Boise  t  'ity  a  university,  to  be  known 
the  Idaho  University.  Provision  has  been 
ule  for  this  institution  in  the  new  school  law. 
IDIOTS,  Education  of.  The  term  idiots 
applied  to  those  who,  in  different  degrees,  are 
ficient  in  intellectual  power  and  activity.  A 
ire  genera]  designation,  however,  of  this  class 
unfortunates  is  that  ol  tki  imbecile,  or  feeble- 


thereii 

i.the    seho 

ol    hooks    osed,    the    ! 

school 

theap 
also  to 

..'''uilitT! 

to  appoint   trustees 
irganize  new  school  d 
:  the  inhabitants  of 

:■  boundtiriesof  school 

School 


year.  Their  powers  and  duties  are  to  em] 
and  remove  teachers,  and  to  fix  the  salarie 
the  same;  to  visit  the  schools  as  often  as  i 
in  each  month  ;  to  take  charge  of  all  the  sell 
property  in   their    respective   districts;   by    i 


teachers;  and  to  appoint  a  census  marshal  to  j  triere,  an 
make  the  enumeration  of  the  children  in  thedis-  !  by  Dr.  V< 
trict.  No  books,  papers,  tracts,  or  documents,  of  a  at  Paris, 
political,  sectarian,  or  denominational  character    But  .-ill  tl 


;>il  by  l>r.  Tool  of  Edinburgh  (lsl!t), 
lelhomme  of  Paris  (1824).  Practical 
on  a  small  scale,  had  also  been  made 
■g  in  Austria  (1816),  at  the  American 
ir  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Hartford. 
I) ;  at  the  Bicetre,  one  of  the  large 
tpitals  in  Paris  (1828);  at  the  Salpe- 
jther  insane  hospital  at  Paris  (1833); 
,isin,  who  organized  a  school  for  idiots 
in  1833,  and  by  other  philanthropists. 


orthography,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, English  grammar,  and  the  history  of  the 
United  States. — The  legal  school  age  is  from 
five  to  eighteen  years. 

School  Statistics. — In  1874.  the  whole  number 
of  school-districts  in  the  territory  was  77;  and 
rhe  number  of  school  houses.  o3.     There  were 


n  1- 


18,  n 


•d  St 


n  the  organization  and  improvement  of 
istitutions  for  idiot  instruction.  In  1874, 
•e  three  schools  for  idiots  in  France. — at 
fcre  and  the  Salpetriere  at  Paris,  and  at 
t,  with  an  aggregate  number  of  85  in- 
i  Belgium,  institutions  for  the  instruction 
are  connected  with  the  insane  asylums 


444  IDI 

at  Gheel  anrl  Bruges.  The  Netherlands  have  our 
school  for  idiots,  at  the  Hague,  founded  in  1  *">•>. 
with  which,  three  years  later,  a  medical  asylum 
was  connected.  In  Switzerland,  Dr.  Guggenbuhl 
opened,  in  1842,  a  school  specially  intended  for 
cretins,on  the  Abendberg.  in  the  canton  of  Hern. 
His  pretended  ability  to  cure  cretins  attracted 
for  a  time  great  attention,  but  was.  afterwards 
generally  denounced  as  a  fraud.  In  1874,  Switzer- 
land had  two  private  schools  for  idiots,  in  the 
cantons  of  Bern  and  Basel,  with  an  aggregate 
number  of  27  inmates.  There  are  similar  schools 
in  the  canton  of  Thurgau  and  in  the  city  of 
Zurich.  In  the  German  provinces  of  Austria, 
an  attempt  to  establish  a  school  for  idiots  was 
made,  as  early  as  1816,  at  Salzburg,  by  the 
teacher  Guggenmoos.  A  few  years  later,  twelve 
cretin  children  were  received  at  the  monastery 
of  Admont,  in  Salzburg.  From  1835  to  1847, 
Haldenwang,  a  clergyman  of  Wurtemberg,  main- 
tained at  Wilillierg  a  private  institution  for  idiot 
children.  The  governments  of  several  < if  tin-  <  fer- 
man  states  granted  the  means  for  i-stabli-hine 
idiot  asylums ;  and  Dr.  Kern,  who  had  alreai  ly.  in 
1842.  begun  to  experiment  in  Eisenach,  succeeded 
in  effecting  remarkable  partial  cures,  and  was 
placed  by  the  Saxon  government  at  the  head 
of  an  excellent  asylum  to  Goblis,  near  Leipsric  ; 
while  Sag  ■'  to  Berlin  1844),  Krause  in  Halle 
(1840),  G  as  in  Hub.  rtaburg  L846  .  and  Dr. 
RSsch,  in  Wurtemberg,  were  no  less  successful. 
In  1874,  Prussia  had  ten  idiot  asylums,  some 
private,  and  some  maintained  by  the  state. 
Sweden  had.  in  ls7 1.  three  schools,  and  Rus- 
sia, one  school  for  idiots.  In  England,  the  first 
efforts  for  the  instruction  of  idiot  children  were 
made  by  some  benevolent  ladies,  to  Lancas- 
ter, Hath.  Ipswich,  and  Brighton.  A  movement 
for  establishing  idiot  asylums  on  a  large  scale 
began  in  1S47.  The  institution  at  Earlswood, 
near  Redhill,  Surrey,  had,  in  1874,  700  inmates; 
other  institutions  are  the  Eastern  County 
Asylum.  Essex  Hall,  Colchester,  the  Western 
Counties  Asylum,  at  Starcross,  near  Exeter, 
the  Midland  Counties  Asylum,  at  Knowle,  and 
the  Royal  Albert  Asylum,  near  Lancaster.  A 
private  institution  of  Dr.  Langdon  Down,  at 
Normaiislicld.  near  London,  is  only  designed  for 
the  wealthy.  All  these  institutions  have  train- 
tog  schools  connected  with  them.  Scotland 
has  a  national  institution  for  the  education 
of  imbecile  children,  at  Lasbert,  Stirlingshire, 
with  90  pupils.  There  arc  also  schools  for  idiots 
in  Ireland.  Canada,  and  New  South  Wales.  In 
the  United  States,  the  earliest  efforts  to  instruct 
idiot  children  were  made,  as  has  already  been 


the  Perkins  Institution  for  the  Blind  in  Boston, 
andinthe  New  ForkDeafand  Dumb  Institution. 
The  first  impulse  to  the  establishment  of  special 
schools  for  idiois  was  given  (1845]  by  the  letters 
of  George  Sunnier,  describing  hw  visit  to  the 
Paris  schools.  Among  the  first  and  foremost 
promoters  of  the  cause  in  the  United  States,  were 


Dr.  S.  B.  Woodward,  superintendent  of  the 
hospital  for  the  insane,  at  Worcester,  Mass..  and 
Dr.  Frederick  V  Backus,  of  Rochester.  N.  V. 
The  legislatures  of  Massachusetts  and  New  York 
at  once  took  action  in  the  matter.  In  New  York, 
Dr.  Backus,  who  had  been  elected  a  member  of 
the  state  senate,  reported,  in  1846,  a  bill  for  the 
establishment  of  an  idiot  institution:  and,  in 
Massachusetts,  the  legislature  ap] minted  a  com- 
mission to  investigate  the  condition  of  idiots 
and  report  suitable  incisures  for  their  instruc- 
tion. In  accordance  with  the  report  of  the 
commission,  an  experimental  scl I  was  estab- 
lished at  South  Boston,  in  Oct.  IMS,  which  was. 
in  1850,  incorporated  as  the  Massachusetts  School 
for  Idiotic  and  Feeble-Minded  South.  It  was, 
from  its  foundation  until  I876,underthe  direction 
of  Dr.  Howe, -whose  death  occurred  to  that  year. 
The  state  makes  an  annual  appropriation  of 
Sir..:>on  for  its  support,  and   poor  children   are 


and  care  of  150  pn 
been  enlarged.  'I  he 
first,  under  the   direel 


dliho 


Maine, 
nd  each 
In  New 

irtedby 


■d  at  Albany,  which 
anenl  state  institu- 
wherea  large  edifice 
oilation  at  a  cost  of 
s  for  the  instruction 
Since   then,  it   has 


by   Dr. 


from  the 
Wilbur, 
had  con- 
it  Barre, 
he  call  to 
e  Brown. 


rl  he  Pennsylvania  Training  School  for  Feeble- 
Minded  Children,  originated  as  a  private  school. 
to  1852,  atGermantown.but  was.  in  the  following 
year,  incorporated  under  its  present  name:  and 
to  1857,  after  receiving  a  grant  from  the  state, 
transferred  to  its  present  location  at  Media.  Del- 
aware Co.  The  '  hio  State  Asylum  for  the 
Education  of  Idiotic  and  Imbecile  Youth,  which 
is  wholly  supported  by  thestate,  was  organized  at 
Columbus,  in  1857,  as  an  experimental  school. 
It  was  permanently  established  to  L864,  when  a 
site,  about  2  miles  from  the  city,  was  purchased, 
and  a  building  erected,  in  1868,  affording  ac- 
commodation for  250  inmates,  bin  subsequently 
enlarged.  In  Kentucky,  the  Institution  for 
the  Education  of  Feeble-Minded  Children  and 
.  at  Frankfort; 
on,  in  1865,  at 
School  for  Imbe- 
s,  iii  L858.  The 
17,  a  school   for 


in  Illinois  a  similar 
;sonville.  The  Conn 
Was    established  at 

of  New  York  opene 


ieh  limits 
pencil  in 
ss.      The 


Is; I  at  Payville,  Worcester  Co., 
report  of  the  I".  S.  Commissioner  of  Education 
for  1874,  gives  the  following  statistics  of  these 
institutions : 


NAMES. 

III 

II" 

Number  of  inmates 

|  i'P 

1 

g 

1 

1 

H 

1 

C  innectioul  Bch 

12 

21 

H 

50 

16 

7  to  9 
49 

74 

65 

45 

66 

50 

52 

71 

5 
110 
217 

123 

31 
37 
49 
23 

47 

3 
89 

143 

101 

103 
99 

lis 

199 

360 

164 

254 

213 

190 

530 

14 
691 

614 

733 

Illlnoia  Institutii 

Kentucky  Instit 

Minded  Cliil 

Private  tnstitutii 

u  for  the  Education  of  Feeble-Minded 
ition   for    the    Education  of  Feeble- 
n  tor  tiie  Education  of  Feeble-Minded 

$24,500 

7,500* 

$24,500 

Massachusetts  8 

chool  for  Idiotic  and  Feeble-Miuded 

22,669 

23,645 

Hillside  School  1 

ir  Backward  and  Peculiar  Children, 

New  Ytnk  A-\  li 

Ohio  State  Asyli 

Pennsylvania    1 

Children... 

in  4>r  Idiots,  at  Syracuse,  N.  V 

raining    School   for  Feeble  -  Minded 

41,186 
70,283 

10,962 
63,433 

63,594 

*  Also  $150  per  capita  allowed  by  the  state. 

The  first  efforts  for  the  instruction  of  iiliots 
■were  made  upon  no  definite  plan,  or  simply  with 
the  view  to  subject  some  philosophical  theory 
to  a  practical  test  Since  the  establishment  of 
special  schools  for  idiots,  idiocy  is  generally 
viewe  1  as  a  prolonged  infancy;  and,  in  all  efforts 
for  the  development  either  of  their  physical  powers 
or  their  mental  faculties,  it  is  deemed  essential 
to  proceed  according  to  the  principles  of  physiol- 
ogy, and  to  conform,  as  strictly  as  possible,  to  the 

teachings  of  nature.  The  physical  e  lucal will, 

of  course,  vary  according  to  the  deficiencies  of 
individuals:  and  the  instruction  will  always,  to 
a  large  extent,  be  conditioned  by  the  health 
of  the  pupils  and  the  progress  of  their  medical 
treatment.  It  is  self-evident,  therefore,  that 
medical  and  educational  skill  must  go  hand  in 
hand  in  the  management  of  schools  for  idiots. 
—  It  has  been  found  that  Froebel's  kinder- 
garten occupations  may  easily  be  so  modified 
as  gradually  to  enliven  the  nervous  art  ion  of 
idiot  children,  and  that,  in  general,  playful  occu- 
pations must  be  resorted  to,  so  as  to  make  at  the 
beginning  deep  and  lasting  impressions  on  their 
list Ic -s  minds.  Experience  also  shows  that,  under 
proper  treatment,  about  one-third  of  all  idiot 
children  (if  the  cure  be  early  begun)  may  be  ad- 
vanced to  nearly  average  usefulness ;  another 
third,  to  the  lower  grades  of  intelligence;  and  the 
rest,  to  a  condition  in  which  they  cease  to  be 
a  mere  burden  on  the  family  or  on  society. 
The  largest  of  the  American  schools,  that  of 
Media.  "Pa.,  reports  that,  up  to  July  1.,  1872, 
the  improvement  of  its  inmates  had  been  as 
follows:  taught  to  speak,  53;  articulation  im- 
prove I.  '-'"'.'1  :  taught  to  read.  254,  to  write.  146, 
to  feed  themselves,  (51,  to  dress  themselves,  94, 
to  walk,  5  ;  gait  improved,  '_'*<;  :  reformed  from 
bad  habits,  104,  from  destructive  habits.  302; 
accustomed  to  some  employment,  241;  epilepsy 
cured.  23:  epilepsy  improved,  7-v 

According  to  the  last  census,  the  number  of  idi- 
ots in  the  United  States  was  24..">27  :  in  EneJand 
and  Wales,  2!),4;V2  ;  in  Norway,  2,039.     In  Scot- 


Dt.Cheyne  Bi 

\HY. 

nd  Feeble- Mi 

tried 

id  Dr.  Keen's  e 

-say 

land,  the  number  was  estimated  at  3,000:  in  Ire- 
land, at  7.000;  in  the  Netherlands,  at  about  3, ; 

in  Switzerland,  including  the  cretins,  at  3,800. 
In  many  countries,  no  official  enumeration  of 
idiots  is  made.  Where  the  census  has  been  taken, 
the  figures  are  believed  to  be  too  low,  as  there  are 
many  cases  of  idiocy  which  are  not  recognized  by 
parents  and  relatives. 

The  views  of  Dr.  Seguin  on  the  education  of 
idiots  are  laid  down  in  the  work.-.  Traitement 
moral,  hygiene   et   ed ( fe I  aris, 

logical  Method   (Nct   5Tork,    1861    .   and   New 

Fun,  and  Remark, i  Id      ,  (Nev, 

York,  1870).     See  also   Dr.   Ayres,  Report  on 

the  Education  of  Imbet i  Id  oti,   (  i    dren, 

(invol.xin.  of  the  Transactions  of  the  American 
Medical  Association.m 
The  Training  of  Idiot 
CliUdren  (Dublin,  1864) 

on  the  subject,  in  A//</<>i/irinr  Zrilnrl,ri/t  ft> 
Psychiatrie,  1857  :  and  Dr.  L.  P.  Brockett,  in 
Barnard's  Journal  of  Education,  vol.  I.  — A 
statistii  d  !  count  of  all  European  institutions 
foridii      i    ,-.    be  found  in  Eclekmeyer,  Ueber- 

.     ■'■!■    reffentlicl    privaten  Irr 

Tdioten-AnstaUm  ,  fer  europaischer  Staaten, 
(1863).  See  also  Seguin,  Report  on  Education 
al  the  Vienna  Exhibition  (Wash..  1875). 

ILLINOIS.  This  state  formed  a  part  of  the 
North-west  Territory,  organized  in  pursuance  of 
the  ordinance  of  July  13.,  1787,  and  including 
the  whole  of  the  public  domain  situated  north 
of  the  Ohio  river.  Out  of  this  territory  were 
successively  formed,  and  admit  ted  into  the  Amer- 
ican Union,  the  states  of  Ohio  (1802),  Indiana 
(lsllli.and  Illinois  (181s)  ;  subsequently.  Mich- 
igan (1S3T),  and  Wisconsin  (1S4S).  Acm-ding 
to  the  census  of  1820,  Illinois  had  a  population 
of  5.) .21  1  ;  in  1>70.  its  population  was  reported 
as  2.."il  1.0915,  giving  it  the  fourth  rank  among 
the  states  of  tiie  Union.  Itsaiva  is  55,410 square 
miles.  The  number  of  illiterates  10  years  of 
age  and  upward  was,  at  that  time,  8,38  pi  i  cenl 


of  the  whole  population  ;  and  the  proporti f 

illiterates  among  adults  was  7.16  per  cent  of 
the  males,  and  *..>!)  per  cent  of  the  females. 

hWnr  tiiniail  Hixtorfi.  —  A  law  was  passed 
providing  for  the  establishment  of  public  schools 
in  the  state  as  early  as  L823  ;  and,  the  census  of 
1840  reported  the  number  of  common  schools 
as  1241 .  with  34.876  pupils.  In  18">0,the  num- 
ber of  schools  had  increased  to  2,(',4] ,  and  the 
number  of  pupils,  to  132.324.  The  school  fund. 
at  that  time  was  S'.I3!I.7!)'.),  derived  from  the 
sale  of  public  lands,  and  the  surplus  revenue  of 
the  United  States.  On  the  formation  of  the 
state,  one  section  in  each  township  was  appro- 
priated for  the  support  of  schools,  and  after- 
wards an  additional  income  of  ,'!  per  cent  on  the 
actual  proceeds  from   the  sales  of  public    lands 

within  the  state.     One-sixth  of  thesi    pr Is 

was  appropriated  for  the  support  of  colleges. 
The  office  of  superintendent  of  education  was 
ao1  created  till  L854;  aud,  the  next  year,  a  bill 
was  passed,  providing  that  the  educational  affairs 
ol  ili-  -tate  should  be  administered  by  the  state 
superintendent,  a  school  commissioner  for  each 
county,  and  a  board  of  education  for  each  town- 
ship. State  funds  were  to  be  distributed  only 
among  those  schools  which  had,  for  at  least 
six  months  in  the  year,  offered  equal  and  free 
instruction  to  all  children  of  the  legal  school 
age.  The  first  state  superintendent  was  Ninian 
Edwards  who  was  elected  in  1854  and  served 
till  1856;  W.  II.  Powell  served  from  L856  to 
1858  :  and  again  from  1862  to  1864  ;  the  system 
was  administered  by  Newton  Bateman,  as  state 
superintendent  from  1858  to  L862,  and  asecond 
term  from  1864  to  1874,  when  he  was  succeeded 
by  S.  M.  Etter,  the  present  incumbent  (1876). 
The  system,  as  at  present  constituted,  was 
adopted  in  1872.  An  outline  i,  given  below.  In 
1*71,  a  law  was  passed  prohibiting  all  school 
officers  from  excluding  any  children  from  the 
schools  on  account  of  color.  The  school  law  was 
further  amended  so  as  to  abolish  the  provisional 
teachers"  certificate.  A  bill  providing  for  coui- 
pulsory  education  u  a-  pa —ell  by  the  I  louse,  but 
defeated  ill  the  Senate. 

Si-1,,1,,1  Si/sU'in.  —  Public  education  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  following  school  officers: 
|li  A  state  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion; (2)  County  superintendents  of  schools; 
|.'!    I'.oaid-  of  township  school  trustees;  (4)  Boards 

of  district   scl 1   directors.     The  state  super- 

iiitfmh-iil  is  chosen  by  popular  vote,  at  a  general 
election,  and  holds  office  for  the  term  of  four 
years.  He  is  the  executive  head  of  the  system 
He  is  under  bonds  ($25,000)  for  the  faithful 
discharge  of  his  official  duties;  and  is  required 
to  keep  an  office  at  the  seat  of  government,  and 
to  receive,  arrange,  preserve,  and  file  all  official 
documents,  and  hold  the  same  in  readiness  to  be 

exhibited  to  the  governor  or  to  any  coi ittee 

of  the  legislature.  He  has  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  schools,  and  is  authorized  to  make 
such  rules  as  may  lie  requisite  for  carrying  the 
■I I  law  into  effect.  He  has  appellate  juris- 
diction in  all    controversies  arising  under  the 


school  law,  where  original  jurisdiction  is  vested 
in  the  county  superintendents.  He  is  authorized 
grant  state  certificates  autln  prizing  the  holders 


fpp  teach  without  further  examination. 


every 


county  and  school  district  in  the  state,  and 
valid  untO  revoked  for  cause.  Be  is,  ex  officio, 
a  member  of  the  state  board  of  education,  to 
which  is  intrusted  the  management  of  the  State 
Normal  University,  the  condition  and  expendi- 
tures of  which  he  is  required  to  report  to  each 
session  of  the  legislature;  and  he  is  also.  ,:,■  utficio. 
a  member  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  State 
Industrial  University. —  County  superintendents 
are  elected  every  four  years.  They  have  the 
custody  of  and  distribute  the  school  moneys  to 
the  several  townships,  visit  and  inspect  the 
schools  in  the  county  at  least  once  in  each  year, 
and  report  their  condition  to  the  state  super- 
intendent. They  are  the  official  advisers  of  all 
the  subordinate  school  officers  ami  teachers  of 
I  .their  respective  counties,  and  the  channel  of 
official  communication  between  the  state  depart- 
ment of  education  and  all  local  township  and 
district  school  officers.  They  are.  also,  required 
to  assist  in  the  management  of  teachers'  insti- 
tutes. They,  niorevcr.  examine  and  license 
teachers  At  least  four  public  examinations 
are  required  to  be  held  every  year  in  each 
county:  and  the  examination  may  be  conducted 
cither  by  the  county  superintendent  in  person, 
or  by  a  board  of  examiners  appointed  by  him. 
Sets  of  questions  are  furnished,  from  time  to 
time,  by  the  state  superintendent,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  these  examinations,  with  general  instruc- 
tions as  to  the  conditions  upon  which  certificates 
of  each  grade  should  be  granted.  In  this  way,  a 
uniform  standard  of  qualifications  is  preserved. 
Xo  teacher  can  lawfully  lie  employed  in  any 
common  school  in  the  state  without  a  certificate 
of  qualification  :  and  no  county  certificate  can 
be  granted  except  upon  ••due  examination"  of 
the  candidate  by  the  county  superintendent. 
\ftera  certificate  has  been  granted,  it  maybe 
renewed,  at  expiration,  by  the  county  super- 
intendent, or  he  may  require  the  teacher  to  sub- 
mit to  another  examination.  County  super- 
intendents are  also  vested  with  power  to  revoke 
certificates,  at  any  time,  for  immorality,  incom- 
petency, or  any  other  sufficient  cause.  The 
compensation  of  county  superintendents  is  $5  a 
day  for  services  actually  rendered,  and  3  per 
cent  upon  the  amount  of  sales  of  school  lands, 
and  upon  real  estate  taken  for  debt,  for  their 
services  in  making  such  sales ;  and  a  further 
commission  of  2  per  cent  upon  the  amount  of 
all  sums  distributed,  paid,  or  loaned  out,  by 
them.  —  A  boavdof  trustees,  consisting  of  three 
members,  is  elected  in  each  township,  for  a  term 
of  three  years,  one  member  retiring  annually 
The  trustees  determine  the  number  of  school 
districts  into  which  the  township  is  to  be  divided, 
and  apportion  and  distribute, semi-annually,  the 
public  school  moneys  among  the  districts  of 
their  respective  townships.  They  are  invested, 
in  their  corporate  capacity,  with  the  title  of  all 
school-houses  and  sites,  and  may  sell  the  same 


when  it  is  deemed  expedient.  -  -School directors 
are  elected,  in  the  same  manner  as  trustees;  and 
each  board  of  directors  ( gists  of  three  mem- 
bers, holding   office   for  three  wars,  one  new 


,1..  i 


ation,  for  at  least  six  months  in  each  year,  an 
longer  if  practicable,  a  sufficient  number  of  fre 

schools  for  the  proper  accom dation  of  all  tli 

children  in  the  district  over  the  age  of  six  an 
under  twenty-one  years.  They  may  adopt  an 
enforce  all  necessary  rules  and  regulations  fo 
the  management  of  the  schools,  and  must   visi 


township  fund,  derived  from  the  proceedsof  the 
sale'  of  the  sixteenth  section  in  each  congress al 


liars  should 


branches  are  to  be 
must  be  used.  —  i 
taught  are  orthogj 
arithmetic.  Englisl 
the  history  of  the  ( 

may  be  taught  th 
permissory  provisio 

of  one  or  more  adv 
county  of  the  Btate, 

which  ".said  Supt 
through  all  the  sub 
The  scl 1  ase  is 


proper  age 
the  public  si 
deut  in  on 
another  wit] 


i  grammar,  geography,  and 
I  nited  States;  the  law,  how- 
I  other  ami  higher  branches 
ian  those  enumerated.  This 
n  has  led  to  the  establishment 
anced  schools  in  nearly  every 
,  'the  vitalizing  influence  (if 

Bateman,  in  1868,  -is  felt 
•ordinate  grades  of  scl Is. 

from  0  to  '_'!  years,  and  all 
5  of  a  school  district,  of  the 

e  right  to  attend,  free  of  COSt, 
if  that  district  Pupils  resi 
ict  cannot  attend  school  in 
e  written  consent  of  the  di- 
ricts. 

Public  educational  revenues 
le  iullowing  sources  :  1 1  i  The 
.  consisting  of   three  per  cent 

of  the  sales  of  the  public 
!,   one-sixth     part    excepted  ; 


hold  a  regular  certifj 
second  grade.  (  crtil 
valid  for  two  years,  a 


States,  ph 

ofthe.ee,' 


hese,thereisrmaUyn(9S)^ 
nes,fo7'fi  ituri  s,  andpenal- 
incurred  before,  courts  of 
the  peace. 

tes.  —  Every  teacher  must 
ate  either  of  the  first  or 
icates  oi  the  first  grade  are 


.1th.  Those 

year,  and 


ill  eertiti- 

or  which 
thereon  ; 
,  for  iui- 

r  cause. 


money  w  In, 
general  gov< 
providing   t 


Mar, 


distribution  of   the  surplus 
lited    States,   and    by  law   of 

de  a  part  of  the  common- 
1  state.  (.'!)  The  college  or 
nsisting  of  one-sixth  of  the 
hool  fund  proper.  (4)  The 
isisting  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
axy  lands",  donated  to  the 
overnnieut.  for  the  purpose 
intaininga  seminary  for  the 
lildren  of  the  state  ;  all  of 
which  lands  that  remained  unsold  in  1861,  were 
< lonate,  1.  by  an  act  of  the  legislature,  to  the 
Illinois  Agricultural  ( 'olletre.  This  fund  amounts 
I,,  about  siiii. uoo.  These  constitute  the  per- 
manent state  sehool  fund,  the  principal  ot  which 
is  loaned  to  the  state,  which  pays  interest  there- 
on at  the  rate  of  six  per  cent.  Besides  these 
sources  of  revenue,  there  are  (5)  tike  county  school 
fund,  consisting  of  surplus  moneys  in  the  hands 
of   the   county   school  commissioner ;     (C)     the 


sales  of  the  ".-mii 
state  by  the  I'.  g 
of  founding  and 
education  of  the 


public  schools  was  11,646,  and  the 
graded  schools,  754.  The  other  impor 
tical  items  are  the  following: 

\  umber  of  pcrs, mis  ,,l'  sellout  age, 
Number  of  pupils  enrolled,  male-,       ;:  ai ., 
females,  321,, 
Total  of  pupils  enrolled, 
AveniL'e  daily  attendance. 
Number  ot  teachers,  males,  9,1 

females,  12,1 

Total, 
Receipts,  from  state  tax,  $1,021,071 

"      local  tax.  1,65     I     I 

Interest  of  sell,,,, I  fund,  ,1,  .  1.21:1.437 


number  of 

taut  statis- 


Total, 
is,  for  tuition,  $!.<;:!  I, C22 

Sites  am!  I, nil, lines.  l.lllia  .oral 
Other  purposes, 

Total, 


2,221.100 


Cost  per  unit  of  soli,,,, I  population, 
"        "         of  enrollment, 
"        "        of  average  attendance, 


$;,.i:o 
7>2 
13.73 


Normal  I»s/r>tctim>.—TTofoss\<ma.\  instruction 
and  training  are  afforded  to  teachers  in  the  State 
Normal  University,  at  Normal,  and  in  the 
Southern  Illinois  Normal  University,  at  Carbon- 
dale.  The  former  was  organized  in  1857  ;  it  in- 
cludes both  an  academic  and  a  normal  depart- 
ment. Students  in  the  latter  are  required  to 
sign  a  pie  Ige  to  b  «ome  teachers  in  the  schools 
of  the  state;  an  1.  on  this  condition,  their  tuition 
is  afforded  gratuitously.  Male  students  must  be, 
at  least,  17  years  of  age;  and  female  students. 
16.  Auxiliary  to  the  normal  department,  is  the 
Mode]  School,  designed  to  furnish  an  opportu- 
nity for  observation  and  practice  to  those  prepar- 
ing to  l>c  teachers.  The  academic  departmi  n 
consists  of  the  High  School,  which  funn-h  -  . 
thorough  preparation  for  admission  into  the 
university  or  for  business.  The  High  School  is 
a  department  of  the  Model  School,  which  com- 
prises also  a  Grammar  School  and  a  Primary 
School.  Prom  the  time  of  its  organization  to 
187").  this  institution  had  given  instruction  to 
3,258  persons,  of  whom  241  had  completed  the 
course  and  received  diplomas  of  graduation. 
During  the  same  period,  the  Model  School  in  its 
several  erele.  had  received  about    -Kill   pupils. 

About  25  per  cent  of  the  pupils  of  the  Model 
School  became  teachers.  The  Southern  Illinois 
Normal  (Tniversity  was  opened  in  1874.  It  oc- 
cupies one  of  the  finest  school  edifices  in  the 
United  States.  It  includes,  besides  a  normal 
department  proper,  a  preparatory  department 
and  a  model  school.  The  model  school  is  of  an 
elementary  grade,  giving  instruction  in  the 
branches  usually  taught  in  the  common  schools; 
the  preparatory  department  is  of  the  grade  of  a 
high  school,  with  a  course  of  study  of  three  yen-. 
The  normal  course,  of  four  years,  embraces  two 
courses,  —a  classical  and  a  scientific  course;  both, 

however,  make  the  study  of  the  I.n-h-h  l.iii-n.ej  • 
and  literature  quite  prominent.  Daring  the  last 
year,  opportunity  for  practice  is  afforded  in  the 
preparatory  and  model  schools.  Besides  t  hese  t  wo 
state  institutions,  there  are  two  county  normal 
schools,  —  the  Cook  County  Normal  School,  at 
Eaglewood.  near  <  Ihicago,  and  the  I  'eoria  » lounty 
Normal  School,  at    1 'eoria.     Each  of  these  has 


Eureka.  Teachers'  institutes  constitute  an  impor- 

taul  agency  for  the  professional   improvement  of 


tion  in  the  state,  including  a  large  number  of 
preparatory  schools,  and  several  business  colleges. 
Of  the  latter,  in  1874,  there  were  16. 

Superior  Instruction. —  There  is  a  large  num- 
ber of  universities  and  colleges  in  the  state, 
besides  several  colleges  for  women.  The  name  of 
most  of  the  former  are  given  in  the  following  table: 


NAM  I". 


Lincoln  University.  . . 
Lombard  University. 
MeKrn.lree  c.illcue... 


those  actually 
1874,  there  wei 
state  184,  whic) 
days,  and  w,  i 

116  public  high 

law     pl'o\  ides   til 

any  school  towi 
a  high  school  ii 
election   of   tru 


Of  these,  in 

nt  parts  of  the 
inued  in  the  aggregate  828 
I,  I  bj  6  71  3  teachers, 

1. 1   1874,  there  were 
.1     in   i  he  state.    The  school 

a  petition  of  50  voters  in 
an  election  for  or 

held    at    the   next 
and    if    a   majority   of  the 

in  favor  of  a  high  school, 
ablish  it.  There  are  very 
rics  for  secondary  instruc- 


.".bhiedou 

I  a i.ll. 

Chicago 

Abingdon 

la,  lisniiwll, 
lite,  minute 


Evaiiston 

Alton 

Chicago 


■.  ■;!,-,. 


lusciplcs 

Lutheran 
Presb. 

Lutheran 
r.antist 
Inscijitcs 
M.  Eiiin. 
X'.n-scet. 

Meth. 
CnSifpr 


\l     tins. 
l:a]itn,t 
R.  C. 
,  C. 


R.  C. 

U.  Breth. 

Congreg. 

Technical  and  Professional  Instruction.  — 
The  principal  institution  for  scientific  and  ti  t  h 
nical  instruction  is  the  Illinois  Industrial  Uni- 
versity, ai  CJrbana,  chartered  in  1867.  It  has 
a  corps  of  25  instructors,  including  professors, 
lecturers,  and  assistants ;  and,  in  1875,  the  at- 
tendance of  pupils  was  over  400.  It  comprises 
four  colleges,  of  (1)  Agriculture;  (2)  Engineer- 
ing, including  a  school  of  architecture ;  (3)  Nat- 
ural Science;  (I)  Literature  and  Science.  These 
embrace  L2  subordinate  schools  and 
of   instruction,    including  a    school  of 


courses  or  l 
domestic  scie 
and  a  school 
wood  engrav 
graphing,  am 
sion  to  the  u: 
age,  of  good  ; 
examination 


A  of  commerce, 
also  a  school  of 
raphing,  photo- 
lates  for  aihnis- 
years  of 


dablc 


pglish 


geography, 


.n  ithmetic,  algebra,  history  of  the  United  States, 
and  natural  science.  This  institution  is  endowed 
with  the  national  land  grant,  and  the  amount 
of  its  productive  funds  is  a  I. out  $320,000.  The 
value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  etc.,  is  about 
$640,000.  It  is  well  supplied  with  apparatus, 
and  has  a  library  of  over  10,000  volumes.  The 
Illinois  Agricultural  College,  at  Irvington  was 
organized  in  1866. 

The  chief  theological  schools  are  t he  following  : 


NAME 


Tlicol.  Dept.  Slun-tiitr  Col 
do.       do.    Blackburn 

University 

Union  Tlieol.  "Seminary. .  . 
Chicago  Tlicol.  Seminary 
Theol.  Sem.  of  Northwest 
Biblical  Dept.  Eureka  I  ol 
Garret  Biblical  Inst... 
Wartburg  Beminary 
Augustana  Tlicol.  Bern.., 


J      Religious 


Carlinville 
C  hicago 
i  Ihicago 


Baptist 

Presb. 
Baptist 
Cong. 
Presb. 

Christian 
Meth.  Epis. 
Lutheran 
Lutheran 


ILLINOIS    COLLEGE 

In  these  various  institutions,  in  1S74,  there! 
were  I!)  instructors,  L 8  endowed  professorships, 
and  290  students.  The  total  amount  of  product- 
ive funis  was  about  $775,000;  and  the  libra- 
ries contained,  in  the  aggregate,  nearly  30,000 


ILLITERACY  449 

ILLITERACY  (from   the   Latin   ittileralus, 
nlettered,  i.  e.,  ignorant  of  letters  or   books) 


important  m.stitu 
in  the  United  St; 
for    instruction    i 
as  in  articulation, 
ing;  alsodomesti 
In    L874,  there  v 

bions  tor  dea 

n    ih  i    sign 

I'll^M 

rolls  of  the  institi 
ors.    The  Qlinois 
of  Feeble-Minde 
also  a  large  and  ii 
in  1865.     Its  clli. 
the  children  being 

Institution  t 
1    Children,  . 
nportanf    ins 

or  the 

besides  being  taug 
with  domestic  ecoi 
Educational  A 
ers'  Association,  es 
vention  annually, 
which    there    arc 

tablishedin  1 
an  1  is  well  - 

The  81 

food  and  clothing  arc  for  the  body"';  and.  of 
course,  this  is  an  assumption  that  cannot  be 
maintained.     But  national  systems  of  education 


tlr-  requirements  of  theBchool  law. 

ILLINOIS  COLLEGE,  at  Jacksonville, 
111.,  chartered  in  1835,   is  non-sectarian.    The 

is  Slim. I;  tin-  amount'of  its  productive  fun  Is. 

$135,000.  It  has  a  classical  an  1  a  scientific 
course,  libraries  containing  11,000  volumes,  and 
a  corps  of  9  instructors.  The  cost  of  tuition  is 
§36  per  year.  Connected  with  the  college  arc 
the  Whipple  Academy  and  the  Jacksonville 
Business  College.  The  number  of  students,  in 
L875  6,  was  as  follow-,:  in  the  college.  60;  aca  le- 

niy,  Til:   Im-i collee,,  _cj|.     The   liev.  .lulian 

M.  Sturtevant,  l>.  D.,  LI,  l>.,  is  (18761  the  pres- 
idenl  oi  the  college. 

ILLINOIS  WE  3LEYAN  UNIVERSITY, 
at  Bloomington,  111.,  founded  in  L850.  is  under 
tfethodisl  BDiscotJal  control.  It  ha,  a  line  cam- 
pus of 


•s.  Ill 


nines,  and  pro  luctivc  funds  an i :  ;,ie"    ." 

The  value  of  itsbuildiiigs>grounds,andapparati 
is  $150,000.  Both  Beste  are  admitted.  A  la 
department  was  organized  in  1874.    In  18 


that   the 
■ccs  of  in- 


(i,     (7)  home  and  its  inl 


Ml)  su- 
skillcd 


there   were    15    instructors   and    776    students     and    religion;     ( V )    the    causes    of    illiteracy; 
(546  preparatory  and  230  collegiate).  i  (VI)    remedies,  and  the  prospects  ol  improve- 


450 


ILLITERACY 


i  ]  K-l-ll- 


ment  by  the  operation  of  various  infl 
liar  to  modem  civilization. 

T.  As  the  chief  sources  of  information,  depend- 
ence must  be  placed  upon  (1)  census  reports, 
some  of  which,  especiallj  such  as  those  of  Italy 
for  1861  and  1871,  are  replete  with  instruction 
on  this  subject  ;  but  those  of  the  United  Stales 
are  the  most  valuable  of  all,  embracing,  as  they 
do.  four  periods,  1840,  1850,  L860,  and  L870. 
The  later  ones  are  of  especial  importance,  as 
they  afford  particular  statistics  <>f  various  classes, 
—  native  and  foreign,  white  and  colored,  adults 
ami  youths,  males  and  females.  All  the  facts 
presented  in  the  census  reports  for  1840,-  50,  60, 
tire  brought  together  and  digested  in  a  paper  on 
Illiteracy  published  inthe  Annual  Beport  of  the 

which  the  census  returns  of  these  three  periods 
are  compared.  The  results  of  the  census  of  1870, 
in  this  regard,  are  tabulated  and  compared  in  the 
Annual  Report  of  L871.  (2)  Government  reports 
on  education,  such  as  those  of  the  I'.  S.  Bureau 
of  Education  for  lsTtt — 1.  and  the  special  Cir- 
culars of  Information  issued  by  the  Bureau, 
contain  a  large  amount  of  information  on  tin's 
subject,  derived  from  various  Bourees,  especially 
the  papers  on  Education  uml  Labor,  Educa- 
tion  and  Crime,  and  Education  and  Pauperism. 
(3)  Important  facts  are  obtained  from  special 
official  reports,  on  Criminals,  Conscripts,  ami 
iKarrzag,es,bysomeofthe  European  governments. 
II.  The  first  group,  that  of  wholly  illiterate 
savage  or  barbarous  tribes,  needs  only  to  be  re- 
ferred to,  without  any  enumeration.  Saving  no 
books  and  no  written  language,  their  total  igno- 
rance reacts  upon  their  barbarism, and  perpetu- 
ates the  degradation  which  has  caused  it.  Pac- 
ing to  those  nations  that  have  written  languages 
and  books,  there  appears,  first,  a  group  consist- 
ing of  those  which,  descended  from  ancient  des- 
potisms, have  been  enveloped  in  thick  clouds  of 
ignorance  from  which  some  of  them  are  onbj  jus! 
emerging. — Turkey,  Egypt,  Persia,  Russia,  and 
(not  long  since)  Greece,  Poland,  Italy  (till  her 
late  revival,  .and  even  now  in  her  southern  prov- 
inces), Spain  and  (doubtless)  Portugal,  with 
their  American  colonies.  In  all  these,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  popular  ignorance,  or  illiteracy, 
has  prevailed  up  to  the  present  time.  The 
government  has  neither  provided  for  nor  fos- 
tered universal  education  ;  ami  the  political  and 
religious  status  of  the  people  lias  afforded  no  in- 
citements to  any  efforts  of  their  own  in  this 
direction.  Even  in  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
colonies,  the  old  spirit  and  habits  inherited  by 
the  people  have  been  stronger  than  the  desire  for 
liberty,  intelligence,  and  progress.  To  the  group 
of  nations  above  referred  to.  1  lungary,  not  long 
ago.  belonged ;  but.  of  late,  the  people,  by  their 


lint  with  a  history,  and  under  conditions,  wide- 
ly different,  stands  India,  one  of  the  most  be- 
nighted  of  nations,  having  90  per  cent  of  her 
males,  and  95  per  cent  of  her  whole  population 
(for  letters  are  religiously  .and  socially  forbidden 
to  females)  wholly  illiterate:  and  this,  notwith- 
standing that  she  still  possesses  the  wonderful 
literature  of  her  early  days,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Brahman  caste,  still  devoted  to  learning,  with 
her  wealthy  Parsees  fostering  education,  and  the 
influence  of  her  princely  Mohammedan  conquer- 
ors still  remaining  in  the  religious  schools  con- 
nected with  the  mosques.  This  fact  shows  to 
what  an  extent  outcast  ami  ignorant  massestend 
to  depress  and  degrade  the  general  condition  of 
a  people.    The  case  of  the  Mohammedan  coun- 


the  middle  ages,  and  who  contributed  so  largely 
to  the  sources  of  modern  civilization,  and  gave 
toil  such  an  impetus.— China  maybe  referred 
to,  as  presenting  a  somewhat  singular  phase  of 
illiteracy,  her  political   system    holding    out    the 

strongest  inducements  t lucat  ion  and  learning 

to  the  males,  while  the  female-,  are  \crv  generally 
kept  in  a  condition  of  illiteracy.  (See  China.) 
This  is  one  of  the  results  of  Confucianism,  which, 
while  it  accords  to  the  matron  the  highest  re- 
spect, has  treated  the  subject  of  female  education 
(instruction  in  letters  and  books)  with  entire  in- 
difference. China,  therefore,  as  far  as  the  free- 
dom of  her  male  population  from  illiteracy  is 
concerned,  would  take  a  high  rank  among  edu- 
cated nations;  but,  as  her  women  are  untaught, 
she  in u-t  be  pi. eel  with  those  who  are  half  in 

darkness. lapan  would  come  inhere,   side   by 

side  with  China,  whose  religion  ami  philosophy, 
sacred  books,  with  their  language  and  literature, 
and  peculiar  alphabetic   characters,  she  adopted 


peopl 


energy   and    enthusiasm. 

have   made  wonderful 

progress  in  the  march  of 
now,  she  remains,  side  hj 
state  Austria,  in  which,  c 
her  intelligent   and    progl 
tion.  one  half  of  the  inlia 
dition  of  illiteracy.     By 

ntelligence;  but,  even 

side,   with   her  sister 
spite  the  influence  of 
issive  '  lerman  popula- 
itanf  -  i.  main  in  a  con- 
he  side  of  this  group, 

more  than  China,  she  has  added  a  simpler  i.-vl- 
labic)  writing  of  her  own  {halakana);  and.  what 
is  far  more,  she   has  taught  her  women  as  well 

as  her  men.    The  dapain  -c  cat t  he  considered 

an  illiterate  nation.  The  number  of  persons, 
who  cannot  read  or  write,  is  comparatively 
small,  even  the  most  degraded  classes  being 
often  able  to  write  tin-  kalakana,  and  to  read 
the  books  printed  in  that  style  ;  so  that  her  illit- 
erate population  is  set  down  at  no  more  than  10 
percent  (See  Japan.)  In  a  distinct  group  may 
be  placed  France.  Belgium,  England,  and  Ire- 
land, about  one-third  of  their  people  being  un- 
able to  read  or  write.  The  proportion  in  Ire- 
land   may    be    somewhat    larger;    but.   in    that 

country,    the   ] pie    have     received     from    the 

priesthood  some  instruction  in  letters  beyond 
what  the  government  has  provided  for  them.  In 
these  four  countries,  the  spirit  of  progress 
has  had  to  contend  against  many  of  the  same 
influences  that  have  kept  down  the  people  of  the 
more  benighted  countries  of  Europe  already  con- 
sidered.    Next  in  order  of  advance,  comes  the 


JEUTEKACY" 


451 


American  Union,  with  its  20  per  cent  of  illiter- 
ates.—The  Netherlands,  Germany  proper,  Den- 
mark, Norway  and  Sweden,  and  perhaps  Switzer- 
land, are  entitled  in  the  distinction  of  showing 
the  [smallest  amount  of  illiteracy.  (See  Tabije.) 
III.  The  diversity  of  social  customs  and  na- 
tional institutions  leads  to  corresponding  differ- 
ences in  the  condition  of  various  classes;  and 
the  degree  of  illiteracy  found  to  exist  in  these, 
respectively,  presents  a  basis  for  very  important 
considerations  in  relation  to  the  expediency  of 
particular  legislative  measures.  Hence,  the  im- 
portance of  a-eertainnig  1 1 n ■  comparative  illiter- 
acy of  youth  and  adults,  males  and  females  (sex 
illiteracy),  white  and  colored  (race  illiteracy), 
etc.  The  statistical  facts  in  regard  to  these  points 
are  very  imperfect  :  but  many,  that  are  quite 
reliable,  are  exceedingly  instructive.  Thus,  ac- 
cording in  the  U.S.  census  of  1870,  of  everj 
L,000  jiers. ms  of  the  population.  10  yearsold  and 
upward,  146  were  illiterate:  of  adults.  94  ;  of 
youth  (from  10  to  21  years  of  age).  52.  In  <  Ger- 
many, the  census  of   1871  reports  9 \  percent  of 

men.  and  1:">  per  cent  of  y m,  unable  to  read 

and  write.  In  Scotland.  11  per  cent  of  men,  and 
21  per  cent  of  women  could  not  read  or  write 
at  marriage.  In  Bavaria,  only  7  per  cent  of  the 
recruits  were  illiterate  :  in  Germany,  however, 
the  mass  of  the  illiteracy  is  in  the  north-eastern 
provinces  of  Posen  and  Prussia  proper,  among  a 
people  foreign  to  the  language  and  institutions 
of  the  German  nation;  while,  in  most  of  the  Ger- 
man states,  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  is  verj 
small  —  in  some,  less  than  one  percent.  In 
France,  the  census  of  1872  showed  27  per  cent 
of  illiterate  males  and  33  percent  of  illiterate 
females:  while  the  census  of  Spain  1 1  m'.M)  showed 
69  per  cent  of  males  and  91  per  cent  of  females. 
Italy,  in  1861,  was  reported  as  having  60  per  cent 
of  illiterate  male  adults  and  lis  percent  of  il- 
literate male  youths  i from  12  to  18  years  of  age). 
In  the  city  of  New  York,  the  census  of  L870  re- 
ported, out  of  the  total  population  of  942,292, 
1  l.'J7  1  male  adults  and  oii.M  0  female  adults,  as 
unableto  write;  while  of  male  youths  (from  10  to 
21  I. there  were  only  3.0s8,and  of  female  .youths, 
4,929,  unable  to  write.  This  close  correspond- 
ence in  the  one  ca.se,  with  the  huge  discrepancy 
in  the  other,  is  a  very  suggestive  fart,  pointing 
as  it  does  to  the  effect  of  foreign  immigration,  on 
the  one  hand,  and  to  the  influence  of  a  great 
common-school  system,  on  the  other.  The  aver- 
age of  illiterates  in  Belgium  is  30  per  cent  ;  and 
in  Great  Britain  and  France,  it  is  considerably 
below  50  per  cent;  while,  in  Belgium,  the 
percentage  of  illiterate  criminals  (le.Vq  was  57 
percent,  in  France  (1871)  it  was  41  percent. 
A  comparison,  based  on  full  and  accurate  sta- 
tistics, of  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  among  the 
adults  of  a  population,  with  the  percentage  of 
illiteracy  among  adult  criminals,  would  demon- 
strate, with  great  force  and  clearness,  the  effect 
of  education  upon  crime.  (See  Crime  and  Edu- 
cation.) The  percentage  of  illiteracy  among  con- 
scripts, in  any  country,  affords  a  means  of  as- 
certaining the  general  condition  of  a  people  in 


this  respect,  inasmuch  as  inquiries  in  regard  to  it 

are  generally  conducted  with  considerable  care. 

I  V.    The  various  points  considered  in  this  di- 

\  ision  ol   the  subject   i  annoi    be  treated  upon  a 

basis  of  statistics;  but,  theoretically,  or  by  apri- 
ori  reasoning,  it  may  be  satisfactorily  shown 
that  the  advancement  of  a  people  in  everj  de- 
partment of  learning,  science,  art.  artistic  and 
industrial  labor,  depends  on  the  diffusion  of  in- 
lelligenee.  and  the  means  of  intelligence  —  read- 
ing and  writing,  among  all  classes  of  the  com- 
munity. Illiteracy  is  an  exponent  of  ignorance  ; 
and  "what  bodily  disrasr."  says  commissioner 
Baton  (Report  of  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 
1871),  "has  ever  wrought  the  terrible  evils  to 
societythat  come  from  ignorance,  whose  children 
are  destitution  and  crime'.'    The  children  whom 

society,  the  church,  and  the  school  fail  t lucate, 

learn  in  the  streets,  and  from  countless  teachers 
of  vice,  aided  by  those  grim  master:-  i 
want,  the  malign  arts   that   render   the  property 
of  our  households,  the  virtue  of  our  women,  and 
the  health  and  happiness  of  our  people  insecure." 

V.  The  causes  of  illiteracy,  in  nations  that 
have  already  reached  the  condition  of  civilization, 
are  various ;  among  them  may  be  mentioned 
(1)  ohsoliifisin.'m  government,  basing  itself  up- 
on the  principle  of  ••divine  right"  instead  of  the 
will  of  the  people,  or  in  religion,  depriving  the 
people  of  all  freedom  of  thought  :  as  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  a  people  controlled  by  a  despotic 
power  —  monarchy  or  hierarchy  —  are.  usually, 
largely  illiterate,  the  ruling  class,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  priests  in  Egypt,  and  the  Druids  of 
Britain,  engrossing  all  knowledge,  and  shutting 
up  its  avenues  against  the  jicoplc:  12  au- 
tocracy, or  class  distinctions  fixed  as  institutions, 
must  necessarily  promote  illiteracy,  for  a  similar 
reason;  as  must  also  (I!)  reslrirli,,i,s  tnmn  the 
right  of  suffrage,  shutting  out  any  large  class  of 
the  community  from  its  exercise;  and.  even 
when  the  institutions  of  society  are  free,  and 
public  schools  are  abundant,  frequently,  legisla- 
tive compulsion  may  be  required,  as  an  inter- 
mediate step  to  promote  the  acceptance,  on  the 
part  of  ignorant  or  vicious  parents,  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  education  for  their  children  :  and 
in,  i    ,.     ,        j     i  In-  .,'..<■■,,<;■  i,f  rnni/Dilsory  ulteiiil- 

ance  laws  may  be  a  cause  of  illiteracy.  (See 
Compulsory  Education.) 

VI.  Improvement  in  regard  to  the  diffusion 
of  learning  must  come  from  the  operation  of  ju- 
dicious measures  designed  to  remove  the  causes 
of  illiteracy  above  referred  to.  '1  he  general  ac- 
ceptance by  civilized  nations,  at  the  present  time, 
of  the  principle  of  popular  or  state  education,  as 
the  only  stable  foundation  of  national  prosperi- 
ty, with  the  vast  augmentation  of  the  mean,  of 
communication,  through  the  varied  applications 
of  steam  and  electricity,  must  gradually  but 
surely  diminish  among  every  people  the  ratio  of 
illiteracy.  Evidence  of  a  strong  Tendency  in  this 
direction  is  shown  by  every  succeedim 

the  great  and  progressive  nations  of  the  world. 
The  following  tables  present  the  statistics  of 
illiteracy  in  different  countries. 


ELLTTEEACT 


Table  I. 
Ratio  of  Illiteracy  to  Population. 

[Countries  marked*  are  nearly  free  from  illiteracy; 
in  those  marked  j,  the  ratio  of  illiteracy  is  very  large 
but  not  definitely  ascertained.] 


Countries 

Percent  of  Illiteracy 

Earlier 
date 

Recent 

8 
42 

65 
99 

78 
23 

99 
88 

23 

33 

Turkey 

United  States 

t 
20 

Table  II. — Illiteracy  in  the  United  States. 

[Censuses  of  1840,  -BO,  and  -CO  reported  those  who 
could  not  read  and  write;  that  "1  1»70,  those  who  could 
not  read  and  those  who  could  not  write.] 

|  r  means  cannot  read;  w,  cannot  write.] 


Table  III. 
Illiteracy  as  compared  with  various 
of  Education. 


All  Classes  -j  21 


I  to  21.... 

i and  over 


Foreign-born 
them  whites) 


Native-born 
(white  and 
colored) 


l,lif.0.47H 
-.407  901 

3,718  196 

i5.C.->\.144 


1.071. 1(12 
1.4K.-..HS2 
1.N3II.412 

I  820,508 
986,726 


2.2)13.14* 

2.ci'.i  :::>7 
:i,ii::7.('.'.ii-, 

-t.SSC.-J71 


[military). 

[civil,  males 

[civil,  females 

"      (adults   

minors,  (i— 20  years) 

Spain   men  

women 

both    

United  States  ;aged  10  &  ovei 

Belgium 


Germany. .  . 

Italv 

Netherlands 


write  . 

Ext.    read  .. 

•■       write  . 

Basel   all  read  fluently 

Bern      read. 


1864 
1867 

1  Sal— Si 


Belgium 

England  .v.  Wales    males  . . . 

• females  . 

both 

Ireland  'males. 

(females) 

(both) 


Italy  (galley-slaves 

[prisoners— males 

■'         females 

both) 

Conde'd  minors  (males). . . 

<<  "        (females,. 

(both).... 

"    lyr.  or  more  (males) 

..      ..     ..      •■    females, 

both... 

Minors  in  custody  (males,. 

(females) 

both  ... 

United  States  ^Ttcntiary* 


(minors) 

N.Y.  news  boys 


:i4  —  111.      li 

07—711    24 


IMAGINATION 


IMAGINATION,  Culture  of.      igina 

tion   is  the   power   by  which  conceptions,  origi- 
nally formed  from  the  perception  "t   natural  ob- 


The  development  of  the  imaginative  faculty 
begins  al   a   very  early  period.     The  conscious- 


only  to   confirm 


thr  materials 


■a.K 


?nce  of  imagination  nl.nir.  tin-  vnli'il.  I>v  disranlini:  T 1 1. •  artnal  ul.jn  i.  and  form- 
ing partly  by  the  aid  oi  words  as  symbols  of 
general  ideas,  an  ideal  picture;  or,  independ- 
■  ntly  oi  words,  and  by  its  own  act,  creating 
foi  ii-  li  -.in-  ami  iiiia-rs  mil  I,  ,-s  vivid  than 
their  tangibli'  i..|.i..~iiiativis.     'I  In' work  oi  the 

imagination,  therefore,  is  c plementary  to  that 

of  observation.  The  order  is,  'I  perception, 
i-i  oiiuvptiiiii.  i-'ii  iiii;i-_i i i i.i t i< >i i.  Tin  ai  inni  ui' 
tin'  latter  is   presupposed    by   that   of   the  two 


.liivn  ami  in.-iilar  cultivation  in  the  stu 
any  ordinary  school  course;  but  more 
hidden  uature  "t  its  action,  and  the  « 
tli  it  siilitK'  ilisii'i'iiiiii'iit    Mrivssary  ill  til.-  t 

to  detect  its  influence  in  the  m  atal  opi  i 

A    knowledge  of  its  powi 

lent  need  of  its  cultivation 


of  the 
rived  i 


In-inv 

actions 

difflcul 


where   the  tan; 
cultivation  of 

rible  lias 
iiiiiut  be 
the  fac- 

era!   methods  . 

ireopen 

lin  h    ali- 

I,  tli.-   attentioi 

husonly 

from   our  ow  n  exp  rii  m 
•.  to  which  it   influences 


painted,  and 

as  is  consist 
A  few  salien 


promineni 

pn 

.',","l„ 

m  of* 

and  ili  ii  1 

nvp 

nt'  t 

In'   1 

il  wl  il 

helps   i-  i 

'  in 

id, 

..•ii 

in    llir 

and  the 

least 

I'M 

Inn; 

te    inn 

■umsti 

reason  for 

.I'll 

llll.lt 

nm 

nnl  gra 

T  IT  11.  1 . 

siderations  sh 

..iilil 

.-  ■  i 

xe  for i 

t  care 

sinces  ot  life,  Any  other  disposition  than  this  is  a  decided  dis- 
•  These  con-  qualification  for  the  cultivation  of  the  imagina- 
ful  attention.  |  tion  hy  this  method.     Where  the  picture  aud 


454 


IMACIXATTOX 


the  oral  narrative  are  used  together,  the  former 
should  not  be  exhibited  till  after  the  description. 
It  should  then  be  produced  to  re-inforce  the  de- 
scription and  give  it  greater  clearness:  but,  if 
it  is  exhibited  before  that  time,  the  attention  is 
drawn  to  it  at  once,  to  the  neglect  of  the  nar- 
rative. Pictures  winch  are  to  lie  used  for  the 
purpose  of  illustration,  should,  if  possible,  be 
new  to  the  pupil  in  order  to  produce  their  best 
effect,  ( >f  the  methods  mentioned,  however,  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  imaginative  faculty,  read- 
ing is  not  only  the  most  common,  but  is,  in  most 
case.-,  indispensable.  The  requisites  in  this  case, 
however,  are  still  the  same.  The  object  being 
always  to  fix  the  attention  as  powerfully  as  pos- 
sible upon  a  mental  picture,  the  style  should  be 
simple  and  clear,  but  graphic  and  forcible, 
abounding  in  concrete  terms,  not  in  abstract 
phrases,  and  appealing  to  the  experience  of  the 
pupil,  and  awakening  his  sympathies.  An  ex- 
relleiit  I c -a  of  the  clearness  of  the  mental  picture 
formed  is  that  of  recalling  at  the  end  of  the 
reading,  the  scenes,  incidents,  and  actors  in  the 
order  of  their  introduction  or  occurrence.  Al- 
most every  branch  pursued  in  the  ordinary 
school  or  college  cours  !  affords  some  opportunity 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  imaginative  faculty, 
but  speeial  fields  for  its  most  active  exercise  are 
found  in  geography,  history,  and  poetry.  Some 
departments  of  natural  science  may  also  afford 
occasion  for  its  activity.  The  condition  of  the 
earth  in  prehistoric  time,  its  chemical,  geolog- 
ical, and  meteorological  constitution,  the  plants 
and  animals  that  grew  or  moved  upon  its  sur- 
face, together  with  its  relation  past, present,  and 
future,  with  other  worlds,  afford  .-cope  for  the  ex- 
ercise of  the  most  lively  imagination.  The  his- 
tory of  the  human  race,  also,  is  tilled  with  scenes 
and  incidents  of  which,  if  skillfully  presented. 
the  mind  of  the  pupil  will  never  tire.  Even  in 
the  teaching  of  subjects  usually  considered  diy 
and  uninteresting,  there  is  field  for  the  exercise 
of  thi-  faculty.  (Irammar.  mathematics,  polit- 
ical economy,  and  logic,  if  illustrated  by  a  teacher 
of  active  fancy,  can  be  freed,  in  huge  measure, 
from  the  abstract  nature  which  is  supposed 
to  be  essential  to  them,  and  which  renders 
them  ordinarily  so  uninviting.  In  regard  to 
th  use  of  fiction  as  an  agent  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  imagination,  much  discus-ion  h;e 
arisen,  the  objection  usually  urged  being  that  its 
effect  is  to  stimulate  this  facility  unduly.  This 
is  probably  true  of  one  class  only:  namely,  those 
in  whose  minds  the  imaginative  faculty  c\i.-ls 
by  nature  in  an  abnormal  degree.  Where  this 
I  ii  i u  ei  i  -  deficient,  it  will  hardly  be  said  that  the 
perusal  of  works  of  fiction  can  do  more  than  to 
develop  the  faculty,  so  as  to  bring  it  into  pro- 
portion with  the  other  mental  powers;  while 
the  probability  is.  that  the  result  will  fad  short 
of  this.  In  the  remaining  clas-.  those  in  whom 
this  faculty  exists  in  a  normal  proportion,  the 
evil  result  of  stimulation  produced  by  the  read- 
ing of  works  of  fiction,  has,  perhaps,  been  over- 
rated. The  reading  alone  can  only  serve  to  fill 
the  mind  with  high  ideals — the  harm  resulting 


IMITATION 

has  probably  been  produced  by  neglecting  to 
provide  the  necessary  means  or  occasions  for  an 
active  exercise  of  the  high  and  generous  sen- 
timents and  resolves  thus  aroused.  If  we  read 
continually  of  suffering,  but  never  give  alms, 
habit  soon  causes  us  to  accomodate  ourselves  to 
this  condition  as  the  natural  one.  and  the  mental 
excitement  ceases  to  seek  jiiiy  outward,  active 
expression.  This,  probably,  is  the  explanation 
of  the  anomaly  sometimes  noticed  in  the  his- 
tories of  eminent  writers,  that  their  works  are 
filled  with  sentiment  and  tenderness,  while  their 
lives  were  mean  and  despicable.  The  result  here 
is  owing  to  that  half  education  which  rouses 
the  sympathies,  and  then  neglects  to  provide 
for  their  exercise.  But  this  abuse  of  the  true 
method  can  hardly  be  considered  a  condemna- 
tion of  the  method  itself.  An  experienced  edu- 
cator says  on  the  subject  of  the  general  culture 
of  the  imagination :  "1  much  fear,  neither 
teachers  nor  scholars  are  sufficiently  impressed 
with  the  importance  of  a  proper  training  of  this 
faculty.  Some  there  may  be  wdio  despise  it  al- 
together, as  having  to  do  with  fiction  rather 
than  with  fact,  and  of  no  value  to  the  severe 
student  who  wishes  to  acquire  exact  knowledge. 
But  this  is  not  the  case,  it  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  the  highest  class  of  scientific  men  have  been 
led  to  their  most  important  discoveries  by  the 
quickening  power  of  a  suggestive  imagination, 
'if  this  the  poet  Goethe's  original  observations 
in  botany  and  osteology  may  serve  as  an  apt 
illustration.   Imagination,  thi   efore,isthe  enemy 

of  scienc ly  when  it  acts  without  reason, that 

is,  arbitrarily  and  whimsically;  with  reason.it 
is  i  iften  the  best  and  most  indispensable  of  alhes." 

ee  Pn  tion.) 

IMITATION.  The  possession  of  this  im- 
pi  rtant  faculty,  and  the  desire  to  exercise  it, 
constitute  two  essential  elements  of  all  humau 
progress.  From  childhood  to  maturity,  and 
even  beyond — as  long,  indeed,  as  the  effort  at 
self-improvement  is  kept  up  a  vast  majority  of 
the  human  race  are  employed  merely  in  imitat- 
ing the  models  that  have  been  set  up  by  individ- 
ual genius,  or  by  the  accumulated  wisdom  and 
taste  of  ages  ;  and  their  success  in  life  is  greater  or 
less,  according  to  the  accuracy  of  their  imitation. 
Especially  during  childhood  and  youth,  is  this 
faculty  brought  into  active  play.  It  is  the  nec- 
essary accompaniment  and  basis  of  instruction, 
the  stepping-stone  to  all  excellence.  Being  of  so 
meat  importance,  therefore,  in  nearly  every  de- 
partment of  education,  it  should  receive  the 
special  attention  of  the  teacher. — The  conditions 
of  success  in  imitation  are  chiefly  two  :  (1)  ac- 
curate observation,  and  (2)  a  retentive  memory. 
Probably  few  have  noticed  how  slightly  the 
(acuity  of  observation  i-  u-iiall.v  exercised.  Thi-. 
however,  may  be  easily  illustrated.  Of  twenty 
pel-sons  listening  to  a'  speaker  whose  voice  has 
some  peculiar  tone  or  inflection,  it  will  probably 
be  found  that  only  half  a  dozen  or  perhaps  even 
less  will  notice  it,  unless  it  is  very  marked  ;  and 
of  these,  only  two  or  three  will  be  able  to  re- 
produce it  with  any  degree  of  accuracy.     How 


INCENTIVES 

of  ten  do  men  differ  as  to  the  form  or  color  of 
sunn1  feature  in   the   face  of  an  acquaintance! 


should  be  made  pleasant  and  attractive.     The 
efficacj  oi  this  incentive,  as  every  teacher  knows, 


tin 


mite  impression  is  left  on  the  mind,  instead 
of  an  accurate  picture.  (See  Attention.)  It'  it' 
be   granted   thru,    that   mere    imitation,   when 

probably  uot  be  denied  that  a  g 1  memory, 

and,  in  most  cases,  a  certain  degree  of  mechan- 
ical skill,  arc  necessary,  when  it  is  cultivated, 
to  produce  the  best  results.  It  only  remains, 
therefore,  to  point  out  a  few  of  the  studies 
and  pursuits  in  which  imitation  is  the  chief  in- 


ways  exercise  care  thai    their  influence  should 
not  be  so  exerted  asto  impair  the  force  of  higher 

and    inure   enduring  lnotivis    tu    good   conduct. 

INDIA,  a  country  in  Asia,  at  presenl  under 
British  rule,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  French 
and  Portuguese  colonies.  'I  he  term  India  is 
sometimes  also  applied  in  a  wider  sense,  embra- 
cing those  countries  known  liy  the  name  of 
Hindooslan  and  Farther  India.    In  this  article, 


/:,-, 


l.dc 


arc  to  be  represent! 
foreign  language,  ala 
the  faculty  ol  imital 
used  for  producing 
kindergarten  system 
ing  steadiness  of  ham 

KlNnERGARTEX.)       Tl 

reading,  declamation, 
less  successful,  accor 


inal  models  for  imitation.     The  value  of   this 

faculty,  in  moral  education,  can  hardly  be  over- 
stated', that  most  powerful  of  all  educators — 
example— depending  to  a  great  extent  on  imita- 

INCENTIVES,  School,  consist' of  rewards 
of  various  kinds,  offered  to  pupils  for  progress 
in  study  and  good  behavior;  such  as  "good 
tickets",  certificates  of  merit,  1 ks,  and  other 


hit  ion    of 
.although 


L830.     [t  is  a  kind  o 
if  Brahman  and  l  In 

into    Us   canon  of    si 


hiefly  exists  in  the  large 
ike  an  active  interest  in 


however,  strong  objection  has  been  made,  inas- 
much as  it  seems  to  imply  that  attendance  at 
school   is  burdensome  and  grievous,  whereas  it 


by  Mohammedans  began  in  the  Mb  century  A.  D., 
and.  since  that  time,  large  portions  of  India  con- 
tinued under  Mohammedan  Tide,  until  finally 


450 


compelled  to  yield  to  the  advancine  power  of 
some  of  the  European  nations.  Th  ■  first  oi  these 
who  obtained  territorial  possessions  in  India,  wi  re 
the  Portuguese,  who  early  in   th  i  Llith   centurj 

established  their  nil    bj        ing  = i  of  the  forts 

on  the  western  coast.  The  English  East  India 
Company,  after  obtaining  permission  h  im  the 
Mogul  emperor,  es  ibli  bed  il  Si  I  factor)  in 
1618,  and  gra  lually  extended  its  power,  until  at 
last  nearly  the  whole  of  India  was  united  under 
its  rule.  In  L858,  the  Easl  India  Company  trans- 
ferred all  its  possessions  to  the  British  Crown; 
and.  in  1876,  the  queen  of  England  assumed  the 
official  title  oi   Empress  of  India. 

I.  I.  i  it  India. — India,  like  China,  Persia, 
and  Egypt  possesses  one  of  the  must  ancient  of 
civilizations.  The  e  lucation  of  children  consisted 
chiefly  in  training  them  as  members  of  oneof 
the  castes  into  which  the  people  were  divided. 
There  were  four  principal  castes:  the  Brahmans 
or  priests,  the  Kshatriyas  or  warriors,  the  Vais- 
yas  or  merchants,  and  the  Sudras  or  laborers, 
composed  mainly  of  the  conquered  people.  Be- 
low the  Sudras  was  a  still  more  degraded  class, 
known  as  Pariahs  or  outcasts.      Every  native  of 

India,  1,  longedl eoroth fthe  ecastes,and 

all  children  were  brought  up  strictly  within  their 
own.  The  first  instruction  embraced  teachings 
and  warnings  suggested  by  the  neces  itiea  ol 
daily  life,  in  order  thus  to  teach  the  children 
to  imitate  the  go  i  I.  Onth  isubs  qu  -m  education 
the  priests  had  the  most  powerful  influence. 
They  were  the  sole    teachers.      Women  and  the 

t ili  caste  were  exclude  1  from  all  education 

Elementary  instruction  embraced  only  reading 
writing,  and  arithmetic.  A.  teacher  with  a  tafl 
and  with  an  assistant  holding  the  switch,  gave 
instruction  to  boyssitting  around  him  under  the 
trees.  In  arithmetic  only  th ■■  elements  were 
taught;  while   writing,  which  was   closely  con- 


ceremonies.     India  possesses  no  theory  of  peda 
gogy  :  but,  instead  of  the  dry.  prosaic  collectioi 


.1(1- 


i  the  5th  century  of  our 
been  translated  into  almost 
ige.  It  contains  numerous 
og  the  advantages  of  educa- 


cularly  over  ( 'hina,  Farther 
an.  and  other  countries  of 
lief  aim  of  the  Buddhists  is 


though  it  does  not  absolutely  prohil.it  them.  'I  he 
clergy  Mere  made  the  basis  of  Buddhistic  society; 
whereas,  in  other  creeds, the  laity  were  the  basis 
on  which  the  hierarchy  reposed.     Though  this 

cr 1  has  always  been  oneof  the  most  extensive 

in  the  number  of  its  foHowers.it  has  contributed 


see   Seu.Mii.T,    <irs,:hk-hte  i.lrr 


lis  of  the  Brahmans;  and  the 
which  are  treated  quite  ex- 
law  books,   have   reference   al- 


to the  nig 
e  lucati  in 
haustively 
most  exclusively  to  th 
schools  in  Benar  a  in 
deah,  th  i  exol  rica  I 
the  second  and  t In r  I 
structed  in  grammar 
and  the  esoterics,  in  p 
astronomy,  me  licine, 
for  five  years  only  a 
was  permitted  to  e 
doubts  to  the  teache 
disputatious.  The  whi 


given  as  a  remuneration.     The  reading  of   the 

Vedas   was   sidered    the  highest   instruction 

of  the  Brahmans,  and  was  connected  with 


II.  '  Modern  India.— Both  the  Catholic  and 
the  Protestant  missionaries  who  went  to  India, 
established  schools  for  the  education  of  the  na- 
tives, but  they  reached  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  native  population.  By  the  natives  them- 
selves nothing  was  done  to  improve  the  system 
■  ,t  education  end  instruction.  The  East  India 
:  ,  li  i  I  not  founded  a  single  school  until 
L793     hiih.it  year,  Wilberforce  moved,  in  the 

Mouse  of    <  !o  Mill  ions,  in  send  scl l-teachers   to 

India,  in  order  to  superintend  the  instruction  of 
the  people;  but  the  India  House  denounced  the 

plan  as  d  ti tal  to  the  continuance  of  their 

rule.  In  L813,  parliament  granted  $10,000  an- 
iin;ili\  foi  educational  purposes ;  but  the  money 
was  spent  for  the  promotion  of  literary  studies, 
rather  than  for  education.  In  1848,  the  lieu- 
tenant governor  of  Agra  brought  forward  a 
scheme  to  give  a  school  to  every  village  of  at 
least  one  hundred  families.  After  three  years' 
discussion  the  court  of  directors  of  the  Mast 
India  I  'onipaiiy  accepted  the  groundwork  of  the 
plan:  and  orders  were  issued  that  a  school  should 
be  provided  for  every  circle  of  villages,  called 
Hulkabundee,  and  that  the  teachers  should  be 
paid  by  a  tax  of  two  per  cent  on  the  land 
revenue.  The  plan  has  been  gradually  developed; 
and  government  schools  now  exist,  in  regular 
gradation,  from  those  which  give  the  humblest 
elementary  instruction  to  the  Inchest  colleges; 
and  the  besl  pupils  of  one  grade  are  able  to  pass 
through  the  oth  r  grades  bj   means  of  scholar- 

p        I mplete  the  system,  a  university  was 

established,  in  if  i7,  at  each  of  the  three  presi- 
dency capitals.  ( 'alcutta,  Bombay. and  Madras. on 
the  mode]  of  the  London  University,  for  holding 
examinations  and  conferring  degrees.    The  gov- 


INDIA 

eminent  institutions  are  intended  to  serve  as 
models,  to  be  ;j r.i. I nri I ! v  superseded  by  schools 
supported  on  the  grant'-in-aid-system — a  system 
based  on  the  principle  of  perfect  religions  neu- 
trality, and  on  regular  rules  adapted  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  each  province.  Normal  schools 
exist  in  each  province  for  the  training  of  teachers. 
The  medium  of  education,  in  the  elementary 
schools  for  the  masses,  is   the   vernacular  lan- 


education  of  the  upper  and  middle  classes  of 
society.  The  governing  agency  of  this  system 
consists  of  a  director  of  public  instruction  in 
each  province,  aided  by  a  staff  of  inspectors. 
The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  schools 
and  colleges  belonging  to,  aided  or  maintained 

average  number  of  punils   attending    them,  the 


<     U  ,    1     1   1    V 

MAEKAS 

Year 

Cand.- 

Passed 

1 
dates 

Candi- 

Pass  .1 

1857 

L860   . . . 
L866   . . 
1871 

244 

808 

1,350 

2,877 

1G2 

II  1 

6211 

1.1,111 

440 

1,701 

8 
93 
564 

41 
52 

l.l  13 

36 
23 

l-'cmalo  education,  which  had  been  almost  en- 
rely  neglected,  according  to  the  custom  of  the 
in  L866, 
upeuter, 
'.  After 
;  several 
Madias. 


Miss 


gross  expenditure  on  account  of  i 
ing  the  years  1862,  1867,  and  18" 


lsi',2 l:!,2l!i 

1867 20,683 

1871  25,147 


nis.:;:;n      rJM.OTH 
461,378 
040.724 


Counting  in  the  indigenous  schools,  the  whi 
number  of  schools  of  British  India  (exclusive 
the   native    states   and    Burma)    amounted. 
1872,  to  40,700;  and  the  number  of  scholars, 
1 ,280,91  t.  The  schools  which  have  been  inmrov 


?„$&£* 


lows:  Lower-class  schools,  middle-class  schools. 
high  schools,  normal  scl Is,  special  schools,  col- 
leges, and  universities. — The  number  of  middle- 
class  schools,  in  1871,  was  2,873  (for  boys 
2,740,  for  girls  133),  with  158  " 
151,656;  girls  7.071' i.  Thenuml 
was  273.  with  47,572  pupils;  i 
school  was  for  girls.  The  nn 
schools  was  104  (87  foT  males 
with  4,346  students,  1,080  mail 
The  number  of  general  colleges, 
of  which  24  were  government  colleges,  and  '20 
private  and  aided  colleges.  The  number  of  stu- 
dents in  the  government  colleges  was  1,K.">4:  and 


onlv 
»f    not 


ools 


44. 


scl I-.  wen   estal  lish  ,1     Foi    i   ace  unl  ol  the 

progress  i  i  education  in   India    see  the  official 
Staten    ■     oj     '  ■    Moral  and    1/       -  I  Progrt  ss 

of  I |  al  lished  annuaUj  ;  also  the  several 

volumes  i  f  the  Annual  Ami  rican  < 

and  the  Report  of  the   U.  S.  Commissioner  of 

Education,  for  1873. 

INDIANA,  at  first  a  part  of  the  North  west 
Territory,  afterwards  formed  a  pari  of  Indiana 
Territory,  organized  July  4..  1800.  In  1805, 
Michigan  v..,  -,  I  off  from  it  ;  and.  in  1809,  Illi- 
nois   leavii  s   the  territorial   limits  the  same  as 


7.   giving  ii  the  sixth 
he  duty  of  the  slate 


in  the  private  colic 
I  t  Colleges,  with  3,9! 

eral  colleges  there 
684  students:  5  col 
students  :  4  colleges  i 
students  ( if  other 
schools  of  design  ani 
cutta(with50studei 


engil ring,  with  540  ' 

scl Is.  there  were  3 

ativc  art  :  one  at  ( !al- 


at 


at  Calcutta.  Madras,  and  Bombay.from  the  time 
of  their  foundation,  in  I s . > 7 ,  to  1&71,  is  shown 
by  the  following  table  : 


not  until  the  adoption  of  the  new  constitution. 
in  1851,  which  made  it  the  duty  of  the  general 
assembly  to  "encourage,  by  all  suitable  means, 
moral,  intellectual,  scientific,  and  agricultural 
improvement,    and   to   provide    by   law     for    a 

general  and  uniform  system  of  common  si  I Is. 

wherein  tuition  shall  be  without  charge  and 
equally  open  to  all,"  and  which  provided  for  the 
election  of  a  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, that  we  have  any  permanent  record 
of   the   condition   and   progress   oi    the   public 

scl !-.      1  lie  act  to  proi  ide  f  a  a     general  and 

unifon  i  -\  stem  oi  comn    n  -  hi  i  '      was  passed 

June  14.,  1  -.",2  :   hut.  although   in    foi  i 

publication  and  distribution,  ii  did  i 
practically   operative   until    the  first    Monday  of 
April,  1853.     This  was  owing  to  a    ■ 


458  IXD 

between  the  school  law  anil  the  township  law,  so 
that  no  school  officers  for  the  township  conM  be 
elected  until  the  time  tor  the  regular  election 
of   the  township  trustees,  in  April.    This  law 

■  if  the  school  fluids,  and  for  the  organization  of 

school  corporations  by  ci\ii  town.-lnps  instead  of 
by  districts,  and  also  gave  the  people  the  power 

ing  of  school-houses  and  for  the  continuance  of 
schools  after  the  public  funds  were  expended. 
William  C.  Larrabee  was  the  first  person  elected 
to  till  the  office  of  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, lie  inaugurated  the  system,  ami  at 
this  time  served  two  years  from  November  8., 
1852.  Caleb  Mills  took  the  office  November  8., 
1854,  and  served  until  February.  Is;,;.  Ee 
distributed  the  libraries  bought  with  the  pro- 
ceeds of  the  tax  levied  for  that  purpose,  among 
the  townships  of  the  state.  He  was  succeeded 
by  William  « '.  Larrabee,  who  was  again  elected 
superintendent,  and  served  for  two  veals,  from 
the  second  Tuesday  of  February,  L857.  During 
his  administration,  he  made  many  important 
recommendations  to  the  legislature,  in  regard  to 
the  time  of  receiving  reports  and  of  apportion- 
ing the  revenue.    Samuel  L  Rugg,  his  su ssor 

served  two  years,  from  the  set 1    Monday  of 

February,  1859.  In  his  term  of  office,  he  in- 
vestigated the  condition  of  the  school  funds,  and 
considered  plans  for  their  more  profitable  man- 
agement. Stiles  J.  Fletcher  took  the  office  of 
state  superintendent,  February  I  I..  L861.  In  the 
spring  of  L862,  he  was  killed  in  a  railway  ac- 
cident, and  Samuel  K.  Hoshour,  I >.  I >..  I>\  ex- 
the  vacancy  from 
essor  was  elected 
liugg    was    again 


eeutive  appi 
May  29.,   L8 

and   qua!  die 

elected  for  a  term  of  two  years,  commencing 
November  21.,  1862;  but,  owing  to  an  amend 
incut  in  the  school  law.  chaiigin<_'  the  time  of  as- 
suming the  duties  of  the  office.  In-  held  over  until 

March  L5.,  1865.  George  W.  II,...  ucceeded 
March  12.,  1  Sdo.  serving  for  a  torn  of  two  years. 
lie  administered  the  new  school  law,  and  replen- 
ished the  township  libraries.  Being  elected  for 
a  si 'con,  |  term,  he  held  office  until  October,  1868, 
when,  bj  reason  of  his  resignation,  the  newly 
elected  officer,  Barnabas  < '.  Hobbs  was  appointed 
to  fill  oul  the  term.  During  the  term  of  office 
of  Mr.  Hobbs,  the  Normal  School  was  opened, 
January  6.,  1870.  Milton  I!.  Hopkins  took  the 
office,  March  15.,  1871,  for  a  term  of  two  years. 
Through  his  ■ 
abolishing   t 

kin's  entered 
March  15.,  1 

lie  died    III    : 

O.Hopkins, 

vacancy.  frOl 

1875,  when, 
bent,  eiitere, 
Of    these  SUpi 

School  Sy> 
are  the  direc 


townships  are  divided,  the  trustees  of  townships, 
members  of  boards  of  school  trustees  in  incor- 
porated tow  osand  cit  ies, county  superintendents, 
members  of  the  state  board  oi  education,  and 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
The  directors  of  school  districts  axA  under  the 
authority  of  the  township  trustees,  and  exercise 
quite  limited  powers.  Thcv  pr.  side  at  school 
meetings,  take  charge  of  the  school  property, 
tmdii.Tformoth.-r  duties  under  the  direction  of 
the  trustees.  Voters  at  school  meetings  may 
designate  other  branches  than  those  required  bj 
the  school  law.  which  they  wish  to  be  taught  in 
their  respective  districts.  'I  hey  may  request  a 
trustee  to  remove  a  teacher,  and  they  may  peti- 
tion him  in  regard  to  the  repairing  or  removal 
of  a  school-house.  Township  trustees  are  elected 
by  the  people  annually,  and  are  the  school 
trustees  for   their   respective    townships.     It  is 

their  duty  to  take  charge  of  the  scl Is,  employ 

teachers,  build  school  houses,   provide  furniture, 

apparatus,  etc.,  take  the  enumeration  of  the 
school  children,  and  to  cause  to  be  held,  month- 
ly, township  institutes  for  the  instruction  of  the 
teachers.  They  may  also  provide  township 
graded  schools  and  arrange  for  admission  into 
tin-in  from  the  other  departments.  The  sr//m,l 
boards  of  cities  and  towns  consist  of  three  mem- 
bers in  each.  'I  hose  in  cities  are  appointed  by 
the  common  council,  for  three  years,  one  mem- 
ber being  appointed  annually,  in  June.  Those 
in  towns'  are  appointed  by  the  civil  trustees  of 
the  town,  in  the  mui.c  manner  as  the  city  trustees 
tire  appointed.  School  matters  in  cities  and 
towns  are  more  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  school 
trustees,  than  in  township-,  inasmuch  as  the 
law  does  rot  provide  fo]  sch  ol  meetings  in  the 
former.  'I  lie  law  permits  school  boards  of  cities 
and  towns  to  employ  superintendents  for  their 
respective  corporations.  The  county  superin- 
tendent  is  appointed  by  the  board  of  county 
commissioners,  biennially,  in  June  :  and  he  must 
have  had  two  years'  successful  experience  in 
teaching.  It  is  his  dutj  to  examine  all  appli- 
cant- for  license  to  teach.  These  examinations 
are  held  on  the  la>t  Sunday  of  each  month. 
'I  he  blanches  required  bylaw  are  orthography, 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  English 


itality,  a  law   was   pa.-sed 
if   county  examiner  and 

superintendent.  Mr.  Ilop- 


county  institute  annual!; 
From  school  trustees  an. 
forward   them   to  the  s 


af  public 


has  thi- 
in  his 


•nts  are  now  living. 

he  school  officersof  the  state 

he  districts  into  which  the 


superintendent,  who  is,  ex  officio,  president  :  the 
governor;  the  presidents  of  the  state  university, 
the  normal  school,  and  Purdue  University; 
and   the    superintendents  of   the   three    largesl 


INDIANA 

cities  of  the  state.    The  board  meets  as  often  as  I  each  one  hundred  dollars,  to  be  used  i 


It  appoints  the  trustees 


purchas- 
grounds,  building  school-houses,  and  supply- 


bakes  cognizance  of 
ters  as  may  properlj 


into  t\ 

oclassi 

a  ■  1 1 1   The  cimii 

fund, 

which  are   the 
le  fund,  the  bai 

surplus  revenue 
k  tax   fund,  the 

county 

semma 

ry  funds,  fines  ass 

ssed  for  breaches 

of   th, 

penal 

laws  .if  the  sta 

e,  all   forfeit  ares 

which 

niiiv  ai 

crue,  all  escheati 

1   lands  and  es- 

township,  set  a] 


mnts    to    $6,313,247, 

ship  fund  amounts  to 

il  school  fund  of  the 

funds   can   never   be 

•ils  of  them  must  be 

,lv. 

ite  levies  annually  a 


scl I 


cts,  in  proi 


between  the  ages  of  6  and  21  in  each 

authorities   have  also  th  •   right    to 
school  tax  of  25  cents  on  each  one  In 
lars,  which  must  be  expended  in  thi 

town,  or  city,  in  which  it  is  levied, 
also  the  right  to  levy  a  local  tax;  of   ." 


uake  public 

rcesof  rev- 


d 

» for  the  p 

ounds i 

ml  the  . 

tract, -din  the 
ion  of  build- 

thereon  1 

y  schoo 

author 

tie 

.     There  can 

ll 

s  the  dul\ 
■  for  their 
tax  there 

of  th. 
payme 

h  of  th 

it.  by  tl 
ided  thi 

.'.liars.     ' 

h, 
hi 

bonds  in  cir- 

wlien  issued. 
rities  to  pro- 
evy  of  a  spe- 

aid  tax  shall 
than  50  cents 
total  amount 

towns,  in  any 
1    slate,   is    as 

year,   un, 

er   the 

law  of 

th 

.11 

jw.s  : 

ta 

e  tax  on  each  $100.. 

..   $0.16 

on 

lach  poll,  $0.50 

il  tuition  tax 

oneacli$100  0.25 

special  " 

••       0.50 

bond      " 

" 

"       0.50 

1.00 

Total  amount $1.41  $3.00 

in  townships  the  limit  is  $1.10. 

Educational  Condition. — The  total  number 
of  district  schools  in  the  state  is  9,236  ;  ofcity 
systems,  40;  of  town  systems.  202;  and  the 
number  of  school-houses  is  9,307.  The  number 
of  township  and  district  graded  schools  is  396 ; 
of  ungraded  Bchools,  8,940.  Tl.c  estimated  value 
,,f  school  property  i.,  .^Kt.,-70.338.  The  follow- 
ing are  additional  items  of  the  school  statistics 
for  1875— 6: 

340,514 
317,434 

Total  white,  657,948 

colored  males,  4,940 

colored  females,         4,848 


Total  school  populatii 
Number  of  pupils  enrolled,  whites,       4:.:., VI 1 


Colored, 


., ,;,,i 


X, 


Total  enrollment 502,302 

lily  attendance,  estimated  at 315,000 

teachers,  male  and  female 13,133 

female  teachers,  estimated  at     ..       5,500 

I $8,799,191 

its 4,948,879 

es  lor  tuition 2,830,747 

Instruction.— The  State  X<  irmal  School 
at  Terre  Haute,  established  in  L870,  occupies 
one  of  the  fines!  school  1, nil, linos  in  the  state. 
'the  faculty  of  the  institution  embraces  9  in- 
structors, including  the  president  ;  while  1  others 

arc  employed    in    the    model   scl Is  connected 

with  it.  The  number  of  students,  front  Jan., 
1S73,  to  Dee.,  1874,  was  over  401,  of  whom  187 
were  males,  and  '-'I  I,  females.      The  whole  mun- 


icludnio  the  branches 
ie  common  schools,  wit 
y  and  practice  of  teat 
meed,  including  all  tin 


460  INDIANA 

high  schools  of  the  state,  and  designed  to  pre- 
pare teachers  for  employment  in  these  schools. 
In  the  latter  course,  special  prominence  is  given 
to  the  study  of  languages,  especially  French  and 
and  German.  The  Northern  Indiana  Normal 
School,  at  Valparaiso,  organized  in  1*78,  is  a 
private  institution.  —  Teachers'  institutes  con- 
stitute, in  this  state,  a  very  important  instru- 
mentality for  the  professional  instruction  of 
teachers.  The  several  county  superintendents 
are  required  to  hold  a  county  teachers'  institute 
at  Last  once  a  year  in  each  county;  besides 
which,  at  least  one  Saturday  in  each  month, 
while  the  public  schools  are  in  session,  is  re- 
quired to  be  devoted  to  township  institutes.  In 
1ST."',  the  number  of  county  institutes  held  was 
91;  and  of  township  institutes,  4,080. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  number  of  pu- 
pils in  the  'Jl  approved  lii-h  schools  in  the  state 
was  reported,  in  1874,  as  l.'{.81'2  :  the  number 
of  teachers  employed  was  350,  of  whom  223 
were  males,  and  127  females.  These  schools  are 
so  organized  as  to  be  preparatory  schools  to  the 
state  university.  No  uniform  course  of  study 
is  prescribed  :  but  the  candidates  for  admission 
to  the  university,  in  1874,  were  examined  in 
geography,  English  grammar  and  sentential 
analysis,  geometry,  and  Latin,  including  Csesar 
anil  Virgil.  In  a  table  appended  to  the  state 
report  for  181 1.  '.<  private  or  denominational  in- 
stitutions for  secondary  instruction  are  enumer- 
;ii.'  I.  Ii  i\  in-_'.  in  the  :i /jiwate,  sill  students  in 
1 1  ■  ■  - ■  i  .:"  e!  i--  -  in  I  ."i  it  in  the  preparatory 
departments.  Several  private  schools  and  acad- 
emies of  this  grade  reported  to  the  U.  S.  ISu- 
reau  of  Education,  in  L874.  There  were,  at  that 
time.  also.  Ill  business  colleges,  with  81  teachers 
and  1  Jili7  pupils.  The  courses  of  study  in  these 
schools  range  I  from  6  months  to  5  years. 

Sup  rior  Instrm  Hon.—  First  among  the  insti- 
tutions nt  this  grade,  stands  the  Indiana  Uni- 
versity (q.  v.|.at  Bloomington,  which  is  closely 

till  with   the  school  systems  of  the  state 

by  an  arrangement  which  admits  to  the  fresh- 
man class,  without  further  examination,  all 
graduates  of  high  schools  approved  by  the  state 
board  of  education,  who  present  certificates  that 
they  have  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  in 
the  preparatory  course  of  study.  Other  institu- 
tions for  superior  instruction  are  given  in  the 
following  table : 


Wh    ,i 

Religious 

NAME 

Location 

ed 

dTionna' 

Concordia  College. . . 

Fort  Wayne 

L839 

Ev.  Luth. 

Earlliam  i'<-]l.  - 

Richmond 

Friends 

<Ft.  Wayne  Co 

Fort  Wayne 

1846 

M.  Epis. 

.Franklin  I '.  .1 1    ... 

Franklin 

II. r 

1X4-1 

Baptist 
Presb. 

Hart.-vill 

Vl  ,0n   j  Hill  1    ill 

V  W.  Chri   ti« 

u   1   raapoliB 

L857    Chrutian 

run's' Cull 

rem     Hanti 

ll?2  R.a'Bap' 

■     u     ■   -.,  r-  Cull.-. 

1861     K.<; 

1859  1  Christian 

%   tn   Dam 

1842    K.  C. 

Wabash  College 

Crawfordaville 

1832 

Presb. 

INDIANA  ASBURY  UNIVERSITY 

Professional    and  Scientific    Instruction.— 

Purdue  University,  at  Lafayette. is  an  industrial 
university,  and  embraces  schools  of  agriculture, 
mechanics,  mining  and  engineering,  industrial 
art.  and  military  science  ;  besides  this,  there  is 
the  Telle  Haute  School  of  Industrial* Science,  at 
Terre  Haute.  The  schools  of  law  are  the  law 
department  of  the  Indiana  1'niversity.  and  tin- 
law  school  of  the  North-western  Christian  LTni- 
versity  :  and  the  medical  schools  are  the  College 
of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of  Indiana,  the  In- 
diana Medical  l  'nllcgc,  connected  with  the  In- 
diana University,  and  the  Medical  College  of 
Evansville. 

Special  Instruction. — This  department  of  edu- 
cation is  represented  by  the  Indiana  Institution 
for  Educating  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  at  Indianap- 
olis, which,  in  1S74.  had  15  instructors  and 
88.'!  students:  and  the  Indiana  Institute  for  the 
Blind,  at  Indianapolis,  which,  in  1874 — 5,  had 
109  pupils,  and  a  corps  of  instructors  including 
a  superintendent,  5  teachers  in  the  literary  de- 
partment. 3  in  the  industrial,  and  3  in  the  mu- 
sical, besides  4  household  officers. 

Educational  Libraries.-  'I  he  total  number  of 
volumes  in  the  various  educational  libraries  of 
the  state  is  reported  as  357,545 ;  of  which  the 
township  libraries  contained  '_'.">8."i4;i  volumes. 
the  city  libraries  were  estimated  to  contain 
50,000  volumes,  and  the  college  libraries,  54,000 
volumes.  'I  he  law  does  not,  at  present,  provide 
for  a  general  tax  for  the  support  of  public  libra- 
ries ;  but  it  permits  the  founding  of  library  as- 
sociations, and  authorizes  the  common  councils 
of  cities  to  take  stock  in  such  associations,  and 
levy  the  annual  tax  of  2  cents  on  each  $100  in 
support  of  the  same. 

Educational  Journals. — There  are  two  edu- 
cational journals  published  in  the  state:  77c 
Indiana  School  Journal,  the  official  organ  of  the 
state  superintendent  of  public  instruction:  and 
The  Northern  Indiana  Teacher,  published  at 
South  Bend. 

INDIANA  ASBURY  UNIVERSITY, 
at  I  'l'eeneastle.  hid.,  commenced  ill  1 S82,  and 
chartered  in  1837,  is  under  Methodist  Episcopal 
control.  The  first  class  graduated  in  1840.  It 
has  an  endowment  of  $180,000,  and  property  to 
the  value  of  $150,000.  Tuition  is  free.  The  li- 
braries contain  about  111,11011  volumes.  The  institu- 
tion has  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus 
and  a  cabinet  of  minerals  and  fossils.  Both  sexes 
are  admitted.  The  regular  courses  are  the  clas- 
sical and  philosophical,  but  an  elective  course 
may  be  pursued.  Opportunity  is  afforded  for 
normal  instruction,  ami  there  is  a  Biblical  course 
for  theological  students.  Indiana  Medical  Col- 
lege is,  by  recent  action  of  the  proper  author- 
ities, made  the  medical  department  of  Asbury 
University.  The  medical  school  is  located  at 
Indianapolis,  and  has  9  professors  and  6  lect- 
urers. There  is  also  a  preparatory  departmen! 
In  L875  6,  there  were  12  instructors,  509  stu 
dents  256  collegiate  and  253  preparatory),  and 
filij  alumni.  The  presidents  of  the  university 
have  been  as  follows  :  Bishop  Matthew  Simpson. 


INDIANA    UNIVERSITY 

D.D.,1839 — 48;  the  Rev.  LucienW.  Berry,  D.  !>.. 
1849—54;  the  Bev.Daniel  Curry. D. ]>..  L854  7; 
Bishop  Thomas  Bowman,  D.D.,  IX.  D.,  1858—72; 
the  Rev.  Reuben  An.Irus.  D.  1 »..  1872  -5;  and  the 
Rev.  Alexander  Martin.  I».  D.,  the  present  in- 
cumbent, appointed  in  1875. 

INDIANA  UNIVERSITY,  at  Blooming- 
ton,  1  in  I.,  was  chartered  as  a  college  in  1828, 
and  as  a  university,  in  1839.  It  is  non-sectarian, 
being  under  state  control.  It  has  two  fine 
buildings,  a  library  of  over  6,000  volumes,  a 
chemical  laboratory,  a  museum  containing  fos- 
sils, minerals,  zoological  specimens,  etc..  and  pro- 
ductive funds  to  the  amount  of  $110,000;  besides 
which  it  receives  annual  appropriations  from  t In- 
state. The  value  of  its  buildings. grounds,  and  ap- 
paratus is  .^'-'(lO.dllll.  Moth  sexes  are  admitted. 
Besides  the  preparatory  and  the  collegiate  depart- 
ment, the  latter  having  a  classical  and  a  scien- 
tific course,  there  is  a  department  for  the  study 
of  law.  The  medical  department  was  discon- 
tinued in  187(5.  The  number  of  instructors  and 
students  in  the  various  departments  of  the  in- 
stitution, in  1870,  was  as  follows: 

Departments  Instructors  Students 

Preparatory  4  142 

Collegiate  10  132 

Law "  2  36 

Total  16  310 

The  Rev.  Lemuel  Moss,  D.  D.,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

INDIANS,  American.  The  earliest  at- 
tempt at  the  civilization  of  the  American  In- 
dians was  made  by  the  Spanish  government, 
in  Mexico  and  South  America,  at  the  time  of 
their  conquest,  when  the  sons  of  chiefs  and 
princes  in  Mexico  and  Peru  were  educated,  and 
endowed  with  the  rank  of  Spanish  nobles.  Many 
families  in  Spain,  to  this  day,  boast  of  their 
Mexican  or  Peruvian  descent.  Their  further 
education  was  conducted  through  the  agency  of 
missions,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  were  those 
of  Paraguay.  The  education  of  the  North 
American  Indians  was  begun,  also,  by  Catholic 
missionaries  in  Canada  and  Louisiana.  Florida. 
Mexico,  and  California.  It  has  been  participated 
in  gradually  by  other  denominations,  and  has 
followed  the  line  of  the  frontier  to  the  present 
time — the  religious  character  of  the  instruction 
imparted  being  gradually  eliminated  as  the  sepa- 
ration of  church  and  state  approached  com- 
pletion. The  Puritans,  at  an  early  date,  estab- 
lished missions  at  Nantucket  and  Martha's 
Vineyard,  at  Newtown  and  Plymouth,  Mass., 
and  in  Connecticut,  the  laborers  principally  be- 
ing the  Mayhews,  Eliot,  Cotton,  and  Sargeant 
The  famous  Indian  Bible  of  Eliot  was  prepared 
by  him  for  the  instruction  of  converts.  The  In- 
dian School  of  Dr.  Wheelock,  now  Dartmouth 
College,  and  Harvard  University,  at  the  time  of 
its  foundation,  gave  instruction  to  Indians,  the 
latter  with  the  intention  of  using  them  as  teachers 
of  their  own  race.  Only  one  Indian,  however. 
has  ever  graduated  there —  Caleb  ( 'hce.-hahteau- 
muck,  in  liiti.7.     The  lirainerds,  who  labored  in 


INDIANS 


461 


New  Jersey  and   Pennsylvania,  the  Moravians, 

among  the  Delawares,  and  the  Society  of  Friends, 

have  all  produced  results  moreoi  less  inn  ortant. 

Nearly  all  of  the  large  I'n-t.  -i,  atdenoi 

have  labored  in  this  field,  either  separately  or 

through 

ans  established  an 
Methodists,  in  1819, 
a      the     Wyandots, 


t, 

The      E 

lists 

the     1 

can 

Mission 

\li 

ssionarv 

Uian 

N  i  ir 

1  ill  theil 
h     Anier 

ill  the  w'l 
nada  aloi 

eft. 
rk; 

e  t 

Th. 

bo.  lit 

ed 

1  M 

the  s 

11.1 

he  I 

ritadBtl 

tea,' 

levotii 
the  In 

lia 

llld 

IV  bed 

Vi 

i  three  classes,  according 
consequent  mode  of  lit 
p   are   closely   and   enti 

eK 

heirsurrou 
tamely,  il  i 
surround 

dl 
tl 
d 

Illtl 


•jv.'..iiii:; 


10,!l,->s 


-Urns 


this  last  .lass  only  that  the  experiment  of  eivi 
ization  is  operative,  the  reclaiming  of  the  tirs 
class  being  considered  accomplished,  and  that  o 
the  second  class,  impracticable.  The  followin 
figures  are  taken  from  the  report  of  the  Unite. 
Slates  ( 'onimissioner  of  Education  for  1874: 
Number  of  Indians  in  the  United  Slates,  ex- 

elusive  of  those  in  Alaska 

N'uiiilier  et  srli. ...1  l.uiMiiifK  upon  Indian  res- 
Number  of  sclinois  up. >n  Indian  res.  ivatn.ns 
Number  of  scholars :    males  .1,797;  females 

5,161 

\lllllliel    el    Irarliel'S     

Number  nf    Indians   who    can   read:   adults, 

1,392,  youths  2,616 

Number  nt  Indians  who  have  learned  to  read 

during  the  year 961 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing,  that  the 
proportion  of  scholars,  among  the  Indians,  is 
about  1  in  every  26.  Of  those  in  New  Fork, 
1418,out  of  a  total  of  5.140,  attend  school.  These 
Indians,  of  course,  being  few  in  number  and 
every-where  surrounded  by  civilization,  have  un- 
usual advantages  over  their  brethren  of  the  Far 
West.  The  total  number  of  Indians  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  excluding  those  of  New  York,  is 
18,505  :  scholars,  2,599,  or  about  1  in  7.  It  is  in 
the  Indian  Territory,  however,  that  the  most  ex- 
tensive and  interesting  attempts  at  education 
have  been  made.  (See  [ndian  Territory.)  The 
prospect  of  the  education  and  final  civilization 
of  the  Indians  brought  under  the  ehaige  of  the 
agencies,  is  considered  promising:  though  the 
want  of  funds,  and  the  difficulty  the  Indians 
have  to  encounter  in  learning  a  -ii.m 
have    thus  far    retarded  their  progress.     The 


462  INDIAN   TERRITORY 

number  of  Indians  in  British  America  is  esti- 
mated at  150,000.  For  information  in  regard  to 
them,   see    the  articles   cm    the   several  British 


|im\  l 


N( 


\l,.el 


INDIAN  TERRITORY,  an  unorganized 
portion  of  the  Cnited  States,  embracing  an  area 
of  68,901  square  miles.  In  1870,  the  population 
was  Btated  at  68,152,  of  whom  2,409  were 
whites,  6,378  colored.and  59,367  Indians ;  of  the 
latter.  24,967  were  living  on  reservations,  the 
nomadic  Indians  being  estimated  at  34,400. 
Indian  Territory  was  set  apart  by  the  act  of 
Congress,  passed  .Tune  30.,  1834,  for  the  regula- 
tion of  trade  and  intercourse  with  the  Indians. 
This  act  declared  that  "all  that  part  of  the 
United  States  west  of  the  Mississippi  and  not 
within  the  states  of  Missouri  and  Louisiana,  or 
the  territory  of  Arkansas",  should  fur  the  pur 
poses  of  the  act  be  considered  the  Indian  country. 
This  vast  tract  funned  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  Louisiana  purchase  of  1803  :  but  the  Indian 
territory  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the  for- 
mation of  states  and  territories  out  of  it;  so  that, 
at  present,  it  is  comparatively  of  small  extent. 

Ed  Condition.  —  Indian  Territory 
compris  -  -ix  agencies  and  thirty-six  different 
nations  and  tribes,  numbering  (according  to  the 
report  of  the  I.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education 
for  L874)  over  76,000  persons.  The  total  num- 
ber of  scl Is,  in  1874,  was  172,  withl77  build- 


p,n, 


ported  , 

1,300  a 


he  (  'reeks. 
1  :  and  the 
.1).  22,000. 


Choctausandrhiekasaw-    -    , 

These  nations  occupy  a1  n  itorj  th  i1  has;  in  t 

aggregate,  an  area  of  28, 000      res,oi  w  :, 

about  150*000  are  under  cultivation.     Each  i 

tions  has  its  own  school  -\-teni.  including  sup 
intendents,  school  board',  etc.  The  Cheroka 
are  the  most  advanced.  Their  system 
a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  elected  by 
the  nation  I  i  luncil  for  a  term  of  two  years;  and 
a  boat  1  ol  education,  consisting  of  four  members 
inelu  lin_  tli  Miperintcndent,  who  is  a  member 
ex  officio.  It  is  empowered  to  establish  rules 
and  regulations  for  the  management  of  the 
schools,  and  to  prescribe  the  text-books  to  be 
used.  The  common  schools  are  divided  into 
three  grades  :  primary,  intermediate,  and  gram- 
mar schools.  The  school  year  consists  of  nine 
months  and  a  half,  commencing  on  the  first 
Monday  in  March,  and  is  divided  into  two  terms 
of  twenty  weeks  each.  The  regular  school  day 
is  six  hours:  but  for  pupils  under  eight  years  of 

age.  it   is  only   tour  hours.     The  sel i  age  is 

from  6  to  18.  All  teachers  are  required  to  be 
examined  and  licensed  by  the  board  of  education. 
There  are  3  school  districts,  each  havinga  school 
commissioner,  who  has  the  general  management 
and  supervision  of  all  the  schools  in  his  district  : 
but  an  appeal  from  his  decisions  may  be  taken 
to  the  board  of  education.  In  1874,  there  were 
in  the    Cherokee    nation,    68    schools,  taught 


INDIVIDUALITY 

chiefly  by  natives,  in  their  vernacular,  but  also 
learning  English,  The  number  cf  pupils  enrolled 
in  these  schools  was  estimated  at  2,500  :  and  the 
average  attendance,  at  2,000.  The  school  fund 
amounted  to  $2,909,1  1 .''..  upon  which  the  annual 
interest  was  $161,889.  —  The  Choctaws  and 
< 'hickasaus.  numbering  about  22.060.  in  1*74, 
had  67  day  schools,  chiefly  boarding-schools,  at 
which  the  estimated  attendance  was  1,650.  The 
Creeks  had  .'il  schools,  with  Tad  pupils;  and  the 
Seininoles.  5  schools,  with  about  120  pupils.— 
The  Cherokecs  maintain  a  female  seminary  with 
about  70  pupils;  also  an  orphan  asylum,  pro- 
viding for  about  1110  children.  Mission  schools 
arc  supported  in  the  other  agencies,  as  follows: 
Quapaw  Agency,  .'5  mission  schools  (on  the  in- 
dustrial plan)  and  one  day  school,  with  a  total 
enrollment  of  232  pupils:  Sacand  Fox  Agency, 
a  manual-labor  school,  with  28  pupils,  and  the 
Shawnee  day  school,  with  20  pupils;  Osage 
Agency,  a  manual  labor  school,  with  90  pu- 
pils, a  mission  school,  with  35  pupils,  a  day 
school  for  the   Caws,   with   54   pupils,  and  a 

boarding-school  ;  Wirhiln  Aijcnfii,  2  schools,  one 
a  day  school,  and  the  other  a  boarding-school, 
whole  attendance  111  pupils:  Kiowa  Agency, 
2  boarding-schools,  having  H4  pupils.  —  See 
Report  of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Education  for 
1874. 

INDIVIDUALITY,  that  distinction  of 
character  which  i-  produced  by  mental  or  moral 
peculiarities.  The  value  of  this  element  of 
character.in  the  affairs  of  life,  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  Goethe  consider!  d  that  its  pres- 
ervation and  development  should  be  the  sole 
end  of  a  true  education  ;  and  Mill  declares  that 
it  is  the  ercat  want  of  our  time.  Its  rarity, 
however,  is  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  lev- 
eling tendency  of  the  age  in  which  we  live.  The 
average  experience  of  the  world  at  any  period, 
is  embodied  in  the  prevailing  customs  of  that 
period.  In  that  sphere,  the  gnat  bulk  of  the 
world's  activities  move  with  unthinking  regu- 
larity,— the  forceof  education  making  it  natural, 
and  absorption  in  the  struggle  for  existence 
allowing  no  time  for  any  thought  of  chance.  The 
increase  of  facilities  for  the  spread  of  knowledge, 
also,  adds  directly  to  the  coercive  power  of 
public  opinion  by  extending  its  sway  ;  and. 
while  it  enlarges  the  sphere  of  custom  renders 
its  influence  "more  uniform  and  more  difficult 
to  be  opposed.  Yet  its  boundaries  must  be 
steadily  extended,  or  life  degenerates  into  mere 
routine.  To  the  man  of  individuality,  whether 
as  artist,  poet,  preacher,  philosopher,  or  thinker 
of  any  kind,  is  committed  the  task  of  enlarging 
(hat  sphere,  and  setting  up  new  ideals.  In  daily 
life,  also,  a  thousand  emergencies  arise,  demand- 
ing instant  action  for  which  experience  furnishes 
no  guide.  The  ordinary  mind  is  paralyzed, 
and  turns  instinctively  to  the  man  of  genius,  or 
exceptional  power,  for  guidance.      Individuality 

thus  become-  the  pi v  ,,f  progress.     When 

we  remember,  further,  that  individuality  fur- 
nishes the  common  ground  on  which  genius  and 
insanity  meet,  and  that  its  cultivation,  according 


INDIVIDUALITY 


463 


as  it  is  proper  or  improper,  may  minister  in  a 
hundred  ways  to  the  happiness  and  well-being  of 
the  individual  and  the  race,  or  to  untold  misery 
for  the  one.  and  loss  to  the  other,  its  claim  for 
consideration  in  any  educational  scheme  will  not 
probably  1"'  denied.  I '  1  if ortunately,  however. 
the  difficulty  of  properly  treating  it  is  com- 
mensurate with  its  importance,  the  consider- 
ation of  it  going,  as  it  does,  to  the  very  mot  of 


are.  Tn  this  search,  many  circumstances  may 
temporarily  mislead  him.  In  his  first  day's  ac- 
quaintance with  a  pupil,  for  instance,  he  may 
fancy  he  discovers  in  him  a  natural  aptitude  for 
a  particular  study,  which  a  longer  acquaintance 
will   shew    to    lie   due   to    some    slight    previous 

training  in  that  study —  in  which  case  the  apt- 
itude will  entirely  disappear  as  soon  as  he  has 
reached  the  end  of  his  fortuitous  knowledge; 


drawn  from  theobservati f  a   large  number 

of  individual  instances,  necessarily  employthem- 
selves  with  the  resemblances  to  be  found  among 
those  instances,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  differ- 
ences. The  question  always  is.  "Under  given 
circumstances,  how  would  a  majority  of  minds 
act '.'".  little  attention  being  paid  to  the  minority. 
And  the  larger  the  majority,  the  more  readily  is 
the  conclusion  drawn  from  their  uniform  action 
accepted  as  a  rule,  and  the  less  likelihood  is 
there  that  any  attention  will  be  paid  to  the  in- 
significant minority.  Vet  it  is  in  this  minority, 
that  the  minds  possessed  of  decided  individuality 
will  be  found.  In  many  cases,  no  doubt,  private 
instruction  would  produce  more  satisfactory  re- 
sults in  developing  exceptional  powers;  but  cir- 
cumstances  frequently  do  not  admit  of  this,  and 
the  teacher,  in  that  case,  must  endeavor  to  sup- 
ply the  deficiency,  as  far  as  possible,  by  special 
attention.  For  that  highest  from  of  individuality, 
called  genius,  the  ordinary  school  system  can, 
probably,  do  little  in  the  way  of  direction,  its 
very  nature  leading  it  to  reject  all  external 
guidance  :  it  is  a  law  unto  itself.  (See  tiENlos.) 
But  for  that  great  army  of  thinkers  and  work- 
ers whose  peculiar  fitness  for  special  pursuits 
is  early  manifested,  and  whose  earnestness  and 
patient  labor,  in  a  thousand  varied  ways,  are 
daily  enlarging  the  domain  of  knowledge,  the 
advantage  of  a  well-digested  course  of  study  and 
moral  training  can  hardly  be  questioned.  One 
of  the  most  effective  aids  for  resisting  the  tend- 
ency to  reduce  all  minds  to  uniformity,  and  for 
giving  to  individuality  its  due  prominence,  con- 
sists in  keeping  constantly  in  mind  the  mod- 
ern idea  of  education  :  namely,  that  it  is  a 
development  from  within  of  capacities  there 
existing.  The  mind  is  not  a  vessel  into  which 
knowledge  is  to  be  poured  till  it  is  full,  but  a 
plant  on  which  education  is  to  act,  as  the  sun 
and  rain  act.  drawing  out  and  expanding  it  into 
leaf,  flower,  and  fruit,  according  to  the  plan  on 
n-h,  i,  ,i  is  constructed.  And  just  as  the  gar- 
dener places  different  plants  in  different  soils, 
and  subjects  them  to  varying  amounts  of  sun- 
shin, '.and  moisture,  expecting  diversity  of  results, 
and  recognizing  in  that  diversity  bis  success,  so 
the  teacher,  while  subjecting  all  to  the  same 
general  treatment,  as  the  gardener  does,  shoidd 
seek  to  vary  his  methods,  in  order  to  accom- 
modate them  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  pupils 
under  his  care.  The  first  step  to  this  end  must 
be  a  determination  of  what  those  peculiarities 


immature  powers  ;  or,  in  a  third  ease,  an  incli- 
nation may  be  shown,  which  is  produced  solely 
by  some  poetical  aspect  of  the  study,  due  to 
early  experience  or  association,  and  has  no  con- 
nection with  the  essential  nature  of  that  study. 
A  boy.  in  this  way.  for  instance,  might  show  a 
quasi-love  for  botany  from  having  bei 
up  among  flowers,  the  forms  and  colorsof  which 
appealed  powerfully  to  his  love  of  beauty ;  or  a 
similar  love  of  astronomy  or  microscopy  from 
having  had  the  run  of  an  observatory  or  an  opti- 
cian's shop.  But  no  teacher  of  discernment  will 
Ion;:  he  deceived  by  such  siipertieial  knowledge 
or  inclination,  if  opportunities  for  examination 
are  afforded  him.  A  more  dangerous  misap- 
prehension, however,  exists  frequi  nth  in  regard 
to  moral  powers.  This  often  happi  ns  in  cases  of 
what  may  be  called  negative  individuality  — 
eases  in  which  the  faculties  necessary  for  the 
future  well-being,  instead  of  being  abnormally 
developed,   seem  to  be  entirely  wanting.      These 


at 


once,  and  leads  to  detection:  but  the  want  of  it 
is.  in  many  cases,  easy  of  concealment,  and. 
escaping  notice,  escape*,  also,  correction,  and  the 
error  appears  liter  in  life,  bringing  •'. 
ruin.  Dishonesty,  both  in  word  and  deed, is  one 
of  the  commonest  of  these  defects  of  character. 
Tyrannical  government  in  childhood  and  early 
youth  is  the  fruitful  parent  of  this  evil.  Self- 
preservation,  the  strongest  instinct  of  its  nature, 
leads  the  child  to  the  use  of  deception  as  a 
shield  from  punishment ;  and  it  us  s  it  the  more 
readily  because  it  cannot  understand  the  base- 
ness of  it. 

Having  determined  the  pupil's  distinguish- 
ing trait,  the  treatment  should  be  a  partial  cul- 
tivation of  the  prominent  faculty,  with  a  special 
cultivation  of  the  others.  An  entire  suppression 
of  this  ruling  faculty  would  result  in  disgust 
with  the  enforced  attention  given  to  the  others  ; 
while  an  exclusive  cultivation  of  it  —  which 
is  almost  always  the  result,  when  the  pupil  is 
allowed  to  -follow  his  inclination'' —  would  end 
only  in  one-sirlcdness.  or  want  of  balance.  As 
the  constant  disposition  of  the  pupil,  under  the 
treatment  lure  prescribed,  would  be  to  neglect 
the  distasteful  studies  for  the  favored  one.  the 
efforts  of  the  teacher  should  be  exerted  to  make 
the  former  as  attractive  as  possible,  by  con- 
stant references  to  the  latter  by  way  of  illustra- 


464 


IXDO-GERMAXIC    LANGUAGES 


tion.  By  a  skillful  teacher,  this  may  be  done  to 
a  greater  extent  than  might  at  first  appear.  A 
judicious  system  of  rewards,  also,  might  be  de- 
vised, to  favor  proficiency  in  the  studies  likely 
to  be  neglected.  In  the  elaboration  of  the 
plan,  specific  rides  will  be  of  little  use.  The 
highly  developed  faculties,  mental  and  moral, 
exist  in  such  varied  combination,  and  the  daily 
circumstances  and  influences  surround  and 
govern  in  such  a  way,  as  to  make  of  each  case, 
a  complicated  problem,  requiring  special  study. 
The  general  plan,  therefore,  can  only  be  indi- 
cated, and  its  fulfillment  committed  to  the 
discretion  of  the  teacher.  In  it.  he  will  find 
ample  field  for  the  exercise  of  his  skill  and  in- 
genuity. His  genius  for  teaching  will  be  no- 
where more  apparent.  -  In  addition  to  the 
case  of  negative  individuality,  there  is  another, 
which  may  be  called  that  of  general  negative 
individuality,  in  which  the  faculties  are  evenly 
developed,  but  are  till  below  the  average.  This 
condition  is  equivalent,  in  its  results,  to  that  of 
a  mind  with  faculties  of  normal  strength,  too 
evenly  developed,  the  resulting  character,  in 
both  cases,  being  one  of  mediocrity,  which  mani- 
fests itself  in  a  general  want  of  decision  or  in- 
firmity of  purpose.  Such  characters  are  never 
themselves  in  the  presence  of  a  superior  mind. 
Their  negative  virtue  becomes  as  injurious  as 
positive  vice ;  for,  as  all  men  are  compelled  con- 
stantly, under  stress  of  daily  circumstances,  to 
act,  the  action  of  such  persons  is  never  their  own, 
but  is  merely  a  reflection  of  that  of  the  more 
powerful  minds  by  whom  they  are  surrounded. 
The  demagogue  and  the  quack  find  in  such 
characters  their  pliant  instruments.  This  result, 
therefore,  should  be  carefully  guarded  against,  in 
every  country  especially,  where  political  power 
in  the  hands  of  the  masses  is  greal  or  increasing. 
The  teacher's  duty,  in  this  case  is  perhaps  the 
most  difficult  of  all.  it  being  nothing  less  than 
the  creation  of  individuality.  This  object,  how- 
ever, is  worthy  of  his  highest  efforts,  since  the 
element  he  is  endeavoring  to  evoke  is  the  most 
valuable  of  all  the  products  of  a  true  education 
—  the  personal  quality  whose  moral  aspect  is 
sell  i  ,  ct,  as  well  as  self-reliance,  and  which 
constitutes  the  surest  basis  for  a  correct  life, 
whether  as    an  individual  or  a   citizen.     (See 


C'HA 


INDO-GERMANIC  LANGUAGES.  The 

name  Inihi-di'riiiuiiii:  is  applied  to  a  large  num- 
ber of  languages  whicl oparative  philology 

has  proved  to  be  of  a  common  origin.  It  was 
chosen  to  indicate  wli.it  was  believed  to  be  the 
eastern  (India  land  the  western  (Germany)  bound- 
ary of  the  extent  of  these  language.-.  Since  the 
Celtic  has  been  recognized  as  belonging  to  the 
family,  the  name  is  no  longer  adequate,  md 
other  names,  as  Aryan,  Indo-European,  Japh  itdc, 

Sanskritic,  have  been   proposed  and  - itimes 

used  instead  of  it;  but  still  [ndo-Germanic  is 
the  name  generally  preferred  l>\  writers  on  the 
subject. — Thf  [ndo-Germanic  Languages,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  consent  of  all  prominent 
writers  on  the  subject,  embrace  the  following 


branches:  (1)  Germanic  or  Teutonic  ;  (2)  Slavic; 
13)  Lithuanic;  (4)  Celtic  (Irish  etc.);  (5)  Italic 
(Latin  etc.)  ;  (6)  Greek  ;  (7)  Iranian  or  Persian; 
(8)  Sanskritic  or  Indian.  Some  writers  add  an 
Ulyrian  branch,  of  which  the  modern  Albanian 
is  regarded  as  a  relic;  others  divide  somewhat 
differently,  regarding  the  Slavic  and  Lithuanian 
not  as  two  different  branches,  but  as  only  one 
branch;  but  they  all  agree  as  to  the  affinity  of 
the  eight  branches  which  have  been  enumerated. 
From  the  time  when  Cyrus  founded  the  Persian 
empire  until  the  present  day.  nearly  all  the  lead- 
ing civilized  nations  of  the  globe  have  spoken 
liido-l  ■crinaiiie  languages,  and  to-day  these  lan- 
guages arc  the  vehicle  of  thought  for  nearly 
all  Europe  (the  only  exceptions  being  the  Turk- 
ish, the  Hungarian,  the  Finnish,  and  the  Masque 
languages  foi  thi  entire  civilized  population  of 
America  and  Australia,  and  for  the  larger  por- 
tion of  Asa.  The  comparative  study  of  the 
[ndo-Germanic  languages  has  east  a  great  deal 
of  light  upon  all  the  languages  vtlnch  are  taught 
in  the  English-speaking  world— the  vernacular, 
the  classical,  and  the  foreign.     Not  only  does 

merly  attainable  ot  the  peculiar  kinship  existing 
between  all  these  languages,  but,  especiallyby 
the  aid  of  the  Sanskrit,  explains  many  points 
which  were  formerly  obscure,  and  enables  the 
student  to  trace  the  origin  and  gradual  growth 
of  most  of  the  grammatical  forms.  The  influence 
is  mosl  apparent  in  the  Latin  and  the  Creek, 
the  relation.- ot  wind,  to  the  family  have  been 
best  set  forth  by  Corssen  [Lateinische  Sprache) 
and  G.  Curtius  (Griechische  Etymologie).  The 
standard  grammars  of  these  languages,  especially 
those  written  during  the  last  twenty  years,  have 
generally  been  benefited  by  the  results  of  com- 
parative philology;  and  teachers  who  understand 
the  chief  Indii-i  ierniaiiic  languages  find  it  easy, 
without  any  need  of  additional  time,  to  com- 
bine with  instruction  in  Latin  and  Greek,  a 
rudimentary  knowledge  of  the  I  ndo-Germanic 
system.  And  it  is  safe  to  say,  that,  henceforth, 
it  will  lie  impossible  for  any  grammarian  to 
surpass,  or  even  to  equal,  the  best  Latin  and 
Greek  grammars  now  in  use.  unless  he  possesses 
a  good  knowledge  of  the  relation  of  the  classic 
to  other  [ndo-Germanic  languages,  and  especially 
to  Sanskrit.  —  The  study  of  English  in  the 
lower  grades  of  instruction  has  been  indirectly 
benefited  by  the  progress  of  these  researches, 
because  to  them  we  are  largely  indebted  for  a 
more  intelligent  class  of  teachers,  and  a  much 
superior  class  of  text-books.  In  the  more  ad- 
vanced grades  of  instruction,  the  course  of 
studies  can  In'  so  arranged  —  and  notable  at- 
tempts have  recently . been  made  in  this  direc- 
tion— as  to  embrace  an  introduction  of  the  stu- 
dent to  a  rudimentary  acquaintance  with  some 
of  the  chief  results  ot  lndo-1  H-rmanic  philology. 
(See  English,  Study  of.)  More  detailed  infor- 
mation on  this  subject  may  he  found  in  Max 
Muller's,  and  in  W.  1).  Whitney's  Lectures 
on  Language*.  Comparative  grammars  of  the 
Indo-Germauic  languages  have  been  written  by 


INDUCTIVE   METHOD 
Bopp,  Schleicher,  and   Lapp;   a  dictionary,  by 


m  of  , 


lialatn  i 


Fick. 

the  eighl   branches 

guagea    was    begun 

ssstrss 

(2)  Iranian     Gnu 

(3)  Greek  Gramm 
Grammar  (embracir 
(.-.,  German  Gram] 
Celtic)  Grammar,  1 
Grammar,  by  Leskii 
Leskien.  An  tntrod 
contains  the  Oullin 
[Grundzvge  der  I, 
duction  to  the  stui 
[ndo-Gennanic  langi 

INDUCTIVE  METHOD,   in  education,  is 
bu1   another  name  for  the  developing  method 

tin  principle  of  logical  induction,  or  the  process 
of  deriving  general  principles  from  an  observa- 
tion and  comparison  of  individual  facts.  Instead 
of  teaching  definitions,  principles,  and  rules  ar- 


INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS 


Pitt,  equally  failed.     In  Italy,  canon  Odesealchi 
founded,  in  1686,  a  great   charitable   institution 


.    by     Meyer;     (4)    Italic 
Latin,  etc.)  by  Biicheler  : 


S     tit'    I'llulli'lii:     /'//l/siti/ni/i/ 

itphysiohgie)  as  an  intro- 
'  of  the  pi ologj  oi   the 


method,  is  the  la 

xt-1 k«  follow  tl 

most  effective  el 


INDUSTRIAL     SCHOOLS. 


brandies  nf  instruction,  but  in  certain  industrial 
or  business  pursuits.     An    ind   -        Is  ,n 

the  widest  sense  of  the  word,  denotes  any  school 
for  teaching  one  or  several  branches  nt  industry  : 
but  the  special  schools  of  this  kind.  and.  in  par- 
ticular, those  of  a  higher  grade,  arc  nunc  gener- 
ally comprised  uniler  the  name  of  technical 
schools  (see  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION);  and  the 
name  industrial  school  is  usually  restricted  to 
a  school  for  neglected  children,  in  which  training 
in  manual  labor  or  industrial  pursuits  constitutes 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  plan  of  education. 
The  common  schools,  however,  sometimes  have 
classes  in  which  children  are  instructed  in  cer- 
tain industrial  pursuits.  The  idea  of  providing 
for  the  instruction  of  children  in  manual  labor 
appears  to  have  originated  in  the  desire  to  enable 
poor  children  to  earn  as  early  as  possible  their 
daily  bread.  In  England,  Chief  Justice  Halerec- 
ommended,  about  L676,  to  parliament  to  estab- 
lish in  every  parish  an  industrial  school.  In 
1705,  Locke  laid  before  the  English  parliament  a 
plan  to  counteract  the  spread  of  pauperism,  and 
to  this  end,  proposed  the  establishment,  in  each 
parish,  of  labor  schools  in  which  the  children  of 
the  poor,  from  ,'t  to  1  I  years  of  age,  were  to  find 
lodging,  board,  support,  and  occupation.  Parlia- 
ment, however,  rejected  the  bill  which  embodied 
this  idea,  and  a  similar  attempt  made,  in  L  796,  by 


institutions,  and  the  instruction  of  git  I-  in  house- 
work and  needle-work,  and  of  the  boys  in  some 
mechanical  trade,  became  a  general  feature  oi  the 
Italian  orphan  and  foundling  asylums.  '1  he  first 
practical  attempt,  in  Germany,  was  made  by 
A.  II.  Iiaiieke.  who  introduced  in  his  pceda- 
i/iii/him  instruction  in  turning  and  glass-grinding. 
An  attempt  made  by  Hecker.the  founder  of  the 
first  real  scl I, to  train  his  pupil-  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  mulberry-trees  and  the  rearing  of  silk- 
worms, was  abandoned ii  ..!.,!  hi- death.    The 

Austrian  educator  k  inderi.iaiiii  conceived  the 
idea  of  introducing  industrial  instruction  into 
the  con m a m  si  ho,  ,1.  and  succeeded,  in  the  course 

oi  a  few  'ears, iii  oi  -ani/iiie.  industrial  schools  in 
more  than  200  places.  The  proposition  that 
all  children  should  receive  at  school  instruction 
in  manual  labor,  as  well  as  in  book  learning, 
found  an  influential  supporter  in  the  philoso- 
pher Kant,  and  the  scheme  of  national  educa- 
tion proposed  by  Fichte  likewise  combined 
learning  with  labor.  Pestalozzi  also  endeavored 
to  train  his  pupils  in  various  industrial  arts 
as  well  as  in  books;  and  his  ideas  were  more 
fully  carried  out  by  Fellenberg,  and  especially 
by  Wehili.  Salzmann,  in  the  famous  insti- 
tution of  Schnepfenthal,  gave  to  his  pupils, 
outside  of  the  regular  school  hours,  manual 
work  in  the  garden  and  field — exercises  in  turn- 
ing and  planing,  in  basket-making,  and  other  oc- 
cupations of  a  similar  character.  In  Wttrtem- 
berg.  the  government  took  great  interest  in  the 
labor  school,  and  ordered  that  schools  of  this 
kind  should  be  organized  in  connection  with 
every  common  school,  and  that  all  the  girls 
should  be  instructed,  during  three  or  four  hours 
ti  week,  in  needle-work.  In  several  other  states  of 
Germany,  as  well  as  in  Sweden.  Belgium,  and 
other  countries,  courses  in  industrial  education 
have  been  arranged  on  a  large  scale,  in  close 
connection  with  the  common  schools;  and  the 
children  are  trained  not  only  for  the  common 
pursuits  of  life,  but  for  the  special  branches  of 
industry  prevailing  in  their  particular  locality. 
The  idea  thai  the  pupils  of  common  schools 
should  be  trained  in  industrial  occupations  was 
also  conceived  by  Froebel,  the  founder  of  the 
kindergarten  ;  and  one  of  his  most  enthusiastic 
,  ndeavored  to  develop  this 
well  as  practically.  The 
tchers'  convocation  to  which  an  elab- 
orate plan  for  embodying  manual  labor  with 
the  course  of  instruction  in  common  schools  was 
submitted,  refused  to  commit  itself  in  favor  of 
any  such  scheme;  but  it  adopted  a  declaration 
that  the  question,  what  kinds  of  labor  should  be 
admitted  into  the  course  of  instruction.  I mw  tiny 


eorgen 
ically,  , 


40f  i 


INDUSTRIAL   SCHOOLS 


should  be  organized,  and  in  what  order  they 
should  follow  one  another,  is  one  of  the  great 
educational  questions  of  the  day. — One  branch 
of  industrial  pursuits,  needle-work,  has  at  present 
been  almost  universally  introduced  into  the 
common  schools  of  Germany  and  other  coun- 
tries. Two  afternoons  in  each  week  are  set  apart 
for  the  instruction  of  girls,  by  a  competent  per- 
son, in  the  art  of  sewing,  the  pupils  beginning 
as  early  as  six  years  of  age,  at  first  using 
paper.  They  are  also  taught  to  knit,  each  "ill 
furnishing  her  own  material  ami  keeping  the 
product  of  her  labor.  When  they  have  learned 
to  hem,  the  next  step  is  mending.  Prom  plain 
sewing,  mending,  and  knitting,  the  pupil  ad- 
vanres  to  tine  needle-work,  tatting,  an  I  criirln  I- 
ing.  Some  of  tin-  tapestry  work  of  the  older 
pupils  is  often  so  beautiful  in  design  and  so 
artistic  in  execution  as  to  challenge  general  ad- 
miration." (See  J.  P.  Myers,  in  the  Report  of 
the  U.  S.  Commissioner  0/  Education,  L873.)  ' 

In  England,  before  any  grant  is  made  to  an 
elementary  school,  the  educational  department 
must  be  satisfied  that  the  girls  in  the  day  school 
are  taught  plain  needle-work  and  cutting  out,  as 
a  part  of  the  ordinary  course  of  instruction. 
Plain  needle-work  is  understood  to  inclu  le  darn- 
ing, nun  ling,  marking,  and  knitting;  but  no 
fancy  work  of  any  kind  can  be  done  in  school 
hours.  In  the  United  States,  Massachusetts  has 
given  the  greatest  attention  to  this  subject.  A 
report  of  the  committee  on  industrial  schools, 
made  to  the  board  of  education,  in  1k7H,  recom- 
mends tli  it  sewing,  which  is  now  taught  in  three 

classes  oi  the  girls    grammar  scl Is,  be  carried 

forward  into  all  the  classes,  by  a  gradual  and 
progressive  change    which    is   not   to   interfere 

They  proposed,  also,  that,  as  instruction  in    t\ 
ing  was  thus  extended  in  the  immberoi   cla 

to  which  it  was  imparled,  n  ih  luld  be  i  olarge  I 
in  the  character  and  practical  value  of  the 
work  performed,  and  that,  certainly  in  the  first 
and  second,  and  perhaps  in  the  third  classes, 
instruction  should  be  given  in  cutting,  shap- 
ing, fitting,  and  completely  making  girls'  and 
ladies'  garments,  the  requisite  materials  for 
this  instruction  to  lie  furnished  by  the  city, 
under  the  supervision  of  the  committee  on 
accounts.  The  ,-iiv  superintendent  of  Provi- 
dence. R.  [.,  stated  in  his  report  for  1873—1874, 
thai  the  sewing  department  in  the  schools  of 
that  city  was  producing  the  happiest  results. 
Nearly  600  children,  he  reported,  were  taught 
every   week   to   use  skillfully  their   i He,  and 


chusetts  and  New  York  have  taken  the  lead  in 
this  question,  and  ordered  its  introduction  into 
all  the  common  schools  of  the  respective  states. 
iSee    Let-Education,  and    Drawing.) 

Special  attention   to  industrial  occupations  is 


die 


able  but 

to  prow 

fying  to  learn,  from  the  annual    reports  oi   the 

U.   S,    Commissioner   of    Education,    that    the 

number  of  orphan  asylums  which  have  opined. 


'Hi, 


altci 


Mu'iJwHMi">V^ 

branches;  for  the  boys,  the  instruction  should 
consist  in  preparing  them  for  some  industrial 
occupation  in  life.  The  extent  and  the  variety 
of  this  instruction  will,  of  course,  depend  on  the 
resources  of  the  institution.  The  most  extensive 
industrial  training  given  in  any  ■  haritaUe  insti- 
tution, as  far  as  is  known,  is  in  Girard  College, 
Philadelphia.  In  1864,  a  chair  of  industrial 
science  was  established,  embracing  the  practical 
and  theoretic  teaching  of  various  handicrafts. 
The  branches  of  labor  in  the  work  room  thus  pro- 
vided for  were  type-setting,  printing, bookbind- 
ing, type-founding,  stereotyping,  turning,  car- 
pentering, daguerreotyping,  photography,  elec- 
trotvping,   eleeiiopliiliiie.  and    practical    instruc- 

Shoe-making  has  been   taught  and  successfully 

carried  on  since  I  i-TI .      (See    ORPHAN    Asvi.u.ms, 


and 


The  great  importance  of  industrial  education 
in  evening  schools  is  too  evident  to  need  any 
discussion.       'I  lie    technical     instruction    which 


,\.<. 


a  gr 


•  giv  n  to  them   in  their 

r  education,  is,  therefore, 
How  well  this  is  under- 
bv  them    is  clearly  indi- 


seh, 


work  as  a  branch  of 
generally  intro  luce  1 
upon  as  an  indispens 
of  instruction.  As  re 
of  public  schools,  th 
drawing  into  till  scl 
by  many  educators. 


Massa-    H  Stetson,  Technical M 


INDUSTRY  INSTRUCTION  4U7 

INDUSTRY  is  a  quality  or  habit  upon  the  I  from  the  faet  tli.it  no  distracting  cause  can  prop- 
due  lit'  which  it  is  scarcely  requisite  to  insist  erlv  be  allowed  to  enter:  an, I  because,  tun.  all 
i  an  educational  work ;  since  its  absolute  neces-    its' exercises,  lessons,  and  tasks  imply  the  need 


Montaigne  did,  that! 
qualities  of  their  mi 
lilv.on  examination, 

men.  who  migl 

ads,  it  will  In-  t 
that  their  wan 

it   declare,  as 

of  the  ruling 
ound,  proba- 

was  supplemented  b3 
m  a  measure,  rende 
sary.     It  will,  probi 
with  more  continuoi 
would  have  been    fi 

rgreat  nalural 
red    thai    even 
dily.  be  granfe 

ir  greater.     Tl 

ion  unneees- 
ld  also  that, 
their  success 
le  number  of 

such  men.  moreover 

.  is  exceeding] 

v  small,  and 

they  were  never  the  i 

ie  cause  they 

the  most  important  results  of  both  home  train- 
in- and  school  education. 

INFANT  SCHOOLS.    See  Kindergarten. 

INSPECTION,  School.     See  Supervision. 

INSTITUTES,  Teachers'.  See  Teachers' 
Institutes. 

INSTRUCTION  (Lat.  instrm  tio  is  the  com- 
munication of  knowledge     Educa       i  •;.  ii     th. 


partment  of  knowledge,  and 

tellectuaranda.  inorala-cn't 
the  word,  in  fact,  as  it  is  c 
own  best  recommendation, 
to  keep  one's  self  employed 
Industry  is  thus  nearly  syi 
gence  (q.  v.);  but  the  lattet 
upon  the   feelings,   the    for 


jeetive  or  external.       Instruct,' ,,•,„,,,.,  : . ,  1 1 

do  with  the  intellectual  development  of  tl, 
Qd,  and  is  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  th 
ucator,  which  he  ■•an  wield  with  the  greates 
ecision  and  in  th,-  most  skillful  manner.     II 


the 


matter  of  temperament,  or  merely  an  indica- 
tion of  bodily  health,  there  are  many  eases  in 
which  the  want  of  it  cannot  lie  explained  by 
reference  to  cither  of  these  causes.  Usually, 
children  are  active  enough  :  though,  during 
their  earliest  years,  their  activity  take.  il„  form 
of  play.  Nature  seems  to  have  pointed  tl  i-  on, 
asth  ■  mosi  promising  avenue  through  which  th  i 
mentally  indolent  child  may  be   approat  I     I 

gesting  new  ones  which  involve  some  pleasing 
mental  exercise,  and  thus  bridging  over  the  gap 
which  separates  play  from  work,  and  making  it 
narrower  or  less  abrupt,  the  judicious  teacher 
may  rouse  the  dormant  faculties  and  implant 
industrious  habits,  where,  at  first,  this  might 
have  seemed  impossible.  This  is  the  key  to  the 
kindergarten  system.  It  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  an  indolent  habit  of  mind  i>  sometimes  th  • 
result  of  discouragement  arising  from  a  too 
early  presentation  of  mental  pui-Miits  to  faculties 
not  yet  sufficiently  developed  to  undertake  them. 
Frequently  the  child  tails  into  an  indolent  habit 
from  the  faet  that  it  cannot  choose  out  of  many 
things  which  one  to  do.  or,  doing  a  little  only  of 
each,  accomplishes  nothing  of  consequence* — a 
condition  equivalent  to  indolence.  The  method 
here  should  be  a  daily  routine,  in  which  the 
teacher  should  work  with  the  pupil,  giving  thus 
the  powerful  stimulus  of  bis  example,  to  instill 
into  the  pupil's  mind  ideasof  order,  method,  and 
constancy  of  exertion.  In  forming  the  indus- 
trious habit,  the  school  room  has  immense  ad- 
vantages over  the  home  circle  as  it  usually  exists, 


,,rk  of  cluea- 
which   can  be 


i    does 

."■''in  trucf   nV,rV'Sli!id-tl''1,"'",l' 

■  takes 

it  'i"n,'-t'i|1|i'is"\' h'ii'h'"-t'  teacher  r'm'iiives 

';;:';: 

'!hr,r!'uadities'v,l!iehia!u!cht'r!di'!,l, 

'I  here 

In  these  observations,  like  gathers  to  like.  A 
child  looks  at  a  tree  :  and  the  tree  produces  an 
impression  on  his  mind.  The  next  day,  he  sees 
another  tree:  and  the  resemblances  in  this  tree 
strike  his  mind. and  recall  the  former  impression. 
The  two  impressions  thus  unite,  and  form  a 
stronger  impression  than  either  separately. 
Other  impressions  of  a  similar  nature  unite,  un- 
til the  child  tonus  a  definite  notion  ot  a  tree. 
The   child  is  thus   gathering   into   unities   the 


468 


INSTRUCTION 


various  impressions  which  he  is  continually 
forming;  and  this  process  continues.  lie  learns 
the  individual  first,  and  groups  his  observations. 
Thus  instruction,  to  be  educative,  must  always 
proceed  from  the  individual  to  the  general,  from 
the  c xete  to  the  abstract.  There  is  no  re- 
versal of  this  process  in  education  ;  but  the 
process  is  often  reversed  in  instruction  with 
baneful  effect.   To  the  teacher,  the  general  truth 

Contains  the  su f  all    the  particulars,  and  lie 

thinks  he  gives  to  the  child  this  general  truth 
with  all  its  contents,  when  he  urges  it  upon  him, 
makes  him  commit  it  to  memory,  and  frequently 
recalls  it  to  his  mind  :  but  the  tact  is.  that  the 
chihl  learns  the  general  truth  without  the  con- 
tents,      lie   has   the  shell    without    the    kernel. 


state  of  the  pupil's  mind,  when  he  commences. 
Probably,  he  has  come  from  the  play-ground. 


does  not  emp 

s  to  dis 

ilace  it.     Some 

little  time  sho 

ild  be  gh 

en  to  th 

■  pupil  to  calm 

down ;  and  th 

n,  when 

lei-pr, 

lared  to  listen. 

the  teacher  shi 

uld  start 

lething  that  the 

pupil   knows  , 

ell   and 

'eels  an 

interest  iii.  and 

from   that   era 

luallv  Wi 
ie  has  t. 

rk   his  \ 

ay    to    the    new 

has  a  Stronger  interest  in  the  subject  than  he 
hadbefore.  To  rouse  this  interest,  the  teacher 
has  to  remember  that  every  intellectual  activity 


his 


something  when  lie  really  knows  nothing,  and 
his  mind  is  prevented  from  stepping  forward  in 
that  direction,  by  the  belief  that  he  knows  the 
truth  already.  Furthermore,  this  non-educative 
instruction  loses  a  great  opportunity.  If  the 
child  is  allowed  time,  and  is  supplied  with  a 
sufficient  number  of  individual  instances,  he  is 
sure  to  make  the  generalization  himself.  Noth- 
ing imprints  the  truth  more  permanently  than 
the  discovery  of  it  for  himself,  and  nothing 
I. lines  into  play  all  the  powers  of  the  soul  more 
healthily  than  the  discovery  of  a  truth.  The 
teacher  must,  therefore,  always  proceed  from 
the  concrete  to  the  abstract  ;  hut.  in  employ- 
ing this  method,  he  must  exercise  very  great 
patience.  Generalization  is  a  slow  process, 
somewhat  uncertain  in  time.  The  child  seems 
to  be  just  reaching  the  truth,  but  he  turns  away 
with  a  bound,  and  he  may  take  some  time  more 
to  master  it  completely.  Or  he  may,  one  day, 
have  a  glimpse  of  it,  and  the  next,  it  has  van- 
ished. But,  however  slow  or  uncertain  the 
process  may  be,  it  is  the  only  truly  educative 
mode  of  giving  instruction.  The  teacher,  like 
Socrates,  is  a  maieutic  artist. and  he  must  watch 
carefully  over  the  birth  of  a  truth,  not  forcing 
nature,  but  giving  nature  every  help  that  she 
will  willingly  receive.  (2)  Educative  instruc- 
tion arrests  the  attention  and  awakens  the  inter- 
est of  the  pupil.  The  rule  implied  in  this  state- 
ment may  be  expressed  in  the  words,  that  the 
teacher  must  attach  the  new  matter  to  the  old 
by  a  natural  connection,  that  he  must  pass  from 
the  known  to  the  unknown.  The  subject  of  at- 
tention is  one  that  cannot  be  discussed  here. 
We  can  note  only  how  it  is  to  be  secured.  The 
pupil  must  be  on  good  terms  with  his  teacher. 
Where  there  is  antagonism,  there  can  be  no 
:-ot  i.-taei,  ,i\  attention.  The  i .  ■ ,  i  ■  1 1  iua\  .  indeed, 
attend  through  fear;  but  fear  is  a  weakening 
force;  and  the  result  is. to  associate  in  his  mind, 
with  the  subject  comprehended,  feelings  of  dis- 
like and  disgust,  so  that,  at  the  end.  there  is  no 
interest  in  the  subject,  but,  on  the  contrary,  a 
wish  that  he  may  never  have  to  do  with  it  again. 
Then,  the  teacher  must   carefully  consider  the 


tive  instruction  always  keeps  in  view  the  prin- 
cipal aim  and  end  of  education.  It  always 
works  for  a  purpose.  The  object  is  not  to  cram 
the  pupil  with  a  certain  amount  of  knowledge. 
to  give  him  an  hours  dose  of  information,  with- 
out regard  to  his  whole  being.  It  deliberately 
asks   whether   the    information    which   is  to   be 


evolution  of  the  chill's  nature.  It  will  not  look 
to  the  greatest  success  in  the  particular  depart- 
ment, but  to  the  greatest  success  compatible 
with  the  healthy  action  of  all  the  child's  powers. 
It  is  not  necessary,  in  an  article  like  this,  to 
go  further  into  the  questions  to  which  the  sub- 
ject of  instruction  gives  rise.  They  are  treated 
in  separate  articles.  We  may,  however,  take  a 
general  view  of  them:  (1)  We  should  have  to 
treat  of  the  subjects  of  instruction.  These  may 
be  divided  into  those  that  relate  to  nature,  those 
that  relate  to  man.  and  those  that  relate  to  ( lod. 
The  first  gives  us  the  natural  sciences, — a  knowl- 
edge of  the  earth  in  its  p resent  state,  geology, 
botany,  zoology,  physics,  including  astronomy  and 
chemistry,  then  come  the  abstract,  subjects 
arising  out  of  these :  the  science  of  numbers 
and  of  magnitude,  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geom- 
etry. Next  follows  the  knowledge  that  relates 
toman:  physiology,  psychology,  and  sociology; 
but  the  latter  sciences  cannot  be  taught  scientif- 
ically to  children.  The-  main  facts  are  made 
known  concretely  in  literature,  and  therefore 
the  pupil  learns  languages, —  his  own,  modern 
languages,  and  ancient  languages.  Education 
insists  that  these  should  ultimately,  and  as  soon 
as  possible,  pass  from  being  mere  studies  of  words 
to  be  a  means  of  acquainting  the  pupil  with  the 
feelings,  thoughts,  and  desires  of  great  and  good 
men,  past  and  present.  Closely  connected  with 
languages  is  the  study  of  history  :  and  allied  to 
history  and  intermediate  between  the  first  and 
second  classes  of  study,  is  geography.—  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  earth  as  it  has  influenced  man  and 
been  used  by  him.  The  third  class  of  subjects 
relate  to  religion;  but  this  is  closely  allied  to  the 


IXTKLLKCTT-.W,    KIHTATIOX 


4t;y 


second,  and,  indeed,  falls  properly  under  it :  for  i  however  diverse  a  character,  may  be  conceived 

to   depend,   directly   or   indirectly,   upon    some 


it  is  the  knowledge 
CD  Weshould  have 
value  of  all  these  stu 

of  m 
dies,1 

Mlt    til 

■elations  t 
utotheed 

,     Cod 

that  none  of  the  sul 
ted.  The  mind  of  n 

<   Her 

Bit  hi 

it  bedelib 

larked 
erateli 

mad e-sided.    T 

he  nni 

In,,],' 

lltelVS 

should  have  to  inqu 

,.  the 

methods. 

of  edu 

cation  ;  and  (4)  hit 
and  public,  necessar 

"tow 

n.l.~i- 

mstructioi 

l  effcc 

by  T.  Zdlr 


ihrer  ■  ■  isenschqfllickei I  praktisch-rej 

torischen  Seite  entwickeU  (Leipsic,  L865). 
also  llu-isuav.  Pedagogy  s  as  a  System 
by  A.  ('.  Brackett  (St.  Louis,  L872). 
INTELLECTUAL   EDUCATION. 


hist,  sj.ni 
theprimM 
animal  ki 


ideas,  at 
ears  to  be 
tlu-  whole 


and  wil 
charaetei 
ordinate 
mental  1 
regard  1« 
for  the  ii 
which  in 


ded,  the  mind,  as 
may  or  may  not 
rolled  by  what  is 


if  th. 


inobled,  and  his     ception  the  act 

order  to   direct  I  nizant  of   it   as 


the   in. 


by  ex- 
ad  per- 


gn.wtlitmm  infancy  to  matiuv age  :tlieproc, 
by  which  its  powers  may  be  guided,  stimuls 
and  improved,  and  the  agencies  by  mean! 
which  this  improvement,  or  culture,  is  to  l« 
fected.  The  human  mind  acts,  as  it  were 
separate  faculties:  it  appears  to  possess  .list 
powers.  These  facilities,  or  powers,  are  wit! 
doubt,    intimately    associated.    They    are 

tions  distinct,  both  in  their  mode  of  opera 
and  in  the  objects  upon  which  they  are  exerc: 
To  form  an  idea,  from  a  present  object  of 
sation  is  obviously  distinct  from   recalling  that 


idea  when  the  object  is 

again  diffe 


manner  tlu.se  made  through  the  medium  of 
Bight,  become  in  this  way  a  part  of  the  mind; 
they  are  imprinted  upon  its  very  texture,  as  it, 
were,  like  pictures  upon  the  photographic  glass. 
Hence  the  name  ideas  (from  the  Greek  word 
Itielv,  to  see).     This  faculty  is  called  conception 


longer  present.      This     (rp  v.).      It  requires  the  most 


an  original  picture,  or  series  of  pictures,  such  as  employed  in  the  exercise  of  it  — in  storing  up 
those  of  Bogarth  on  canvas,  or  of  Bunyan,  in  idea.-.,  and  gathering  materials  out  of  which  to 
written  composition,  is  certainly  a  very  different  produce  its  subsequent  creations,  whether  these 
process  from  the  selection  and  combination  of  are  the  fantastic  pictures  of  fancy,  the  more 
elementary  propositions  so  as  to  derive  from  regular  combinations  of  imagination,  or  the 
them  an  original  principle,  or  truth.  The  mind  !  sequences  of  ratiocination.  Whatever,  therefore, 
is,  nevertheless,  a  unit;  and  all  its  operations,  of  i  hinders  this  process,  shrivels  the  mind  and  stunts 


470 


INTKLLKCTrAL   KIHVATK  >X 


its  growth.  Its  vitality  dies  out  for  want  of  ex- 
en  i  and  torpor  takes  the  place  of  elasticity 
and  vigorous  life.  This  is,  therefore,  one  of  the 
first  faculties  to  be  addressed  in  education.  Its 
activity  i.s  to  be  fostered  by  supplying  it  with 
abundant  food —  objects  on  which  it  may  be 
exercise  I.  and  language  designed  to  bring  into 
clear  mental  view  the  conceptions  already  ac- 
quired. —  The  next  mental  process  to  be  COD- 
si  hi.  1  i  !<■■■  .  'in.  In  the  first  stages  of  the 
nun  I  -  _  iwth.  tin  re  exists  but  little  power  of 
combination,  certainly  none  of  logical  com- 
bination; but  there  is  an  elementary  principle 
of  intellection  by  which  ideas  tend  to  become 
linked  together  according  to  certain  relations; 
tin-,  is  called  association  (q.  v.).  Perhaps,  the 
most  important  of  the  elementary  associations 
established  in  regard  to  the  conceptions  is  that 
of  words  or  names  with  the  conceptions  of  objects 
which  they  are  thus  made  to  represent.  This  is, 
without  doubt,  one  of  the  earliest,  as  well  as  one 
of  the  most  rudhncntal.  of  the  mind's  combi- 
nations. The  association  itself,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind,  is  all  that    is  arbitrary  :    since   it    i.s   not 

words  themselves  that  are  associated  with  the 

conceptions  of  the  object,-,,  but  conceptions  of  the 
spoken  words,  formed  through  the  me  hum  of 
hearing.  What  is  meant  by  asserting  that  the 
association  alone  is  arbitrary,  is  that  the  .spoken 
word,  as  an  actual  seiise-pereeption.  is  retained 
and  recalled  by  conception,  and  is,  therefore,  no 
inure  arbitrary  than  any  other  i  lea  ;  but  having 
no  intrinsic  relation  to  the  conception  for  which 
it  is  to  stand,  it  is  associated  with  it  arbitrarily, 
that  is  by  repeatedly  bringing  tin1  two  conceptions 
together,  in  accordance  with  that  law  of  mental 
action  by  which  ideas  repeatedly   brought   into 

con -tii in  suggest  each   other.  —  Without  the 

association  of  words  with  ideas,  the  mind  could 
advance  but  a  very  few  steps  in  its  development ; 
because,  (1)  it  would  be  unable  to  receive  any 
stimulus  by  communicating  with  any  other 
minds;  (2)  it  would  be  powerless  to  control  the 
order  in  which  the  conceptions  would  present 
themselves  to  the  mind,  or  to  divest  them  of  the 
vagueness  of  revery  ordreamin-  .  an  1  3  noproc- 
ess  of  thought  or  reasoning  could  b  •  carried  on 
without  the  assistance  of  language.  This  need 
of  words  is  illustrated  by  the  efforts  of  children 
to  talk,  and  call  things  by  names,  long  before  the 
power  of  articulation  exists,  thus  showing  that, 
although  they  are  unable  to  employ  words  for 
the  expression  of  ideas,  the  mini  is  constantly 
making  use  of  them  in  c  irrying  mi  its  rudimental 
operations.  It  is  an  important  law  that  con- 
cept ions  are  nnre  -:  i  e.Jv  a --, ,  aate  1  w  1 1  ,'i  their 
corresponding  p  i  ep  i  ins  havi  b  a  asso  tiated. 
Thus,  Buppos  it  is  d  ired  to  tea  h  a  child  the 
meaning  of  the  word  ship;  in  other  words,  to  as- 
sociate in  his  mind  the  spoken  word  ship  with 
the  conception  of  the  ship,  so  that  the  one  will 
always  suggest  the  other.  If  he  has  never  seen 
a  ship,   nothing   but   the  actual    perception   will 

suffice,  and  he  must  be  taken  wher ie  may  be 

actually  seen;  but  if  he  has  seen  the  object 
without  learning  its  name,  the  conception  may 


be  recalled  to  his  mind  either  by  questioning 
him  or  by  showing  him  a  picture  of  it.  Without 
doingthis,  the  word  ship  may  be  repeated  to 
him,  and  he  may  pronounce  it   any  number  of 

times,  without  learning  any  thing,  since  it  would 
be  presenting  to  his  mind  a  sign  without  showing 
what  it  signifies.    In  elementary  instruction,  this 

It  is  important  to  consider  upon  what  funda- 
mental or  primary  notion  the  mind  proceeds  in 
establishing  the  arbitrary  association  between 
things  and  their  names  :  that  is  between  concep- 
tions which  intrinsically  have  no  relation  to 
each  other.  A  slight  observation  will  ascertain 
that  the  mind  very  early  requires  the  notion  of 
names  as  representatives  of  things,  and  thus 
comprehends  the  relation  existing  between  a  sign 
and  tin-  thing  signified;  not  that  this  notion  is 
made  an  object  .,t  actual  consciousness  or  reflec- 

inind.'and  is  practically  employed  by  the  child 
in  making  known  its  wants  or  expressing  its  feel- 

froin  the  lips  of  a  young  child  on  seeing  a  new 
object,  appears  generally  to  have  reference  only 
to  this  notion.  The  child  perceives  the  need  of 
affixing  a  name  to  the  object  in  order  that  it 
may  become  a  definite  conception,  as  well  as  be 
prepared  for  expression;  and  when  a  name  is 
given,  howevei  arbitrary  or  unintelligible,  the 
inquiry  proceeds  no  further,  the  child  appearing 
entirelj  satisfied  It  is  only  when  the  mind  has 
made  more  progress  in  development  and  has  ac- 
quired a  knowledge  of  other  relations,  that  this 
question  can  possibly  have  any  other  import. 
Very  much  of  the  early  development  of  a  child's 
mind  thus  consists  in  acquiring  a   knowledge  of 


knowledge  of  words,  increase  pari  passu,  and 
i  the  mind  is  prepared  for  operations  of  a  more 
advanced  character  ;  since  it  is  only  by  symboliz- 
ing individual  conceptions,  that  generalization 
can  take  place,  that  is.  that  individuals  can  be 
conceived  with  reference  exclusively  to  certain 
qualities  which  they  possess  in  common,  and 
thus  be  arranged  in  classes.  This  office  of  lan- 
guage has  been  explained  in  the  following  man- 
ner by  a  very  acute  writer  ill.  I..  Mansel)  :  "1)1- 
lu'itii-f  i/riirriiliiii/iiiii  consists  in  directing  the 
attention,  voluntarily  or  involuntarily,  to  the 
common  features  of  several  objects  presented  to 
us,  neglecting  or  not  perceiving  those  qualities 
which  are  peculiar  to  each.  It  is  not  a  distinct 
cognition  of  the  class  as  a  class,  nor  of  the  indi- 
viduals as  individuals;  but  a  confused  perception 
of  both  together.  To  form  a  complete  cognition 
of  the  individual.  I  must,  by  the  aid  of  imagina- 
tion, supply  those  distinctive  features  which  I 
am  unable  clearly  to  perceive.  To  form  a  com- 
plete cognition  of  the  class,  1  must  separate  the 
common  attributes  from  their  connection  with  a 
definite  time  and  place.  But  how  are  attributes, 
apart  from  their  juxtaposition  in  space,  to  be  so 
connected  together,  as  to  constitute  a  single  ob- 


INTI'.ld.KcTI'AI.    KIU'CATIOX 


471 


ject?  The  bead  and  trunk  and  limbs  of  an  indi-  symbols  in  language ;  and,  therefore,  cannot  be 
vidual  man  are  c ected  together  by  continuity  made  distinct  objects  of  conception  or  of  con- 
in  space,  and  by  thai  continuity  constitute  a  sciousness ;  and.  in  the  earliest  stages  of  mental 
whole  of  intuition,  wlii'tlii'i- ilistiinily  ri'i'i>u;iii/.ed  development,  this   is  no!  required  to  enable  the 

in  thai  relati How  are  the  attributes  mind  to  carry  on  its  rudimental  proo     ■       V'erj 

of  mankind   in   general   to    be    separated    from  young  children  can  learn  to  cla.-sit>  ,■!  |. .  i-  unii 

[tconstitu    -  Mi     c ecting  link   between  va-  which  children  applj  the  same  n; •  to  objects 

ri  his  attributes  -the  frame,  .is  ii  were,  in  which  having  only  a  geni  ral  resemblani  e  to  each  othei 

they  are  set       and   thus  furnishes  the    means  in  form,  color,  or  structure,  is  i thei    prooi  of 


Km  aeith  r 
possess,  in  so 

them  event, 
passing  with 
incapable  of 
guage  which 
employm  -  r  1 1 
formed  byal 
by  whi  I.  alo 


has  I 
langt 
of  rei 


11  »l„ 
did,  ol 

which  il 

mpoin' 

[.-  oi 

iifferei 

ice    are 

equally 

ob- 

id  and  mature 

mind, 

llic 

Until, 

the  foi 

mer  bt 

■fore 

ll II I 


the 


<mii  niak.'  n.M-  ul  Ins  capacity   ot    seel 
cataract  is  removed." 

Next  to  the  association  of  things  with  words 
as  their  representative ■>.  i-  that  toiinded  upon  a 
perception  oi   resem  ■,„■■    in    the  objects   from 


very  unlike  may,  indeed,  ha 
resemblance  which  escape  tin 
and  which,  therefore,  the  tet 
point  out  s:,  as  t>i  assist  in  t 
in  this  way,   to  cultivate  the 


takes  place  pric 
directly  lea  Is. 
obvious  to  a  chi 
ogy,  and  none 
ment  to  its  mil 
pleasurable  em< 
case  with  the  re 
exist  between  o 
ity  and  readini 
dren  discern  i 
founded  upon  6 
a  natural  aptito 


ably,  no  relation  so 
esemblance  oranal- 
s'i   much  employ- 


senses.     Isaac 
the  power  of 


3  with  which  very  young  chil- 
leinblances,  whether  they  are 
in,  color,  or  structure,  indicate 


addressed  to  the  sight,  which  of  all  the  senses 
gives  rise  to  the  most  vivid  conceptions.  The 
varieties  of  color  (tints),  form,  etc.,  generally 
have  no  designations  in   the  child's  mind  —  no 


aid  nf  laiiLiiiaur.  "iir  (u  -t  abstractions  arc  in 
fact,  given  to  us  already  mad,':  as  we  learn  to 
give  the  same  name  to  various  individuals  pre- 
sented t"  n>  under  slight,  and  at  first  unnoticed 
circumstances  of  distinction.  The  name  is  thus 
applied  to  different  objects  long  before  we 
learn  to  analyze  the  growing  powers  ol  speech 
and  thought,  to  ask  what  we  mean  by  each 
several  instance  ,,|  its  application,  and  to  cor- 
rect and   lix  the  significance  of   words  al   firs 


472 


IXTELLE CT UAL  ED U CATION 


used  vaguely  and  obscurely."  The  association 
of  the  conceptions  as  dependent  upon  an  obser- 
vation of  resemblance,  has  been  called  intuitive 
generalization;  since  it  does  not  consciously 
follow  any  process  of  abstraction,  because,  from 
the  failure  of  the  undeveloped  mind  to  notice 
distinctions  and  differences,  no  such  process  is 
needed  for  the  purpose.  For  example,  a  child 
sees  a  book  for  the  first  time,  and  learns  its 
name,  book;  now,  on  seeing  another  hook,  how- 
ever different  from  the  first  in  size,  color,  etc.,  he 
invariably  applies  to  it  the  term  book,  bj  the 
perception  of  analogy  leading  on  to  intuitive 
generalization.  Common  names  are,  therefore, 
first  learned,  and  particular  or  proper  names 
only  given  to  such  objects  as  are  constantly  pre- 
sented to  the  mind  ;  since,  by  being  thus  more 
intimately  known,  their  distinctive  peculiarities 
are  more  clearly  discerned,  this  discernment 
leading  to  an  individualization,  as  the  next  step 
in  the  growth  or  development  of  the  mind.  The 
operation  of  the  sense  of  analogy  is  seen  in  the 
use  of  figurative,  or  more  definitely,  tropical 
language ;  and  its  rudimeiital  character  is  illus- 
trate] by  the  fact  that  children  and  savages  are 
particularly  prone  to  the  use  of  this  language. 
1 1 1 < I o    I  as  li  Fore  remarke  I.  it  is  one  of  the  most 

intense  mental   pleasures  of    tl hiM  to  trace 

analogies  in  objects  of  considerable  diversity  in 
general  appearance,  and  to  apply  such  meta- 
phorical terms  as  w  ill  foi  tibhj  i  spress  uhem. 
This  again  adds  very  greatly  to  a  child's  power 

of  expression,  since,   without  th  ■  percept i if 

these  analogies  in  objects,  every  variation  would 
require  some  specific  term,  metaphorical  names 
ceasing  to  have  any  meaning  whatever.  This 
characteristic  of  a  chilli's  mind  gives  to  the  in- 
telligent teacher  considerable  resources  for  il 
lustration,  particularly  in  the  use  of  words  and 
their  application  to  the  objects  which  they  rep- 
resent. Thus,  the  term  ni[»'  would  lie  much 
better  understood  if  its  exact  literal  import  were 
explained,  and  the  analogy  exhibited  between 
the  keadaaA  a  cape,  or  headland  It  is  unfort- 
unate that  so  few  compound  or  derivative  words 
in  English  are  formed  from  the  simple  words  of 
the  language  itself ,  and  that  recourse  has  been 
had  to  so  great  an  extent  to  the  Latin  and 
Greek  languages  for  a  supply  of  such  roots; 
since,  in  consequence  of  this,  most  of  the  words 
of  the  language  are  necessarily  taught  as  arbi- 
trary terms,  which,  otherwise,  would  be  the 
means  of  stimulating  mental  activity  in  the 
learner.  A  striking  contra-'  In-  \ 'TV  often  been 
made,  in  this  respect,  between  the  English  and 
German  languages,  such  terms  as  Regenschirm 
(umbrella),  Sonnenschirm  parasol  .  Handschuh 
(glove),^'«5    •<    !  tl bl    ,. ugen  (absorb), 

clearly  the  fact  referred  to.  This  peculiarity  oi 
a  language,  in  drawing  almost  exclusive!}    from 

construction  of  complex   epithets,  is  also  very 

prominent  in  the  Creek  language. and  constitutes 
one  of  its  excellencies.  Where  it  exists,  it  must 
afford  great  facility  in  education,  and  must  form 


the  basis  for  processes  which  are  impracticable 
where  a  language,  such  as  the  English,  is  to  be 
employed,  which  derives  nearly  all  of  itsabstract 
and  scientific  terms  from  languages  not  merely 
foreign  but  entirely  out  of  use.  The  growth  of 
mind  in  its  relation  to  language  has  been  here 
dwelt  upon  at  some  length  because  of  its  im- 
portance as  a  source  of  practical  knowledge  to 
every  teacher  who  makes  the  study  of  mind  the 
basis  of  his  operations.  Arbitrary  rules  may  be 
laid  down,  and  applied  ;  but  the  scientific  teacher 
who  investigates  the  foundation  of  these  rules  in 
the  principles  of  intellectual  science  will  best 
know  how  to  adopt  his  methods  to  the  diversified 
exigencies  of  his  work.  Association  as  an  ele- 
mentary function  of  mind,  is  dependent  upon  a 
variety  of  circumstances  other  than  those  enu- 
merated: as  time,  place,  cause  and  effect,  and 
design.  These  are,  however,  of  secondary  im- 
portance for  the  study  of  the  educator. — The- 
peculiar  functions  of  tlie  representative  faculties. 
memory  and  imaginalu  n  should  receive  a  care- 
ful study,  since  they  underlie  many  of  the  most 
important  processes  which  he  is  called  upon  to 
direct.  (See  Imagik  moN.and  Memory.)  The  elab- 
orative  faculties,  comparison,  abstraction,  and 
generalization,  have  already  been  referred  to  in 
relation  to  the  rudimeiital  stage  of  their  opera- 
tion; in  the  higher  grades  of  instruction,  they  find 
constant  exercise  in  the  studies  of  mathematics 
and  natural  science,  which  form  a  part  of  the  cur- 
riculum of  every  high  school,  college,  and  univer- 
sity. Judgment  and  reason  pass  through  a  grada- 
tion of  development  from  the  most  elementary  to 
the  highest  stages  of  education.  Mich  isthe  field 
which  a  discussion  of  the  principles  of  intellectual 

educatii ulnae,  -     In  the  practical  application 

of  these  pi  ini  ipl  s,the  b  ai  her  is  to  be  guided  not 
only  by  a  knowledge  of  the  general  functions  of 

liarities  of  individual  endowment  which  he  may 
l.e  able  to  discern.  (See  Charai  i  ek,  Discernment 
op.)  lie  is  to  permit  the  mind  to  expand  by  its 
own  intrinsic  activities 
ing  or  stimulating  agi 
timls  a  tendency  to  ab 
'I  here  are.  however,  E 
tioit  in  intellectual  edt 


pOSltl 


ir  morbid  growth. 
lethods  of  opera- 
lartaking  more  of 
is   of    which    the 


teacher  is  directly  to  impart  knowledge  —  to 
communicate  information  ;  and,  thus,  is  opened 
up  a  consideration  not  only  of  the  mind  to  be 
cultivated,  but  of  the  branches  of  knowledge  fo- 
lic taught,  in  relation  to  the  several  faculties 
which  they  tend  to  cultivate.  (See  Instruction.) 
in  this  connection,  and  by  the  use  of  the  same 
guiding  principles,  the  proper  order  of  presenting 
these  studies  mu.-t  I »■  considered  and  ascertained, 
this  oriler  beinc  em  related  with  the  natural  order 
in  which  the  intellectual  faculties  are  developed. 
(See  Order  of  Studies.)  The  final  result  of 
this  department  of  education  should  be.toenable 
the  individual,  in  all  the  circumstances  of  life,  to 
exercise  with  efficiency  and  address  the  vari- 
ous intellectual  faculties  with  which  he  has  been 
endowed.     (See  Culture.) 


INTEREST.      To  awaken  an  interest  on  the    stnietion.  in  order  to  induce  tlie  pupil  to  eoinliine 
part  of  the  pupils  in  the  subjects  of  instruc-    his  ideas  in  such  a  way  that  he  may  be  led  to  a 


of  which  they  treat. 

tut  the  skillful   teacher 

knows  how  to  stimulate 
upon  the  mind  of  the  p 
acquiring  knowledge,  a 

interest  in  the  processes 

iuriosity,  and  to  impress 
ipil  the   idea   that   he   is 
id    thus   to  awaken    an 
of  instruction.     When 

these  processes  are  appropriate  and  natural,  the 
pupil's  interest  is  easily  sustained  ;  and  it  will  be 
generally  found  that  a  flagging  interest  is  due 
either  to  previous  defective  training  or  to  the 


axiom  that  the  mil 
knowledge  of  the  rig 
ally  for  proper  food  i 
therefore,  the  office  0 
termine  the  kindof  1 


■ss  appetite  tor 
1  exists  physic- 
he  body.  It  is, 
.1  science  to  de- 


,the  art  of 
pecial   de- 


these  conditions  exist,  the  questions  asked  will 
Vie  an  effective  means  of  making  every  subject 
clear  to  the  learners  mind.  (See  Catechetical 
Method.) 

INTUITIVE     METHOD.       See    Object 


teacher  giving  whatever  attention  may  he  neces- 
sary to  the  special  inclinations,  tastes,  and  capaci- 
ties of  his  pupils.     (See  Attention.) 

INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOLS  are  schools 
of  a  grade  between  primary  schools  and  grain  mar 
schools,  or  between  ele nlarv  schools  and    high 

schools.    Such  schools  generally  istitute  an 

important    part  of   the   graded   gel I    system 

Schools  of  a  grade  between  elementary  -  I Is 

(in  German,  fflementars  hull  .and  colleges  and 
universities, are  often  called  m,  Idtt  s  kools  Ger- 
man, Mittelschule). 

INTERROGATION,  or  the  Interrogative 
Method,  is  an  indispensable  meansof  conducting 
most  processes  of  instruction,  particularly  those 
of  an  elementary  grade.  Its  office  is  either 
(1)  tentative,  or  (2)  illustrative.     As  a  tentative 

quantity  and  the  quality  of  the  knowledge  which 
the  pupil  has  attained.  Thus,  in  hearing  recita-  I 
tions,  the  teacher,  by  means  of  questions,  ascer- 
tains how  much  of  the  lesson  previously  assigned, 
the  pupil  has  learned,  and  with  what  accuracy 
it  has  been  learned;  and  on  the  kind  of  questions 
asked,  as  well  as  on  the  manner  of  asking  them, 
depends  the  degree  of  skill  and  effectiveness  of 
this  important  part  of  the  teacher's  work.  The 
same  is  true,  also,  of  the  conducting  of  exami- 
nations lie  scl I  inspectors  or  superintendents. 


IOWA,  originally  a  part  of  the  vast  Louisiana 


uare  miles:   and    its    population,  in    L870,  was 

194,020;   but,  in   1873,  it   was  reported  as 

Educational  History.— In  1833,  the  date  of 
e  first  permanent  settlement  of  Dubuque,  a 
hool  house  was  built  in  that  town,  which,  it  is 
limed,  was  the  first  built  in  the  state.    It  was 


elementary  ( options  upon  which  it  is  to  be 

based.  Instruction  on  every  subject  needs  such 
preKminary  questioning. — Interrogation  is  illus- 
trative when  it  is  used  as  a  direct  means  of  in- 


othec  of  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was 
created;  Hid  Dr.  William  Keynolds.a  teacher  at 
Iowa  (  Sty,  was    appointed    to    the    place.     The 


474  10 

office  was,  however,  abolished  Fehr.  17.,  1842; 
but,  by  the  first  constitution  of  Iowa,  the  general 
assembly  was  required  to  provide  for  the  election 
of  a  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  who 
should  hold  office  for  three  years.  Since  that 
time,  the  office  has  been  tilled  successively  by  tin- 
following  slate  superintendents:  —  James  Har- 
lan, from   1847 — 8  ;    Thomas  H.    Benton,  Jr., 

fr 1848—54;  James    D.  Eads,  from  1854—7; 

Joseph  0.  Stone,  for  one  month:  Maturin  L. 
Fisher,  from  June  L857  to  Dec.  1858,  when  the 
state  board  of  education  abolished  the  office, 
assigning  its  duties  to  the  secretary  of  the  board. 
Thomas  II.  Benton,  Jr.,  was  elected  secretary, 
and  served  till  L863,  when  he  resigned  to  enter 
the  ['.  S.  military  service.  I  luring  a  portion  of 
that  year,  the  duties  of  the  office  were  performed 
by  II.  A.  Wiltse,  who  was  succeeded,  m  1863, 
by  <  »ian  FaviUe.  The  office  of  superintendent  oi 
public  instruction  was  revived  March  23.,  L864, 
and  (trail  Faville  was  elected  to  the  position,  in 
which  he  remained  till  March  I..  1H67.  His  suc- 
cessors  were  l>.  Franklin  Wells,  from  March. 
1867,  till  his  decease,  inNov.1868;  Abraham 
S.  Eirsell,  from  Jan.  1869  to  Oct.  1871  :  and 
Alonzo  Ab,  rnethv.  from  Oct  1-71  to  the  pres- 
ent lime  1-7'.  When  b.wa  was  admitted  into 
the  Dnion,  it  contained  about  luo  school  dis- 
tricts. The  number,  however,  rapidly  increased, 
amounting,  in  1849,  to'1,000,  and  in  1850,  to 
1200.    In  1857,  the  state  board  of  education  as- 

su 1  control  of  the  e  lucat al  interests  of  th  • 

state.  The  number  of  school  districts,  at  that 
time,  had  inerea-ed  to  .'l."jr..">  :  but,  difficulties 
having  arisen  in  the  practical  working  of  the 
system,  an  acl   was  passed   in    1858,  by   which 

the  school  districts  were  mad .-extensive  with 

the  civil  townships,  and  "cadi  incorporated  city 
or  town.inclu  ling  the  territory  annexed  thereto 
for  school  purposes,  and  which  contains  not  less 
than  1000  inhabitants,"   was  created   a  separate 

s.l 1  district.    The  number  of    districts  was 

thus  reduced  to  less  than  900.  By  this  arrange- 
ment, although  it  met  with  considerable  opposi- 
tions the  system  was  rendered  less  complex,  and 
there  was  a  saving  of  $31,000  in  the  expendi- 
tures. In  1858,  a  law  was  enacted,  providing 
thai  anj  city  or  incorporated  town,  including 
the  territory  annexed  thereto  for  school  purposes, 

might  i -titni.-  a  acl 1  district,  by  vote  of  a 

majority  ..t   the  electors   residing   therein.     In 

1860,  this  was  extended  t .incorporated  towns 

and  villages  of  not  less  than  300  inhabitants  ; 
and.  in  1866,  to  any  city  or  sub-district  contain 
ing  noi  less  than  200.  Notwithstanding  the 
dissatisfaction  caused  by  the  sub-districl  system, 
which  led  to  special  legislation  in  1867  and 
L872,  the  system  was  not  abandoned:  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  report  oi  State  Superintendent 
Abcrncthv,  for  1875,  from  April.  1872,  to  Sept. 
15.,  1873,  L19  district  townships,  containing  90] 
sub-districts,  were  reported  a^  having  completed 

independent  organizations.  From  Sept,  ls7J,to 
Sept  .  1875,  about  160  additional  district  town- 
ships adopted  the  independent  district  system, 
thus  increasing  the  number  of  independent  dis- 


tricts by  more  than  1,000.  The  state  board  of 
education,  provided  for  by  the  constitution 
adopted  Sept.,  1857,  consisted  of  the  governor, 
lieutenant  governor,  and  one  member  elected 
from  each  judicial  district  in  the  state.  The  term 
of  office  was  four  years,  and  the  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor was  the  president  of  the  board.  To  this 
body  were  committed  the  entire  interests  of  the 
common  school  system.  The  first  board  was 
elected  Oct  12.,  1858.  In  1864, the  General  As- 
sembly abolished  the  board,  and  reorganized  the 
school  >y.stcin.  c-iib.-.  ijiient  legislation  also  m odi- 

School  System. — The  system,  at  present,  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  following  officers :  (1)  a 
state  superintendent,    elected    for  two   years; 

J    /  suj tendents  also  elected  tor  two 

years  I  toicnship  boards  of  dire*  ors,  con- 
sisting ot  three  on  more  sub-directors  for  each 
township,  who  have  the  management  of  the 
township  school  fund:  and  (4)  a  sub-director 
for  each  sub-district,  for  the  local  management 
of  the  school.  By  the  school  law  of  1874,  the 
county  superintendent  is  required  to  visit  each 
school'  in  the  county  at  hast  once  in  each  term, 
spending  one  halt  day  at  each  visit  In  order  to 
systematize  and  preserve  the  results  of  these 
visitations,  the  slate  superintendent  furnishes 
ceh  countj  superintendent  with  a  blank  con- 
taining the  subjects  most  important  to  be  in- 
quired into;  and  these  blanks  when  rilled  af- 
ford information  to  be  incorporated  in  the  state 
superintendent's  annual  report.  These  subjects 
are,  I  tie  condition  of  the  school-houses,  furni- 
ture, and  out-buildings ;  i'-'i  the  discipline  and 

el.  I  — i  Ileal  I t    the  School,  .1111 1    tile  1c   of  ooll- 

ducting  recitations;  and  (3)  the  form  and  mode 
..1  keeping  the  daily  register.    The  county  super- 


those  found  qualified  to  teach  orthography, read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic  geography,  and  English 

grammar,  iq satisfactory  evidence  of  their 

good  moral  character.  The  liiunberof  applicants 
thus  examined  in  1875,  was  20,195;  and  the 
number  of  certificates  awarded  was  16,452;  of 
which  4,797  were  of  tl».  1st  grade;  7,!)59,of  the 
second  ;  ii.lt.'i.'i,  of  the  Jul;  and  ,'ifiM.  professional 
cei  tificates. 

Tl».  si-litml  rrmnif  is  derived  from  several 
sources:  ill  A  teachers' fund  :  ( 1 1 )  A  school- 
house  found  ;  (111)  A  contingent  fund.— 1.  The 
teachers'  fund  is  derived  from.  Ill  the  interest 
on  the  permanent  school  fund  of  the  state,  ac- 
cruing from  the  sale  of  school  lands  appropriated 
by  '  longress  for  this  purpose;  (2  a  county  school 
tax  of  not  less  than  one  mill  nor  more  than 
three  mills  on  the  dollar,  levied  by  the  board 
of  supervisors   on  the   taxable  property  of  the 

of  the  district,  determined  by  the  boards  of 
directors,   as   may  be   needed   to   support    the 

schools  for  six  i iths  or  longer,  if  so  determined. 

II.  The  schooWiousefund  is  derived  from  a  tax 
for  the  pur] wise  "f  purchasing  sites  and  erecting 
school-houses.     111.  The  contingent  fund  is  ob- 


tained  by  a  tax,  determined  1>\-  tin'  lioarcl  of  direc- 
tors, sufficient  to  provide  for  rent,  fuel,  repairs, 


tu  those  who  may  design  to  become  teachers. 
There  is  also  a   normal  department  in  Whittier 

Vor     tl  institutes  constitute  the  chief   instru- 

mentalil  j    for  1 1  e  pi il   improveme E 

teachers  in  this  state,     in  1874,  the  General  As- 


amount  of 
$3,098,497; 
among  the  < 
of  children 


Edm 


d=T^ 

common  scl Is 

were  graded  scht 
ing school  .lurin.. 

items  uf  st'i/is/ir 


Number  of  i.-liililreii  enrolled, 
Average  daily  attendance, 
Number  of  teachers. 


tate  .■states,  which 
he  proceeds  of  the 
in  each  township, 
eof.  The  aggregate 
fund,  in  I-..',  was 
aeys  are  distributed 
rtion  to  the  number 
-between  5  and  21 

\ rding    to   the 


533,571 

3S4.012 

22.->.41o 


females. 


6,500 
11,645 


Total.  18,145 

Average  monthly  compensation,    males,  $36.68 

females,         f  2^.:;4 

Receipts,  {5,035,497.65 

Expenditures,  for  tuition,      $2,598,439.81 

"  other  purposes,    2,007,309.58 

Total,  84,605,749.3  i 

Norma!  Instruction.  — The  establishment  of 
schools  for  the  instruction  of  teachers  has  not 
met,  as  yet,  with  the  success  attained  in  most 
other  states.  In  1848,  a  law  was  passed  by 
which  three  normal  schools  were  to  be  estab- 
lished in  different  parts  of  the  state,  which  was 


course  of  study  with  a  daily  ordei 
was  prepared  by  the  state  superii 
was  adopted  at  once.  The  gei 
aroused  l>\  thi  se  meetings  is  illust 
following  statement.  In  the  year  L! 


limitary,   the    number   \ 
00.    In  L875,  it  was  still 


isite   to  defray  the  e) 


.art  of 
iresent 

laroer. 
ises  ..f 
ted  by 


istration  tee  oi   .1 

(3)  from  the  state  appi 
institute.    The  sum  oh 


lugmented  by  limited 


■ii  Instruction. — In  1858,  a  law  was 
riding  that  the  board  of  presidents  of 


10 


rise  a   general 

■  sum  oi   $500 
h  school  for  the 

■  oi  apparatus, 


divided  into  three 

each  district,  a  board 

pointed,  with  power 

ings,  employ  teachei 

supervision  over  the 

was  appropriated  am 

payment  of  teachers, 

etc  ,  provided  the  pa 

subscribe  an  equal  sum  for  the  erection  of  tl 

buildings.  The  expected  pecuniary  aid.howevi 

not  being  furnished,  the  schools  which  had  bet 

commenced  were,  in  a  short  time,  discontinue 

In  1858,  a  normal  department    was  establish! 

in  the  state  university,  and  continued  until  L87 

when  it  was  consolidated,  in  the  main,  with  tl 

academic  department,     Since  then,  a   chair 

didactics  has  been  maintained  in  the  universii 

for  the  purpose  of  affording  special   instructs 


wh...  together  with   the  county  superintendent, 

should  constitute  a  board  of  high-scl 1  trustees, 

with  power  to  lease  or  erect  a  building.and  take 
■utile  charge  >.t  it  ;  also  to  draw  from  the. 
county  treasury  $3000  a  year  for  six  veins,  and 
£11)0(1  annually  thereafter,  for  the  maintenance 
of  such  school.  This  provision,  however,  though 
earnestly  advocated  by  some,  was  not  taken  ad- 
vantage of,  the  majority  considering  it  prema- 
ture in  respect  to  both  the  wants  of  the  state  and 
its  financial  ability.  Only  one  school,  that  at 
Albion,  was  established  under  this  law.  This 
was  continued  about  two  years,  when  the  funds 
ex] ted  from  the  state  treasury  not  being  Sup- 
plied, it  was  discontinued,  and  the  building  was 
sold.  Two  attempts  have  since  been  made  to 
re-enact  this  law  in  its  essential  features,  but 
without  success.  In  1874,  the  people  of  Guthrie 
county  decided  to  establish  a  high  school,  and 
this,  according  to  the  present  state  superintend- 
ent (1876),  will  soon  be  in  operation. 

In  the  Btate  superintendent's  report  for  1875, 
there  are  included  returns  from  1  I '2  private 
academics,  seminaries,  high  schools,  business  col- 
leges, s.  Icet  schools,  etc..  which  show  an  enroll- 
ment of  Ill.ToT  pupils,  taught  by  314  instructors. 
In  the  preparatory  schools  of  the  various  colleges 
of  the  state,  there  are  about  3,000  students,  pur- 


470 


IOWA 


suing  the  usual  branches  assigned  for  secondary 
institutions. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  Iowa  State  Uni- 
versity (a.,  v.),  at  Iowa  City,  is  the  principal  in- 
stitution for  superior  instruction,  endowed  or 
aided  by  the  state.  Other  institutions  of  this 
grade  and  character  are  included  in  the  follow- 
ing table : 


u  i„.„ 

Kelsons 

NAME 

Location 

Id 

denomina- 

Burlington  University... 

Burlington 

1852 

Baptist 
M.  Epis. 

Mt.  Vernon 

1857 

Pella 

1854 

Baptist 
M.  Epis. 

Mt. Pleasant 

187:i 

Humboldt 

1869 

Non-sect. 

ftriunell 

ISIS 

lollfjreg. 

|..ua  W,  -1.  >.m  rillv.THitj     Mt. Pleasant 

IS.1 5 

M.  Epis. 

Norwegian  Lutheran  Coll.    Decorah 

1861 

Lutheran 

Oskaloosa 

isr,i; 

Christian 

Oskaloosa 

187:t 

Friends 

Simpson  Centi  nary  Coll.. 

Indianola 

lsi',7 

M.  Epis. 

Tabor 

lKCfi 

•oiigreg. 

rpp.r  Iowa  University.  .  . 

Fayette 

1855 

M.  Epis. 

..University  of  lies  Moines 

1 '-  -  \l - 

is,;.; 

Baptist 

Whittier  College 

Salem 

West.  Coll. 

ISliS 

Western  College 

1856  U.  Bretli. 

Technical  mi'/  Professional  Instruction.  — 

The  State  Agricultural  College,  at  Ames,  is  en- 

dowed with  the  proceeds  of   the  congressional 

land  grant.     Two  experiments  have  1 a  made 

in  tliis  institution,  and  arc  considered  success- 

ful: tlie  union  of  manual  labor  with  intellectual 

development,  and  the  co-education  of    the   sexes. 

The   course  of    instruction    is   for   four  years, 

and rprises  civil,  i -lianif.il.  and  mining  en- 

gineering, agriculture,  horticulture, stock  raising. 

architecture,  military  tactics.and  general  science 

and  literature.     The   institutions   of   tins    class, 

for  theological  instruction,  are  the  Theological 

hepartme.it  of  Iowa.  Wesleyan  University,  the 

•  lerinaii   Presbyterian  Theological  School    of  the 

Institute.     The  law  schools  of  the  stat nsist 

of  the  law  departments,  respectively,  of  the  state 

university,   the   Iowa  Woslovan  University,  and 

Simpson  Centenary  College.    The  chief  medical 

schools  are  the  medical  department  of  the  state 

university,  and   the   College  of    Physicians  and 

Surgeons,  at  Keokuk. 

Sprri.il  lus/nii-liiiii.  —  The  chief  institutions 

for  special  instruction 

ire  the  low: 

Instl 

tutionfor 

the  I) 


nil 


■lie 


Council 
e  Blind, 

at  Vinton.  Besides  these,  there  are  two  state 
reform  schools,  one  at  Kldora  and  the  other  at 
Salem.  At  Davenport  and  at  Cedar  Falls,  there 
is  a  state  soldiers'  orphan  home. 

EducationalJournah.  —  The  first   publica- 
tion in  Iowa  devoted  to  the  u 


>f    sell, 


.lamia 
Schoo 


entitled  The  Voice  of  Iowa  was  <■ nenced  at 

Cedar  Ha] lids,  and   was  made  the  organ  of  the 
state  teachers'  association.  It  was,  however,  soon 


IOWA  STATE   UNIVERSITY 

suspended.  The  Literary  Advertiser  and  Publii 
School  Advocate  was  published  from  May,  1859, 
to  October,  1860.  In  July  of  the  latter  year. 
The  Iowa  School  Journals  monthly  of  16  pages, 
was  started  at  Pes  Moines,and  has  been  continued 
up  to  the  present  time  ( 1876).  An  important  in- 
fluence is  attributed  to  it  in  connection  with  the 
schools  and  educational  system  of  the  state.  The 
Iowa  Instructor  was  commenced  in  1859  ;  after- 
wards united  with  the  Journal,  and,  in  1872. 
consolidated  with  The  Manual,  a  monthly,  com- 
menced August  1.,  1H71.  In  January,  1874, 
The  Common  School  was  started  at  Davenport, 
but  in  1H75,  it  was  united  with  the  Iowa 
School  Journal. 

IOWA  COLLEGE,  at  firinnell,  Iowa,  was 
established  at  Davenport,  in  1847,  and  was  re- 
moved to  Grinnell  in  1860.  It  was  founded  by 
Congregationalists  and  Presbyterians  (who  with- 
drew in  ls.VJj.liut  is  without  any  sectarian  or  ec- 
clesiastical control.  Its  productive  funds  amount 
to  about  $90,000.  It  has  libraries  containing 
about  6,000  volumes,  a  museum  of  natural  his- 
tory, chemical,  philosophical,  and  astronomical 
apparatus,  etc.  The  cost  of  tuition  ranges  from 
$15  to  $22  per  year,  with  music,  drawing,  and 
painting  as  extras.  Aid  is  furnished  to  needy 
students.  The  studies  are  arranged  in  the  follow- 
ing departments:  (1)  Normal  and  English  de- 
partment, furnishing  all  "English  studies,"  or 
preparation  for  teaching;  (2)  Academy  course,  of 
two  years,  preparatory  to  the  <  lollege  and  Ladies' 
courses  ;  l.'ii  Ladies'  course,  of  four  years,  chiefly 
consisting  of  college  studies,  like  that  of  the  best 
Eastern  seminaries;  ill  College  course,  of  four, 

l-utiti'e.eacli  iiieludino  modern  laueu.-i.-c-,  and  the 
latter,  some  post-graduate  studies.  In  1875-6, 
there  were  17  instructors  and  4  lecturers  (in  all 
the  departments), and  ,T!7  students:  post-gradu- 
ate -I:  colleg 3urse,45  ;  ladies'  course, 40  :  acad- 
emy curse.  68;  normal  and  English  depart- 
ment. 174.  Seventeen  states  and  forty  counties  of 
Iowa  were  represented  by  its  students  in  1H75, 
and  there  is  an  increasing  attendance  from  the 
eastern  and  middle  states'.  The  Rev.  George  F. 
Magoiui,  l».I>.,  the  present  incumbent,  appointed 
in   1862,  has  been  the  only  president. 

IOWA,  State  University  of,  at  Iowa  City, 
was  chartered  in  l*:,7.and  organized  in  1860.  It 
is  non-sectarian.  It  has  productive  funds  to  the 
amount  of  S2'J0,IMIII ;  and  the  value  of  its  build- 
ings, grounds,  and  apparatus  is  $250,000.  Bi- 
ennial appropriations  are  made  by  the  legislature. 
It  has  an  astronomical  observatory,  laboratory, 
and  cabinets.     The   colleee    library    contains    lie- 


namely,  classical,  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bach- 
elor ot  Arts:  philosophical  and  scientific,  leading 
to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Philosophy;  and  civil 
engineering,  leading  to  the  degr< f  Civil  En- 
gineer. Both  sexes  are  admitted,  and  tuition  is 
free.  The  law  department  was  established,  as  the 
Iowa  Law  School,  at  Pes  Moines,  in   1865,  and 


IOWA  WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY 

was  united  with  the  university  iu  1868.  The 
medical  department  was  established  in  1868.  In 
1874—5,  the  academic  department  had  21  in- 
structors and  423  students;  the  law  department 
had  4  instructors  and  106  students;  and  the  med- 
ical department,  13  instructors  and  94  students. 
The  Rev.  George  Thatcher,  D.D.,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

IOWA  WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY, 
at  Mt,  Pleasant,  Iowa,  was  chartered  in  1855, 
growing  out  of  the  Mt.  Pleasant  Collegiate  In- 
stitute, established  some  years  before.  It  is  open 
to  both  sexes,  and  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  It  has  an  endow- 
ment of  $03,000.  The  libraries  contain  about 
3,000  volumes.  The  university  comprises  5  de- 
partments: namely,  of  liberal  arts,  with  classical 
and  scientific  courses,  of  four  years  each,  and  a 
preparatory  course  of  two  years  ;  of  theology;  of 
law  ;  of  pharmacy  and  anatomy  ;  and  of  tech- 
nology. In  1874 — 5,  there  were  15  regular  in- 
structors and  'JIT  students  in  all  the  depart- 
ments. A  normal  department  has  lately  been 
organized.  German  College  (q.  v.),  though  dis- 
tinct from  the  university  in  government,  is  in- 
timately connected  with  it  in  instruction.  The 
presidents  of  the  university  have  been  as  follows: 
Rev.  L.  W.  Berry,  D.D. ;  Henry  Jas.  Harlan; 
Rev.  Charles  Elliott,  D.  D. ;  Rev.  G.  B.  Jocelyn; 
Rev.  Charles  Holmes,  D.  D.;  Rev.  John  Wheeler; 
Rev.  Jno.  Spaulding,  Ph.  D.,  the  present  incum- 
bent (1876). 

IRELAND,  an  island  which  forms  an  im- 
portant part  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  having  an  "area  of  32.531 
sq.  in.,  and  a  population,  in  1871,  of  5,402,759. 

Educational  History. — Annals  that  have  con- 
siderable claim  to  authenticity  ascribe  to  the 
people  of  Ireland  a  remarkable  progress  in  educa- 
tion at  a  very  early  period.  Thus,  it  is  said,  that 
Ollav  Kola,  who  reigned  about  900  B.  i '..  founded 
mTara  Bchoolsof  philosophy,  astronomy,  history, 
poetry,  and  medicine,  and  that  these  institutions 
wen'  encouraged  by  his  successors,  during  many 
centuries.  In  the  5th  century,  A.K..  after  its  con- 
version to  Christianity,  Ireland  was  greatly  cel- 
ebrated not  only  for  its  religious  zeal  (hence  called 
ins nli t  sii/ictiirttm.  isle  of  saints)   but  for  its  in- 


IRELAND 


477 


Aftc 


of  Ireland 
the  part 


stitutions  of  lear 

the  Saxons  and  Danes,  the  victorious 
Boru.  among  other  efforts  to  imprd 
dition  of  his  people,  founded  schoc 
moted  education.  After  the  eonques 
by  the  English,  the  first  recognition 
of  parliament  of  the  expediency  of  providing  the 
means  of  education  for  the  Irish  people.  »i.  the 
act  of  28  Henry  VIII.,  to  establish  parochial 
schools.  In  1570,  an  act  was  passed  instituting 
a  free  school  in  every  diocese.  In  1.608,  James  I. 
commenced  the  establishment  of  Royal  Free 
Schools.  Various  statutes  were  passed  on  this 
subject  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  II.,  William  III., 
and  the  first  three  Georges ;  but  the  main  ob- 
ject seems  to  have  been  to  proselytize  the  people 
to  the  Protestant  faith.  The  Charter  ,~elio,iN. 
partly  supported  by  parliamentary  grants,  had 


the  same  object.  The  bad  effects  of  a  policy  so 
obnoxious  to  the  Catholics,  induced  the  parlia- 
mentary commission,  in  is  12.  to  slate,  m  their 
report,  that  no  scheme  of  education  should  be 
undertaken  in  Ireland  which  attempted  "  to  in- 
fluence or  disturb  the  peculiar  religious  tenets  of 


fore 


Lord  Lieutenant,  written  in  1831,  tot  ins  the 
charter  of  the  Irish  National  System.  The  new 
system  was  based  on  the  plan  of  "a  combined 
literary  and  separate  religious  education. "and  was 
committed  to  a  board  oi  7  members  of  different 
religious  opinions.  Public  aid  was  granted  on 
condition  that  the  repairs  of  the  school,  the 
salary  of  the  master,  and  half  the  cost  of  school 
requisites  should  be  locally  provided.  The 
extent  to  which  the  economical  condition  of 
Ireland  interfered  with  the  financial  proposals 
of  the  board,  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact 
that,  even  in  1874,  while  the  board  paid  in 
aid  of  schools  nearly  £433,000,  the  local  aid 
amounted  to  less  than  £80,000.  The  promise 
of  a  national  and  non-sectarian  system  was  not 
fulfilled  in  the  action  of  the  board,  as  it  per- 
mitted religious  instruction  to  be  intermingled 
with  the  secular,  and  issued  text  books  of  a  dis- 
tinctively religious  character.  The  policy,  as 
first  announced,  was  accepted  by  the  Catholics, 
but  strenuously  opposed  by  the  clergy  and  lain 
of  the  Established  Church,  and  by  the  Presby: 
terians  of  Ulster.  At  the  close  of  1833,  the 
number  of  National  Schools  in  operation  was 
789,  having  107.012  pupils  enrolled  :  at  the  close 
of  1839,  the  former  had  increased  to  1,581,  and 
the  latter,  to  192,971.  In  the  lattet  year,  ex- 
planations were  made  by  the  board  which  satis- 
fied the  Presbyterians,  who  had  made  various 
objections  to  the  system,  in  repaid  to  the  ar- 
rangements for  religious  instruction,  and  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  Bible  during  school  hours.  The 
board  declared  these  points  of  objection  to  be 
conceded,  but  without  any  change  of  its  rules. 
This  new  rendering  of  the  rules  was  followed 
by  an  extension  of  the  system.  In  1841.  there 
were  2,237  schools,  and  2sl  .s  I'.i  pupils.  Shortly 
after  this,  the  Catholic  hierarchy  manifested 
a  strong  desire  to  acquire  the  control  of  such 
of  the  National    Sihools   a.-  contained   any   clnl 

dren  of  their  own  persuasion  ;  and  the  S\ 1  of 

Thurles,  which  met  in  1850,  while  giving  no 
definite  judgment  on  the  National  System,  de- 
clared that  "the  separate  education  of  the  I  lath 
olic  youth  is.  by  all  means,  to  be  preferred  to  it." 
The  more  aggressive  spirit  manifested  by  the 
Catholics  against  the  National  System  during 
the  past  twenty-five  years,  has  led  the  board, 
from  time  to  time,  to  adopt  conciliatory  meas- 
ures; such  as  the  repeated  changes  in  the  con- 
science clause,  with  the  view  of  preventing  the' 
alleged  proselytizing   tendencies   of    Protestant 


478  IRE] 

schools  ;  the  special  regulations  in  favor  of  con- 
vent schools;  the  increased  proportion  accorded 
to  Catholic  representation  in  the  board,  which 
lias  been  increased  from  two  to  seven,  in  1831, 
to  five  in  fourteen,  in  185]  .and  to  ten  in  twenty, 
in  18(51  ;  and  the  endowment  of  schools,  under 
Catholic  management,  in  the  neighborhood  of, 
and  as  rivals  to,  the  Model  Schools,  which  are 
the  special  objects  of  denominational  hostility. 
These  proceedings  were  strongly  opposed  espe- 
cially bythe  Pi  sbyl  rians,  who  are  the  wannest 
auppo      i      :  i  hi    Nal  ional  System  ;  and  il  must 


object.  No  Unman  <  'atliulic  dignitary  lias  sat 
in  the  board  since  1863,  and  the  most  recent  ex- 
pression of  Catholic,  feeling  on  the  subject  has 
been  the  formation,  in  Dublin,  of  a  (atliulic 
Union  of  clergy  and  gentry  to  promote  the 
establishment  of  denominationali-ni  in  the  entire 
education  of  Ireland.  The  popular  feeling,  how- 
ever, seems,  as  a  rule,  to  be  in  favor  of  unite. 1 
education. 

National  System. — Aid  is  granted  to  two 
classes  of  schools:  those  vested  in  the  commis- 
sioners, or  in  trustees  :  and  n  m-Vi  ite  I.  b  ling  th  - 
Eroperty  of  private  individuals.  All  National 
chools  receive  pecuniary  aid  iii  salaries  to 
teach  irs.r  suits'  fi   s,  and  books,  and  the  benefito 

jen  ,n  and  training.  Vested  Schools  alone 

h ive  buil  ling  grants.  National  Schools  com- 
prise \fo  'el  S  h  <oh  District  and  Minor),  which 
are  wholly  built  and  supported  by  parliament, 
are  under  the  exclusive  management  of  the 
board,  and  are  intended  to  promote  united  edu- 
cation, to  exhibit  the  most  improved  methods  of 
instruction,  and  to  educate  young  persons  for 
the  office  of  teacher  ;  .  \.gn  ■ '  ■  i  Schools,  with 
farms  and  gar-lens,  which  are  devoted  to  the 
illustration  and  introduction  of  the  most  ap- 
proved systems  of  husbandry  and  tillage,  and 
which  are  divided  into  four  classes:  (1)  First 
Class  Agricultural  Schools,  subdivided  into  (1) 
those  under  th  i  management  of  the  board,  an  I 
(2)  those  under  local  management;  illi  Or- 
dinary Schools,  subdivided  into  . :!i  tlios,.  with 
farms,  and  (4)  those  with  gardens;  Convent 
Schools,  which  receive  aid  as  Non -Vested 
SI I ;.  and  in  which  the  members  of  the  com- 
munity may  ;ct  ;.    literary  teachers  ;    Work-house 

Schools,  and  Soho  <  >  attached  to  prisons,  asylums, 
etc.  School-houses  are  not  to  be  employed  as 
the  stated  plac  iS  of  divine  worship  of  any  relig- 
ious community,  nor  for  the  transaction  of  any 
political  business;  and  no  emblems  of  denom- 
inational character  are  to  be  exhibited  in  them 
during  the  hours  of  united  instruction.  Iii  Vested 
Schools,  such  pastors  or  other  persons  as  shall  be 
approved  of  by  the  guardians  of  the  children, 
shall  have  access  to  them  in  the  school  room  for 
the  purpose  of  giving  them  instruction  there; 
in  Non- Vested  Schools,  it  is  for  the  patrons  and 
managers  to  determine  what  religious  instruc- 
tion hill  be  given  in  the  school  room.  The 
patrons  and  managers  of  .'ill  National  Schools 
have  the  right  to  permit  the  Holy  Scriptures 
(either  in  the  authorized  or  in  the  Douay  version) 


to  be  read  at  the  times  set  apart  for  religious  in- 
struction.— The  local  government  of  the  schools 
is  vested  in  local  patrons  or  managers,  who  can 
appoint  and  dismiss  teachers,  under  certain  re- 
strictions. Inspectors  visit  their  schools  at  least- 
three  times  a  year,  communicate  to  the  local 
managers  their  criticisms  and  suggestions,  and 
report  fully  the  results  of  their  inspection  to  the 
Board.  All*  National-School  teachers  arc  divided 
into  the  following  classes:  principals,  assistants. 
junior  literary  assistants,  work-mistresses,  and 
teachers  of  industrial  departments.  'I  here  are 
also  three  classes  of  Monitors,  whose  term  of 
service  is  three  years,  and  whose  rate  of  compen- 
sation ranges  from  £4  to  £18  per  annum. — The 
only  training  establishment  for  teachers  in  con- 
nection  with    the    Hoard    is   the   Institution,  in 


ih    St 


1838.  It 


which  was  opened 
ile  of  accommodat- 
ing  about  100  masters  and  75  mistresses,  who 
are  divided  into  three  classes:  (l)the  General  or 
( Irdinary  <  !lass,  composed  of  teachers  of  National 
Schools,  who  have  been  recommended  bythe  in- 
spectors; (2)  the  Special  or  Extra  Training  Class, 
composed  chiefly  of  teachers  who  have  been 
selected  from  the  General  Class  for  additional 
training;  and  (3)  the  Extra  Class,  composed  of  a 
limited  number  of  respectable  and  well-informed 
young  persons  who  wish  to  qualify  themselves  to 
act  as  teachers.  Teachers  summoned  for  train- 
ing are  allowed  their  traveling  expenses,  are 
provided  with  free  board  and  lodging,  receive  a 
Small  weekly  gratuity,  and  also  their  class  salary 
subject  to  a  deduction  of  £15  per  annum  for  a 
substitute.  Teachers  arc  classified  as  of  the  1st. 
2d,  or  3d  class,  and  promotion  from  one  to  the 
other   is  regulated  partly  by  examination,  and 

partly  by  the  efficiency  of  their  scl Is.     Male 

teachers  of  the  1st  class  receive  658  a  year  ;  of 

I  the  3d  class,  £32.  Female  teachers  of  the  1st 
class  receive  £48  ;  of  the  3d  class,  £25.  The 
National  School  Teachers  Act  (1875)  was  de- 
signed to  supplement  the  incomes  of  the  teach- 
,  rs  by  granting  state  aid  corresponding  to  local 
contributions.  The  latter,  however,  only  amount- 
ed to  £32,055  instead  of  £60,000,  as  was  con- 

I  templated.  National  teachers  receive. in  addition 
to  their  class  salaries,  the  total  amount  of  results' 
fees  earned  in  the  schools,  which  are  paid  accord- 
ing to  a  fixed  programme.  Thus  for  children 
(4  to  6  years  of  age)  who  know  the  alphabet, 
and  can  spell  and  read  words  of  two  letters,  the 
fee  is  .'is.  each;  for  reading  in  the  First  Class,  2s., 
etc  The  whole  number  of  classes  is  six,  besides 
the  infants'  class,  numbered  from  1  upward  to  6, 
the  5th  and  6th  being  each  divided  into  a  first  and 
a  second  stage.  The  common  branches  of  instruc- 
tion, including  grammar,  geography,  and  needle- 

|  work,  are  taught. 

Educational  Condition  [National  System).— 
On  the. 'fist  of  December,  1875, there  were  7,267 
National  Schools  in  operation  (Ulster,  2,737; 
Minister.  1,822;  Leinster,  1,551;  Connaught, 
1,157).  The  Vested  Schools  numbered  2,105  ; 
the  Non-Vested,  5,162.  The  number  of  chil- 
dren who  attended  some  part  of  the  year  1875. 


1.011.790  :  the  number  on  the  rolls,  on  the  i 
day  of  the  month    immediately  preceding 


K,;;,inl,ir>i  uml  Sn/„  ,-i'nr  Lintr>ir/inn .  —  Of  the 
higher  institutions  of  katniii-i.  the  wealthiest  is 
Trinity  College,  in  Dublin,  founded  in  L591.  In 
its  original  charter,  Queen  Elizabeth   Dominated 


were  Roman  Catholic  children.  The  Model 
Sohools,  in  operation  (luring-  L875,  were  29: 
in  Dublin.  3;  and,  in  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. 26.      The  average  attendance   of   pupils  was 


!he 


der  the  board  was  156,  with  13,835  pupils  en- 
rolled, and  an  average  daily  attendance  of  7,1  13. 
The  total  number  of  students  admitted  into  the 
Training  Establishment  was  294,  of  whom  150 
completed  their  training  within  the  year. — The 
number  of  teachers  under  the  board  was  as  fol- 
lows :  principals,  7.0i!7  'males.  -1.371;  females, 
2,69G)  ;  assistants,  3,037  (males,  713;  females, 
2,324)  ;  junior  literary  and  industrial  assistants. 
177  :  work-mistresses,  325.  The  total  amount  of 
payments  to  teachers  of  every  kind  made  from  all 
sources  during  the  year  ending  March  31.,  1876, 
was  £491,991.4s.  The  entire  sum  locally  contrib- 
uted for  education,  in  1875,  was  £84,860,  4s.  9d. 
In  1875,  there  were  21  First- Class  Agricultural 
Schools,  under  the  exclusive  management  of  the 
board,  and  11  under  local  management.  The  num- 
ber of  school  farms  was  228. — In  1874 — 5,  the 
evening  schools  numbered  138.  with  10,343  pu- 
pils on  the  rolls,  and  1.250  in  average  attendance. 
There  were  22  industrial  schools,  with  1.565  pu- 
pils enrolled,  and  1,397  in  average  attendance. 

Other  Educational  Agencies. — The  Church 
Education  Society,  founded  in  Dublin,  in  1^3'.). 
as  a  protest  against  the  National  School  Hoard, 
for  a  time  gathered  in  a  large  number  of  pupils. 
In  isil7.it  had  1,451  schools,  with  63,549 pupils. 
Since  then,  these  numbers  have  declined;  many 
of  its  schools  have  been  transferred  to  Diocesan 
Educational  Hoards.  The  Kildare-Place  training 
and  mode)  schools  are  usually  attended  by  about 
50  students,  males  and  females. — The  Institute 
of  Christian  Brothers  ill.  C.)  founded  in  Water- 
ford,  in  L802,for  the  education  of  ] r  children, 

in  L876,  had  291  schools,  and  31,878  pupils  en- 
rolled. The  Incorporated  Society  in  Dublin  for 
promoting  English  Protestant  schools  in  Ireland 
holds  a  large  amount  of  landed  and  other  prop- 
erty, having  an  income  of  £8,000  a  year.  It  has 
8  boarding  institutions,  6  for  boys  and  2  for 
girls,  besides  10  day  schools. — The  other  classes 

of  scl Is  named  in  the  Commissioners'  Report 

of  1868  are:  Irish  t'hur.h  Mission,  attended  by 
1.726  pupils;  Island  and  Coast  Society,  by  L59; 
Wesleyan,  by  720;  Presbyterian.  by  409:  Society 
of  Friends,  by  1  I  7  ;  Religious  Orders  of  Mens 
Schools,  by  706;  Miscellaneous,  by  954.  The 
total  number  of  private  schools  was  1,165,  of 
which  690  were  assisted  by  endowments. — The 
Sunday  School  Society  for  Ireland  was  founded 
in  1809.  On  the  1st  of  January,  1 876,  there  were, 
in  connection  with  it,  2,342  schools,  attended  by 
184,589  scholars,  and  16,560  gratuitous  teachers. 


rate.  The  number  of  members  has  since  then 
been  increased;  and.  in  L876,  consisted  of  a 
provost,  7  senior  fellows.  26  junior  fellows,  and 
7o  scholars.  The  system  of  instruction  is  super- 
intended b\  the  I.  Hows,  together  with  a  number 
of  professors  35,  in  L876).  Students,  alter  an 
examination  ,,,  Ureek, Latin, arithmetic,  English 
composition,  history,  and  geography,  are  ad- 
mitted as  fellow  commoners, pensioners,  or  sizars, 
which  last  class  is  limited  to  30,  and  is  partially 
maintained  out  of  the  college  funds.  The  course 
of  instruction  extends  over  four  \ears.  A  med- 
ical school  is  attached  to  the  university,  to  which 
has  lately  been  added  a  school  of  engineering. 
The  college  has  a  library  of  160.000  volumes; 
and  its  income,  in  1873,  was  £61,324.  The 
average  number  of  students  on  the  books 
of  Trinity  College  is  1,100.— In  I845,an  act  was 
passed  by  Parliament  for  establishing  now  col 
leges  in  Ireland,  and  three  colleges,  called  Queen's 
Colleges,  were  at  once  established  under  this 
act, — at  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Galway.  The  gov- 
ernment of  each  of  these  institutions  is  vested 
in  a  council,  consisting  of  the  presidi  nt  and  si 

professors,  elected  from  ai lgsl  thi  mselves.  The 

number  of  students  attending  the  colleges,  in 
1874—5,  was  783.— The  Roman  Catholic  uni- 
versity of  Dublin  was  organized  by  the  Catholic 
bishops  of  Ireland,  in  L854,  and  depends  for  its 
maintenance  wholly  upon  the  voluntary  con- 
tributions of  the  Roman  Catholic  people  of 
Ireland.  It  has  five  faculties.  theology,  lavs 
medicine,  philosophy  and  science,  and  letters.  A 
number  of  Catholic  colleges  ha\e  been  affiliated 
with  the  university. — A  Presbyterian  institu- 
tion..Magee  Collogivwas  opened  iu  Londonderry, 
in  1865;  a  Methodist  College,  in  Belfast,  in 
1868. 

Special  and  Professional  Instruction.  The 
Royal  College  of  Science  for  Ireland  was  estab- 
lished in  1867,  and  is  intended  to  supply  a  com- 
plete courseof  instruction  in  mining. agriculture. 
i  1 1 -_ i r i .  ering,  and  manufactures. — Maynooth  Ool- 

I i  Catholic    eminary  for  candidates  for  the 

priesthood,  was  founded  in  L795.  All  Hallows 
College,  near  Dublin,  is  intended  to  train  mis- 
sionaries for  the  Catholic  Church.  The  Pres- 
byterians have  a  theological  school  (the  General 
Assembly's  <  'ollegei  at  Belfast.  —The  higher  edu- 
cation of  women,  in  Ireland,  has  been  neglected  ; 
but  recently,  amongst  others,  the  following  insti- 
tution- ha\ohc,  ii  established:  The  Queen's  In- 
stitute, Dublin, opened, in  1861 .  "for  theemploy- 
ment  of  educated  women."  the  educational 
classes  being  modeled  on  those  of  Cheltenham 
College;  Alexandra  College.  Dublin,  on  the  plan 
of  Queen's  College.  London;  and  the  Ladies'  Col- 
legiate School.  Belfast,  opened  in  1859.  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  and  Queen's  University  hold 
examinations  for  girls  and  < 


ITALIAN  lax<;ua<;k 


ITALIAN  LANGUAGE.  The  Italian 
language  has  no  claims  commensurate  with  those 
of  the  German  or  the  French,  to  a  place  in  any 
regular  course  of  instruction  th.-  object  of  whichis 
general  culture,  and  which,  to  that  end.  embraces 
the  study  of  one  or  two  modern  languages.  Its 
value  for  tills  purpose  has  not.  however,  been 
without  advocates.  Thus  L.  Gantter,  the  author 
of  the  article  on  the  Italian  language,  in  Schmid's 
Encyclopadie  (vol.  rn.),  in  discussing  the  relative 
importance  of  the  principal  modern  languages 
forthr  Herman  gymnasia,  from  an  educational 
point  of  view,  assigns  the  first  plan'  to  English, 
the  second  to  Italian,  and  the  third  to  French  ; 
and  he  appeals  to  Goethe,  Niebuhr,  Etaumer, 
Gregorovius,  and  many  other  celebrities  to  prove 
that  tin1  educational  impulse  which  may  reason- 
ably be  expected  from  a  study  of  the  Italian 
language  and  literature,  would  prove  stronger 
and  more  cond  i  iv  ■  to  a  general  development  of 
the  mental  faculties  than  that  received  from 
the  study  of  French.  This  view,  however,  has 
found  but  few  adherents  ;  and.  except  in  Aus- 
tria, where,  from  practical  and  business  consider- 
ations, the  study  of  Italian  is  more  extensively 
pursued  than  in  any  other  country,  precedence 
in  the  study  of  modern  languages  is  given  to 
English.  German,  and  French.  Italian  has,  how- 
ever, special  importance  for  all  studentsof  music. 
vocal  and  instrumental,  as  well  as  for  students 
of  the  tine  arts.  Music,  in  every  country  of  the 
world,  uses  to  a  large  extent  technical  expres- 
sions borrowed  from  the  Italian  :  the  Italianopcra 
is  exceedingly  popular  in  every  large  city  of  the 
world,  and  there  is  no  student  of  the  tine  artswho 
is  not  anxious  to  complete  his  study  of  Italian 
art  in  Italy.  These  considerations  have  nof 
only  created  a  demand  for  instruction  in  Italian, 
but  they  are  sufficiently  important  to  recom- 
mend to  students  of  music  and  of  the  fine  arts 
a  much  more  general  study  of  this  beautiful 
language  than  is  to  be  met  with  at  present ;  and 
it  is  to  be  regretted  that  universities,  colleges, 
academies,  and  especially  female  institutions  of 
a  higher  grade,  do  not.  more  frequently  than  is 
the  cas  ■  at  present,  afford  to  their  pupils  an  op- 
portunity to  learn  this  language. 

The  Italian  language  is  one  of  the  so-called 
Romanic  languages  (q.  v.),  and  arose  from  the 
Latin  in  a  .ay  similar  to  that  of  the  French. 
The  new  language  was  designated,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Latin,  Lingua  vulgaris  (volgare),  and 
greatly  varied  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
Haute,  in  his  work  !),•  rn/:/nri  r/,„/ui>i.  enumer- 
ated fourteen  dialects,  all  of  which,  the  Floren- 
tine not  excepted,  he  declared  to  be  unsuited  for 
the  literature  of  Italy.  The  written  language 
was  in  the  main  fixed,  as  it  now  is,  by  Dante, 
I'ctrarch,  and  Boccaccio.— all  Tuscans  and  Flor- 
entines; and  Italian  literature  attained  its  golden 
age  at  an  earlier  period  than  any  other  literature 
of  modern  F.urope.  The  Italian  language  is 
spoken  by  almost  the  entire  population  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  in  the  two  little  states  0f  Mo- 
naco and  San  Marino,  on  the  island  of  Corsica, 
in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Ticino.  and  several  com- 


munes of  the  cantons  Grisons  and  Valais,  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  Tyrol,  in  Tricst  and  other 
cities  of  Istria  and  Dalmatia,  and  in  the  Hun- 
garian free  city  of  Fiume.  The  entire  territory 
in  which  the  language  is  spoken  contains,  prob- 
ably, a  population  of  about  _'s  millions. 

The  Italian  language  is  celebrated  for  its  eu- 
phony, though  many  linguists  prefer  the  Span- 
ish m  this  respect.  Its  smooth  and  melodious 
character  is  due,  to  a  large  extent,  to  an  extra- 
ordinary predominance  of  vowels,  every  indigen- 
ous word  of  the  language,  with  the  exception  of 
only  five  i  //.  in.  con,  i/< 'ii.  /"'/'Lending  in  a  Vowel 
sound.  This  euphony  is  somewhat  marred  by 
the  exuberance  of  the  vowel  /.  which,  in  the  ter- 
mination of  Italian  words  has  outgrown  all  just 
proportions — as  much  so  as  the  German  e.  The 
pronunciation  is  wry  simple,  as  almost  every 
sound  is  represented  byonlyone  letter  or  combi- 
nation of  letters.  It  has  no  silent  letters. and  each 
of  the  vowels  has  only  one  sound,  long  or  short  ; 
these  sounds,  in  the  main,  correspond  with  those 
of  the  German  vowels.   The  letters  /'.  ir.  if.  mill. r 

are  not  found  iii  the  Italian  alphabet ;  and  for 
the ph  and  th,  occurring  in  the  words  of  Latin 
ami  (deck  origin,  n  has  substituted/ and  t.  Like 
the  Flench,  it  has  lost  the  ease-endings  in  the 
declension  of  nouns,  and  has  introduced  from  the 
language  of  the  Teutonic  conquerors  the  definite 
article,  the  use  of  the  personal  pronoun  before 
the  verb,  and  the  auxiliary  verb.  It  exceeds  the 
French  in  the  richness  of  its  augmentatives  and 
diminutives,  in  the  greater  variety  of  the  accents 
which  may  affect  one  of  the  last  four  syllables 
of  the  word,  in  its  greater  freedom  of  inversion, 
and  in  its  freer  and  bolder  phraseology.  In  a 
lexical  point  of  view,  the  Italian  bears  a  more 
striking  resemblance,  than  either  French.  Span- 
ish, or   Portuguese,  to  the  common  mother   of 

The  special  motives  which,  iii  a  majority  of 
cases,  lead  to  a  study  of  this  language,  naturally 
suggest  a  method  of  instruction  different  from 
that  pursued  in  the  teaching  of  French  and  Ger- 
man. The  beauty  of  the  language,  which  is  re- 
flected in  its  structure  and  pronunciation,  and 
which  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the  lofty 
position  which  Italian  art  has  attained  in  the 
history  of  civilization,  should  be  pointed  out 
with  special  care.  Exercises  in  grammar  and 
translation  will  require  comparatively  little  at- 
tention;  for  not  only  is  the  structure  of  the 
language  unusually  .simple  and  easy,  but  its 
study  is  hardly  ever  begun  until,  in  addition 
to  the  vernacular,  the  knowledge  of  some  other 
language  has  been  acquired.  All  the  greater 
prominence,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  given 
to  the  practice  of  conversation;  for  only  in  this 
way  will  the  pupil  fully  realize  the  superiority 
of  the  language  in  point  of  beauty  and  eu- 
phony, and  prepare  himself  for  a  visit  to  the 
country  which,  more  than  any  other,  captivates 
the  affecti  ns  of  every  artist'.  The  literature 
of  Italy  scarcely  admits  of  a  comparison  with 
that  of  Germany  or  France:  but  the  golden 
age  of  Italian  literature  presents  names  which 


ITALIAN    LANGUAGE 

-will  never  fail  to  recommend  the  study  of  the 
Italian  language  to  advanced  scholars  Dante 
ranks  with  Homer,  Virgil,  Milton,  and  Goethe, 
as  one  of  the  greatest  poets  of  the  world, 
whom  all  civilized  nations  will  always  ad 
mire;  and  Italian  would  be  studied,  if  it  were 
only  to  read  the  Divina  Corn-media.  And 
Dante  is  by  no  means  the  only  ureal  represent- 
ative of  Italian  literature.  In  the  middle  ages. 
Italy  stood  for  a  time  at  the  head  of  modern 
civilization  (see  Italy)  :  and,  though  it  has  been 
unable  to  maintain  this  place,  the  literary  world 
will  never  cease  to  admire  Petrarch,  Boccaccio 
Ariosto,  Tasso,  and  Macchiavelli.  As  the  ability 
to  read  this  language  is  acquired  by  most 
students  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  and  as 
the  interest  they  take  in  Italian  literature  will 
chiefly  center  in  the  great  names  just  men- 
tioned, the  intelligent  teacher  will,  as  soon  as  it 
is  practicable,  begin  with  the  reading  of  one  of 
these  authors.  As  the  poets  use  a  great  many 
licenses  in  the  alteration,  addition,  and  omission 
of  sounds,  and  also  a  multitude  of  exclusively 
poetic  words,  it  is  best  for  the  student  to  be- 
gin with  a  prose  writer:  and  Macchiavelli's  II 
Principe  or  Istorie  Florentine,  in  which  the 
style  is  as  elegant  as  it  is  plain,  will  rarely  fail 
to  interest  and  satisfy  him.  In  the  more  recent 
periods  of  Italian  literature,  the  writers  Goldoni, 
Gozzi,  Alfieri,  Foscolo,  Manzoni.  Lcoparili,  Sil- 
vio Pellico.  Xicolini  have  gained  a  well-deserved 
celebrity:  and  espe  ially  tfanzoni's  I Promessi 
Sposi,  and  IVllics  /,■,„,  ■  Prigioni  have  become 
favorite  books  of  Etalian  .-indents. 

The  Italians  are  greatly  behind  many  other 
nations  in  the  philological  study  of  their  lan- 
guage. Buonimattei  s  grammar  lhll,i  iui,jn,i 
toscana  (1648),  which  was  adopted  by  thcAcca- 
demia  cklla  Crusca,  only  treats  of  letters,  nouns, 
and  articles.  The  first  complete  and  systematic 
grammar,  which  has  served  as  the  basis  of  nearly 
all  modern  works,  is  the  Regole  •  I  osst  rvazioni, 
by  Corticelli  (1785).  En  Germany,  a  g I  his- 
torical grammar  of  the  Italian  language  has  been 
written  by  Blanc  (1844);  and,  in  Italy,  Pesavento 
has  recently  published  a  valuable  comparative 
view  of  Latin  and  Italian,  under  the  title  Metodo 
Gomparattvo.  In  the  English  language,  gram- 
mars of. and  guides  to,  the  Italian  language  have 
been  published  according  to  Alius,  Monteith's, 
and  Ollendorff's  methods,  and  by  Biaggi,  Cuore, 
Fontana,  Foresti,  Saner,  Thimm.  Toscani,  Ver- 
gani,  Weale,  and  others. — The  lexical  literature 
began  with  the  meager  dictionary  of  Minerbi 
(1 53A).  The  first  edition  of  the  famous  Vbca- 
bolario  degli  Accademici  detta  Crusca,  limited 
to  the  Tuscan  dialect,  appeared  in  1602;  the 
fifth  revised  edition  was  begun  in  1843.  The 
first  dictionary  embracing  within  its  scope  all 
the  Italian  dialects  was  by  Albert!  (6  vols., 
179" — 1805).  Other  dictionaries  of  this  kind 
are  the  Jjizionario  della  lingua  ttaliana, 
published  at  Bologna  (7  vols.,  1819—26);  the 
works  by  Mortara,  Bellini,  Codagni,  and  Mai- 
nardi  (8  vols.,  1845 — 56)  ;  those  bv  Tommaseo 
and  Bellini  (1864)  ;  Carena  (12  vols.,  1851—3) ; 


and  Trinchera   (2  vols.,  1864).     Italian-English 
dictionaries   have    been    published    by    Graglia, 


of  Italian  literature  are  Tirabo.M  hi  ill  mis., 
L772  83,  and  many  editions  since);  Guinguene 
(1811—19);   Maffei  (1834) ;  Cimoprelli  (1845); 

Kniiliano  Giudici  (Is.M):   Malpaga  ils.Vn. 

ITALY,  a  kingdom  ot  Lurope,  having  an 
area  of  I  I  l.-HH)  ,-cpiaiv  miles,  and  a  population, 
in  1870,  of  26,801,154.  Almost  the  entire  pop- 
ulation speak  the  Italian  language,  and  belong 
to  the  Catholic  Church.  From  the  downfall  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  until  1870,  when  theannexa- 


short 


broken  up  into  a  number  of  small  states,  only 
connected  with  each  other  by  the  bond  of  a  com- 
mon language.  In  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in 
1815,  Italy  was  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of 
Sardinia  and  the  Two  Sicilies,  the  grand-duchy 
of  Tuscany,  the  duchies  of  Parma,  Modena,  and 
Lucca,  the  Papal  States,  and  the  Lombardo- 
Yenotian  kingdom,  the  latter  remaining  with 
Austria.  In  1859, all  these  states  with  the  ex- 
ception of  apart  of  the  Papal  States  and  Venetia, 


•apal  States  in  1870. 

lie  tenth  place  among 
cgard  to  population, 


Educational  History.— After  the  destruction 
of  the  Roman  Empire  by  Odoacer,  in  47H.  edu- 
cation in  Italy  was  for  a  long  time  at  a  low  ebb. 
The  Ostrogoths,  who,  in  493,  overthrew  the  rule 
of  Odoacer.  were  the  most  intelligent  among  the 


telv. 


ductive  power  in  the  field  of  education.  Their 
king,  Theodoric  the  Great,  who  is  said  to  have 
spoken  four  languages,  placed  at  the  head  of  his 
government  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  the 
age,  Cassiodorus,  wdio  founded  a  theological 
school,  which  was  to  conned  the  remnants  of  the 
civilization  of  the  Romans  and  Greeks  with 
Christian  theology,  and  which  served  as  a  model 
for  the  theological  schools  of  the  middle  ages. 
1  laving, at  the  age  of  70, retired  to  the  monastery 
which  he  had  founded,  he  not  only  taught  the 
monks  to  devote  themselves  to  the  copying  of  an- 
cient manuscripts,  but.  by  arranging  the  branches 
of  a  liberal  education  into  the  trivium  and 
//in idr iriii in,  he  drew  up  a  programme  of  instruc- 
tion, which  was  adopted  throughout  the  middle 
ages,  and  long  after.  Another  statesman  in  the 
service  of  Theodoric.  Boethius,  was  a  still  greater 
scholar  than  Cassiodorus  :  and,  by  his  translations 
of  several  of  the  works  of  Aristotle,  as  well  as 
by  his  own  works  Be  rrmsica  and  I  '■■  a  nsola- 
tione   philosophies,  exerted   a  far-reaching   in- 


482  IT. 

fluence  upon  the  entire  civilization  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  became,  jointly  with  Cassiodorus,  the 
founder  of  the  educational  system  of  the  scho- 
lastics (q.  v.).  The  reign  of  the  <  Istrogothic  kings 
is  also  noted  for  the  foundation  of  the  Benedic- 
tines (q.  v.).  whose  schools,  for  centuries,  were 
among  the  few  places  of  refuge  for  the  friends 
..I  education  and  civilization.  Under  the  re- 
established rule  of  the  '  J  reek  emperor,  as  well 
as  under  that  of  the  Lombards,  little  was  done 
for  education.  Pope  Gregory  [.was  a  patron  of 
schools;  but.  for  several  centuries  after  his  death. 
Italy  had  no  one  who.  as  a  scholar  and  teacher, 


elevation  of  Gerbert,  the  greatest  scholar  of  th 
age.  to   the  papal   throne,  under  the   name   o 
Sylvester    II.,  awakened   new  interesl    in   sciei 
tine  studies:  and   the  great   increase  of  powe 
which  the  papacy  attained  through  the  energ 
of     Gregory  VII.   and    his   successors,    excite 
anion-  the  young  Italian  clergy  an  emulation  fo 
distinction  which  led  to  considerable  progress  i 
literature  and  education.      In  the    l'-'th   centurj 
Italy  became  the  birthplace  of  the   modern   mi; 
versifies.     These  institutions  arose  a>  free  assi 
ciations  of  scholars  who  did  not  belong  to  th 
clergy,   and    were  only  bound   together   by  their 
common  devotion  to  science.  The  growth  of  the 
universities  was  rapid  ;  so  that,  after  an  existence 
of  half  a  century,  the  law  faculty  of    Bologna 
was  attended   by    over    12,000    students.     The 
medical    school   of    Salerno   also   became  one    of 
the  most  famous  schools  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
was  attended  by  students  from  all    parts   of  the 

world.     In    these    two    scl Is.     Bologna    and 

Salerno,  we  see  for  the  first  time  in  the  middle 
ages  a  five  secular  science  develop  itself  inde- 
pendent of  the  church  and  of  clerical  influence. 
Besides  giving  to  Europe  its  first  universities, 
Italvalso  took  the  lead  in  the  revival  of  classical 
studies.  Dante  and  Petrarch,  both  ardeni  ad- 
mirers of  the  intellectual  greatni  ss  oi  classic 
antiquity, became  the  foundersof  the  firs!  golden 
age  of  Italian  literature,  which  was  the  firsl 
among  the  literatures  of  Europe  to  attain  a  high 
degree  of  excellence.      A   number  of   teachers, 

Proc hug  from  this    school,  traveled    from  city 

to  cllv.  in  orderto  instruct  all  th  ee  desirous  of 
learning.  The  first  of  these  trawling  teachers 
was  Giovanni  Malpaghino,  a  pupil  of  Petrarch, 
who  counted  among  hi.  |,u],iUuio,t,.f  the  learned 
men,  who.  in  the  beginning  ol  the   I  5th  centurj  . 

raised  the   It an   classics  from  the   obscurity 

which  had  for  so  long  a  time  surrounded  them. 
Emmanuel  I 'hrvsolora-  a  learned  I  i reek,  was  the 
first  to  awaken  an  interesl  in  the  language  and 
literature  of  his  native  country,  which  he  taught 
in  Florence,  .Milan.  Venice,  and  Koine.  With 
the  arrival  of  the  learned  Greeks  in  Italy,  after 
the  overthrow  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  the 
study  of  the  Greek  language  received  a  fresh  im- 
pulse,   and    a    I »  ii  dge   ol    that    language    was 

considered  necessary  to  a  complete  education. 
During  this  time,  the  republics  and  princes  of 
Italy  vied  with  each  other  in  protecting  and  pro- 
moting the  cause  of  education.     This  was  espe- 


|  cially  the  case  at  Florence,  where  the  family  of 
the  .Medici,  particularly  Cosinio  and  Lorenzo  de' 
Medici,  patronized  science  and  art  with  an  en- 
thusiasm which  lms  rarely  been  equaled  in  the 
history  of  the  world.    Among  the  many  Floren- 


s  X..  Niccc-lode'  Niccoli, 
arsflius  Ficinus,  and  Poc 

icmisthius.  1'lethon. 
i  of    Mirandola.     In 

eiiiee,  science   was  cultiva 

ed   rather  by  single 

dividuals  than  by  the  stat 

In    Naples,  king 

Ifonso gathered  around  hii 

i  anuiiiberof  learned 

en.  anion,,'  who,,,  the   i 

lesof  Lorenzo  della 

alle   and    Antonio   degli 

Beccadelli   are   best 

lown.   In  Milan.  Fran,  is© 

Sforza  was  an  active 

■omoter  of  the  -era,  ,  .  ;  w 

hile  the  lesser  courts 

a  prominent  position  as  a  writer  on  education. 
With  the  election  of  Tommaso  Parentucelli  to 
the  papal  chair.  Koine  became  the  principal  seat 
of  classical  learning.  I  under  his  successors  learn- 
ing rapidly  declined,  uniil  I.e.,  X..  again  raised  it 
to  a  higher  position.  The  principal  scholars  of 
this  period  were  Cardinal  I'.ciubo  and  I'etriis 
Pomponatius  Italian  learning  from  the  14th 
to  the  beginning  of  tin-  liith  century,  consti- 
tutes   an     important     epoch     in     the    general 


bv  1! 


/// 


scholastic  especially,  gave  place,  by  degrees, 

he  ela.-dcal.  The  Italians  became  enthusiastic 
then  awakened  love  for  the  old  Roman 
liors,  in  whom  they  recognized  their  an- 
ors;  and  their  understanding  of  the  Creek 
sics  was  promoted  by  native  Greek  teachers. 
er  they  were  enabled  to  read  l'lato.  a  pas- 
iate  love  of  the  beautiful  arose  within  them, 
likewise  a  corresponding  abhorrence  of  the 
lousness  of  scholasticism,  which  based  itself 
n  Aristotle;  but.  when  they  studied  Aris- 
e  in  the  original,  and  learned  how  entirely 
■rent  he  is  from  the  Aristotle  of  the 
ilastics,   th.-    authority    of    the   latter    began 


l>l  s. 


ized  the  more  eminent  of 
noreover,  there  were  many 
me  so  foolishly  enamored 
lassical    form. 'whether   in 


often  proved  to  be  but   1 

toms  without  either  Ii 
elevation  of  the  ItaJ 
vernacular,  it  gradual! 
which,  in  Hie  middle  a 
the  vernacular,  and  as  i 


Aft 


plian- 
■r  the 

llo      the 

e  Latin, 
■ated  a. 
id  to  the 


varying  caprice  of  writers.  The  ancieni  classics, 
Cicero  especially,  then  became  models  for  imita- 
tion, hut  an  imitation  mostly  of  a  lifeless  and  ser- 


greatanaae 

frowned  ha 
cureanism  : 
to  become 

Pagan  sent 

Italian  scho 
orthodox  ft 
too,  it  may 
the  teaching 


LY  483 

tho  e  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  other  conn 
tries.  The  Other  Italian  states  were  all  provided 
with  schools,  but  in  none  of  them  was  much  at- 
tention paid  to  the  education  of  the  people ;  and 
their  educational  condition  was  generally  admit- 
ted to  be  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  mosl   other 


ten,  of  Sardinia  into  the 
e  thai  time,  the  schools 
in t  Bteadily;  ami  it  has 
.vernnient'tn  break  as 
uence  of  the  church  in 
ii  official  report  pub- 
i  ,h  Regno  d'ltalia.— 
,rivata,  Firenze,    L866) 


headand   its  tl 

ers,  the  greater 

part  arrayed 

themselves     afew.l 

thegrea!  ir  pari  onl 

-.Hire.     Such, 

in  brief,  w.i-  tii.   cha 
ogists  to  whom  our 
And  these  men  exeO 

''in'Vit'il'.n'h',"    l'i 

■en  directed 

ted  a  vasl  inline 

,,ce  upon  the 

learning  of  the  ( u-r 

mans  and  Hutch 

.  Rudolphus 

Agricola.Reuchlin, 

;  J .    ■ . . .  1 1 , . .  i  r .  i  r  1 1 1  - 

many  other  distingi 

lislTcd  scholars  v 

rent  to  Italy 

to  perfect  themselvi 

s.    The  Italians 

became  their 

patterns;  upon  these 

■they  modeled  tl 

lemselves;  to 

equal  them,  or  if  p 

ossihle   to  surpa 

ss  them,  was 

their  highest  aim." 

In   the   course 

of  the  L6th 

century,  Italy  era, In 

ally  lost  her  reputation  as  the 

foremost  cultivator 

of  classical  stlldi 

es.    Though 

she  still  produced  i 

lien  like    Ariosti 

i  and  Tasso, 

Giordano  Bruno  ant 

IGalil ialilei  i 

he  character 

of  her  schools  degen 

date  1.    Only  in 

the  pro\  ilice 

of     tin-    art.    It.dv 

»ntinui  i   io  b 

the  teacher 

of  the  civilized  wori 

■i   parti  ular 

was,  in  in,-  .hi'  1   1 1 

■  following  cent 

uries,  chieflj 

or   ii-  proon    ■ 

After     the 

foundation  of  the  order  of  the  Jesuit 

-the  higher 

schools  in  the  largei 

■  portion  of  the  1 

■ n  ■  ,,,i 

pa--e  1  ■jjadnally  under  their  c Mill 

:   and.  for  a 

lone-  time,  the  highe 

r  .'lasses   of    the 

be  said  to  have  be 

en    educated    1 IV 

the  Jesuits. 

(See  .1  ESUITS.)  —  Tl 

le    tiist     of    the    1 

talian  statt  • 

to  abolish  the  super 

Vision  of    the    SC] 

1-  l,\    the 

church   wasSardini 

i.     Iii  L729,  it  \ 

lithdivw  the 

supervision  of  socon 

dary  schools  fro 

in  the  relig- 

ious  orders,  and   pn 

ivided  that  teat 

ihers  of  tins 

class  of  schools  shoi 

lid    he    educated 

j,|        ; ||,    -.J,- 

connected  with  a  lit 

iversity.     In  1  ~, 

was    published    wh 

ich    provided    t 

■ils 


■hool- 


there  were  155;  in  Germany,  152;  in  Denmark, 
135;  and  in  France.  131. 
Instruction  in  all  the  grades  is  regulated  by 


schools.    Tl 


impulse  to  education,  and  primary  schools  were 
established  in  every  town.  Upon  the  restora- 
tion of  the  old  government,  in  L814,  the  laws 
passed  during  the  French  rule  were  abolished; 
and.  although,  in  L821,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
re-establish  common  schools,  no  decided  progress 
was  made,  until,  in  1-1  I.  a  normal  school  for 
teachers  was  established  in  'rutin.  A  law  was 
passed  in  1848,  and  revised  in  1857,  which  sought 
to  raise  the  schools  of  [Sardinia  to  a  level  with  | 


tests  between  school  authorities,  on  applications 
for  professorships,  and  on  offenses  committed  by 
1  irofessors  of  normal  ami  secondary  schools:  it  may 


the  condition  of  till  the  branches  of  education. 
By  the  law  of  1859,  three  general  inspectors  were 
appointed, — one  for  superior,  one  for  secondary. 


and  One  for  primary,  special,  and  normal  in- 
struction.    Each  one  of  the  69  provinces  of  the 

kingdom  has,  for  its  highest  school  authority,  a 
school  board,  consisting  of  the  prefect  as  presi- 
dent, the  superintendent  as  vice -president,  and 
six  councilors,  two  of  whom  are  appointed  by 
the  ministry,  two  by  the  provincial  deputation, 
and  two  by  the  magistrate  of  the  principal  city. 
The  members  appointed  by  the  elective  councils 
hold  their  office  for  three  years,  but  can  be  re- 
appointed. They  depend  upon  the  prefect  who 
is  entrusted  with  the  general  direction  of  all  the 
schools,  public  as  well  as  private,  and  upon  the 
superintendent  of  the  province,  who  has  the 
care  of  all  the  schools  in  his  district ;  while  the 
school  board  enforces  the  laws  and  rules  relative 
to  the  primary,  secondary,  and  normal  schools  of 
the  province.  The  board  also  orders  extraordinary 
inspections  of  the  schools ;  and,  in  urgent  cases, 
has  the  [lower  to  close  them,  but  must  immedi- 
ately notify  the  minister  of  the  fact. 

Primary  Instruction.  -Primary  instruction 
is  compulsory  throughout  [taly,  according  to  the 
law  of  1859.  The  school  age  is  from  6  to  14 
years;  and  all  parents  neglecting  to  send  their 
children  between  these  ages  to  school,  are  liable 
to  a  tine.  The  course  of  instruction  comprises 
lour  years.  The  schools  are  composed  of  a  lower 
and  a  higher  grade.  c;ich  of  two  classes.  In  the 
former  are  taught,  religion,  reading,  writing,  ele- 
mentary arithmetic,  the  elements  of  the  metrical 
system,  and  the  Italian  language.  In  the  higher 
grade,  in  addition  to  the  studies  of  the  lower,  are 
taught  composition,  penmanship,  book-keeping, 
elementary  geography,  the  national  history,  and 
elementary  science.  Schools  of  the  lower  grade, 
one  for  boys  and  one  for  girls,  must  be  main- 
tained by  every  commune,  although  the  minister 
may  give  permission  for  two  communes  to  unite, 
if  they  are  too  poor  to  support  separate  schools. 
Schools  of  the  higher  grade  must  be  established 
in  all  towns  with  more  than  40011  inhabitants. 
Communes  of  less  than  500  inhabitants  must 
provide  a  mixed  school  for  both  sexes,  if  there 
are  50  children  of  school  age.  The  school  term 
extends  from  Oct.  L5.  to  Aug.  1  •">.  Examina- 
tions both  oral  and  written  are  held  every  six 
months,  and  are  directed  by  the  municipal  super- 
intendent, unless  state  officials  interpose.  Cer- 
tificates are  granted  promoting  the  candidates, 
and  prizes  are  given  to  the  most  deserving.  The 
persons  conducting  the  examinations  are,  for  the 
lower  classes,  the  teachers  of  the  classes,  and  for 
the  next  higher,  as  well  as  for  the  highest  grades. 
the  class  teachers  and  two  other  teachers  of  the 
same  or  a  lower  grade.  Religious  examinations 
are  conducted  by  the  clergy, but  are  obligatory  for 
Roman  Catholic  children  only.  Every  examiner 
can  add  ten  marks  to  the  results  of  the  written 
and  oral  examinations,  on  account  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  pupil  during  the  year.  Six  marks  con- 
stitute the  standard  of  approbation.  -Male  teachers 
must  be  eighteen,  and  female  teachers  seventeen 
years  old.  Having  passed  the  necessary  exami- 
nation, they  are  appointed  for  three  years,  and 
unless  notified  six  months  before  the  expiration 


separa- 
f  which 
and  of- 
1  extra 
suspension 


they 
be  be 

sarv 


of  their  term,  are  considered  re-appointed.  Teach- 
ers may  punish  their  scholars  by  admonition. 
a  note  of  censure  in  the  school  reg' 
tion  from  their  comrades,  or  suspen 
the  parents  must  be  informed.  I 
tensive  words,  corporal  puiii.-hnn  i 
lessons  as  penalties  are  forbidden 
for  a  week  or  expulsion  can  be  inflicted  by  the 
municipal  superintendent ;  but  each  case  of  ex- 
pulsion must  be  brought  to  the  notice  of  the 
mayor,  and  must  be  approved  by  him.  The  min- 
imum salaries  paid  to  teachers  in  cities  are  900 
and  700  lire  (1  lira  =  $0.19.3)  for  the  higher 
and  lower  grades  respectively,  and  Odd  and  500 
lire  in  the  country.  A  fund  to  provide  pen- 
sions for  teachers  in  their  old  age  has  been  estab- 
lished, to  which  teachers  contribute  two  and  one- 
half  percent  of  their  salaries,  and  from  which 
pensions  equal  to  their  salaries,  arc  paid  to  all 
who  have  reached  the  age  of  fifty-five,  and  have 
taught  for  thirty  years.  A  pension  equal  to  one- 
third  of  their  salaries  is  granted  to  those  who 
are  incapacitated  after  fifteen  years  of  service. 
achers  receive  pensions  as  long  as 
tnmarried.  A  private  school  may 
y  citizen  who  possesses  the  neces- 
and  a  certificate  of  good  morals. 
A  written  request  for  permission  to  open  such  a 
scl 1  must  be  presented  to  a  district  school  in- 
spector, who  may  refuse  it.  if  he  sees  tit.  Re 
has  also  the  power  to  visit  and  inspect  all  private 
schools,  and  make  such  changes  in  their  arrange- 
ment as  may  seem  necessary.  In  urgent  cases  he 
can  close  the  schools.  No  text-books  arc  pic- 
scribed  for  private  schools,  but  the  government 
can  prohibit  such  books  as  it  may  deem  offensive. 

Besides  the  public  and  private  day  scl Is  there 

arc  also  evening  schools  for  adults  of  both  sexes, 
and  Sundav  improvement  schools.  The  number 
of  public  day  schools,  in  L872,  was  34,213;  of 
which  18,243  were  for  boys  ;  12,732,  for  girls: 
and  3,238.  with  mixed  classes.  In  addition  to 
these  there  were  9,107  private  day  schools,  mak- 
ing the  total  number  of  primary  schools  43,380. 
These  schools  are  distributed  very  unequally  in 
the  northern  and  southern  portions  of  Italy. 
Thus,  in  the  northern  province  of  Novara,  there 
is  a  school  for  every  368  inhabitants,  and  in 
Turin  one  for  every  35."  inhabitants;  while  the 
southern  province  of  Basilicata  has  only  one 
school  for  1,304  inhabitants,  and  Calabria,  one 
for  1,400.  The  number  of  evening  schools  was, 
in  the  same  year.  9,809,  and  of  the  Sunday  im- 
provement schools,  4,743.  Adding  these  to  the 
43,380  schools  as  above,  we  have  about  58,000 
schools  affording  primary  instruction.  The  num- 
ber of  pupils  in  the  day  schools,  in  the  school 
year  1871—2,  was  1,745,467,  of  whom  1,553,389 
were  in  the  public  schools,  and  192,078  in  the 
private  schools.  This  number.  1,745,470.  re- 
presents the  largest  attendance  during  the  year, 
which  generally  occurs  in  the  beginning  of  win- 
ter ;  during  the  summer  months,  the  attendance 
fell  off  to  1.242,053.  The  number  of  pupils  in 
the  evening  schools  for  adults  was  375,947,  and 
in  the   Sunday   improvement   schools   153,585. 


ITALY  485 

rhe  number  of   teachers  in  the  primary  scl Is,  was  w;  and   the  average  number  of  pupils,  50 

ii  L872,was  23,479  males  and  20,028  females.  The  largest  iminber  (124)  of  pupilswasin  Milan. 

...7.     In    1873,  there  were  and  the  lowest  number  (33), in  Padua.     Besides 

public,  7,337  private  with  these  scl Is,  there  are  other  liigh  scl is  for 


42,1  L8 
44,430 

L.797,5 
girls). 

i';;  .':'■;: 

priests' 
827,361 

,  and  L,i 
.  girls). 

forelen 

inces,   129,665   lire;  >l ommunes,  22,067,13; 

lire;  and  other  bodies,  611,727  lire.  The  normal 
schools  are  governed  by  the  laws  of  June  24. 
I860,  and  Nov. 9.,  1861,  and  the  course  of  study 
comprises  three  years.  The  first  two- years  are 
devoted  to  a  preparation  for  teaching  in  the  Iowa 
grades;  and,  in  the  last  year,  the  teacher  is  pre- 
pared for  the  higher  grades.  The  course  of  Btudy 


(3)   The  schools  (c 
These  were  found 


the  direction  of  the  professor 
mal  schools  are  of  three  class. 

1 1 1  by  the  gover nt.  (2)  l.\ 

(3)  by  private  persons.  The 
schools,  in  L872  was  125,  of 
boys  and  25  for  girls   weresup 


ch  4S  (23  for 
-.1  by  the  state, 
the  provinces, 


ite  as  lay  corpora- 
ted  with  convents, 
of   tli  '  convents, 


i .  ■!! 


object  of  reeeiun-  a  In. I.  r..lne.-,ii,,n.  The  favi 
with  which  this  scho  ■!  was  received,  and  the  su 
cess  which  ii  met,  induced  other  cities  to  provi 
similar  schools.  The  course  of  study  comprisi 
ethics,  the  Italian  language  and  literature,  h; 
giene.  the  ii  1 1 nra I  seien,  ■,-.-.  -y, .-ra|.hv.  hi-' on .  tl 
French  language  and  literature,  arithmetic,  bool 
keeping,    paiinaii-hip.    -v .-.sties,   and    needle-     gym 

Work,    liesi.les   tll.-se  -111   lie-,   n  l|  iell  ate  ,  ,1 ,1  i-M  I,  ,.v       e.'.el. 

for  all  the  schools,  som  .have  also  introduced  the  the  I 

study  of  German  and  English    The  cour f  in-  teacl 

struction  comprises  three  years  in  all  the  -I Is  the  I 

except  in  Milan,  where  ii  i-  t ■  years   in  order  and 

that  more  attention    may    be    paid    to  natural  6  hoi 

sei  nee.  'I'h  •  school  in  Milan  was  for  a  time  free;  Lath 

but,  as   it    was  seen   in  other  cities  that  a  fee  histo 

required    without    detriment    to   the  class 

school. a  charge  of  50  lire  was  made,  which  is  secoi 

■  i       ■  :■•..-,:. -  .,  ,.-,.!■  ,,,     |J   v.   ,r-       . ...  Illation     natti; 


I  hour  in  the  thr  i  ■  lower,  an 
and  fifth  classes;  Greek,  .r>  1 
I   hours  in  the  fourth  and   til 


hours  in  all  three  classes  ; 
ie  in-'  and  I .  in  the  second 
6  hours   in    the    first    and 

in    the  third  cla.-s:   pl.ilos- 


study 


486 

terniined  by  the  ministry  of  education,  and 
adapted  by  the  faculty  to  each  individual  g; 
nasium  and  lyceum.  After  finishing  the  cot 
iu  the  gymnasium  or  in  the  lyceum,  the  pi 
must  pass  an  examination  for  graduation. 
provincial  gymnasia  and  lyccinns  may  c-oiid 
their  own  examination-  for  graduation,  if  t 
conform  in  their  course  of  studies  to  that  of 
nyal  schools  :    while  tl 


the  technical  schools  was  free. 
rticukrly  intended  to  benefit  the 


this  class 

schools  to  be  examined  for  gri 

nasia  are  governed  by  a  direct 

by  a  president.     'I'll ly  pn 

any  secondary  schools  an  I  '< 
w  hile  Milan  and  Venice  have 
there  were,  supported  by  the  s 
with  9,296  pupils;  and  80  ly 
pupils. 

Technical  instruction  in  Lombardy  was  pro 
vided  for  by  the    Austrian   law  of  1818 ;  but 


Ipils   to    the    royal 
luation.  The  gym- 

r.andthelvceums 


with  5,132 


it' 


were  toiiniieU.  each  conmsIiii"  ot  six  classes,  ot 
wind,  three  formed  the  lower,  and  three  the 
higher  course.  In  the  other  provinces  of  Italy, 
with  the  exception  of  Piedmont,  there  were  no 
such  schools  previous  to  the  unification.  There 
were,  however,  similar  schools  supported  by  the 
municipalities,  or  private  schools  governed  by 
different  laws.  There  are.  at  the  present  time, 
technical   schools   in   all  the   provinces  of    the 


kingdi 
in  oth 


the 


specti inly.    In  consequence  of  the  two  grades 

into  which  the  real  schools  of  Piedmont  and 
Lombardy  were  divided,  the  law  of  1859  pro- 
vided for  the  erection  of  two  schools  of  different 


grades,  each 
of  which  tie 

bwKfolSedlScS; 

and   the   lii, 

her  istiluto  tecnico.     By  a  decree  of 

November 

•Js.,    1861,  the  supervision   of   the 

technical    i 

istitutes    was    transferred    from    the 

ministry  ot 

education   to   that  of   agriculture. 

commerce!  ; 

ad  industry.    The  course  ot   instruc- 

tion  in  the  t 

■chnical  schools  comprises  the  Italian 

language 

■reiich.    drawing,    penmanship,    t lu- 

in liments 

ll    historv    and    geographv,    algebra. 

ge'""T',;, 

immen  ial  arithmetic,  and  book-keep- 

added  ie   1- 

71.  in  whi  h  only  such  subject.- were 

was  72.  with  1,594  stude 
the  communal  schools  din 
cut  from  that  of  the  state 


is  they  were 
oorer  classes; 

heir  children 
c  introduced 

.i  state  tech- 
fa  5,571  stu- 
ber  of  com- 
rtrict  accord- 

■  institutions 
bearers;  and 
pstems  differ- 
8  in  number. 
I„  1*74— 5. 
s.  with  6,498 


originally  reorganizations  of  the  technical  schools 
in  those  cities;  but.  in  consequence  of  their  use- 
fulness,  thev   rapidlv    increased.       According   to 

thecour-eot    -tlldN    of     L872,   tlleV   BH      &  -1 1 1 1  OS©  I 


technical  institute,  the  student  must  possess  a 
certificate  of  graduation  from  a  technical  school. 
or  show  that  he  is  proficient  in  the- studies  taught 
there,  and  must  pass  an  examination  in  various 
branches.  The  number  of  institutes,  in  l87'2.was 
7'.'.  of  which  39  belonged  to  the  state,  and  33  to 
the  provinces,  communes,  or  private  persons.  The 
number  of  teachers,  including  the  presidents  and 
the  professors,  was  881  :  and  the  number  of 
students  and  hearers.  4,562.  'J  he  number  of  in- 
stitutes, in  1875,  was  74.  In  order  to  promote 
secondary  instruction  and  to  accommodate  such 
families  as  have  no  schools  in  their  own  towns, 
the  government  supports  I'll  institutes  in  which 

Superior  Instruction. — There  are,  at  present, 
17  universities  supported  by  tin-  state,  of  which 
8  (in  Bologna,  Naples,  Padua,  Palermo,  Pavia, 
I'isa.  Rome,  and  Turin)  arc  first-class,  and  i) 
I  in  Gagliari,  Catania,  (ienoa.  Macerata,  Sassari, 
Sienna,  Messina.  Modena.and  Parma)  aresecond- 


intoa  university,  an  examination  is  necessary, be- 
sides a  certificate  of  graduation  from  a  lyceum. 
Ill  addition  to  the  regular  students,  there  are 
hearers,  who  do  not  require  an  examination,  but 


rofe, 


lie,  si 


'2,0110  ///v,  while  the  professor-  receive 

to  'i.iiiio  lire  each, according  to  the  cl: 
grade  they  teach.    For  several  years 


I  professors 
lorsand  191 

I '2  students  ; 
dents:  Mc.s 
Modena.  <;•'! 
.42  profess- 


JACOBS  JACOTOT 

and    205  students;   Sassari,  25  professors  I  Seminario  vaticano,  the  CoUegio 


and  6C  students ;  and 
L13  students;  for  Napli 
sors.it  is  difficult  to  esti 
dents,  as  any  native  of  t 
may  attend' the  univers 


ifessors  and  |  CWfe 

;is  L18  i 


Fern 
studi 


teacners  and  l  it 
Special  Instr 

schools  estal'lidl' 


if  lnelier  stuilies  [Js/iIhId  ill 
■alici  e  di  perfi  rio-namento)  in 
lomprises  three  sections, — the 
philological,  the  medico-surgic- 
ural  sciences.  It  was  founded 
1348,  and.  in  1874—5,  had  46 

•Hon. —  Besides  the   engi ts' 

:  in  e lection  with  the  uni- 

i,  Padua,  ami   Palermo,  there 

;  technical  hi-h  schools  in  1S75: 


lull  — 11 

dents, 

ively. 


n  in  Turin,  with  Is  teacher-  and  Lf 
in  I  .">  teachers  and  L28  students,  n 
( Ither  special  schools  are  as  follows 


n it'ii t  of  marble  in  Carrara;  25  schools  of  fine 
arts:  numerous  conservatories,  schools,  and  in- 
stitutes of  music  :  the  military  schools  in  Turin. 


istrial     Itnlien 

5  stu-  full  sti 
spect-  I  cation 
:  The  I  cial  wc 


hool,  with  tWO  .Il- 
ia See  Malfatti. 
.,,-,./.. i,to1.x.);  for 

■e     the   otlifial    plllili- 

leation.and  the  olli- 
Kome.  1873). 


JACOBS,  Christian  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  i 
i  eminent  Greek  scholar  of  Germany,  born  at  \ 
otha,  Oct.  6.,  1764;  died  March  30.,  1847.    He 


JACOTOT,  Joseph, 


emy  of  Science.  Ii 
wlnre  he  was  appoh 
is  the  author  of  sen 
readers,  which  are  si 
been  frequently  im 
number  of  other  l.u 
„ri,-rl,i»-l,   „    s     ■  . 


I  deck    authors   with    Latin   notes   (1826,  seq.).    on  F 
Jacobs  was  one  of  the  most  enthusiastic  admirers    vain. 


of  Creek  civilizatr 
es  -o    and  populai 

anion-'  the  educate 
d  irstanding  of,  ani 
Greek  antiquity. 
his  a  [dresses  and 


number  of  |  N( 


lar  difficulties,  by 
firsi    dawned    upo 


is  ami  smii- 


ident  Felton),  which  he  delivered  in  Munich  in  afterwards  expanded,  and  applied  successfully  to 
1808,  is  still  in  high  repute  as  a  brilliant  essay  all  studies.  The  central  idea  of  the  universal 
on  education  among  the  ancient  Creeks.  method,  as  it  has  been  called,  rests  upon  the  in- 


488  JACOTOT 

tiruate  correlation  of  all  knowledge.  In  other 
words,  a  single  fact,  known  thoroughly,  at  first 
by  careful  observation,  and.  afterwards,  by 
long  and  repeated  contemplation,  becomes  the 
spur,  if  not  the  actual  key.  to  the  acquisition  of 
Other  farts.  In  tins  way!  stalling  front  a  single 
truth  as  a  center,  the  mind  is  led  to  extend,  in 
many  ways,  the  circle  of  its  conquests,  till  the 
whole  domain  of  knowle  Ige  is  included.  It  will 
be  seen  at  once  that  this  system  requires  un- 
usually close  attention  and  concentration  of 
mind 'on  the  part  of  the  pupil— two  elements 
which  can  only  be  secured  by  a  very  great  de- 
gree of  enthusiasm  and  magnetic  influence  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher.  The  cause  of  the  won- 
derful success  achieved  by  it.  in  Jacotot's  prac- 
tice, was,  that  it  compels  the  pupil  to  exercise  his 
own  powers  thoroughly  in  other  words,  that  it 
is  in  entire  accordance  with  the  essential  nature 
of  all  education,  i.  ,:.  the  developing  of  in- 
nate power.  His  method  of  procedure  in  in- 
structing his  class  at  Louvain  in  the  French 
language  was  to  provide  each  pupil  with  a  copy 
of  Fenelon's  Telemaque,  having  the  French  on 
one  page  ami  the  Dutch  translation  on  the  other. 
With  no  aid  from  the  teacher,  the  pupil  was  re- 
quired to  puzzle  out  the  meaning  of  the  text, 


fects  of  the  Hamiltonian  method,  the  knowledge 
of  a  language  so  acquired  being  enough  for  prac- 
tical purposes,  but  not  sullicient  for  a  critical  or 
scholarly  acquaintance  with  it.  His  method  of 
teaching  reading  was  the  following:  The  teacher 
takes  a  book,  and  opening  it  at  any  place, 
points  out  the  first  word,  pronouncing  it,  and 
requiring  the  class  to  repeat  it.  The  next  word 
is  then  pronounced  with  the  first,  the  class  re- 
peating as  before;  then  the  third  word,  in  the 
same  manner,  and  so  on.  In  this  way,  when 
each  word  in  a  sentence  has.  by  frequent  repeti- 
tion, become  known  by  sight,  the  pupil  is  re- 
quired to  find  these  words  wherever  they  occur 
on  the  page.  The  words  of  the  sentence  at  i 
then  divided  up  into  syllables,  and  these  syllables 
are  searched  for  on  the  page  by  the  pupil, 
as  the  words  were  before.  The  same  is  done 
with  the  letters.  When  the  pupil  has  become 
perfectly  familiar  with  the  sentence,  he  is  taught 
to  write  byplacing  before  him  the  samesentence 


JAPAN 

spirit  of  the  careful  annunciator  of  a  new  truth. 
'I  hese  maxims  are :  "  All  human  beings  are 
equally  capable  of  learning;"  "Every  one  can 
teach  and,  moreover,  can  teach  that  which  he 
does  not  know  himself  ;"  and  "  All  is  in  all." 
Kach  of  these  maxims,  while  contradictory  on 
its  face,  contains  a  germ  of  truth,  which,  only 
by  the  aid  of  robust  imaginative  power  and  spe- 
cial pleading,  may  be  so  amplified  as  to  cover 
the  broad  field  comprehended  by  the  text.  In 
the  practical  application  of  Ins  system.  Jacotot's 
directions  are  :  Learn  some  one  thing  thorough- 
ly, and  refer  every  thing  l"  that  To  this  end, 
the  pupil  must  repeat,  reflect,  and  verify.  Jaco- 
tot's  chief  educational  works  are  Enseignement 
universel:  Langue  materneUe  (Louvain,  1822)  ; 
Musique,  dessin  et  peinture  (1824)  ;  Mafli4ma- 
tiques  (1828);  and  various  articles  in  the  Journal 


itettectuelle,  a  periodical  es- 
f  for  the  advocacy  of  his 
( ii  hk.  Essays  on  Educa- 


attention  is  then  directed  to  each  word 

ly.that  he  may  note  in  just  what  r. 
copy  differs  from  the  original,  and  < 
The  teacher  corrects  nothing  himsel 
his  questions  calls  special  attention  to 
needing  correction,  and  requires  the 
change  it.     In  this  waj    by  constant 


great  success  achieved    by   Jacotot,  led   to  Ins 
enunciation  of   several    ma\im>  whieh    took   the 

,],,,,„■    of    Marlins    paradox,-,    reflecting    rather 
the  exultation  of  an  enthusiastic  nature  over  a 

meat    discovery,  than   the  calm,  dispa    ate 


de  I'emancii 

tablished  le 
peculiar  vie1 
tinned  Reformers  (Cincinnati,  L874). 

JAPAN.  The  empire  of  Japan  I  Dai  Nikon 
Kohu,  or  Dai  Nippon  ;  Chinese,  Jipun,  mean- 
ing Sun-root)  c prises  the  four  large  islands- 

Hondo  (main  island).  Kiushiu,  Hiikoku.  and 
Ye/o.tl,o  I  in  Kin  and  Kwnle  (Ckishima)  groups, 
and  nearly  4,000  small  islands,  many  of  which 
are  bu1  reefs.  The  entire  area  is  145,500  sq.  m.; 
the  population,  U  government  census  of  1874, 
was  reported  a-  '■'■'  31  0,675,  of  whom  nearly  one- 
half  were  of  the  agricultural  class,  167,000  Liu 
K  iuans,  and  about  20,000  Ainos  ill  Yezo  and  the 
Kuriles.  The  indigenous,  also  the  state  or  offi- 
cial, religion  is  Shinto  (way  or  doctrine  of  the 
gods,  i.  e.,  theology).  The  census  of  1814  re- 
i  oit.,1  L28.123  shrines  and  76,119  officials.  Shinto 
is  now  beine  eieativ  modernized  and  modified 
by  contad  with  the  ideas  oi  I  hristendom.  Bud- 
dhism was  introduced  iioin  Cm,  a.  m  552  A.  D. 
After  nine  centuries  ol  pro]  _  on  it  became 
the  popular  religion,  whit  h  it  still  is.  There  are 
nine  great,  and  over  twenty  subordinate  sects. 
The  census  of  1872  reported  98,914  temples  and 
monasteries.  7.~i.'J'-'.">  priests  .and  monks,  and  9,621 
nuns:  in  till  211>4li  rr/ii/iru.r  of  both  sexes,  in- 
cluding students  and  families  of  bonzes.  Christi- 
auit\  nia\  also  be  considered  one  of  the  relig- 
ions of  Japan.  There  are  now  (1876)  ten  native 
churches, with  over  1,000  members,  a  theological 
seminary,  day  and  Sunday  schools  for  both  sexes, 
and  an  incipient  Christian  literature. 

Japan  was  anciently  inhabited,  in  the  southern 
part,  by  a  mixed  race  sprung  from  the  waifs. 
brought  by  the  Kuro  Shiwo  from  southern 
Asia'  and  the  -Malay  Archipelago.  The  Ainos. 
occupied  the  central  and  northern  portions. 
Neither  of  these  races  ewer  possessed  any  writing 
or  records,  so  far  as  is  known.  In  660  B.  C,  a 
conquering  race  landed  in  south-eastern  Kiushiu. 
and  advancing  northward,  subdued  the  natives, 
and  fixed  their  capital  near  Kioto,  in  central 
Japan.  In  the  seventh  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  in  a  great  battle  near  Morioka  — the  Hast- 
ings of  Japan  -  the  Ainoswere  entirely  defeated. 
The  remnant  fled  across  the  straits..!  T.-uearu. 


JAPAN 


•Is:* 


and  have  remained  in  ,'i  state  of  pure  savagery.  I  besides  the anciehl  seatsin  Kiotoand  Nara.  The 
By  the  fusion  of  the  aboriginal  and  conquering    missionary  tours  and  labors  of  Shinran  and  Ni- 

races,  with  tl xasional   addition   of    Malay,    chiren,  in  the  north  and  east  of  Japan,  during  this 

Corean,  and    Chinese   bl I,  the  modern  com-    time  tended  powerfully  to  spread  Buddhism,  and 

posite  Japanese  race  has  been  produced.  I  with  it  letters  and  writing,  and  t..  create  priests 

The  national  history   i-  mainlj  thatofeduca-    and  monastic  schools.  Tin-  revival  oi  Buddhistic 


prayers,  ani 


ll.-.i 


\-liil-a._ 


the  Ja' 
Chin.' 


fucian  ethics.  In  552 
troduced  books,  the  wr 
sics,andthe  Buddhist 
This  is  the  greatest  a 
anese  history.  The  nob 
read  and  write ;  and 
tories,  ami  literature  In 
official  propagation  of  i 
erection  of  temples,  i 
and  tl..'  location  of  the 


persecutor  of  the  I 
was  in  every  wax 
Jesuits  then  in  Jap 
era  (.f  Hideyoshi  (T 
ncntlv  favorable  to 
siderable  stimulus  I 


master 

creating  a  1 

a  lai'iH 

reading  clas 

tory  of 

Japanese  ed 

Buddh 

Mil.      'I'll,     in, 

the   ,., 

scholar 

in   Pali,  Sai 

vernac 

l.ir.   and  'I,, 

syllaba 

■v.  or  alphali, 

acters. 

abbreviated  If 

has  t\\ 

,   forms:   the 

hand,  i 

n  1  the  squat 

laid  th 

•  foundation 

Buddh 

am,  by  propo 

in  win, 

but  va 

io^m^rife* 

After 

sol,.,.  Sug  iwa 

A.  I>.. 

letter  known 

scholar 

did  much  fo 

educat 

hi.  Cntilthe 

ruled  s 

premefrom  1 

were  fi 

in, ms  educati 

ters. 

n  1192,  Vori 

Shogw 

(the  officer 

lOUS  name  of  all 
ibo  (771—835),  a 
inese,  and  his  own 
■  of   the  Japanese 

■oiisists  of  17  char- 
es,' ideographs.  It 
script  or   running 


ers,  from  1853  to  L868),  and  fixed  the  mi 
capital  at  Kamakura  (about  35  miles  froi 
modern  Tokio).  I  [encef orward, the  goven 
of  Japan  was  virtually  a  duarchy,  havin, 
rulers,  two  capitals.and  two  centers  of  autl 
Eastern  Japan  now  became  more  and  mon 
izei.1,  and  education  spread  ;i | >.i < -< ■.  In  e-,, 
only  the  bonzes  and  court  nobles  in  Kioto 
stunted  the  learned  class,  the  sol, lid's  and 
ers  being  totally  illiterate  The  bonzes 
the  scribes  in  camp,  palace,  and  town,  anda 
the  only  teachers  down  to  the  fokugawa  | 
(1604—1868).  Duringthe  Hojo  rule  il: 
13331  learning  flourished.  A  fine  liluan 
school  existed   at     Kana/.awa.   near    Kama 


1,10101111,1     |«,l 

a  half,  mark 
as  the  only 
has  been   get 

nearly  the  en 
Or  fools  of  ai 
reckoning  on 

culture. 'Idle  v 


diile    the    Var 


ill,-  nation, 
tudy  of  En- 
the  tastes  of 


■100 


JAPAN 


JEFFERSON    COLLEGE 


the  samurai,  or  educated  armed  classes,  inclined 
them  to  favor  modern  science  to  the  neglect  of 
the  Chinese.  In  1868,  a  revolutionary  storm,  the 
elements  of  which  had  long  been  gathering,  broke 
at  the  battle  of  Fushmii,  when  the  duarchy,  and 
the  shogunate  were  overthrown,  and  the  toku- 
gaica  were  reduced  to  their  proper  place  as  vas- 
sals of  the  mikado,  who  was  restored  to  supreme 
power,  as  before  AD.  I  L92.  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment also  was  re ved  to  Yedo  (bay-door), which 

was  thereafter  called  Tokio  (eastern  capital). 
Enterprises  were  now  organized  on  a  national 
scale,  among  them  the  present  system  of  edu- 
cation, the  scheme  of  which  \v;is  promulgated  in 
1872.  According  to  this,  the  empire  is  divi  led 
into  eight  educational  divisions,  in  each  of  which 
there  is  a  university  or  dai  gakko,  with  thirty- 
two  middle  schools,  colleges  or  gymnasia;  besides 
which  there  are  two  hundred  and  ten  grammar 
schools, or  academies,  in  the  whole  empire.  In  all 

these  scl Is,  foreign  languages  and  the  sciences 

are  to  I.e  taught.  The  vernacular  schools  will 
number  about  54,000,  or  about  one  for  every  six 
hundred  of  the  population.  According  to  the 
latest  statisties.  there  are  30,1 public  schools  in 


andsenseof  the  most  common  Chinese  characters. 
They  also  learn  abacus  reckoning,  the  use  of  the 
Arabic  numerals,  and  our  system  of  arith- 
metic. A  large  Dumber  of  American  and  cither 
elementary  text  books  have  been  translated,  and 
the  common-places  of  physical  science  are  now 
taught  to  Japanese  youth.  The  vernacular  is 
also  studied  by  the  help  of  standard  reading- 
books,  grammar  (a  new  thing),  declamation,  ami 
the  committing  to  memory  of  choice  passages 
from  the  Japanese  classics.  The  Chinese  ethics 
still  holds  its  place:   but  the  moral  ideas,  sen- 


1  one  being  in  Tokio,  with 
training  from  every  prov- 
Both   sexes   enjoy   equal 


pri 


[Mom  Bu  Sho)  is  one  of  the  ten 
of  the  imperial  government     The  pr 

(lST(i)  is  Fujimaro  Tanaka.  tin  lore 
being  Dr.  David  Murray,  formerly  i 
Collegi    New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  The  u 


ingare  continued.  In  the  middle  schools,  the 
studies  are  wholly  in  English,  or  some  other 
elected  foreign  language,  the  text-books  being 
those  used  in  America  or  Europe,  while  the  course 
of  studies  common  to  .-in  American  high  school 
or  academy  is  gone  through  with.  This  period 
covers  four  years.  In  the  dai  gakko,  or  univer- 
sity, the  full' standard  of  which  it  is  expected  to 
teach  in  the  future,  the  students  are  actually  car- 
ried through  the  curriculum  of  the  average  Amer- 
ica,, college,  excepting  in  latin  ami  Greek,  the 
place  of  these  being  tilled  by  f  oglishand  Chinese. 
At  present,  there  is  but  one  university  in  Japan 
the  KaiSei  Gakko,  in  Tokio,  which  has  a  corps  of 
about  twenty  American  and  English  instructors. 
and 350  students, while  these! 1  of  foreign  lan- 
guages of  Tokio  has  double  this  number  of  pu- 
pils, all  under  foreign  instructors.  Nearly  two 
hundred  foreigners  are  employed  in  the  edu- 
cational service  of  Japan.  Both  students  and 
native    teachers,    as   a    rule,   wear   the   foreign 


tTOl    ot     the    cell 

vernacular  scho 
ken  authorities. 
central  govern] 
in  each  ken,  an 
the  nobles,  the 
Each  of  the  72 
while  examine 
sent  out  from  ' 
keeping  up  am 
cation.  In  ad 
Mom  Bu  Sho. 
incut  has  its  s] 
cine.  law.  and  i 

cultur  J,  and  oi 


elementary  instruction,  the  Japanese  have  suc- 
cessfully introduced  the  kindergarten  system 
and  object  teaching.  The  general  plan  and  dis- 
cipline of  American  schools  prevail;  and  such 
appliances  as  tables  and  chairs,  blackboards  and 
chalk,  slates  and  pencils,  phonetic  and  ideo- 
graphic charts,  colored  representations  and  solid 

models    Of     objects,  are    USed  all    these     being 

new  ideas  in  Japanese  pedagogics.  The  children 
kana  syllabary,  and  are   then    taught    the  sound  | 


method  of  school  order,  discipline,  equipment, 
and  architecture  approaches  more  closely  to  for- 
eign models,  year  by  year.  Private  schools  are 
also  very  numerous,  and  exert  a  healthful  spirit 

of  rivalry  with   the   government    establish nts. 

The  newspaper  press,  publishers  of  books,  and 
government  issues  of  tracts  of  information  on 
various  subjects,  also  tend  powerfully  to  elevate 
the  intellectual  status  of  the  people.  There 
are  no  educational  journals  in  Japan,  but  the 
minister  of  public  instruction  issues  a  yearly  re- 
port. -SeeGRiFFis.  The  Mikado's  Empire  (New 
York.  L8761  ;  Education  in  Japan, No.  2  of  the 
Circulars  of  Information  of  the  O.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education  I  Washington.  1st:,):  An  Outline 
History  of  Japanese  Education,  prepared  by 
the  Japanese  Dept.  of  Education  (N.  \ ..  L876). 
JEFFERSON  COLLEGE,  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic institution  at  St.  .lames.  La.,  under  the 
management  of  the  Marist  fathers,  was  char- 
tered in  1861,  and  organized  in  1864.  It  has 
good  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus,  and 
a  library  of  5,000  volumes.  It  has  a  collegiate 
course  of  6  years,  including  preparatory  studies; 
a  commercial  course;  and  a  preparatory,  or 
primary,  course.  The  regular  charge  for  board, 
tuition,  etc.,  is  $300  a  year.    German,  Spanish, 


\ung. 


and   music   are   extras.     In    lo75 — 6, 


JKliSKY    CITY 


491 


there  wi  re  12  instructors  and  65  students.  The 
Very  Rev.  J.  B.  Bigot,  S.  M..  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

JERSEY  CITY,   one  of  the  chief  cities  in 
the  state  of    New  Jersey,  embraces  part  of  the 


of  filling  the  office  has  devolved  upon  the  board 
•  ■I  educal and  the  term  of  office  has  been  ex- 
tended to  three  years. 

Scliool  System.     The  school  law  under  which 
the  schools  are  now   mar  ged,  was  enacted  in 


28.,  L820,ooi 

taming  ai 

inhabitants. 

It  has  si 

annexation  c 

f  other  m 

Bergen;    bo 

that   its   i 

from  the   II. 

dson  rive 

sack  river,  a 

listance  i 

from  north 

o  south, s 

according   tt 

the   sta 

116,883;   an 

1  the  nun 

age,  thai  is, 

letween  5 

Education 

il   Histor 

school   of  ai 

v  kind    th 

Jersey    was 

ocated  o 

house   now  known  as 

Square.     It 

s  rei k. 

of  Bergen,  .1 

ited  Sepl 

by  Sir   Phil 

i   Cartan 

province  of 

New   Jei 

thereof,  stipi 

lated,  -tl. 

0G8.  I  public  works, 

the   first    powered  to  e: 

in    \.  u     and  maintain 


en  exercise  their  judgment    in   selecting  a   public 

de    s.l I  in  any  part  of  the  city  for  the  education 

hi-  of  their   children.     There   are   four   grades   of 

•  !      s.l Is;    primary,  grammar,  high,  and  normal 

or    Bel Is.  'I  here  are  20  primary  si I-:   I  I  gram- 

i     i  ••  I Is;   1  high  scl hand  I  normal  scl 1 

on  held    .'ii    Hatnrdav-  .      The   I  I  grammar  scl„„,|s 


and  strongi 

pel  -"ii-  "I    I 


body  and  spirit,  when  called  on  to  pay  a 
tax  The  Dutch  may  thus  claim  equal 
with  the  Puritans  of  New  England  for  t 
provision  for  the  education  of  their  chile 


,hn\ 


\\,-t 


the  state 
.  $10,738. 
teandas- 


ai ii I  I.".  >.  m.Hii'V  ,  u.'.'-iai'hy.  writ  in-,  and  dr. 
i  1 1  vr  -  Objert-teacliiiigispivsrrilicil  for  each  gra 
The  course   in    t In-   "laminar   sclmols  is  divii 


lie  yet    (1876)    retains— From    the   organization  1'nited' States]   physical  evugrapliy.  al-.'lna.  nat- 

of  the  first   board  of  education  to  1*71.     ape-  ural    philosophy,   and  elementary    science,     the 

riod  of   nineteen  years,  the  olliee  of  superintend-  latter  in  each  grade.     The  course   in   the   high 

ent  was  filled  annually  by  vote  of  the  people  at     scl 1  is  divided  into  an    Knglish  and  a  classical 

ihe  charter  elections;  since  that  time,  the  duty  course,  each  extending  over  three  years. 


492  JES1 

School  Statistics. — The  following  items  arc 
reported  for  the  year  bs7"> : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 18,737 

Average  register  number 10.678 

Average  attendance 9.583 

Number  of  teachers,  males. 16 

"        "         females .247 

Total '        263 

Number  of  pupils  per  teacher,  primary  schools         56 
•  ■      "        "  "        grammar      "  36 

Kxpi-nditures: 

Salaries $210,361.53 

Rents 2,2110. IK) 

Books  and  stationery 13,l;i:;.61 

Repairs  and  furniture 10,613.64 

Fuel  and  incid.  expenses.     26,001.59 

Total  .  . . .    _  $262,310.37 

Besides  the  public  schools,  there  are  but  few 
others  of  any  great  importance,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  denominational  schools  supported  by 
the  Roman  Catholics.  These  schools  are  largely 
attended. 

JESUITS,  or  the  Society  of  Jesus,  a 
celebrated  relieious  order  of  the  I  'a.tholic  Church. 
It  was  founded  by  [gnatiua  Loyola  in  the  begin- 


XIV 


mil";  of  tin 
rapidity  o\ 
tained  an  i 
religious  o 
societies  of 
bv  Pope  CI 

Pope  Pius  VII,  and  ha. 
brunt  of  battle  in  the  se 
been  raging  between  the 
many  of  the  present  st 
Catholic  and  Protestant. 
as  a  special  mission  of  th 
progress  of  the  Reforms 
the  church  as  much  of  the 
In  order  to  fulfill  this  m 
to  obtain  control  of  the 
ing    i  meration.     Their  i 

|iat l/ed.  w  cll.lt  t  .11.  b    1 

met   with  complete  sill s 

ions  which  have  been  ex] 
the  schools  of  the  Jesuits 
to  the  sympathy  or  dislil 


All  the  educational  institutions  of  the  .Jesuits- 
are  governed  in  ace.  in  lance  with  the  official 
course  of  instruction  entitled  ratio  elinslUvtio 
studiorum  societatis  Jesu,  and  well  known  in 
history  under  the  shorter  name  rutin  studiorum. 
It  was  drawn  up  under  the  direction  of  the 
fifth  general  of  the  order,  Aequaviva,  who,  im- 
mediately after  his  election,  in  1581,  was  com- 
missioned by  the  4th  ( Seneral  *  iongregation  to 
appoint  for  this  purpose  a  committee  of  six 
fathers.  In  15s4.  the  committee  in  which  Spain. 
Portugal,  France.  Austria,  Germany,  and  Home 
were  represented,  were  presented  to  the  Pope. 
Their  work  was  revised  by  another  committee 
of  twelve  members,  subsequently  submitted  for 
revision  and  approbation  to  the  tth  and  6th 
General  Congregations  and  to  the  Pope,  and 
finally  printed  in  L599,  in  the   printing  office  of 


the  C 

,11,;  ti, 

iii  Rornanu 

a.     A  new  cditio 

1,  with 

addit 

ons   s 

mctioned  b 

■  the  7th  General  Con- 

L'i'ega 

ion, 

,p,  cared    in 

Rome  in  1616. 

After 

the  r 

■!■•■    Ill 

older,    the    20th  ( 

820,  and  the  '-'1 

eneral 

t.lleld 

i  revision  of  the 

ot'stl 

dies; 

and  the  eei 

era!  of  the  order. 

Father 

Root 

ian,  ! 

ppointed,  tl 

erefore.  in   1830 

a  com- 

niltti 

e  of  t 

presenting  the  fh 

e  prov- 

mees 

of    tl 

e  order, — Ii 

dv.  Sicily,   Franc 

!,    (  .'cl- 

many 

and  S]  ain.  In  18J 

1,  the  revised  cours 

atter 

havii 
and 
..f  tli 

j  rcci. 

■.  The  chang 

n.ilatiiiii  of  the 
sinade  in  the  old 

imbers 
course 

llllllll 


Instia 


Jesuits,  through  their  schools,  have  exerl 
the  history  of  many  countries  is  adm 
all.  In  order  to  appreciate  justly  the  edi 
principl  is  of  the  Jesuits,  it  mas  be  well  I 
first,  the  plan  accord  in. j;  to  which  the  me 
the  order  were,  and  still  are.  traine  1  themselves 
as  teachers.  The  candidates  for  the  priesthood 
are,  during  the  two  first  years,  novitii  schokts- 
tiri;  then,  by  binding  themselves  to  the  order  by 
means  of  simple  vows,  they  become  scholastici 
approbati.  Devoting  themselves  Poi  >  ralyeara 
to  classical  and  philosophical  studies,  thej  are,  for 

s time,  i ■  i 1 1 ] > I ' . v i ■  1 1  a- teachers  ami  educators 

in  the  colleges,  until  they  begin   the  study  of 
theology,  which  lasts  for  four  years      As  all  the 

members  were  thus  trai 1  as  practical  teachers, 

the  order  was,  soon  after  its  foundation  enabled 
wherever  a  favorable  opportunity  offered,  to  call 

into  existence  an  astonishing  number  of  literary 
institutions. 


\W. 


sology  and  philosophy  is  not  to  be 
ie  same  extent  as  before,  on  Thomas 
id  Aristotle;  and.  in  mathematics  and 
1  sciences,  proper  attention  is  to  be 
he   recent    progress    made   in  those 

In  the  lower  classes  of  their  institu- 
(  revisions  are  made  for  learning  mod- 
e's, both  the  vernacular  and  foreign, 
study  of  history.  The  course  of  studies 
into  twenty  sections,  and  embraces 
ie  provincial,  the  rector,  the  prefects 

the  professors,  the  scholastics,  and 
is,  'I  he  general  of  this  order  is  the 
■ad  of  all  its  schools  and  educational 
s;  he  superintends  till  of  them,  and  he 
orizes  the  establishment  of  new  ones, 
the  pies. -in  century,  the  government 

transferred  to  the  Society  of  Jesus 
anasia  and  the  theological  faculty  of 

stale  universities  (Innspruck),  the 
he  order,  Father  Beckx,  explicitly  in- 
the  superior-  of  the  order  must  be  at 

"to  appoint   members  of   the  order. 


lessors,  and  to  removi 
in  their  steai  I.  as  he   n 

of  Cod.''     The  head  0 


id  the  first  section  oi  the 
nends  to  him  the  care  of 
tment  of  competent  pre- 

lessors,  and  the  enforce- 


ment  of  a  strict  observance  of  the  entire  course 
of  studies.  At  the  head  of  single  houses  oi  col- 
leges, is  the  "rector,"  who  does  not  give  instruc- 


riTS  493 

the  Greek  language  begins  simultaneously  with 
the  I-atin.  though  much  less  time  and  attention 
arc  given  to  it.— Instruction  in  the  vernacular 
language  was  incorporated  with  the  course  of  in- 
struction by  order  of  the  14th  <  Jeneral  <  'ongrega- 


the  first  class  must,  as  a  rule,  have  20  teachers 
or  ■•regents";  a  college  of  the  second  class,  30;  a 
college  of  the  third  class, or  a  university,  at  least 
70.  Small  institutions  which  have  not  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  teachers  must  be  dissolved. 
With  the  colleges,  there  are  generally  connected 
convictoria  alumnorum  (boarding-houses),  in 
which  students  of  the  college  receive  lodging. 
boarding,  and  strict  superintendence  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  order,  or  seminaries,  for  educat- 
ing young  candidates  for  the  priesthood  or 
knights' academies,  for  the  exclusive  education 
of  the  sons  of  nobles.  Pay  scholars  who  do  not 
live  in  any  of    the   institutions,  have  to  promise 

obediei to  the  rector  and   the  rules,  ami  they 

are.  from  time  to  time,  visited  by  the  prefect  of 
studies  in  their  houses. 

The  schools  of  the  Jesuits  are  divided  into 


der  that  of  a  /iruf'r  ius  studi 
The  smaller  colleges  have  old; 
and.  therefore,  only  one  prefi 
ft  riora  embrace  five  classes 
called  "the  rudiment":  (5 
classis  grammatical,  also 
(3)  Tertia,  or  suprema  da 
called-svntax";  i4i  o.w/\'o 
few,  (5)  Quinta  rhetori,  i 
designated  as  the  three  gi 
higher  as  the  two  humanity  class 
schools,  two  classes  are  sometimes  united  into 
one  ;  in  larger  schools,  parallel  classes  are  formed. 
Considerable  prominence  is  given,  in  all  the  clas- 
ses, to  the  study  of  the  Latin  language.  As 
much  as  practicable,  Latin  is  made  the  medium 
of  instruction  :  and  it  is  intended  to  give  to  the 
pupils  such  a  knowledge  of  the  language  as  will 
enable  them  to  speak  and  write  it.  Father  Beckx, 
the  general  of  the  order,  says  on  this  subject,  in 
his  correspondence  with  the  Austrian  minister  of 
public  instruction  :  -  Because  the  Latin  language 

is  the  language  of  the  church,  and  the  lan-ua-.'  ot 

Christian  tradition,  and  1 ause  in  this  language 

the  literary  treasures  of  all  times  and  nations 
have  been  deposited,  and  because  it  has  been  for 
centuries  developed  beyond  any  other  language. 
as  the  medium  of  faith  and  of  science,  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus  has  a  special  predilection  for  this  lan- 
guage, and  uses  it  as  medium  of  instruction  in 

its  sc| Is."      It  is  expressly  stated  that  it  is  not 

intended  to  imbue  the  minds  of  the  pupils  with 
the  spirit  of  classic  antiquity,  and  most  of  the 
Latin  authors  used  in  the  schools  of  the  Jesuits 
are  read  in  expurgated  editions. — The  study  of 


;•«. 

The 
i    In 

studia  in- 

>!,„.,,    als, 

salle. 

JL 

•  kumani- 

ses.     h 


bv  religious  exercises  than  liv  theoretical  instruc- 
tion.—In  the  two  higher  classes  oratorical  exer- 
cises and  exercises  m  composition  n ive  spe- 
cial attention.  The  other  .subjects  of  instruction 
were  originally  comprised  under  the  collective 
name  of  rrntlitin,  and  it  was  recommended  to 
use  specially  the  hours  of  recreation,  and  the 
weekly  holiday  for  the  purpose  of  acquainting  the 
pupils  with  the  elementary  and  most  interesting 
parts  of  tfie  "studies.  The  studia  superiora 
comprise  a  two  years'  course  of  philosoph)  and 


The 


is  naseii  on  tiie  inniianieiitai  principle  inai  con- 
cation  and  instruction  should  be  most  intimately 
connected,  and  that  the  education  of  the  pupils 
is  by  far  the  most  important  aim  of  a  school. 
They  favor  the   class  teaching  system:  for  not 

nliK     i|e,  -the     ehlss     tcailicl'     teach     allol'lllOStof 

the' subjects  of  instruction  in  his  class,  but  he 
takes  his  pupils  through  several  or  all  of  the 
classes.  They  deem  it  an  important  condition 
of  the  success  ot  the  teacher  that  he  should  thor- 
oughly know  the  character  of  each  pupil:  and 
this,  they  contend,  is  only  possible  in  the  class- 
teaching  system.  They  believe  that  great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  crowd  the  pupils,  either 
in  the  number  of  subjects  or  the  amount  of  time 
given  to  study:  and  they  object  to  the  courses 
of  instruction  adopted  in  most  modern  colleges 
and  gymnasia,  as  attempting  too  much.  They 
prefer  short  lessons,  and  are  specially  anxious 
to  make  learning  and  reciting  as  attractive  to 
the  pupils  as  possible.  Great  stress  is  laid  on 
thorough  memorizing,  and  on  frequent  reviews 
and  disputations,     the  last   day  of  every  week 


half-year  are 
work  acconi 

Chief    llieelill 


pal 


until  ami  ot  every 
to  a  rc\  iew  of  the 
is  period.  As  the 
ey  encourage  emu- 


ties,  which  are  taken  from  the  Greek  and  Roman 
republics  l  pretors,  censors,  d>  curious,  etc.).  It  is 
made  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  control  his  pupils 
by  means  of  praise  and  encouragement  rather 
than  by  punishment.  Corporal  punishment  is 
to  be  employed  only  in  extreme  cases,  and  not 
by  any  member  of  the  order,  but  by  a  "  cor- 
rector "  appointed  for  the  purpose. 

The  influence  of  the  Jesuits  upon  education 
in  Catholic  countries  has  been  very  great.    Each 


494  JESUITS 

one  of  these  countries,  at  one  tii >r  other,  has 

had  Hniiri.-liiii'j colleges  "t  the  Jesuits,  in  which, 
in  particular,  a  large  number  oi  the  children 
of  the  nobility  and  of  r  prominenl  persons 


JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY 

mi- of   tin-  exelamatiuii   (if    A^csihius  cuiiivriiiii^ 
Pharnabazus  :  '  Since  thou  art  so  noble,  1  would 


activity  was  g 
from  the  fad 
'.'I  professed 
seminaries,     i 


the  rising  generation,  by  the 
colleges.  Thus,  the  Portuguei 
1613,  in  Japan  two  coll  gi  s;  ani 
I tii-i-i  . -Mlili-linl  a  rtj.nt.it !■  >n  . 
scholars.  Their  educational  li 
limited  to  schools  of  a  high 
the  most  celebrated  of  their  m 
„!.  v.i.all  the  youth  were,  fc 
der  the  sole  educational  conti 
Though  founded  for  combatii 
they  gained,  as  teachers,  tin 
many  of  the  Protestant  princes 
the  Great,  of  Prussia,  perm 
the  abolition  of  their  order, 
organized  society,  under  the 
ill'  the  nival  si'lnml  institute." 


„■  order  had  only 

former 

colleges  and    176 

classes. 

inaries   in    pagan 

the  -.in 

i-    to    obtain,  as 

highest 

the  education  of 

and  ed 

r.Mal'li.-lnni'iit    nf 

favorei 

,us;  but  in.  nil,'  will  say  that  .Imii 
isnl  (iii  ;i  tree  snaring  (if  the  mnnl. 
dety  proceeded  from  the  depth  and 
of  a  simple  mind.    They  are  snf- 


culated, 
v  were 


man  Empire,  and  Russia  ;  ai 
1876,  threatened  with  suppres 
1  fuugary.  rhey  li  ive  also  be 
Mexico,  the  United  States  of 
number  of  other  South  Lmi  i  ii 
howei  er  still  have  a  aumber  .a  i 
the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  Gi 
tin    A.ustro  Hungarian  Monarcl 


of  that    province.     They  conti 

i inanity   after  tin-  abolitioi 

and  l'i'i'W  i-apiillv  after  its  rest. 
in  1876,  were  as  follows 
South  Boston,  and  College  oi 
Worcester,  Mass.:  Collegi  oi  S 
New  York;  St.  John  -  <  lollege, 
ham)  :  St.  Joseph's,  Philadel] 
Frederick,  M.I  :  Loyola,  Kali 
Washington,  l>.  O;  Georgetov 
Bill,  near  Mobile,  Ala.;  St 
St.  Louis   Mo.;  College  of  the 


n. ilv 


I,  Jl  Ge- 
ietz,  His- 
in  Old 
A  special 
■  Sot  ietat 
b.,  Lands- 
See  also 


<;■  rman  7i  at  h  rs  and  i  a      ■         a  condensed 

translation  fr EUt  mers  GeschicJiU  der  Pdda- 

gogik);  and   Weicker,   Das  Schulwesen  der  Je- 
suiten  nach  den  Quellen  dargesteUt. 

JOHNS   HOPKINS    UNIVERSITY,    at 

Balti re,    Mil.,   was   founded    in    L874.     It  is 

named   in   hi r  of  the  late  Johns   Hopkins  of 

Baltimore,  who  bequeathed  a  fund  of  $3,1  0  Minn 
for  it-  endowment  and  a  beautiful  estate  of  330 


the 


founi 
choo 


ill.-. I. 


ed  Oct.  3.,  1876.     The  plan  includes  a  med- 
department  and    a   law    department.     The 

•rsitv  <•.  .ii  1 1  ii  ii  .l.i  t.  -  ■•  a  eoinliinatiini  (if  lect- 
iveimtions.   lal...iat..rv    practice,  fi.'l.l  w..rk. 


do  not  exisl  When  I  look  at  the  diligei 
the  activity  uf  the  .lesnits,  Imih  in  im 
knowledge  and  in  moulding  the  heart.  I 


other,  freedom  of  courses  to  be  selected  by  the 
Btudents,"  while  it  is  " intended  that  the  pupils 
shall  have  been  matured  by  the  long   prepar- 


atory  discipline  of  superior  teachers,  and  by  |  rule  to  particular  objects  or  facts.  Thus,  in  uat- 
the  systematic,  laborious,  and  persistent  pursuit  ural  history,  after  the  pupil  lias  learned  the 
of  fundamental    knowledge."     Ten    fellowships,     cliaraetei  ishes  ..I >11ffl,  and  species  by  aminute 


selves  as  applicants,  twenty  fell. 

wsh 

ps  were  be- 

whether  the 

»rrespondeni 

e    i  rists    or     not.       As 

JUDGMENT,    Training 

of. 

leges. 

This     ,le- 

regards  cone 

u'm  °Sdf ! 

re,  ami   is  constantly 

partinent  of  intellectual  culture 
attention,    if  the   whole   educal 

adapted  to  the  iiidmdii.il   both 
of  maturity)  and  peculiarities 

oiiah    l... 

or  le»  by  r\ 

;;;,;;;np;;;'l;;;!;;;;:;;;; 

endow  in,  111.     \\  h.r,.  ihis  is  not 

the 

ase,  an  effi- 

formed  dur 

tg  the  \«  no. 

of   earlj    education. 

eient  corrective  may  be  applied 
exercise  the  pupil's  menial  faci 

In'- 

in  various 

Habits  of  at 

ention,  can  fi 

Lng^faprofouTd 

wars  and   in   connection  with 
The  departure  must  be  taken  fr 
the  pupils  experience;  he  mm 
an  accurate  observation  oi   pari 
details:  (2)  to  then-  collation, a 

eul.i 

us  subjects. 

and  earnest 

■t  of  study  or 

•'":lrl  'will  : 

vm  qualify  anj  person 

led  (1)  to 

liiniu.iiy  to 

from  prejud 

ich  habits  will  be  free 
•adilv   learn   to  elimi- 

generalization;   and    (3)    to   tli 
under  appropriate  heads.     Wh 
ciples  or  rules  have  been  establisl 

','!r 

lassification 
mend  prin- 

I   the    pupils 

nateall  pass 

and.   hence, 

its   judgmen 
is  acquired, 

ntellectual  processes ; 
s  being  solely  based 
\  Ml   lie  correct   or  the 

mind  in  this  way,  his  judgmen 
into  play  in  the  application  of 

the 

principle  or 

tent  of  the  i 

apportion  ti 

the  accuracy  and  ex- 

ssessed. 

KALAMAZOO  COLLEGE,  at  Kalamazoo, 
Mich.,  under  the  control  of  the   Baptists,  was 

founded  in  is;.:..  It  admits  both  sexes,  and  is 
supported  by  tuition  fees  (818  per  year),  and  the 
income  of  an  endowment  of  $80,000.  It  has  a 
library  of  2,500  volumes,  chemical  and  philo- 
sophical apparatus,  ami  cabinets  of  natural  his- 


Educaticmal  History.- 
the  constitution  ratified 
was  required   to  "encou 


3y  the  provisions  of 
1859,  the  legislature 
ee  the  promoti f 


fori 
ther 

"SS 

were 
been 
185c 

of  the  col 

as  follows 

and 

the  Rev. 

incumbent  lis 
KANSAS, 

pure 

ritoi 
It   w 

area 

y  by  an  ai 
as  admit 
is  81,318 

.of  whom  27 
.Stone,D.D., 

b',,':"pa..f,;.;*,h,"1:; 

|l..  lsi;4— 7; 

education  law  was  ena 

.  the  present 

S  hool  System. — Tl 

S. 

the  state  are   eomniitt 

he  Louisiana 

of  public  instruction,  ( 

separate  ter 

state  board  oi  educal  i< 

n  May,1854. 

cipals  of  the  normal  si 

n   1861.     Its 

state  university  and  o 

ition,  accord- 

which  body  li I-   am, 

ing  to  the  census  of  1870,  was  36  1,399,  of  whom 
17d()S  were  colored. and  91  1  Indians.  The  state 
census  of  Is;::  showed  a  gain  of  67.63  per  cent, 
the  total  population  of  the  state  at  that  time  be- 
ing 6  L0.863.  ( )f  the  male  adults  8.42  percent  were 
illiterate;  and  of  the  female  adults,  13.2  per  cent. 


catcs  tor  three  or  nye  years;  3  a  -late  board 
of  commissioners,  composed  of  tin'  state  super- 
intendent, the  secretary  of  state,  and  the  at- 
torney general,  for  the  management  of  the  per- 
manent   school    and    university    funds  ;      ami 


(4)  county  superintendents,  elected  for  two 
years,  whose  duty  it  is  to  apportion  the  school 
moneys,  to  visit  schools,  and  to  hold  teachers' 
institutes.  These  institutes  are  also  required  to 
be  held  annually  by  the  superintendent  of  public- 
instruction,  in  the  several  judicial  districts  of 
the  state.  The  schools  must  be  kept  open  six 
hours  per  day  for  at  least  three  months,  the 
•school  month  consisting  of  four  weeks  of  five 
days  each.  The  school  age  is  from  5  to  21  years. 
By  the  act  of  August.  L874,  parents  are  com- 
pelled to  send  healthy  children  to  public  or 
private  schools  not  less  than  twelve  weeks  every 
year,  under  the  penalty  of  a  fine  of  from  $5  to 
810  for  the  first  offense,  and  from  si"  to  $20 
for  every  subsequent  offense.  School  directors 
are  charged  with  the  enforcement  of  this  law. — 
The  school  revenue  is  derived  from  (1)  the  pro- 
ceeds of  all  lands  granted  by  <  Jongress  to  the 
state  for  the  support  of  schools,  including  the 
500,000  acres  granted  to  each  new  state  in  1841; 
(2)  all  estates  of  persons  dying  intestate  and  with- 
out heirs  ;  and  (3)  money  derived  from  military 
exemptions,  tines,  and  estrays.  The  amount  of 
interesVbearing  permanent  school  fund,  in  IS75, 
according  to  the  report  of  the  state  superintend- 
ent, for  that  year,  was  $1,163,534.09.  The 
income  from  all  sources  for  the  support  of 
schools,  amounted  to  81,478,998.64,  including 
$264,683.30  from  state  funds,  and  $685,162.2'i 
from  district  taxes.-  The  salaries  of  teachers 
areas  follows:  average  monthly  salary  of  male 
teachers,  $33.98;  of  female  teachers,  $27.25.  - 
The  course  of  instruction  according  to  the  law 
of  1874,  includes  orthography,  reading,  writing, 
English  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  such  other 
branches  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the  district 
board. 

Educational  Condition. — The  total  number 
of  school-districts  in  the  state  is  4,560  ;  and  the 
number  of  school-houses,  3,71 5.  According  to  the 
report  of  1875.  the  number  of  persons  of  school 
age  was  199,986;  of  whom  103,551  were  males, 
and  96,435  females.  The  following  are  addi- 
tional items  of  school  statistics  : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled H2.G06 

Average  daily  attendance 85,580 

Number  ,if  teachers,  males 2.44S 

"      "  "         females 2,935 

Total 5,383 

Receipts .-!  .i.     998.64 

Expenditures,  for  salaries,  repairs,  etc.  $1,235,969.72 
Normal  Instruction. —  There  are  three  state 
normal  schools  for  the  training  of  teachers  The 
first  was  organized  at  Emporia  in  1865.  This 
affords  a  two  years'  and  a  four  years'  course  of 
study  in  the  normal  department,  and  has,  be- 
sides, a  model  department,  consisting  of  a  high- 
school  and  grammar  department,  and  an  element- 
ary training  school.  The  enrollment,  in  1875, 
was  302 :  in  the  normal  department,  77;  high 
school,  8;  training  and  preparatory  school,  217. 
The  second  normal  school  is  at  Leavenworth  and 
was  organized  in  1870.  This  comprises  a  nor- 
mal department,  which  affords  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  all  the  subjects  taught    in  the  public 


schools  of  the  state,  and  a  model  school,  in  which 
the  art  of  teaching  is  practiced.  The  model 
school  comprises  thirteen  grades  or  departments, 
and.  in  ls7.">,  the  total  enrollment  was  s.'ili  ;  and 
the  number  of  teachers,  12.  In  the  normal  de- 
partment, the  enrollment  was  420;  and  the  num- 
ber of  teachers,  7 ;  the  average  attendance  was 
about  250.  Tliis  department  includes  two  kinds 
of  classes:  the  regular  classes  of  the  normal 
course,  and  the  temporary  classes  of  the  institute 
course.  The  former  study  in  detail  all  that  per- 
tains to  professional  training:  the  latter  give 
their  attention  to  all  the  ordinary  common-school 
subjects,  with  only  enough  detail  to  illustrate 
methods.  There  are  five  of  these  short  courses 
in  a  school  year.  The  normal  students  teach  in 
the  grades  of  the  city  schools.  The  third  normal 
school,  organized  in  1 874,  is  located  at  Concordia. 
The  school  edifice  is  a  fine  stone  structure,  ca- 
pable of  accomodating  .'(111)  students.  The  enroll- 
ment, in  1*75.  was.  in  the  normal-department, 
1  71 :  in  the  training  school.  83;  total,  254. 

Secondary  Instruction. — In  1873,  the  regents 
of  the  university  authorized  the  preparation  of 
a  course  of  study  for  the  high  schools  of  the 
state,  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  uniformity 
into  the  school  system.  With  this  view  a  clas- 
sification was  adopted  which  assigned  to  the  high 
schools  an  intermediate  position  between  the 
graded  schools  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  state 
university  and  agricultural  college  on  the  other. 
Three  courses,  each  of  four  years,  were  arranged, 
— a  classical,  a  scientific,  and  an  English  course. 
The  choice  as  to  which  shall  be  pursued,  is  op- 
tional with  the  student.  There  are  66  graded 
schools  in  the  state  which  have,  connected  with 
them,  high  school  courses,  attended  by  1.066  pu- 
pils. There  are  two  business  colleges,  which  were 
reported,  in  1*74.  to  have  4  instructors  and  179 
students,  140  of  the  latter  being  males,  and  39 
females.  The  principal  denominational  schools 
of  this  grade  are  (1)  St.  Benedict's  College  (Ro- 
man Catholic),  at  Atchison,  with  7  instructors 
and  110  students;  (2)  the  college  of  the  Sisters 
of  Bethany  (Episcopal),  at  Topeka,  with  a  pri- 
mary, a  preparatory,  and  a  collegiate  department; 
(3)  Mt.  St.  Mary's  Female  Academy  (Roman 
Catholic),  conducted  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity, 
with  7  instructors  and  '.'(I  pupils;  (4)  the  Geneva 
Academy  (Presbyterian)  with  2  instructors  and 
100  pupils;  (5)  the  Western  Methodist  Collegiate 
Institute,  at  Hartford;  (6)  Washburn  College 
(Congregational),  at  Topeka. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  Of  the  institutions 
which  afford  instruction  of  this  grade,  the  only 
one  under  the  direct  management  of  the  state  is 
the  University  of  Kansas  (q.  v.),  at  Lawrence. 
Others  are  included  in  the  following  table  : 


NAME 


Baker  University 

Highland  rnivcrsity. 

I.ane  University 

St.  Benedict's  College 

St.  Mary's  College [St.  Mary' 

Washburn  College ITopeka 


LocatK 


Baldwin  cm 
Highland 
Lecornpton 
Atchison 


M.  Kids. 
Presb. 
[-.  lirtth. 
R.  C. 
R.  C. 
Cong. 


KANSAS   UNIVERSITY 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — 
The  Kansas  Agricultural  College.at  Manhattan, 
is  designed,  as  its  name  implies,  to  afford  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture;  and,  to  thai  end,  ii  has  a  large 
farm  of  over-loo  acres,  by  means  of  which  the 


and  the  raising  of  root-crops,  as  on  an  actual 
farm.  Besides  this  farm  and  the  course  con- 
nected with  it,  there  are  departments  for  the 
teaching  of  sewing,  printing,  and  telegraphy. 
The  literary  departments  of  the  college  include  a 
farmers',  a  mechanics',  and  a  commercial  course, 
besides  special  instvuetion  for  women.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  full  curriculum  carries  the 
graduates  up  to  the  point  reached  by  the  besi 
colleges.  The  endowment  of  the  institution  was 
derived  from  the  sale  of  the  congressional  -rant 
of  land  (90,000  aires),  yielding,  in  ordinary 
years,  an  income  of  about  $20,000,  which  it  is 
expected  will,  before  many  years,  be  doubled. 
The  attendance  of  students  al  the  college,  during 
the  year  L874,was208,  of  whom  139  were  males, 
and  69  females. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Kansas  Institution 
forthe  Instruetion  of  the  liliml  is  organized  with 
a  superintendent,  matron,  physician,  and  four 
teachers,  and  receives  pupils  from  9  to  21  years 
of  age.      It    is   expected   that,  before  admission, 

students  shall  have  previously  i ived  sufficient 

elementary  instruetion  to  enable  them  to  go  on 
with  the  course  pursued  in  the  instituti  hi:  and. 
on  this  condition,  they  are  received  without 
charge,  except  for  clothing,  traveling,  and  in- 
cidental expenses. 

KANSAS,  University  of,  at  Lawrence. 
Kansas,  was  chartered  in  L864.  It  is  supported 
by  state  appropriations,  the  income  of  a  fund  of 
$10,500,    and    by   contingent    fees    of    SHI    per 

annum,  the  only  charge  made  by  the  university. 
The  institution  owns  72  sections  of  land  granted 
to  the  state  by  Congress,  in  L861,  for  the  sup- 
port of  a  state  university.  The  grounds  com- 
prise 50  acres  on  Mount  (triad,  donate!  by 
citizens  of  Lawrence  and  its  vicinity.  There  are 
two  buildings,  erected  partly  by  the  city  and 
partly  by  the  state.  Tin-  university  has  chemical 
and  philosophical  apparatus, libraries  containing 
about  2,500  volumes,  and  a  cabinet  of  natural 
history.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  The  charter 
provides  that  the  university  shall  consist  of  six 
departments:  (lj  Science.  Literature,  and  the 
Arts:  (2)  Law;  (3)  Medicine:  (4)  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Elementary  Instruction:  (5)  Agri- 
culture; (6)  The  Normal  Department.  Of  these 
several  departments. —  Science.  Literature,  ami 
the  Arts,  and  the  Normal  Department,  are  the 
only  ones  yet  organized.  These  departments, 
at  present,  comprise  seven  courses  of  instruc- 
tion :  namely,  a  classical  and  a  modern  literature 
course,  each  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Arts:  a  general  scientific  course,  and  three 
special  scientific  courses, — one  in  chemistry,  one 
in  natural  history,  and   one  in  civil  and  top- 


[  ographica!  engineering 

tnie  courses  leading  to 


of  the  four  seien- 
,-ree   of    LacheW 


and  237  students  (72  collegiate,  35  normal,  and 
130  preparatory),  of  whom  1  IT  were  males  and 
120  females.  The  presidents  of  the  university 
have  been  as  follows  :  the  Lev.  It.  W.  Oliver, 
11.1).,  1865— 8;  Lev.  John  Fraser,  A.  M., 
1868—74;  and  the  Lev.  .lame.-  Marvin,  D.  I>., 
tl»'  present  incumbent  (1876),appointedinl874. 
KANT,  Immanuel,  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious of  philosophers,  was  born  April 22.,  1724, 
at  Kbnigsberg.  where  he  die.l  Lebr.  12..  1804. 
After  having  been  for  nine  years  a  tutor,  he  be- 
calm'in  1755.  i„-irnt-iltu .  nl.  ami.  iii  1770,  pro- 
fessor, in  tin'  philosophii  al  faculty  of  the  univer- 


by  the  name  0 
because  he  wai 
and  criticism  c 
ored  to  fix  ad 
which  is  essei 
cognition  on 
empirical,  nou 
other.     The  C 


re- 


d  in  our 
which  is 
1,  on  the 
i   are  the 


I, ,11, 


(It 


element-  of  tiaiisceiidental  knowledge,  but  that, 
this  transcendental  knowledge  does  not  at- 
tain, with  absolute  certainty,  to  the  nature  of 
things;  (31  thai  God,  freedom,  ami  immortality 


1 1  la 


(1781);  Kritikder prakt 

schen  Vernunft(l188); 

Kritikder  Uriheilskrqft 

(1790)  :    Die  Religion 

innerhalb  der  Gramen 

der  Mossen    Vernunft 

(1793)  :  Anihropobgie  , 

n  pragmaiischer   Ein- 

sirht  (1798).-    As  profess 

irof  philosophy,  Kant 

was   required  to  deliver 

alternately  with    the 

other  professors  of  tl.es: 

me  subject,  lectures  on 

pedagogy.  Thenoteswhi 

Ii  he  i  n  pared  for  these 

lectures,  were,  in  the  latt, 

pai  t  in  his  life,  revised 

and  arranged  by  his  pit] 

1  Rink,  who,  in   L803, 

published  1 1n  'in  uuiler  tin 

title.  I,,,, „, ,,i„,l  Km, t 

uber  Pddagogik.     Kant 

regarded  education  as 

raid 


study,  that  education  should  be  freed  from 
mechanism,  and  be  elevated  to  an  art  guided  bj 
science.  Children  must  not  be  educated,  in  ac- 
cordance with  mere  custom,  for  the  world,  as  it 
now  exists,  but,  in  harmony  with  the  idea  of 
humanity, fora  better  condition  of  societj  in  the 
future.  The  plan  of  education  should  not  be 
narrow  and  restricted,  but  cosmopolitan.     The 


498  KENT 

development  of  man  for  the  fulfillment  of  the 
manifold  laws  of  his  existence  is  regarded  hv 
K.n.t  as  the  proper  object  of  education.  He  lavs 

requires  that  the  tea1 


y  a  thorough  course  of  in- 
struction in  the  principles  of  morality,  which 
should  be  derived  from  reason.  The  work  of 
God  (conscience,  moral  law.  and  reason)  must 
lie  known,  before  God  himself  can  be  known.  — 
Kant  was  a  great  admirer  of  the  pedagogical 
views  of  Montaigne  and  Itousseau.  and  took  an 
earnest  interest  in  the  career  of  the philanthro- 
pin.  He  has  exerted  considerable  influence  upon 
the  development  of  German  pedagogics:  as  is 
evident  from  the  fact  that  a  number  of  the  most 
devoted  believers  in  his  philosophical  views  dis- 
tinguished themselves  as  educational  writ.']-: 
among  whom  may  be  mentioned  Niemeyer, 
Schwarz.  and  Hosenkranz ;  and  even  Herbart 
was  greatly  influenced  by  Kant.  —  Editions  of 
the  complete  works  of   Kant   have  been  pub- 


authorized  to  cause  to  be  surveyed,  located,  and' 
patented,  within  their  respective  counties,  the 
reserve  above  indicated,  or  elsewhere  in  the  state, 
6,000  acres  each  for  seminary  purposes,  such 
lands  to  be  exempt  from  taxation.  Through  in- 
attention or  interested  legislation,  however,  the- 
land  was.  in  many  cases,  sold  by  the  county  au- 
thorities, and  the  proceeds  were  squandered;  in 
others,  the  funds  are  still  held  for  their  original 
uses  by  trustees.  On  the  ltfth  of  December,  1821, 
one-half  of  the  net  profits  of  the  Bank  of  the 
Commonwealth  were,  by  act  of  the  legislature, 
set  apart  as  a  Literary  Fund,  to  be  distributed, 
pro  rata,  to  the  counties  of  the  state,  for  the 
support  of  a  general  system  of  education,  under 
state  direction  :  and  one-half   of  the  net  profits 


lished    by    1 1  urrF.NsTKiN 
edit.,  8  vols..  L867 — 9),  by  Si 

KRANZ    (11  Vols.,  lKlD        !'_'.  \\ 

Schubert),  and   K  ikciim  \nn 
A  good   English  translation 
Pure  Reason   has  been   pul 
Meiklejohn   (in   Holm's  Phi 
1855).     Recent  works  of   va 
dents  are  M  wiufv.  Kant's 
for  English   Read  ■      Lond 
Abbott's   hint's    Theory  < 
1873)  ;and  Moitck's  Tntrodu 
Philosophy  (Dublin,  1874). 
Rink's  pamphlet,  Tmmanuel 


d    1I..SK 


KENTUCKY, 


itional  topics,  has  been 

isthelOth  vol. of  Ui.'ii- 

oihek). 

:'  the   interior  stales  of 


ion  in  1792,as  the  second  state  after  the  original 
thirteen.  Its  population, at  that  time,  was  about 
75,000;  but,  in  1800,  it  was  reported  as  220,595. 
[ts  area  is  37,680  sq.  m.,  and  its  population,  in 
1870,  was  1,321,01 1, its  rank  in  the  latter  respeci 
being  the  eighth. 

Educational  History. —The  first  step  taken  by 
this  state  in  the  interesl  of  education,  after  its  ad- 
mission into  the  Onion,  was  in  I  798,  when,  by  act 
of  the  legislature,  6,000  acres  of  the  public  lands 
of  the  state  were  given  to  each  of  the  following 
institutions:  Franklin.  Salem,  and  Kentucky 
academies,  and  Lexington  and  Jefferson  semina- 
ries. In  1  305  and  I  808,  acts  were  passed  extend- 
ing these  provisions  to  all  the  counties  of  the 
state  then  existing.  Within  twenty  years  after  the 
passage  of  the  act  of  L798,  forty  six  additional 
institutions  were  endowed  by  a  similar  grant  of 
6,000  acres.  Another  law  provided  that,  in  ad- 
dition to  this,  a  large  tract  of  public  land,  speci- 
fied by  the  act,  should  be  set  apart  for  edu- 
cational purposes ;  and  the  county  courts  were 


Until 

priati 


fund-  in   the  treasury,  to  the  older  .-fates,  with 
the  understanding  that  n  was  to  be  devoted  to 

educational  pui  poses.  <  If  this; nut.  Kentucky's 

share  was  $1,433,757.  As  no  condition  was  im- 
posed, however,  that  it  should  be  used  as  an  edu- 
cational fund,  only  $]  ,000,000  of  it  wasset  apart 
for  that  purpose;  and  this  was  afterwards  re- 
duced to  $850,000.  This  was  the  origin  of  the~~ 
permanently  invested  school  fund  of  the  state,/ 
and  the  interest  of  it  was  for  many  years  the  ^ 
only  constant  revenue  for  the  support  of  the 
public  schools.  In  1838,  the  first  law  for  the 
establishment  of  a  general  system  of  common  J 
schools  was  enacted  ;  but  for  ten  years  little  was 
done  to  make  it  effective  :  and.  in  1840,  the  state 
having  entered  upon  a  system  of  costly  internal 
improvements  by  which  a  deficit  in  the  treasury 
was  caused,  the  payment  of  interest  on  the  school 
bonds  was  refused'.  This  was  followed  by  the 
calling  in  and  burning  of  all  the  school  bonds. 
In  L847  -s.  however,  an  act  was  passed,  chiefly 
through  the  efforts  of  Rev.  Robert  J.  Breckin- 
ridge, directing  the  governorto  issue  a  new  bond 
for  all  arrears  of  interest  due.  and  submitting  to 
a  vote  of  the  people  a  proposition  to  levy  a  tax 
of  two  cents  on  each  one  hundred  dollars,  for 
common-school  purposes.  The  election  showed 
,i  majority  of  36,882  votes  in  favor  of  this  tax. 
In  lSHI.  upon  the  framing  of  a  new  constitution 
for  the  state,  the  school  funds,  for  which  the 
state  had  given  bonds  to  the  state  board  of  edu- 
cation, were  forever  dedicated  to  common-school 
purposes,  together  with  all  other  funds  which 
might  thereafter  be  raised  for  the  same  purpose. 
During  the  legislative  session  of  1S50 — 51, a  fierce 
contest  arose  between  the  governor  (John  L. 
Helm)  and  the  state  superintendent  (Rev.  Dr. 
Breckinridge)  as  to  whether  the  common-school 
fund  should  be  considered  a  part  of  the  regular 
state  debt,  the  interest  of  which  was  payable  out 
of  the  sinking  fund.  Dr.  Breckinridge  considered 
that  it  should  be  so  paid,  and  the  adoption  of 
this  method  was  of  vital  moment  to  the  popu- 


KENTUCKY 


laritv  of  the  public-school  system,  since,  if  it 
were  not  bo  paid,  a  special  annual  tax  of  $80,000 
would  be  necessary.  Aft  ira  long  and  heated  dis- 
cussion, a  bill  directing  th nnnisMon.Ts  of  the 

sinking  fund  to  pay  the  interest  of  the  school 
bonds  was  passed  ;  but  it  was  vetoed  by  the 
governor.  It  was,  however,  immediately  repasse  I 
over  his  veto,  by  a  large  vote.  In  1855,  the 
school  tax  was  increased  from  two  to  five  cut. 
on  the  hundred  dollars,  by  a  majority  oi  57,980 
votes  out  of  109,492  cast     From   that  time  till 

1867,  little  ch  age  was  made  in  the  corni - 

school  system  oi  the  state.  In  the  latter  year, 
the  state  superintendent,  Z.  K.  Smith,  prepared 
a  plan  which  contemplated  an  entire  reorgani 
zation  of  the  system.  I  lis  proposition  to  increase 
the  school  tax  from  five  to  twenty  cents  on  the 
hundred  dollars,  to  add  a  poll  tax  of  one  or  two 
dollars,  and  to  empower  the  people  of  any  county, 
district,  town,  or  city  to  vote  an  additional  local 
tax  of  thirty  cents  on  the  hundred  dollars,  for 
school  purposes,  was  accepted  by  the  legislature, 
and  carried  by  a  large  popular  majority.  His 
plan  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  schools,  though 
greatly  modified,  was  substantially  embodied  in 
the  law  enacted,  ami  resulted  in  giving  a  fresh 
impetus  to  the  cause  of  education.  In  I  B73,  the 
present  school  laws  went  into  effect,  and  the 
beneficial  results  of  their  operation  are  looked 
for  with  very  great  confidence.  In  1874,  an 
act  was  passed  for  the  establishment  of  a  uni- 
form school  system  for  the  e  filiation  of  colore  1 
children,  to  be  under  the  supervision  of  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  and  the 
state  board  of  education.    This  act  provides  that 

all  taxes  collected  from  colored   i pie  shall  go 

to  the  support  of  col. .red  schools. — The  .V.7- 
Superintendents  have  been  as  follows:  Joseph 
J.  Bullock.  D.D..  1837—0;  Hubbard  H.  Kav- 


upon  the  office  of  super 
year  is  five  months,  of 


Benjamin   IS.  .Smith, 
W.  Brush,  1842—3; 


;  1  ;   I  toward  A.  M. 


anaugh.  D.I)..  In-.'.)— 1(1 
D.  D.,  1840—42;    Georg 

Hvland  T.  1  Hilar,!.  D.  D 
Breckinridge.  I).  !•„  LI.. 

Mathews.  D.D.,  1853  : 
A.M..  1859  -63;  Daniel 
— 7;  Zach.  P.  Smith,  186 

Henderson.  D.  I).,  elected  in  ]s71. 

School  System. — The  general  supervision  and 
control  of  the  educational  interests  of  the  state 
are  intrusted  to  Astute htmrd nf  nhientiini,  which 
consists  of  the  secretary  of  state,  attorney  gen- 
eral, superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and 
two  professional  educators.  The  Inst  three  con- 
stitute a  standing  committee  for  the  preparation 
of  rules,  by-laws,  and  regulations  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  schools,  and  tor  the  recommendation 
of  a  proper  course  of  study  and  suitable  text- 
books— the  latter  to  be  adopted  at  the  discretion 
of  the  county  board  of  examiners.  The  executive 
officer  of  the  bond  is  the  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction  who  is  elected  for  four  years,  and 
whose  duty  it  is  to  exercise  a  general  supervision 
over  the  schools  of  the  state,  to  distribute  an- 
nually through  the  state  the  school  laws,  to 
furnish  blanks  for  reports,  certificates,  etc..  and 
to  perform  all  other  duties  naturally  devolving 


endent.     The  schoo 


sts  ot  the  state 
:al  educators  tip- 
.are  held  m.lulv 


in  any  of  tin 
ination  by  ci 


.)'"!:- 


competent  persons  appointed  by  him.  They 
examine  teachers,  giant  certificates,  and  select  a 
uniform  series  of  text-books,  to  be  in  use  two 
years. 

Edit  at         'd  ndition—  Concerning  the  num- 
ber of  scl l-dist]  ictS,  scl Is.   etc.,  ad\  ices  from 

counties  and  districts  are  so  imperfectly  made 
up  that  entirely  accurate  stati>lii>  cannot  be  ob- 
tained. In  the  annual  report  of  the  state  super- 
intendent for  the  year  ending  June,  lo74,  an 
approximate  result  "is  -riven  as  follows:  number 
of  school-districts,  1,035;  districts  in  which  com- 


1,017;  average  attendance  of  pupils,  114,603. 

Normal  Instruction. — There  is  an  incorpo- 
rated normal  school  at  Carlisle  under  private 
control :  but  those  who  graduate  from  the  course 
provided  for  teachers  have  the  right,  under  the 
charter,  to  teach  in  the  common  schools  of  the 


ing  school  connected  with  its  public-school 
system:  and  the  Frankfort  public  school  has  a. 
training  class.  At  Lexington,  there  is  a  colored 
school    with   a  normal   department    under   the 

direction    of   the     \ rican    Missionary  Society. 

Teachers'  institutes  are  held  in  almost  every 
county  of  the  state.  These  institutes  are  con- 
ducted by  professional  teachers:  and.  being  tin- 
chief  agency  for  normal  instruction  in  the  state, 
receive  considerable  attention. 

Secondary  Instruction. —  High  schools  for 
males  ami  females  are  maintained  in  Louisville. 
and  some  other  parts  of  the  state.  There  are 
also  academics,  female  seminaries  and  colleges, 
and  commercial  colleges.  ( >f  the  former.  47  were 
enumerated  in  the  state  superintendent's  report 
for  1874.  The  two  business  colleges  at  Louisville 
and  Lexington,  reported,  in  1>7  1.  9  instructors 
and  240  students. 

Superior  Instrnetion. —  The  following  table 
includes  the  principal  colleges  and  universities, 
exclusive  of  female  colleges,  in  the  state  : 


KENTUCKY-  UNIVERSITY 


Bethel  College 


Kusselville 
Richmond 
Danville 
New  Liberty 


Presb. 

Kv.  J.iith. 

Nniest  rt 
Baptist 


<i 'getown  College  .  Georgetown 

K.-ntu  l.v  Univi  rsity.  Lexington 

Ky.  Military  lust Fiiriiidale 

Ky.  Wislevan  Univ...  Millersburg 

St.  Mary's  College....  St.  Mary's  1821    K.  C. 

Warren  College Bowling  Green 

The  female  colleges  are  quite  numerous ;  chief 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  Bethel  Female 
i     College,  at  Hopkinsville,  a  Baptist  institution; 
z    Bourbon  Female  <  'ollege,  at  Paris  ;  the    I'resby- 
S  terian  Female  College,  at  Howling  Green  ;   Bap- 
„  tist   Female   College,  at   Clinton;    Franklin  Fe- 
i'  male    College,  at    Franklin ;    Lebanon   Female 
t  College   (Baptist),  at  Lebanon:   Lexington  Fe- 
•   male  College   (Baptist),    at    Lexington;   Logan 
,  Female  College   (M.  E.  South),  at  Russelville ; 
'■f  Louisville  Female  College  (Moth.),  at  Louisville; 
/.Millersburg    Female    College,    at     Millersburg; 
/'Shelbyville     Female     College     (So.   Presb.),    at 
/  ?  Shelbyville  ;  and  Stanford   Female   College,  at 
Stanford,     Besides  these,  there  are  several  un- 
chartered   institutions     which    are    prosecuting 
the  work  of   higher  education.     Among   these 
maybe  mentioned  Warren   College  at  Bowling 
Green;  Daughters  College.  1  larrodsburg  ;  Hocker 
Female  College,    U'xington  ;   the  Kentucky  Col- 
lege for   Young    Ladies.     Pewee    Valley;   and 
Berea   College,  at   Berea.     The  last   was  organ- 
ized  in    1858   for  both  sexes,  without  distinction 
of  race. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction.  - 
Scientific  instruction  is  partially  provided  in 
many  of  the  colleges  already  enumerated;  but 
special  provision  in  this  respect  is  made  in  the 
State  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  at 
Lexington.  The  course  comprises  the  following 
departments:  (1)  English  language  and  literature; 
(2)  mathematics;  (3)  chemistry  and  experimental 
philosophy;  (4)  natural  history  and  political  econ- 
omy: (."))  mental  and  moral  philosophy;  (C)  com- 
mercial training;  (7)  mining  and  civil  engineer- 
ing: (H)  modern  languages;  (9)  fine  arts;  (10)  mili- 
tary tactics.  Law  is  taught  in  a  special  school 
forming  a  part  of  the  Kentucky  University;  and 
inedieine  iii  the  Transylvania  Medical  College, 
now  forming  a  department  of  the  same  univer- 
sity. The  Louisville  Medical  College.  I.ouis\i]le 
Hospital  Medical  College,  and  the  University  of 
Louisville  also  afford  opportunity  for  instruction 
in  the  theory  and  practice  of  medicine. 

Special  Instruction. — The  institution  for  deaf- 
mutes,  at  Danville,  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the 
United  States,  having  been  founded  in  1823. 
It  is  a  school  for  the  education  of  deaf-mutes, 
similar  to  that  of  New  York  and  of  Hartford, 
and  not  an  asylum.  Every  deaf-mute  in  the  state, 
of  sound  mind,  between  the  ages  of  10  and  30, 
is  entitled  to  its  privileges  for  seven  years,  free  of 
charge.  It  is  under  the  control  of  a  board  of 
commissioners  appointed  by  the  governor.     Its 


resident  officers  are  a  principal,  matron. steward, 
and  physician.  Its  curriculum  is  that  which  is 
common  to  such  institutions.  The  A.-yluin  tor 
the  Education  of  the  Blind,  at  Louisville,  is  in- 
tended to  furnish  instruction  to  every  child  in 
the  state,  between  the  ages  of  6  and  16,  who  is 
deprived  by  defective  sight  from  receiving  the 
education  usually  given  in  the  common  schools. 
In  addition  to  these   institutions  for  special   in- 


in  1874,  after  having  been  discontinued  for 
some  years.  As  its  name  implies,  it  is  for 
"feeble-minded  children,"  not  for  idiots.  To 
such  children,  between,  the  ages  of  (i  and  18 
years,  the  state  affords,  through  this  institu- 
tion, an  education  free  of  charge.  The  build- 
ing is  situated  just  beyond  the  city  limits  of 
Frankfort. 

Society  for  the  Advancement  of  Education.- 
On  the  15th  of  July,  1K74.  a  meeting  was  called 
at  Frankfort  to  concert  measures  for  establish- 
ing a  school  or  schools  for  the  training  of  teach- 
ers and  the  education  of  young  men  for  clas- 
sical and  technical  pursuits,  'ihis  resulted  in 
the  foundation  of  the  Society  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Education. 

s/.iir  Tnirlirrs'  Asxuritilioii . — This  body  holds 
annual  meetings  to  promote  the  cause  of  com- 
mon schools  and  popular  education,  and  to  ele- 
vate the  character  and  advance  the  interests  of 
the  profession  of  teaching.  Prominent  educa- 
tors from  other  states  are  usually  present  by 
invitation  and  take  part  in  the  proceedings, 
which  consist  of  discussions  in  regard  to  school 
matters,  a  daily  order  of  exercises  illustrative  of 
school  methods,  and  lectures  in  the  evening.  The 
Louisville  Educational  Association  is  a  body 
formed  for  essentially  the  same  purpose  as  the 
Teachers'  Association. 

KENTUCKY  UNIVERSITY,  at  Lexing- 
ton, Ky..  was  chartered  in  1858.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  theological  department,  which  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Christian  Church,  it  is 
lion  sectarian.  It  was  opened  as  a  college,  in 
\y .*>!•.  at  I  larrodsburg  in  the  building  of  Bacon 
College,  the  property  of  which  had  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  university.  By  an  act  of  the  legis- 
lature, in  1865,  the  institution  was  removed  to 
Lexington,  the  property  and  endowment  of 
Transylvania  University  were  transferred  to  it, 


land 


A, I, 


stead  of  Henry  Clay,  and  the  adjoining  estate  of 
Woodlands,  on  the  border  of  and  partly  within 
the  city,  the  entire  tract  containing  133  acres. 
were  purchased  for  an  experimental  farm  and 
the  permanent  site  of  the  university.  These 
grounds  are  now  the  seat  of  the  Agricultural 
and  Mechanical  College.  The  other  departments 
occupy  the  former  campus  of  Transylvania  Uni- 
versity, containing  20  acres  in  the  city,  with 
suitable  buildings.  The  university  has  an  en- 
dowment of  about  §400,000;  the  value  of  its  real 


KENTUCKY  MILITARY  INSTITUTE 

estate  is  about  $250,000.  The  libraries  contain  I 
about  10.000  volumes.  It  has  a  museum  of 
natural  history,  an   anatomical  museum,    and 

valuable  eliemieal.  philosophical,  ami  astronom- 
ical apparatus.  The  university  comprises  the 
following  colleges:    (1)  The  College  of    Arts; 

(•-'!  The 'Agricultural  ami  Mechanical  College  of 

Kentucky;  (3)  The  College  of  the  Bible;  (4)  The 
Normal  College  (not  yet  organized  :  (5)  The 
Commercial  College;  (6)  The  College  of  Law: 
(7)  The  College  of  Medicine  (Transylvania 
Medical  College).  Tuition  in  the  theological 
department  is  free;  in  arts  and  agriculture,  its 
cost  is  So  per  year,  in  commerce  $30,  in  law 
$60,  in  medicine  $10  for  each  professor.  Each 
legislative  district  of  the  state  is  entitled  to  send 
three  students  to  the  university  free  of  charge 
for  tuition  in  any  of  the  first  four  colleges 
named  above.  In  1S73 — I,  the  whole  number 
of  instructors  in  the  various  colleges  was  32.  and 
of  students.  406.  John  B.  Bowman,  LL.  D-,  to 
whom  the  foundation  of  the  university  is  mainly 
due,  is  (1876)  the  regent. 

KENTUCKY  MILITARY  INSTITUTE, 
at  Farrndale.  Franklin  Co.,  Ky.,  was  founded  in 
1845,  chartered  in  1846,  and  placed  under  the 
direction  and  control  of  a  board  of  visitors  ap- 
pointed by  tli-  govern^!'  ,,f  the  ,-tate.  who  is,  ar 
mli<-iti.  inspector  of  the  institute.  The  superinten- 
dent, faculty,  and  ca  li  -  are  constituted  a  quasi 
military  corps;  and  the  officers  are  commissioned 


KINDERGARTEN 


501 


Havre.   2   yrs.:     and    Col.    Robert   D.  Allen,    the 
|'iv  .'in   mm miibent.  2  vrs. 

KENTUCKY  WESLEY  AN  COLLEGE, 
at  Millersburg,  Ky.,  under  the  control  of  the 
Methodist   Episcopal   Church,  South,  was  char- 


ehemistrv  and  natural  science,  mathematics. 
Creek,  and  Latin.  All  these  are  necessarj  to  the 
degree  of  A.  B..  and  with  the  exception  of  <  J  reek 
and  Latin,  to  the  degree  of  B.  S.     In  1875 — li, 

there   were  .">  instructors  and  1)4  students.    The 


due 


KENYON  COLLEGE, 


f  Li- 


the president  and  pro! 
faculty  of  a  college,  u 
<  College  :  and.  in  Jun< 
removed  to  its  presen 


volumes,  in-  cnarge  tor  tuition  i-  .-mmp  per 
annum  ;  for  board. etc.,  $200.  There  is  a  prepai  k- 
tory,anundergra  Luate,  a  resident  graduate,  a  civil 

engineering. an  1  a  commercial  course.  The  under- 
graduate course  is  in  three  divisions,  requiring 
from  three  to  five  years  for  completion,  and  com- 
prises four  departments,  mathematics,  languages. 
natural  science,  and  En-jlish.  A  certificate  of  pro- 
ficiency is  conferred  after  a  satisfactory  exami- 
nation in  the  studies  of  a  department:  in  the  de- 
partment of  language  a  I pledge  of  two  is  re- 
quired, of  which  on  must  be  either  Latin  or <  !er- 
iiiiui.  The  degrees  i  :  Bach  I  a:  of  Mathematics, 
of  Natural  Science,  and  of  English,  are  conferred 
after  an  examination  in  an  extended  course 
in  the  respective  departments.  Lor  the  degree 
of  Bachelor  of  Languag  ■-.  four  languages  are  re- 
quired. The  degree  of  i'.cehelorof  Arts  is  eon- 
ferrei  1 1  >n  those  receiving  certificates  of  proficiency 
in  three  departments,  and  of  Master  of  Arts 
upon  those  who  receive  them  in  all  the  four  de- 
partments. Lpon  those  completing  the  com- 
mercial course  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Com- 
mercial Science  is  conferred.  In  the  resident 
graduate  course,  besides  mathematical  scientific, 
and  linguistic  studies,  an  elemetitarv  course  of 
medicine  or  a  professional  com  e  oi  law  may  be 
pursued.  In  1875-  6,  there  were  8  instruct- 
ors. ">1  students,  and  222  alumni.  The  super- 
intendents have  1 u  as    follows:    Col.  I'.  T.  P. 

Allen,  20  yrs.j  Col.  E.  W.Morgan,  7  yrs.:  B.  B. 


Douglass,  LL.  I).,  1840 — IT;  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Fuller,  D.  D.  (provisional),  1844—5;  the  Rev. 
Sherlock  ABronson,  D.  D.,  1845  50;  the  Rev. 
Thomas  M.  Smith.  1>.  ]»..  1850—54  ;  Lorin  An- 
drews. LL.  I).,  1854—61  ;  Benj.  L.  I  ang,  \  \1. 
(acting),  1861—3;  Charles  Short,  LL.  D., 
1863 — 7;  the  Rev.  .James  Kent  Stone.  \.  \L. 
1867 — 8;  Eli  T.  Tappan,  L.L.  1)..  1868 — 75;  and 
the  Lev.  B.C.  Benson,  A.M.  (acting), the  presenl 
incumbent  ( 1876). 

KINDERGARTEN  (Ger.,  children's  gar- 
ib'n).n  ]ieculiar  svstem  of  education,  founded  by 
Friedrich  Froebel  (q.  v.),  designed  to  precede  ail 
other  elementary  tramins,  and  to  prepare  the 


While 


included,  whose  assistant  he  was.  treated  the 
youthful  mind,  more  or  less,  as  a  passive  recipient 
of  truth,  goodness,  and  beauty,  it  was  Froebel's 
fundamental  idea  to  set  the  child  to  do  whatever 


502 


KINDERGARTEN 


it  could  be  induced  to  do  as  a  kind  of  amusement, 
exercising  its  observing  faculties  in  connection 
with  its  plaything's  and  names,  and  thus  to  create 
in  it  an  interest  in  learning,  lie  discovered, 
by  means  of  half  a  century's  attentive  practice 
in  teaching,  in  association  with  many  other 
excellent  educators,  that  the  faculties  (if  most 
children  are  stunted  in  infancy  and  earliest  youth 
by  the  want  of  appropriate  mental  food;  that 
every  child  may  he  developed  (may  develop 
itself)  into  a  self-educator  by  appropriate  amuse- 
ments;  and  that,  in  this  manner,  pleasure  may 
lie  made  the  most  efficient  instrument  in  the  first 


and  bodily  growth,  and  thus  formed  a  complete 
philosophical  system  of  early  intellectual  culture. 
This  culture  was  to  begin  to  the  earliest  years, 
with  ball  plays,  accompanied  by  snatches  of  song 
and  rhyme;  later,  with  a  sphere,  a  cube,  and  a 
cylinder  of  wood,  used  for  various  amusing  ex- 
ercises, and  calculated  to  enliven  the  attention, 
and  increase  the  self-activity  of  the  infant.  The 
two  little  hook,  for  neither;    which   contain    his 


of  invent ;  he  considers  the 

from  a  diligent  observation  o 
many  excellent  and  successful 
was  not  from  hooks  alone  that 
mothers  should  learn  how  to  ti 

They   Were  to  b  '  e  lu     .        1,  as 

a  kindergarten,  and  afterward 

ine-  from  the  upp  ir  d  I  •  h 
infant  education  in  a  model 
was  in  this  way  that  lie  Impel 

course  of  time,  all  thers  tin 

fancy,  tin nters  of  happy  t 

the  priestesses  of  a  high  ir  num 


being  liable  to  one-sidedness  and  exclusivene 

social  education  should  begin  early,  in  order 
complement  the  former.  During  part  of  the  di 
the  child  should  be  in  company  with  many  oth 
children  of  the  same  age.  and  should  engage 
such  plays  as  supply,  in  a  gradually  ascendii 
scale,  proper  food  for  the  mental  and  bodi 
appetites  and  functions,  while  making  the  coi 
jiany  of  little  ones  as  happy  as  possible.  Tl 
can  be  done  only  under  the  guidance  of  a  tr 
teacher,  who  should  be  a  female  capable,  by  n; 
ural  endowments  and   previous  stn.lv.  to'  ta 


whole,  their  adaptation  for  mental  food  in  every 
direction,  and  their  development  in  detail  must 
be  set  down  as  Proebel's  creation  ;  and  the  expe- 
rience had  with  them  for  more  than  twenty-five 
years,  and  in  many  hundreds  of  kindergartens, 
justifies  tin-  wisdom  of  the  sytem.  Although 
meeting  at  first  with  a  most  stubborn  opposition 
on  the  part  of  governments,  sects,  and  the  teach- 
ing fraternity,  the  kindergarten  has,  step  by 
step,  made  friends  of  enemies,  silenced  the  most 
severe  critics,  and  won  favor  with  governments 
(in  Austria,  Italy,  and  Russia),  with  the  Roman 
Catholic  bishops  lin  Belgium,  France,  Hungary, 
and  many  parts  of  the  I  nitcd  States),  and  with 
orthodox  Protestants  of  various  denominations. 
It  litis  been  endorsed  h\  the  great  conventions  of 
German  teachers,  after  a  protracted  study  of  its 
results;  and.  in  A rica.  by  the  National  Teach- 
ers' Association,  tit  the  meeting  held  tit  Khnira. 
in  IH7:{.  In  short,  it  seems  to  be  destined  to  be 
universally  adopted,  and  to  be  connected  with 
every  infant  school.  'I  here  is  still  much  con- 
troversy among  the  followers  of  Froebel  them- 

sehesii,  n-ardioihemii Idaii- .,t  tin-system; 


f  the  kindergarl 

a  sitting,  and 
m,  for  the  sake 
rtlvsueh  as  can 


lea.  which, 
be  all  that 
ilityof  the 
to  its  prin- 
'I  he  exer- 
■ly  carried 
>r  walking 
hange.  and 


occupations  requires  a  practical  training,  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher,  and  a  theoretical  study 
which  never  can  be  too  thorough,  if  the  pupil's 
mental  and  moral  development  is  to  become 
what  Froebel  intended  it  to  be.     Each  of  these 

exercises  sen  es  a    threefold  purpose        to  proclitic 

semble  things'that  occur  within  \he  rhil.Vs  ex- 
perience), and  forms  of  knowledge  (such  as  may 


ers,  shrubs,    tree.,   each    child    having    its   own  and  actions  of  objects),      the  child  itself  is  to 

flower-bed,  so  thai    it   may    learn  hots    to   raise  produce  these  forms ;  the  teacher  is  not  to  teach 

plants,  and  to  enjoy  nature.     The   playful  n-  them,  but  to  lead  his  pupil   by  suggestions  con- 

pations  of  the  pupils  i iprise  a  urea!  variety  of  \eyed  in  questions  or  conversation,  so  that   the 

plays  in  a  given   order   which,  however,  should  child  may  become  inventive.  To  do  this  properly, 

not  be  absolutely    fixed,   but    Bhould   afford   a  Froebel  has  advised  a  method  based  mi  the  lati) 

healthy  change,  without   inducing  habits  of  im-  of  contraries  and  their  combination  intoa  higher 

perfect  attention  and  restlessness.   No f  these  unit;  but   (he  teacher  is   to   abstain   from  all 

occupations  were  the  invention  of  Froebel ;  they  learned  lore     from  using  abstract   expressions, 

had  all  been  practiced  more  ...    less  before  his  Abstract  notions  and  words  are  severelybanished 

time.     But  their  combination  into  a  harmonious  from   the    kindergarten;   it    is   merely  concrete 


KINDERGARTEN 

facts,    which    the    child    ran    learn     through  |  the  demand  of  the  mothers,  and  make  the  alph; 

the  senses,  and  ran  clothe   in  its  own  lai 

that  can  become  familiar  to  it  by  its  own 

assimilation.     Neither  is  discipline  to  1" 

tained  by  authority  or  by  any  mechanical 

but    by  the  suggestions  of  the  teacher, 


bet  and  ciphering  a   part   of   the  regular  kinder- 
rises  ;  but  this  is  a  positive  loss  to 

essay  on   the   question,  "How  may 
mrten  be  organically  connected  with 


oet 


on'M.l.^viii'-'n't.  t'...Mit'.'iiiit'  t.'.'^ln-^ill  (.t'tlic  l.laj'i.i'it v 

the  prize   was  aw 

Leipsic.     Thereas, 

of  their  equals,  on  tli  ■  one  hand,  or  to  assert,  011 

gal-ten  a  universal 

the  other,  their  own  free  volition,  if  they  can 

in  this  essay  and 

induce  others  to  agree  with   them.    Thus,  they 

honorably  mention 

are  to  take  their  first  lessons  in  mural  self-govern- 

be  granted  that  t 

ment. 

through  a  good  kii 

An  objection  has  been  urged   to  the  general 

ive  than  that  obtai 

introduction  of  the  kindergarten  as  being  too 

school,  it  will  not 

■costly;  but  experience  has  established  the  indis- 

pupils thai   have  . 

putable  fact,  that  a  g 1  kindergarten  need  cost 

no   more  than   the    best   primary  school.     The 

the  uurserj  or  froi 

genuine   kindergarlner  —  and   none  but  su.li 

ought  to  be  employed  —can   superintend    more 

former,  posse  sing 

than  a  hundred  children  at   a  time,    provide  1 

development  of  all 

she  begin  with  no   more  than   twenty,  aiding 

degree  of  self-actn 

twenty  more  as  soon  a-  Bhe  has  a  good  assistant 

a  more  rapid  com 

able  to  replace  her:  and  again  twenty  more,  and 

more   advanced    n 

so  on.  whenever  one  more  assist  ml  is  prepared  to 

would  In-  proper  fi 

take  her  place.     Such  assistants  may  be  pupils 

These    pupils    WOU 

of  the  training  or  nor  nil  school   classes,    who 

fcarded  in   their  pr 

wish  to  acquire  the  art  of  infant  e  lucatiou,  ail  I 

the  same  treatmei 

need  not  be  paid  for  their  assistance.  These  pupil- 

come  toscl 1  wit 

teachers  will  not.  of  ,-oi,r-'  by  merely  six  months' 

who  are.   perhaps, 

help  in  this  way,  be   fully  able  to  conduct  a 

the  teacher  says,  ai 

kindergarten  independently  :  but  they  will  learn 

stood  by  him  (or  In 

^oodlducat    I^mcihSfrLfanotmei  Km 

ity  of  mechanical 
of  their  powers  ha 

garten,  from  four  to  seven  years  old,  will  form     kindergarten  pupils  must,  on  account   of   their 
■several  grades,  that  can  simultaneously   be  en-  |  self-activity   and   self-control,   need   a   different 


gaged  mil' 


ipations;   while 
■lv 


cnt    from    that    of    the  others,      llenee 


the  guidance  of  proficient  assistants,  taking 
the  pupil-teachers  along  from  division  to  divi- 
sion, thus   affording    them    an    opportunity  to 

witness  (he  greatest    variety  of    exercises    pos.-iiile 

within  a  short  space  of  time,  and  to  practice 
every  one  under  her  direction.  Besides,  she 
can  hardly  fail  to  receive  valuable  support  in 
the  singing,  articulation,  and  gymnastic  exer- 
cises, from  the  talents  of  some  of  her  assistants. 
But  even  more  important  is  the  following  con- 
sideration. It  is  almost  impossible  to  carry  on 
a  genuine  kindergarten  successfully  without  the 
exercise  of  a  wide-spread  and  lively  interest  in  it 
among  the  women,  especially  the  mothers,  of 
the  community;  So  long  as  they  do  not  fre- 
quently visit  the  institute,  thej  will  not  fully 
appreciate  its  purposes  and  results;  they  win 
insist  that  their  children  should  begin  to  learn 
the  alphabet:  and.  if  that  is  not  done,  they  will 
perhaps  take  them  away  to  some  primary  school. 
Many  kindergariners  of  our  country  yield  to 


50ls  afford   the  instruction 

teachers   for   the   work. 

\e  already    recognized    the 


Hon,  ami  lor 
Igation  of  the  prim 


jrchology";   (2) 


ntroduction."  Efforts 
i  German -American 
found   a   normal  and 


504 


KINDERGARTEN 


model  school  for  the  purpose  of  training  teach- 
ers for  the  management  of  kindergartens.  The 
report  of  the  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Educa- 
tion for  1874  enumerated  55  of  these  schools 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  in  which 
there  were  125  teachers,  and  1,636  pupils.  The 
experimental  introduction  of  the  system  in  con- 
nection with  the  public  schools  of  St.  Louis,  in 
1874,  is  represented  as  being  eminently  success- 
ful. At  the  date  of  the  last  annual  report 
of  the  superintendent  of  schools  in  that  city 
(1ST  I — 5),  there  were  7  kindergartens  connected 
with  as  many  of  the  public  schools;  and  the 
whole  number  of  kindergarten  pupils  was  457. 
The  following  advantages  are  claimed  for  the 
system:  (1)  The  kindergarten  children  submit 
more  readily  to  school  discipline;  (2)  the  aver- 
age intelligence  of  the  pupils  is  greatly  superior 
to  that  of  children  who  enter  school  without 
previous  training;  they  are  more  accurate  in 
observation,  and  seize  ideas  with  more  rapidity 
and  exactness  than  other  children  ;  (3)  in  addi- 
tion to  superior  general  development,  children 
thus  trained  show  special  aptitude  for  arith- 
metic, drawing,  and  natural  sciences,  and  can 
express  what  they  know  with  greater  correct- 
ness and  fluency. 

In  Germany,  where  there  are.  as  yet,  no  kinder- 
gartens dependent  on  the  state,  and  only  a  few 
dependent  on  communities,  efforts  are  being 
made  by  the  National  Education  Society  to  in- 
duce the  governments  to  authorize  a  general  in- 
troduction of  the  system,  with  all  the  steps  pre- 
liminary thereto.  An  experiment  has  also  been 
begunin  Austria  and  in  Wurtemberg, to  establish 
Froebel's  Labor  School.    This  is  a  continuation 

of  the  l.m  lergarte apations  through  higher 

stag  is  oi  development.  Only  about  one-half  of 
the  school  time  is  spent  in  the  ordinary  kind 
of  primary  and  secondary  instruction;  the  re- 
mainder is  devoted  to  recreation  and  occupa- 
tions, such  as  singing,  declamation,  drawing, 
modeling,  gymnastics,  geometrical  object  lessons 

and  exercises,  paste-board  work,  w I  work,  and 

metal  work,  etc.  This  experiment  has  also  been 
carried  on  for  the  last  live  years,  at  a  German- 
American  school  in  Newark  X.  J.,  on  a  smaller 
scale,  but  with  very  satisfactory  results. 

Owing  to  the  necessity  of  special  skill  and 
training  in  order  to  conduct  a  kindergarten 
efficiently,  many  persons  who  undertake  this 
work  fail,  through  want  of  preparation,  to  pro- 
duce the  results  designed.  In  this  way  spurious 
kindergartens  have  caused  much  complaint,  and 
brought  considerable  discredit  upon  the  system. 
The  test    ..t    a    g I    kindergarten  is  its  obvious 

effect  upon  the  pupils,  in  exciting  cheerfu as, 

intellnr ■■lie  aetivitv.an.laf In.--  for  the  sel 1 

work.  If,  on  the  other  hand  the  children  dislike  the 
sehool.it  is  an  e\  iden    ithal  thi  n  isa  want  ol  tad 


0X1: 


cording  to  the  established  formula  :  but  if  the 
spirit  in  which  the  exercises  are  to  be  conducted 
if  the  treatment  is  mechanical, all  the 


KESTDERMANN 

moral  influence  wdiich  should  spring  from  the. 
cheerful  self-activity  of  the  child,  is  lost.  If  too, 
the  teacher  shows  always  the  calm  and  dignified 
deportment  of  the  ordinary  class  disciplinarian, 
instead  of  entering  with  allher  heart  into  the 
harmless  joy  from  which  the  child's  self-govern- 
ment is  to  take  a  fruitful  growth,  and  calming 
only  the  troublesome  excess  of  this  mirth  by 
now  and  then  a  look,  a  word,  or  a  gesture,  she  is 
not  well  fitted  for  her  calling.  A  genuine  kinder- 
garten teacher  will,  like  the  best  of  mothers,  take 
a  lively  interest  in  remedying,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  bodily,  mental,  and  moral  defects  of  every 
child  under  her  care, — uncleanly  and  disorderly 
habits,  want  of  attention,  stammering,  color- 
blindness, a  bad  gait  or  posture,  imperfect  artic- 
ulation, etc.  She  will,  in  this  way,  earn  the- 
gratitude  of  the  children  and  their  parents,  and 
exert  a  great  moral  influence.  Her  efforts  in 
this  respect  are.  in  a  great  measure,  facilitated 
by  the  pliability  of  the  child's  powers,  as  well 
as  by  its  desire  to  avoid  ridicule,  and  to  enjoy 
the  society  of  its  comrades.  Abundant  experience 
teaches,  that  there  need  be  no  incurable  cases 
of  the  above  kind  among  children  who  have 
the  full  use  of  their  senses;  that  all  children 
may  learn  drawing,  .singing,  correct  enunciation, 
geometry,  and  many  Other  arts  and  accomplish- 
ments that  are.  by  common  prejudice,  pro- 
nounced attainable  by  those  only  who  are  specially 
gifted.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  a  kinder- 
gartner  can  hardly  he  too  well  educated;  and, 
also,  that  no  education  repays  so  abundantly 
its  cost.  — See  Feiedrich  Froebel,  Gesammette 
padagogische  Schrifien,  herausgeg.  r.  Wichard 
Lange  (Berlin,  1862)  ;  P>.  Mahenholtz-Buelow, 
Die  Arbeit  und  die  neue  Erziekung  nach  Froe- 
beVs  Weihodt  (Gottingen,  L875) ;  II.  Gold- 
immer,  Der  Kindergarten     Berlin,  L874) ;  Lina 

M. nstern,     Das    Parodies    der    KindheU, 

(Leipsic,  L871);  A  Koehler,  Der  Kindergarten 
in  seinem  Wesen  dargesteUt  (Weimar,  1868);  and 
Die  Praxis  des  Kindergartens  (3  vols.,  Wei- 
niari  :  also,  the  monthly  periodical  Erziehung 
der  Gegenwart,  published  in  Dresden,  wdiich  is 
chiefly  devoted  to  the  cause  of  the  kindergar- 
ten. The  chief  English  publications  are:  Ad. 
Dooai,  The  Kindergarten  iX.  Y..  1871);  W. 
X.  Hahjian.  Kindergarten  Culture  {Cm.,l%U); 
II  Hoffmann,  Kindergarten  Zbys(N.Y.,1874); 
Aug.  Kokiu.ku.  Kindergarten  Education  (X.Y., 
1876);  M.  Khaus-Boelte  and  John  Krads, 
Kinderqarten  Guide  (N.  r.,1876);  Mrs.  Hor- 
ace M  inn  and  Ki.iz.  P.  IVtibo.lv.  Moral  Culture 
of  Infancy  and  Kindergarten  Guide  >N.  Y.. 
1m"i  |  J-3  I  itot  Froebsl  and  ilie  Eimisr- 
qarten  System  (London.  1874);  Ki.iz.  P.  Pea- 
body,  Education  of  the  Kindergartner  (Pitts- 
burgh, 1875);  Johannes  and  Bertha  Ronge, 
Guide  to  the  English  Kindergarten  (Loudon, 
ls7.">) :  Edw.  Wiebe,    The   Paradise  of  Child- 

KINDERMANN,  Ferdinand,  one  of  the 
greatest  educational  reformers  of  Austria,  born 
at  Konigswaldc.in  llohemia.  Dec.  27..  1740,  died 
May  25.,  1801.     When  lie   was   appointed,   in 


KING    COLLEGE 


1771,  parish  priest  of  Kaplitz,  he  found  the 
Bchool  -I  thai  town,  as  well  as  the  schools  of 
Bohemia  in  general,  in  a  mosl  deplorable  condi- 


KXOX    COLLEGE 


iMs  in  sli.tn-  I.iil'  ly  ni  tin'  benefits  of  the  institu- 
liun.   Ni,  p.  is,  hi.  Imwi-vi  i .  \\  ho  is  not  a  member  oi 


mationoi  ti 

his  pastoral 
to  theschoc 
struct,  and 
equally  enli 


I!, ill 


1  in  make  the  refor- 
rk  nt'  his  life  ;  and.  as 
v   which  he  gave  to 


w  to  learn  ;    and 
t  of  teacher,  childi 

time  with  c pi 

ilii/,  became  faun 
ren   beyond  its  h 


s.    'I  he  arrangements  of  the 

under  tin-  supcn  isiuii  nf   the 
( 'am ni  Barry.     There  is  also 


dermaim  was  appoit 
all  the  German  schc 
cilor  of  tht'  school  c< 
he  also  became  pro 
the  gymnasia  of  I'r 
he  devol  .1  his  atten 
nii'iit  of  the  normal 
which  he  exerted  tl 

upon  tl ther  Bohi 

Maria  Theresa  ackni 
ways,  and  rais  '■!  h 
derthe  title  oi   Kni 

method  which  Kind 


take  such 
In   Lent 

..ni  incuts. 

.1  pupils: 

udents  in 

its  in  the 

lal  would 

method, 
of  the  pei 
induced  h 

m  ,p.,„iii 
ure,  hi.irti 

ni; 

-ilk 


Be  thus  became  the  founder  of  the  industrial- 
school  system  in  his  country.  -See  Aigner,  Der 
Folks-  and  friduslrieref or  motor  Bischo/ Ferdi- 
nand Kinderma L867). 

KING  COLLEGE,  at  I'.ristol.  'Irn. „■-,,. 
founded  in  1868,  is  under  the  < trol  of  Presby- 
terians. It  is  supported  I  iv  tiiilniii  fees,  varvim_r 
from  $12  I,,  $25  per  term  of  20  weeks,  and  the 
procccils  of  an  cinlowiiicnt  of  s.io.uiio.  It  has 
a  preparatory  ami  a  collegiate  department.  In 
1875—6,  there  were  I  instructors  and  76  stu- 
dents. The  Rev.  • lames  l>  Tadlock  has  been 
the  president  from  the  commencement  of  the 
institution. 

KING'S  COLLEGE    .London)  is  erected 


3,  di  i strators,  and  the 

Many  of  these  and  oi  the 


with  a  council  of  1 2  govi  i  uor 
appointed  by  the  proprietors 
year.     The  remainder  are  eit 


by 


foumlation  was  owing 
tion  which  many  felt 
religious  teaching  from 
had  opened  its  classes 
than  King's.  Accord 
are  instructed  in  the  'I 
England;  although  a  lil 
operation,  which  enabk 


feasors,  the  other  fourth  being  retained  bj 
the  college  The  college  has  a  hospital  near 
Lincoln's  Inn  Fields;  it  has  also  a  chapel  for 
divine  service   on  Sundays  and  week-days.     A 

fege.    "see  the  CoUegl  "rr'^ll.  md  the  Fifth 
Report  nf  the  Royal  Cot - »  Scientific 

KNOX  COLLEGE,  at  Galesburg,  Ilk.  was 
founded  in  1836,  and  fully  organized  in  L841. 
The  first   class  graduated   in   I -In.     Ii    is  non- 


i06 


LAFAYETTE   COLLEGE 


sectarian.  The  productive  funds  amount,  to 
§110,1100;  and  the  buildings,  grounds,  etc.,  are 
valued  at  $190,000.  The  libraries  contain  6,600 
volumes.  There  are  also  cabinets  of  natural  his- 
tory. The  regular  tuition  fees  vary  from  §20  to 
$30  per  annum.  The  institution  comprises  a  col- 
lege, a  ladies'  seminary,  and  an  academy,  t  lie  iirst 
of  which  includes  a  "lassieal  and  a  scientific 
course..    In  1875 — (i.  there  were  12  instructors, 


LANCASTER 

and  325  students,  of  whom  41  were  in  the 
college.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows  : 
the  Kev.  Hiram  II.  Kellogg,  to  1845  ;  the  Rev. 
. Jonathan  Blanchard,  to  L858 ;  the  Rev.  Harvey 
Curtiss,tol863;  the  Kev.  \Vm.  S.  < 'urtiss,  D.D., 
to  1868;  the  Rev.  John  P.Gulliver,  D.  D.,  to 
1872  ;  Prof.  Albert  Hurd  (acting),  to  1874  ;  and 
Newton  Bateman,  LL.  D.,  the  present  incum- 
bent (1876). 


LAFAYETTE  COLLEGE,  atEaston.Pa.. 
under  Presbyterian  control,  was  chartered  in 
L826,  and  fully  organized  in  1832,  with  the 
usual  classical  course  of  study  preparatory  to 
the  learned  professions.  The  Pardee  Scientific 
Department  was  added  in  1866,  through  the 
munificence  of  Mr.  Ario  Pardee  of  Hazleton, 
whose  gifts  for  this  purpose  amount  to  nearly 
$500,000.  The  college  lias  seven  dormitories, 
four  of  them,  known  as  students'  homes,  having 
also  families  residing  in  them,  and  providing 
board  and  a  home  for  such  as  desire  it.  It  has 
five  buildings  i if  instruction  and  manipulation. 
The  Pardee" Hall  of  Technical  Instruction,  built 
and  fitted  upat  a  cost  of  .-^oil.noil.  was  dedicated 
in  1  -7;;.  Tli ■■  cli  'inical  1  ili  ■•  I'oii  .  i iv  perhaps 
unequaled  in  this  count  >  and  th  se  of  mining 
and  metallurgy,  mechanics  and  physics,  are  of 
the   best.     The  department    of    natural   history 

contains  the   most   complete   collec i   the 

plants  of  Pennsylvania.  The  college  has  libraries 
of  over  20.0110  volumes,  and  is  especially  rich  in 
the  department  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  early  En- 
glish.     It   maintains  a   reading  r u,  in  which, 

besides   papers   and    periodicals,    the   reference 

books  most  frequentU   del    in  each  study  are 

kept  for  constant  use.  The  methods  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  two  lir-t  years  are  those  of  the  gym- 
nasium. The  classes  are  kept  in  small  divisions; 
and  short  lessons  are  thoroughly  learned,  and 
accompanied  by  many  exercises  of  practice,  and 
elementary  explanation,  often  repeated.  In  the 
two  last  years,  there  is  more  attempt  to  stimulate 
general  investigation,  and  to  communicate  ad- 
vanced thought  and  methods  by  lectures,  and  by 
requiring  the  preparation  of  essays  of  research. 
It  now  offers  five  courses,  of  four  years  each; 
namely,  classical,  scientific,  engineering,  mining 
and  metallurgy,  and  chemistry,  leading  respect- 
ively to  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Arts, 
Bachelor  of  Philosophy,  Civil  Engineer,  Mining 
Engineer,  and  Analytical  Chemist.  Partial 
n.  and  opportunities 
are  afforded  for  post-graduat(  study.  A  three 
years'  post-graduate  course  leads  to  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Philosophy.  A  law  department 
was  opened  in  1875.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  from 
$  I.i  to  $75  per  year.  In  L875—  6,  there  were  28 
instructors  and  335  students  in  the  academic 
departments.  The  college  has  been  honorably 
associated  with  the  progress  of  meteorological 
science  through  the  labors  of  Prof.  J.  II.  Coffin, 
LL.  D.,  by  whom  the  government   observations 


and  the  collections  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution 
have  been  here  reduced  and  prepared  for  publi- 
cation ;  also,  since  the  election  of  Prof.  P.  A. 
March.  1 855,  with  the  study  of  Anglo-Saxon  and 
English,  in  connection  with  comparative  philol- 
ogy and  history,  in  which  it  has  been  a  leader 
(see  Anglo-Saxon,  and  English,  the  Study  of); 
it  is  also  distinguished  for  its  courses  in  the 
Latin  and  <  ireek  of  i  Ihristian  writers,  established, 
in  1872,  byan  endowment  from  Mr.  Ben j.  Doug- 
lass of  New  York  City.  Since  1865,  under  tht 
presidency  of  the  Kev.'  W.  ( '.  ( 'attell.  D.D..  it  has 
also  become  a  center  of  scientific  and  technical 
study  for  the  coal  and  iron  districts  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  New  Jersey.  The  presidents  of  the 
college  have  been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  George 
•  lunkin.  D.  D..  L832— 41,  and  1844—8;  the 
Rev.  J.  W.  Yeomans,  D.  D.,  1841—4;  the 
Rev.  ('.  W.  Nassau.  1).  I'..  1849;  the  l,V\.  D.V. 
McLean.  D.  I>„  1850—57  ;  the  Rev.  G.  W.  Mc 
I'haii.  I>.  D.,  the  present  incumbent,  appointed 
in  1857. 

LA  GRANGE  COLLEGE,  at  La  Grange, 
Mo.,  was  chartered  in  1859,  and  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Baptist  denomination.  The  college 
has  valuable  meteorological,  astronomical,  chem- 
ical.and  electrical  apparatus. a  good  mineralogical 
and  geological  cabinet,  and  a  growing  library. 
It  is'cliieily  supported  by  tuition  fees  varying 
from  $24  to  $40  per  year.  During  the  present 
year  an  endowment  of  about  $25,000  has  been 
secured.  Candidates  for  the  ministry  receive 
tuition  free.  There  is  a  primary,  a  preparatory, 
and  a  collegiate  department,  the  last  having  a 
classical  and  a  scientific  course.  Both  sexes  arc 
admitted.  In  1874—5,  there  were  10  professors, 
143  students,  and  42  nlumni  (24  males  and  18 
females).  J.  F.  Cook,  LL.  D.,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

LANCASTER,  Joseph,  an  English  edu- 
cator, born  in  London  in  1778:  died  in  New 
York,  Oct.  24.,  1838.  He  was  the  promoter, 
though",  probably,  not  the  originator,  of  the  sys- 
tem of  instruction  or  school  organization  which, 
for  a  long  time,  passed  under  his  name.  Of  an 
imaginaf  ive  and  excitable  disposition.  Lancaster, 
at  an  early  age, showed  the  enthusiasm  of  a  true 
j  zealot.  Thus,  when  only  fourteen  years  old, 
upon  reading  Clarkson's  Essay  on  the  Slave 
Trade,  he  was  seized  with  the  desire  to  educate 
the  blacks,  so  that  they  might  be  able  to  read 
the  Scriptures,  and.  to  that  end.  ran  away  from 
home,  carrying  a  Bible  and  a  copy  of  Pilgrim's 


T.AXOASTKi; 


307 


Progress  in  his  pocket.     The   captain  of  the  tori  u,  System.)     Of  the  extraordinary  success 

vessel,  however,  in  which    he  proposed  to  sail,  achieved  by  Lancaster  in  its  application,  and  the 

prudently  sent  him  back.    At  sixteen,  he  joined  unselfish  devotion  of  his  life  to  its  practice,  we 

the  society  of    Friends;    I  nit.  .short  1\   afterward,  have  the  most  abundant  evidence.    Iliscourseof 


afterwards  the  busini 
Dr.  Andrew  Hell  (q.-s 
entitled  An  Experimei 
the  Male  Asylum  „f  \ 

teni,  variously  known  i 
instruction,  or,  afterwa 
was  set  forth.     This 
attention  in    England. 
Lancaster  opened  a  si 


att. 


.In 


the    scanty  arithmetic,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  llible.  the  fee 

London,  he  for  tuition  being  four  pence  a  week;  while  many, 

lich  became  even  from  the  first,  were  admitted  free.     Over 

In    lT'JT.  the  door  of  the  school-house,  we  arc   told,  was 

i   pamphlet,    printed  the  ai uncement,  "  All  that  will,  may 

at.  made  at  send   their  children,  and  have  them  educated 

eh  the  sys-  freely;  and  those  that  do  not  wish  to  have  edu- 

Hal,  mutual  cation  for  nothing, may  payfor  it  if  they  please." 

inn  system.  The  children  came  to  him     like  tlocks  of  sheep." 

'acted    little  and   his    school,    in    London,    was  sometimes  at- 

iwing   year,  tended  by  a  thousand.     It   became  one  of  the 

bwark,  and  points  ,»f'  interest  for  visiting  foreigners,  and  of 

iscover  that  persons  of  all  classes  int.  n  sted  in  the  subject  of 

itch   it   was  education.    The  wonderful  discipline  maintained 


sciirity  att 
creas  d  by 

began,  how 


d  plan  on  which 
stent    to    which 

him  tit  this  time 


•hilly 


general  a  recognition 
organiz  id  upon  that 
ali  over  the  country 
the  success  attained 
the  poor,  began  to  t 
the  direction  of  Id 
established  char  h,  v, 
lected  or  overlooked 
extolled.  The  excil 
valrv  was  the  means 


by  the  help  of  monitors  who  accompanied  him  ; 

lirst.  till    it 

and  it  is  said  that,  during  one  of  those  years,  a 
new  school  according  to  his  system   was  opened 
every  week.     The  enthusiasm  thus  created  soon 

money  from 

from  the  kit 

for  him,  and 

led.  however,  to  great  pecuniary  success, but  with- 

account of  tl 

out  permanent  benefit  to  the  institutions  which 

expressed  his 

he  had  founded,  since  his  ardent  temperament 

sire  that  ever 

and  want  of  business  capacity   constantly  sub- 

be taught  to 

jected  him  to  serious  embarrassment.      In    lsll'. 

his  power  to 

he  attempted  to  found  a  school  composed  entirely 

and  economy 

of  the  children  of  wealthy  patents;  hut  he  failed. 

foratime.a\ 

visited  the  United  Stati  3,  and  was  well  received; 

is'of  "lut'lc" 

but   his  want   of  discretion  again   broughl  him 

cipallv  ilepen 

into  trouble.  In  L829,  he  went  to  t  anada,  where 

Fiance,  and 

his  fame  procured  him  legislative  aid  in  the  fur- 

and led' to  v. 

therance  of  his  educational  projects ;  but  again 

land  it  is  stil 

becoming  embarrassed   pecuniarily,  he   removed 
to  New  York,  where  sonic  friends  had  purchased 

teacher  of  1111 

by  the  emplo 

for  him  a  small  annuity.     A  description  of  the 

sistnnts.     By 

•system  known  as  the  Lancasterian,  will  be  found 

is  enabled   t( 

•elsewhere  in  this  volume.    (See  Bell, and  Moni- 

qualified  to  b 

orderly  portion  of  the 
offender  by  means  of 
adopted  by  Lancaster 
ling  corporal  punish- 
Bis  school  revenue, 
ilcst  contributions  of 
■  by  slow  degrees  at 
red  gifts  of  land  and 
:'  all  ranks,  and  even 
!.').  who.  in  1805,  sent 


rsoii  an 

dished, 

the  de- 


nied modifications.  In  bug 
e  as  a  means  of  relieving  the 
rk  not  essentially  educational, 
of   the  aptest  scholars  as  as- 

I  those  pupils  who  are  best 
ed  for  the  profession  of  teach- 


508 


LAND   CHANTS 


ing.  The  distinctive  service,  however,  rendered 
by  Lancaster  to  the  cause  of  education,  was  the 
wide-spread  interest  ami  enthusiasm  excited  in 
its  lirli.ilf.  and  his  vindication ol  anon-sectarian, 
though  Christian,  system.  His  published  works 
are,  Improvement  in  Education  (London,  1805), 
several  elementary  school  hooks,  and  many  pam- 
phlets in  defense  of  his  system.  For  interest- 
ing accounts  of  his  life  and  labors,  see  Life  of 
Lancaster,hy  Wii.u  wi  <  Iorston;  and  Lord  Cock- 
burn,  Memorials  of  his  own  Time;  also  Leitch, 
Practical  Educationists  and  their  Systems  of 
Teaching  (Glasgow,  1876). 

LAND  GRANTS,  Congressional.  See 
United  Si  i  pes. 

LANE  UNIVERSITY,  at  Lecompton. 
Kan.,  founded  in  1865,  is  under  the  control  of 
the  United  Brethren  in  <  Ihrist.  It  has  an  endow- 
ment of  $12,000  in  notes  and  real  estate.  There 
is  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  course.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted.  In  1872 — 3,  it  had  2  instruc- 
tors and  81  students  (70  preparatory  and  11  col- 
legiate). The  presidents  have  been  as  follows: 
the  Rev.  Solomon  Weaver,  L865  -  6;  the  Rev. 
David  Shuck,  A.  M.,  1866—70;  X.  B.  Bartlett, 
A.M.,  1870—74;  the  Rev.  David  Shuck,  A.M.. 
again  elected  in  1S74:  and  X.  11.  Bartlett,  A.M.. 
elected  a  second  time,  in  1870. 

LANGUAGE     (Lit.     lingua,    the    tongue, 

speech),  according  to  the  ordinarv   acceptal 

of  the  word,  is  the  utterance  of  articulate  sounds 
for  the  purpose  of  expressing  thought.  This 
mode  of  expression  constitutes  one  of  the  char- 
acteristic faculties  of  man  ;  since  no  community 
of  human  beings,  in  historic  times,  has  been 
found  entirely  destitute  of  language;  and  abroad 
line  of  demarcation  separates  every  kind  of 
human  speech  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge 
from  all  the  modes  of  expression  used  by  brutes. 

But  though  common  to  men  of  all  degrees 
of  culture,  and.  as  far  as  we  know,  in  all  periods 
of  time,  language  presents  an  infinite  number  of 
varieties.  The  further  we  remove  from  civiliza- 
tion, the  greater  is  th  •  number  of  different  lan- 
guages that  are  met  with.  "At  the  first  attainable 
period  of  our  knowledge  of  it.  whether  by  actual 
record,  or  by  the  inferences  of  the  comparative 
student,  it  is  in  a  state  of  almost  endless  sub- 
division. The  divaricating  forces  in  linguistic 
growth  are  in  the  ascendant;  dialects  go  on 
multiplying,  by  the  action  of  the  same  causes 
that  had  already  produced  them.  But  wherever 
civilization  is  at  work,  an  opposite  influence  is 
powerfully  operating.  Out  of  the  congeries  of 
jarring  tribes  are  growing  great  nations  ;  out  of 
the   Babel    of  discordani   dialects  are  growing 


ent  languages  to  each  other,  is  of  a  comparatively 
recent  origin.  The  Greeks  and  the  Romans  had 
a  number  of  grammarians,  but  most  of  them  had 
uage.or. 
uages, 


an  acquaintance 

and  they  wire,  t 
generalization. 

prior  to  the  tini 
in  the  light  of  t 
of  scholars,  is  oi 
of  Leibnitz,  am 
the  Origin  of 
ment.  The  Er 
took  great  intei 
her  embassador 
in  collecting  th 
of  languages  foi 
body  and  for  th 
of  the  material 
Pallas  prepared 


le  to  make  a  sound 
3t,  hardly  any  work 

which,  considered 
uistic  attainments 
■  value.  The  ideas 
lis  prize  essay  Oh 
litiatcd  the  move- 
ine  II.,  of  Russia, 
the  co-operation  of 
1  Asia  was  enlisted 

in  a  large  number 
parts  of  the  human 
if  life.  On  the  basis 
.  Zimmermann  and 

the  empress.  Lin- 

first    comparative 


comparative  grammar.  After  these  publications, 
Bopp,  by  his  comparative  grammar  of  the  Indo- 
Germanic  languages,   and  Jacob  Grimm,  I  v  his 

historical  grammar   of   the    German    languages, 


,ilo]„gv. 

I iv   the 

i  degree 


labor 

of  pel 


again  involved  the  necessity  of  a  thorough 
scientific  study,  not  only  of  every  language  and 
dialect  that  is  now  spoken,  but  even  of  the  lan- 
guages that  are  extinct.  A  marvelous  amount 
of  energy  and  ingenuity  has.  in  the  course  of  the 
present  century,  been  expended  for  the  purpose 
of  solving  this  task.  Travelers  and  missionaries 
have  explored  the  languages  of  the  most  bar- 
barous and  uncivilized  tribes;  keen  philologists 
have  spent  a  lite  time  in  recovering  the  lost  key 
to  extinct  languages  of  the  highest  antiquitv. 
like  the  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  Etruscan  ;  and 
the  professors  of  comparative  linguistics  have 
been  indefatigable  in  collating  all  t  hese  discover- 
ies, and  in  using  them  in  order  to  improve  the 
classification  of  languages,  and  to  promote  our 
knowledge  (if  the  development  of   human  speech 

in  general.     It  must,  oi  course,  he  apparent  at 

tir-t  sight,  that  any  classificati t  languages,  at 

the  present  time,  can  .ml\'  I.,-  regarded  as  a  tent- 
ative and  i.im  isional  arrangement ;  but  a  glance 


langu. 

(Whi 

Tin 

guisti 


11  over  the  earth. 
rll,  „/'  Language.) 
i    the  nature  of  li 


at    the    labors   mi 
fication  are  based. 

already  have  been 
importance.     The 


families  nf  languages  is  the  Indo-Germanic  (q. 
v.J,  which,  in  its  totality,  has  been  for  more  than 
two  thousand  years  the  language  of  the  ruling 
races  of  the  world,  and  which  embraces,  by  t In- 
side of  the  English,  the  rulimj ■  lan-n.-i-.  -  "n  ur\ 
American  and  European  country,  except  Hun- 
gary and  Turkey,  and  the  two  classic  lan-uag-s. 
I^atin  and  llnvk,  which  have  home  so  prominent 
apart  in  the  education  of  the  human  race  up  to 
its  present  state  of  civilization.  The  Hungarian 
and  Turkish  languages  have  been  recognized  as  be- 
longing to  two  distinct  branches  of  one  common 
family  called  by  different  philologists  Scytliiiui 
(Whitney),  or  Turanian,  or  I  'ralo-Altaic.  or  Tar- 
taric, ami  presenting  in  the  phonetic  structure  of 
all  its  members  some  striking  family  traits.   The 


Am; 


the  sa 


the  Se 


he  Jewish  and 
Arabic  Syriao, 
igues  of  western 
as  a  branch  of 
•s.  which,  after 


family  of  lair. 
the  In  lo-(  lermanic,  is  byfar 
in  the  history  of  the  world. 

portance  in  the  history  of  reli 
the  founders  of  all  the  three  great  monotheistic 
religions, — Christianity.  Judaism,   and   .Moham- 
medanism, belonged  to  it. 

We  have  cast  this  cursory  glance  at  the  growth 


iught :  since 


tific  research  must,  in  a  marked  manner,  influence 
and  shape  every  course  of  instruction.  The  in- 
fluence of  these  results  is  most  apparent  in  the 

first  stage  in  the  development  of  language  consists 

inth.-prolucti  m  of  articulate  sounds  and  combi- 
nations of  sounds  ;  the  second,  in  the  connection 
of  words  with  conceptions;  the  third,  in  the  com- 
bination of  words  for  the  expression  of  thought. 
(See  Intellectual  Eottcation.)  The  develop- 
ment of  language  in  a  child  should  not  outrun 
his  mental  development  :  it  should  at  first  follow, 
and  subsequently  accompany  it.  The  child,  from 
his  first  infancy,  has  a  tendency  to  give  some  kind 
of  expression  to  all  the  emotions  of  his  mind.  At 
first,  various  movements  of  the  body,  and  inartic- 
ulate sounds  serve  for  the  purpose:  when  the 
perceptions  become  more  distinct,  the  child  looks 
around  for  more  definite  expressions,  and  finds 
them  in  the  word-language  of  those  who  sur- 
round him.  If  the  child  has  sound  organs  of 
speech,  the  task  of  the  educator,  at  first,  is  com- 
paratively easy.  An  artificial  plan  is  neither 
necessary  nor  practical  :  an  occasional  influence 
is  sufficient,  By  hearing  the  names  of  the  objects, 
actions,  qualities,  circumstances,  and  relations. 
which  he  perceives,  correctly  and  distinctly  pro- 
nounced, the  child  obtains  his  first  knowledge  of 
words,  and  learns  to  associate  them  with  the 
designated  objects.  The  memory,  without  dif- 
ficulty, retains  a  large  number  of  words,  and 
frequent   practice   soon    leads    to    readiness  of  i 


speech.  Occasional  conversations  with  the  child 
on  the  objects   of  his  attention,  with  little  de- 

sary  material  tor  ,m„v,m„2  , ■;„1!'b1,.',: ,,'','  '  ^ 

his  mind"   Where  the  cultivation  ol  speech  is 

neglected  in  the  education  ,,f  u  child,  the  intel- 
lectual development  is  likewise  retarded.  On  the 
other  hand,  any  attempt  to  force  unduly  the 
rapid,  development  of  speech,  may  lead  to  vain 
and  thoughtless  garrulity,  or  to  a  production  of 
erroneous  representations  in  the  mind,  which  will 
obstruct  its  harmonious  development.  During 
this  first  stage  of  education,  the  mother  is  the 
child's  natural  and  best  teacher  of  language,  and 
the  language  wtiich  the  child  thus  learns  has 
justly  been  called  the  "mother-tongue".  Home 
education  may  receive  a  useful,  and  in  many  cases 
a  very  desirable,  aid  in  a  good  kindergarten. 

The  instruction  provided  for  in  the  common 
schools  of  modern  times  aims  chiefly  at  perfect- 
ing the  pupil  in  his  vernacular  language.  The 
course  of  instruction  to  this  end  eml  paces  ex- 
ercises in  spelling,  reading,  writing,  definitions, 
composition.  English  grammar,  elocution,  etc. 
There  is  still  great  diversity  of  opinion  among 
educators  as  to  the  best  methods  of  teaching 
each  of  these  branches,  and  as  to  the  relative 
position  which  each  of  them  should  occupy  in 
the  course  of  studies.  This  subject  is  fully 
discussed  in  the  special  articles  devoted  to  the 
branches  of  instruction  just  enumerated.  All 
educators,  however,  agree  in  regarding  it  as  one 
of  the  chief  aims  of  school  education  to  give  to 
the  pupil  a  good  knowledge  of  his  vernacular 
language,  and  fluency  in  speaking  and  writing  it 
correctly.  Even  in  those  branches  of  study 
which  neither  solely  nor  chiefly  aim  at  im- 
proving the  linguistic  knowledge  of  the  pupil. 
as  arithmetic,  geography,  history,  etc.  c\er\  edu- 
cator nowadays  requires  that  pupils  shall  be 
trained  in  the  correction  of  language,  and  taught 
to  avoid  common  criers  of  Bpeech.-  Nothing  is 
more  adapted  to  illustrate  the  great  progress 
which,  in  the  course  of  the  present  century,  has 
been  made  in  the  education  of  mankind  than  the 
steadily  improving  methods  employed  in  teaching 
the  youth  of  civilized  countries  their  vernacular 
tongue.  At  Athens  and  Rome,  instruction  was 
given  to  children  in  reading,  writing,  and  gram- 
mar, but  it  was  mostly  limited  to  the  boys  of 
the  higher  classes.  Throughout  the  middle  a-rs. 
Latin  was  the  medium  of  instruction  in  all  c  la- 
ses  of  schools,  partly  because  the  popular  dialects 
had  not  yet  attained  the  degree  of  perfection 
needed  for  expressing  the  thought  of  scholars. 
Even  in  the  Kith,  17th.  and  18th  centuries,  the 
study  of  the  vernacular  language  made  but  very 
slow  progress,  and  it  was  reserved  for  the  1'ith 
century  to  mature  plans  for  imparting  to  the  en- 
tire population  a  good  knowledge  of  their  native 
tongues.  Hand  in  hand  with  the  progress  in  ele- 
mentary knowledge  thus  achieved,  goes  the  more 
general  demand  for  popular,  especially  periodical, 
literature,  and  the  more  active  and  more  intel- 
ligent participation  of  the  masses  in  public  life. 


510 


i.wi.i   w,i: 


There  are  some  countries  in  which  the  entire 
native  population  speak  one  language;  others 
in  which  two,  three,  or  more  are  spoken  by  large 

bodies  of  the  people.     An -   tie  former  are 

Italy,  Portugal,  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Nor- 
way': among"  the  latter.  Great  Britain,  France, 
Holland,  Spain,  Belgium,  Germany,  Austria, 
Hungary,  Russia,  Switzerland,  and  the  United 
States.  '  In  Switzerland,  three  languages, — the 
German,  French,  and  Italian,  are,  to  some 
extent,  regarded  as  national  languages:  in  all 
the  other  countries,  one  language  only  lias  the 
character  of  a  national  language,  though  in  some 
cases,  as  in  Belgium,  Austria,  ami  Hungary,  it 
is  the  mother-tongue  of  only  a  minority  of  the 
population.  In  several  of  these  countries,  the 
question  to  what  extent  any  other  than  the  ml- 
ing  language  should  be  admitted  into  the  state 
schools  as  a  branch,  or  as  a  medium,  of  instruc- 
tion.  has  led  to  animated  controversies,  which 
are  far  from  being  ended.  From  political  rea- 
sons, it  is  natural  that  the  union  of  an  entire 
people  in  the  bonds  of  one  common  language 
should  be  looked  upon  as  most  desirable;  but, 
from  an  educational  point  of  view,  it  will  always 
be  urged  that,  however  desirable  the  universal 
knowledge  of  one  national  language  by  all  the 
inhabitants  of  a  country,  especially  a  large  coun- 
try, may  be.  the  principle  cannot  be  impugned 
that,  wherever  it  is  practicable,  the  education 
of  young  children  should  not  dispense  with  in- 
struction in  the  mother-tongue,  in  order  to  se- 
cure an  entire  co-operation  between  home  edu- 
cation and  school  education.  As  this  question 
equally  cone,  rns  a  number  of  large  countries,  it 
is  to  be  hoped  that  a  solution  may  be  found  which 
will  reconcile  conflicting  claims. —  Besides  the 
mother  tongue   and   the    national    laiiiiiia'j. 


lodern  languages 
ed    in   .schools  of   a 

languages  have,  to  a 
incut  position  which 
lost  schemes  of  ci  I  it- 
'll languages,  on  the 

steadily  extending. 
f  view,  many  educa- 


two  classical  an 
are  very  extensively  sti 
higher  grade.  The  classic 
large  extent.  lo.-t  the  pre 
they  formerly  occupied  ii 
cation:  the  study  of  mo 
other  hand,  appears  to 
From  a  pedagogical  poin 

tors  urge  tl arly  study  of  a  cognate  language 

as  a  means  to  promote,  by  way  of  comparison,  a 
more  thorough  understanding  of  the  native  lan- 
guage. From  a  business  or  practical  point  of 
view,  there  is  naturally  a  growing  demand  for 
instruction  in  the  languages  of  several  foreign 
countries.  The  treasures  of  the  English,  Ger- 
man,and  French  literatures  are  also  stimulating, 
in  an  increasing  ratio,  the  study,  in  many  coun- 
tries, of  those  three  languages,  which,  by  com- 
mon consent,  are •  ivjardecl  as  exceeding. all  others 
in  importance.  —  See  Marcel,  Language  as 
,,  Means  of  Mental  Culture  and  International 
Communication  (2  vols.,  London.  1853)  ;  and 
The  Study  of   Lang ,es  (Lond.  and   X.  Y.. 


guage  \m.  i., ioi»j.  nseeaiBo  i  i.vssicu,  on  u- 
iF.s,  Grammar,  Modern  Languages,  and  the 
special  articles  on  Latin,  Greek,  German,  and 
French. 


LATIN    LANGUAGE 

LA  SALLE,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French 
priest  and  teacher,  born  in  Reims,  April  30., 
1651  ;  died  in  Rouen,  April  7..  171  9.  In  1  669, 
he  was  appointed  canon  of  the  cathedral  of 
Reims,  and  afterwards  went  to  Paris  to  com- 
plete his  studies.  In  1671,  he  was  ordained  a 
priest,  and  began  at  once  the  work  of  his  life, 
the  education  and  improvement  of  the  working 
classes.  His  first  project  was  the  obtaining  of  a 
charter  for  a  sisterhood,  already  established  in 
his  native  place,  an. I  designed  exclusively  for 
the  edueati if  poor  girls.  This  led  to  the  foun- 
dation of  a  similar  ord<  r  designed  to  promote  the 
education  of  boys,  which  rapidly  spread  through- 
out I'raiice.  under  the  name  of  Brethren  of  the 
t  hristian  Schools.  The  distinctive  features  of 
his  system  were,  the  bringing  together  of  the 
teachers  in  a  common  residence,  the  use  of  the 
coarsest  food  .and  raiment,  and  vows  of  the 
strictest  obedience  and  devotion,  during  a  pre- 
paratory course  of  three  years,  to  be  renewed 
afterwards  for  life  by  those  desiring  it.  No 
member  of  the  older  was  permitted  to  become  a 
priest;  and  to  prevent  any  aspirations  in  that 
direction.  Latin,  as  a  study,  was  forbidden  till 
the  age  of  thirty.  In  order  to  set  an  example  of 
religious  poverty  to  his  followers,  he  renounced 
his  prebend,  distributed  his  money  in  alms,  and 
constantly  taught  in  the  schools.  After  some  per- 
sectitionsat  the  hands  of  secular  teachers,  he  pur- 
chased the  establishment  of  St.  Yon.  at  Rouen, 
which  afterwards  became   the  central  school  of 

tl .lei.      In  L868,  the  brother] d  numbered 

Hi. teachers  and   300,000  pupils,  in  France: 

and  in  the  United  States,  323  teachers  and 
15,000  pupils.  The  published  works  by  which 
La  Salle  is  best  known,  are:  Les  regies  de  la 
bienseance  et  de  la  civilitt  ehr&iennes,  and  Les 
douze  vertus  d'tin  ban  maitre. 

LA  SALLE  COLLEGE,  in  Philadelphia. 
Pa.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  founded  in 
leli:!.  is  under  the  control  of  the  <  hriMian 
Brothers.  Ii  is  supported  by  tuition  fees,  varying 
from  Sin  to  $20  per  quarter.  It  has  a  primary, 
an  academic,  a  commercial,  and  a  collegiate  de- 
partment. The  degrees  conferred  are  A.B..B.S., 
and  A.M.  In  1875  6,  there  were  200  students 
(74  collegiate,  33  commercial,  and  93  academic). 
The  presidents  of  the  college  have  been,  Brother 
Oliver,  Brother  Noah,  Brother  Joachim,  and 
Brother  Stephen  (the  present  incumbent). 

LATIN  LANGUAGE,  one  of  the  two  clas- 
sical languages,  which  as  the  language  of  one  of 
the  greatest  empires  of  the  world,  and  of  one  of 
the  richest  of  literature.-,  and  subsequently  as 
the  official  language'  of  the  Catholic  church,  the 
literary  language  of  western  Europe,  and  the 
mother  of  the  Romanic  languages,  has  been 
among  the  foremost  agents  in  developing  modern 
civilization.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Lat- 
in.-, or  inhabitants  of  Latitun.  in  central  Italy. 
by  whom  it  is  believed  by  some  to  have  been 
spok"n  as  early  as  fifteen  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  According  to  the  researches 
of  modern  philology,  the  Latin  is  one  of  the 
two  blanches  of   the  Old  Italic  language,  which. 


LATIN     LANCI'.U.K 


511 


with  the  Greek,  German,  Sanskrit,  and  others,  schools,  which  in  the  12th  century.began  to  arise 

is   regarded  as  <>ne  of  the  chief  divisions  into  by  the  side  of ,  and  frequently  in  opposition   to, 

which  the  [ndo-Germanic  languages  (q.v.)  are  the  church  schools.     It  was  this  latter  class  of 

divided.     The  close  resemblance  oi    the  Latin,  bc! Is  for  which  the  name  1       is     •ok   q.v.) 


of  the  Old  Italic  language, 

some  philologists  to  assume 

and  the  <  treek  language  spri 

now   lost .  which  was  co-on 


all 


Ait 


name  of  the  people  to  whom  it  owes  its  eminent 
position  in  history,  it  his  also  been  called  the 
Roman  language.     For  a  long  time,  the  Romans 

which  is  now  extant  dating  about  - 10  B.  < '.  <  >f 
the  preceding,  ante-literary  period  of  the  lan- 
guage nothing  is  now  left  but  a  few  fragments 
of  the  Salian  songs,  of  the  chant  of  the  Arval 
brethren,  and  of  the  law  of  the  twelve  tables,  be- 
sides a  few  epitaphs.  During  the  next  two 
centuries,  Latin  literature  was  gradually  devel- 
oped, until,  in  the  writings  of  Cicero,  it  reached 
its  classic  period.  Though  the  distinction  be- 
tween the  eleganl  language  of  the  educated 
classes  (lingua  urbana,  urbanUas)  and  the  lan- 
guage of  the  common  and  lower  classes  of  the 
people  (lingua  rustica  or  vulgaris,  ruslicitas) 
was  early  and  broadly  drawn,  the  literary  lan- 
guage was  and  remained  substantially  the  same  : 
and  the  natives  of  the  provinces  of  Spain  and 
northern  Africa  among  the  Roman  writers  used 
the  same  language  as  the  natives  of  the  city, 
although,  in  regard  to  the  spoken  language,  the 
latter  claimed  the  same  prerogative  as  the  mo  I- 
ern  Parisians  in  regard  to  French.    In  the  Bret 


rial 


language  of  (  Scero 
many  w  titers  of  I 
success,  to  reprodi 


The  speaking  of  Latin  was  common 
the  citizens  and  inc.  banics  oi  tow  ns : 
i-  reported  of  the  family  of  the  learned 
Henry  Stephens  that  not  only  his  wife, 
en  hi,'  domestics  talked  Latin'.  Special 
au.v  was  attributed  to  the  speaking  of 
in    th.-  schools  of  the  Jesuits;  and  also 


iking  and  wttting  I  .at- 
■  growing  opposition 
oi  classical  studies  in 
civilized  nations,  has 
itin  as  well  as  that  of 


Roman 

third  eel 

erature  i 
common 
provincialism 


j,  the  purity  of  the  language  and  lit- 
lly  declined  The  language  of  the 
led  the  literary  language, 
recisms  became  more  and 
more  frequent:  and  although  there  was  a  revival 
of  pure  Latin  in  the  literature  of  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries,  the  spoken  language,  in  constant 
contact  with,  and  under  the  influence  of,  the 
tongues  of  the  barbaric  conquerors  of  the  em- 
pire, gradually  succumbed  to  that  series  of  gram- 
matical and  verbal  changes  which  formed  the 
transition   into   the   Romanic  laii._nia<j.e.      In  the 

mean  while,  Latin  hail  1 me  the  liturgical  and 

official  language  of  the  <  Ihristian  <  liuivh;  and,  as 
the  modern  languages  which  arose  in  different 
countries  of  Europe  remained  for  centuries  de- 
void of  a  literary  character,  Latin  became  the 
common  language  of  tin-  -  lio.,L  ami  lit.  i  .:  ■  1 1-.  -  of 

tion,  not  only  in  the  convent, and  in  the  cath  dr.il 

and   collegiate   schools,   but    also    in    the   town 


Ther 

main 
conic 


rhei     .    ivhen  she  personally  ap- 

ts  support,  with  the  memorable 

/ -prorege  nostro  Maria 

a-  Roman  1  latholic  <  'hurch.  Latin 

ipaired    the    high  authority  ac- 

the  language  of  the  Church  :  and, 

11  used  by  the  Pope  in  his  com- 
th  the  bishops  and  church  mem- 

raalities,  and  by  the  councils  of 

heir  discussions  and  decrees. 

863) 

t.    It 


:.l: 


LATTX    LANGUAGE 


ters  are  the  offspring  of  the  ./Eolo-Doric  variety 
of  the  Greek  alphabet.  According  to  ( !icero  ami 
Quintilian,  the  number  of  letters  in  the  old  Lat- 
in was  21,  but  only  20  appear  in  the  earliest 
documents.  ( »ne  letter  appears,  therefore,  to 
have  disappeared,  which, according  to  Mommsen 
and  Lenormant,  was  Z.  The  letter  C,  as  its 
place  in  the  alphabet,  as  well  as  its  early  pro- 
nunciation, indicates,  was  originally  identical 
with  the  Greek  V ;  as  it  gradually  a>.-unied 
tliesoun.lK.it  caused  the  introduction  of  the 
letter  G.  which  was  not  in  the  earliest  alphabet, 
as  well  as  the  disappearance  of  the  letter  K. 
which  maintained  itself  in  only  a  very  few  ab- 
breviations, in  regard  to  the  pronunciation  of 
Latin,  grammarians,  until  late  in  the  present 
century,  were  accustomed  to  remark  that  the  an- 
cient mode  of  pronouncing  it  was  almost  wholly 
lost,  and  that  modern  scholars  had  applied  to  it 
those  principles  which  regulate  the  pronuncia- 
tion of  their  own  languages.  The  obscurity  in 
which  Latin  pronunciation  was  believed  to  be 
enveloped,  has,  to  a  great  extent,  been  removed 
by  the  learned  works  of  Corssen  [Ueber  Aus- 
sprache,  Vocalismus  tmd  Beton  rng  tier  V  ini- 

others;  and  the  leading  representativi  -  A  Utin 

itV    ill    reull'.l      to     this    Mllijeet.        It      1-1      JO     I   -I     .,, 

probable  that  the  Latin  vowels  ha  I  about  the 
same  sound  as  the  corresponding  vowels  have  in 
the  Italian  and  German  alphabets,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  o,  which  may  have  resembled  more  the 
sound  of  that  letter  in  /,</■■/.  than  in  note.  The 
y,  which  only  occurs  in  words  of  Greek  origin. 
sounds  like  the  Greek  v,  the  German  ii.  and  the 
French  a.  In  pronouncing  each  of  the  diph- 
thongs, the  Romans  distinctly  uttered  both  of 
the  vowels  composing  it.  Thus  in  ru  uter  each  of 
the  two  vowels  was  distinctly  heard,  just  as  iu 
the  pronunciation  of  this  diphthong  in  the 
modern  Italian  and  Portuguese.  The  letter  c 
was  always  pronounced  like  /,  ;  the  .'/  was  always 
hard  as  in  give;  final  m  had  an  obscure  sound, 
perhaps  the  nasal  sound  of  the  French,  as  in 
limit  ;  s  was  always  like  the  Spanish  s,  having 
the  sound  of  xs  in  miss  :  and  />//.  <•//,  th  were,  as 
the  characters  indicate,  pronounced  as  the  as- 
pirates p,  /,-,  and  t.  In  its  niles  for  accentuation 
and  the  iptantity  of  syllables,  the  Latin  resembles 
the  ( J  reek  :  and  it  was  thereby,  like  its  classic  sis- 
ter, enabled  to  develop  in  its  ] try  a  rhythmical 

form  which  by  far  exceeds,  in  point  of  beauty, 
any  thing  that  is  found  in  any  modern  language. 
The  inflectional  part  of  the  language,  both  in 
the  declension  of  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and 

num  lab.  and   in  the  conjugal i f  verbs,   also 

characterized  the  Latin  at  firsi  sight  as  a  sister 
of  the  Greek,  having  many  points  of  resem- 
blance. We  meet  with  striking  similarities  in  the 
rules  pertaining  to  cases,  numbers,  genders,  per- 
sons, voices,  and  i les,  together  with  extensive 

verbal  affinities.  The  later  development  of  liter- 
ature among  the  Romans  deprived  the  Latin 
of  many  of  the  forms  which  .-till  distinguish 
the  Greek,  and  gave  to   the   language  a  touch 


of  that  utilitarian  character  which  characterized 
the  people.  Thus,  there  is  no  dual  number,  no 
middle  voice  distinguished  in  its  form  from  the 
passive,  and  no  optative  mood.  Besides,  in  both 
the  active  and  the  passive  voice  of  the  Latin 
verb,  there  are  fewer  tense-forms  than  are  found 
in  the  (Jreek.  An  additional  case  in  the  declen- 
sion,,! singular  nouns — the  ablative  (which  of 
all  the  Indo-Germanic  languages  the  Latin  and 
(lid  Hadrian  alone  have  preserved),  is  a  small 
offset  in  favor  of  the  Latin,  as  far  as  fullness  of 
inflectional  forms  is  concerned. 

The  study  of  Latin  is  generally  begun  by  En- 
glish students  at  an  early  age.  It  almost  invari- 
ably precedes  that  of  the  Greek,  and  generally 
the  study  of  any  foreign  modern  language.  In 
many  cases,  the  study  of  English  grammar  is 
either  entirely  postponed  in  favor  of  Latin,  or 
only  its  most  elementary  rules  are  taught.  At 
the  outset,  the  student  becomes  aware  that  he  is 
entering  a  new  world  of  thought.  The  nouns 
which  he  has  met  with  in  his  English  reading, 
he  has  found  to  be  subject  to  but  very  few 
changes.  When  the  word  father  was  used  in  a 
possessive  sense,  it  became  father's;  if  used  in 
the  plural,  fathers ;  and  in  the  plural  and  pos- 
sessive, fathers'.  All  the  various  relations,  ex- 
cept the  possessive,  which  a  noun,  either  in  the 
singular  or  plural  number,  may  occupy  in  re- 
gard to  other  parts  of  the  sentence,  he  rinds,  are 
expressed  bv  means  of  ]  r,  pud! ions  :  as.  nf  the 
fa/her.  to  the  father,  with  the  father,  etc.  The 
latin  grammar  presents  to  him  quite  an  array 
,,f  different  forms:  as, pater, patris, patri,  i><i- 
Irtm.  etc.  Thus  he  sees  that  the  modifications 
of  thought  which  in  English  are  chiefly  expressed 
by  means  of  prepositions,  are  indicated  m  Latin 
by  the  varying  inflections  of  the  root.  It  re- 
quires considerable  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
youthful  scholar  to  grasp  this  new  idea,  and  it  is 
easdyseen  that  this  effort  must  tend  to  develop 
and  strengthen  the  thinking  powers  of  the  stu- 
dent.— However  much  the  methods  of  teaching 
1  .atin  may  differ  in  certain  details,  no  one 
should  dispense  with  a  thorough  drilling  in  the 
inflectional  part  of  the  language  and  in  the 
principal  rules  of  syntax.  Exercises  in  translat- 
ing from  Latin  into  English,  and  from  English 
into  Latin,  are  now  quite  generally  connected 
with  the  very  first  grammar  lessons.  In  accord- 
ance with  the  principles  of  modern  educational 
writers,  the  exercises  in  translation  are  now, 
from  the  beginning,  very  properly  given  in  most 
of  the  text-books  in  the  shape  of  complete  sen- 
tences. As  it  is  the  desire  of  every  teacher  to 
prepare  his  pupils  for  the  reading  of  the  Latin 
classics,  a  selection  of  the  translation  exercises 
from  classic  writers  has  obvious  advantages.  The 
mastery  system,  proposed  by  'I'.  Prendergast,  in 
Thr  Xltis/ciy  of  L'iiii/ii,i</,'x  (London,  1872), 
inverts  this  process,  by  requiring  the  pupils  to 
study  sentences  instead  of  words,  committing  to 
memory  carefully  constructed  expressions,  and 
learning  the  inflectional  forms  by  comparison. 
This  process  approximates  to  the  natural  method 
of  learning  language,  and,  it  is  contended,  leads 


LATIN    LANGUAGE 


to  a  fluency  and  ease  in  its  use  which  cannot  be 
acquired  in  any  other  way.  (See  R.  II.  QtntOK, 
First  Steps  in  Teaching  a  Foreign  Language, 
London,  1875.)  In  the  system  of  T.  K.  Arnold 
(<[.  v.).  tin'  inflectional  peculiarities  arc  learned 
gradually,  as  in  the  Ollendorff  system,  and  al- 
3i  the  first  step  taken  by  3ie  pupil  is  an  ex- 
ercise in  constniein.ii.  The  very  large  extent  to 
which  words  of  Latin  origin  have  been  re- 
ceived   into    English   can   be   turned    to  great 

advantage  l>v  the  intelligent  teacher.  I!ut  few 
words  will  be  met  with  in  the  Latin  exercises, 
which  are  not  etymologically  related  to  words 
in  the  English  dictionary;  and  a  constant  ref- 
erence to  this  kinship  not  only  facilitates  the 
acquisition    1  >y   the  student    of   a   copious  Latin 


sics  is  considerably  obstructed  by  the  want  i 
good  juvenile  works  in  the  literature  of  Koine, 
that  literature  ever  ha  1  its  Barbaulds  and  Edg. 
worths,  their  fame  has  perished  with  their  work 
The  books  which  for  centuries  have  b  sen  the  fir; 
to  be  read  in  Latin  schools,  -Cornelius  Nep< 
and  Caesar,  were  certainly  not  written  for  boj 
and  girls.  Even  in  Home,  they  were  as  little  rea 
by  children  of  ten,  eleven,  or  twelve  years, as oi 
children  of  that  age  are  expected  to 'read  Shak 
speare, Gibbon, or  Macaulay;  and  n  is,  thereto] 
undoubtedly  a  pertinent  question,  from  an  edi 
cational  point  of  view,  whether  it  is  consistei 
with  common  sense  to  expect  English  boys  an 
girls  to  read  and  appreciate  writers  whom  tl: 
youth  of  the  same  age  in  their  own  countc 
would   have   found   too   dilticult  to  understam 


,upi 


Selected    f. 
Willvillot': 

logllesof    I 

As  the  mo 

Latin  schi 


Cicero.    Sallust.  Livy,  and  Tacitus,   among  the 
prose   writers;  and     Horace,   Virgil,  and    Ovid 


Hi 


Hid  Pha'drus,  Valerius  Maximus,  Vellcius. 
Mela.  Curtius,  Persius,  the  two  Senecas,  Lucan, 
linen;,:,  Quintilian,  Pliny,  Florus,  .Suetonius. 
Sellius,  .lustiii,  and  Eutropius,  of  the  time 
ifter   Christ,   we  have  name.!  all    the  writers  of 


tlioi>,i.f  modern  s.  hool  dictionaries  as  turiiisliing 
all  the  words  embraced  within  the  scope  of  their 
works.  The  reading  of  Latin  classics  constitutes 
the  principal  part  of  the  study  of  Latin  wher- 
ever it  is  pursued,  except  when  only  the  ele- 
ments of  Latin  etymology  are  taught  for  the 
purpose  of  elucidating  the  structure  of  English. 
(for  further  remarks  on  the  methods  of  reading 
Latin  authors,  see  Ci.\--h  m  Sti  tuns.)  As  the 
advantages  which  are  expected  to  accrue  from  a 
reading  of  the  Latin  classics  must  depend  on 
the  pupil's  thorough  knowledge  of  the  language, 
the  study  of  grammar  and  the  practice  of  trans- 
lating from  the  vernacular  into  the  Latin  lan- 
guage should  he  continued  throughout  the  course. 
Whatever  portion  of  the  whole  time  of  a  course 
of  instruction  may  be  assigned  to  Latin,  after 
the  study  has  been  begun,  it  should  be  con- 
tinued without  interruption  until  the  course  is 
completed.  Whether  exercises  iii  Latin  con- 
versation, in  original  Latin  composition,  and  in 
latin  versification,  should  be  adopted  in  a 
ionise  of  Latin  study  in  colleges  and  classical 
schools,  is  obviously   dependent   on  the  amount 


time  wluc 


ili]ect  01   an- 
it'ors.       The 

times,   have 


lOlars  regard  a   lit t L-  work   entitled  Be 
Virik  Blustribus  Urbis  Romm,  and  commonly 

known  in  the  United  States  as  17c/  llmnir,  by 
L'Homoud,  a  French  professor  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  This  work  contains  the  most  interest- 
ing stories  related  by  Livy,  Valerius  Maximus, 
Florus,  and  other  eminent  writers,  as  much  as 
possible  in  the  very  words  of  those  writers,  and 
is  still  extensively  used  in  the  L'nited  States 
Great  Britain,  France,  and,  to  a  less  extent,  in 
Germany.  Attempts  have  also  hecn  made  to 
epitomize  special  Latin  classics  for  the  use  of 
young  students;  thus,  in  recent  times,  an  epitome 
of  Caesar,  prepared  by  Dr.  Woodford,  classical 
master  in  .Madras  College.  St.  Andrews,  has  been 
in  extensive  use.  Many  of  the  Latin  readers  al-o 
contain  attempts  of  this  kind. — The  number  of 
Latin  classics  which  are  commonly  read  in  col- 
leges and  schools,  is  quite  small.     Nepos,  Caesar, 


all  sides,  regarded  as  entitled  at  least  to  a  serious 
consideration.  The  concessions  which  have 
been  made  to  these  claims,  have  ereatly  affected 
'  o  Latin.  It  has  long 
bum  of  instruct  ion 
i ii<  1  fluency  of  Latin 
;  or  w  riting,  is  now- 
pt   among  I  latholic 


the  place  formerly  as 
ceased  to  be  the  genen 
in  schools  of  a  higherg 
expression,  either  in  sp 
adays  rarely  met  with 
priests,  who  acquire  it 
and  at  the  universitie 
countries  of  continenta 
didates  for  the  academic 


put  poses, 
mid  other 

the  cau- 
till  continue. 


m  many  cases,  to  write  the  required  essay,  and 
to  defend  proposed  theses,  in  Latin.  In  order 
to  obtain  this  proficiency,  the  Germau  gymnasium 


514 


LATIN'   LANGUAGE 


provides  a  course  in  Latin  extending  through 
uine  years,  the  number  of  hours  devoted  to  it 
weekly  being,  for  the  first  seven  years,  10,  and 
for  the  last  two,  8.  There  are  few  learned 
institutions  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  which  deem  it  advisable  to  require  so 
large  an  amount  of  the  student's  time  for  the 
study  of  Latin;  since  the  ability  to  speak  and 
write  it  with  fluency  is  no  longer  reckoned 
among  the  objects  to  be  accomplished  by 
the  shorter  course.  While  the  amount  of  time 
which,  in  various  courses  of  instruction,  may 
profitably  lie  given  to  Latin  is  now,  and  will  long 


continue, 
tors  will  nnt  tim 
amount  of  time  li 
the  course  of  inst 
are  still  made  in 
schools.  Where  t 
are  read  by  studi 


.  intelligent  educa- 
ilt.  when  once  the 
termined,  to  adjust 
it.  Great  mistakes 
t  in  many  classical 
(ficult  Latin  authors 
re  not  familiar  with 


declensions  or  conjugations,  or  where  original 
Latin  compositions  are  required  from  students 
who  are  unable  to  translate  simple  sentences 
without  mistake,  the  Latin  course  may  safely  be 
pronounced  to  have  been  wholly  useless  for  the 
training  of  the  mind,  and  the  time  given  to  it. 
to  have  been  entirely  wasted.  The  practice  of 
requiring  Latin  addresses  to  be  delivered, by  stu- 
dents who  cannot  translate  correctly,  to  audiences 
among  whom  there  may  not  be  a  single  person 
who  understands  the  address,  is  ex linglv  ab- 


years  of  early  life  may  be  irreparably  squandered 
in  learning  to  write  bad  l.al  in  and  <  {reek  verses." 
The  grammatical  treatment  of  the  Latin  lan- 
guage is  believed  to  have  originated  with  ('rates 
Mallotes.  a  (Ireek  embassador  of  king  Attains  of 
Pergamus  ;  but  nothing  definite  is  known  of  his 
labors.  The  first  grammarian  of  whose  work 
valuable  remains  have  been  preserved  to  us  was 
M.Terentius  Varro  (died  27  1'..  < '.).  who  was  dis- 
tinguished as  the  most  learned  of  Romans.  A  mi  rag 

the  nu nms  grammatical  writers  who  succeeded 

him.  Donatus,  in  the  fourth,  and  Priscianus  in 

the  sixth,  century  were  es] ially  celebrated;  and 

their  works  served,  in  some  respects,  as  the  basis 
of  all  later  works.  A  new  period  in  the 
history  of  Latin  philology  began  with  the  revival 
of  classical  studies  in  Italy,  and  the  invention 
of  the  art  of  printing.  For  some  time,  Italy  re- 
mained the  chief  seat  of  Latin  scholarship,  but, 
in  the  Kith  and  1  Tth  centuries,  it  was  outstripped 
by  France.  Holland,  England,  and  Germany. 
The  Latinists  of  Holland  distinguished  them- 
selves by  introducing  a  strictly  scientific  method 
into  Latin  philology.  Richard  Bentley,  of  Eng- 
land, became  the  father  of  the  science  of  verbal 
criticism.  In  Germany,  the  efforts  of  Krncsti. 
Heyne,  Wolff,  and  others,  caused  an  entire  reor- 
ganization of  Latin  studies,  which  gradually 
led,  in  the  course  of  the  19th  century,  to  the 
acknowledged  superiority  of  the  (iernian  I  atin- 
ists.  The  most  notable  German  contributions 
to  Latin  lexicography  (see  Dictionaries),  are  the 


comprehensive  dictionaries  by  Freund,  Georges, 
and  K lot/,,  the  school  dictionaries  by  Ingerslev, 
Georges,  lleinichen,  Kreussler,  the  etymological 
dictionaries  by  Schwenck,  and  Vanicek  (1874), 
besides  a  manlier  of  special  dictionaries  for  the 
poets,  the  sources  of  jurisprudence,  the  histori- 
ans, and  for  every  Latin  work  that  is  com- 
monly read  in  schools.  Latin  grammars  in 
the  German  language  have  been  written  by 
/uinpt  (13th  ed.,  Is71;  shorter  grammar,  9th 
ed.,  1866);  Madvig  (3d  ed.,  1875;  shorter  gram- 
mar, L857);  Berge]  9thed  ,1875);  EUendt  (16th 
ed.,1876);  Kiil.ner  {Schvlgrammatik,  5th  ed., 
1861;  fflementargrrammatik,  38th  ed.,  1875); 
Lattmami  and  Midler  [Silin'hiniiiiiintlik.  ,'lded., 
1872  ;  Kurzgefasste  QrammatOe,  3d  ed.,  1872); 
Middemlorf  and  Griiter   lathed.,  IsTO  ;    Sibcrti 


1  llh  i 
betica 

el, rest 

Latin 
Germi 
Biblu 

celcbr 


iPhi 


elV, 


An  alpha- 
itionaries, 
ng  to  the 
filished  in 
ngelmaun. 


((3d  ed.,  1853) . — The  most 
lexicographers  were  t'ale- 
pino,  Robert  Stephens,  Facciolati,  and  Forcel- 
lini.  (See  1  > i«  i  ion  miiks.)  Iii  England,  and  sub- 
sequentlj  also  in  the  United  States,  the  Latin 
lexicon  of  Ainsworth  (1736)  became  the  most 
popular  work  of  this  class.  Of  the  English  and 
American  works  published  in  the  present  century, 
Leveretfs  lexicon  (183(1)  announces  itself  as 
an  "abridgment  of  Facciolati  and  Forcellini,  with 
improvements  drawn  from  Scheller  and  Lttne- 
mann";  the  lexicon  of  Andrews  (1856)  is  based 
on  Freund  :  that  of  W.  Smith  (1855),  on  For- 
cellini and  Freund;  that  of  Piddle  and  Arnold 
(American  edition  by  Anthon),on  Georges  ;  that 
of  Crooks  and  Sel'iem  (1 857).  on  Ingerslev. 
Other  Latin-English  dictionaries  have  been  com- 
piled by  Beard,  Bullions,  Entick,  Gardner,  White, 

and  young.      Anion-  the   I  aim  gnu ars  used 

in  American  and  English  schools,  besides  trans- 
lations of  the  grammars  of  Zumpt,  Madvig,  and 
others,  are  those  of  Adam  (formerly  very  ex- 
tensively used  ill  American  schools;  new  edi- 
tion by  Gould,  by  Fish,  and  by  others),  Allen, 
Greenough,  Andrews  and  Stoddard,  Anthon, 
Arnold,  Bartholomew.  Bingham.  Brooks,  Bruns, 
Bullions,  Clark,  Dillaway,  Fischer,  tiildersleye, 
Goodrich,  Grant,  Donaldson  (complete  Latin 
Grammar,  3d  ed.,  1867  ;  one  of  the  best),  Hark- 
ness  now  extensively  used  in  American  colleges, 
Harrison,  Key  (3d  "ed.,  1862),  McClintock,  Mor- 
ris, Roby  (2  vols.,  1871—4,  one  of  the  best), 
Rose,  Ross.  Ruddiman,  W.  Smith.  Spencer, 
Thompson,  Waddcll,  and  Weale.  An  excellent 
introduction  to  a  philological  study  of  the  Litiu, 


2  vols,  1861 — .">).  The  relation  of  Latin  to  the 
other  branches  of  the  hido-Germanic  family  is 
fully  elucidated  in  the  comparative  grammars- 


Anthuu.  Brooks, 
others.  The  best 
many  are  those 
he    direction   of 


LATIN    SCHOOLS 

of  Bopp  and  Schleicher.     (See  Indc-Germanic 

Languages). — There  are  numerous  editions  of 
every  Litin  writer  that  is  usually  read  in  schools, 
with  English  notes,  and  in  many  cases  with  a 
special  vocabulary.  Collective  editions  of  the 
Latin  authors  read  in  schools,  according  to  a  uni- 
form plan,  are,  among  others,  the  Bibliotheca 
Classica,  under  the  direction  of  G.  Long  and  A. 
J.  Macleane (London, since  1854)  :  the  Clarendon 
Press  Series,  which  counts  among  its  contribu- 
tors Moberley.  Ellis.W.and  O.  Ramsay,  l'richard. 
Bernard,  AValford,  Browning.  Wickham,  Lee- 
Warner(Oxford);  the  Catena  Classicorum,  under 
th-  direction  of  Holmes  and  Bigg  (London)  ; 
the  series  published  bv  <  'has,-  and  Stuart  i  1'hila- 
delphia);  the  editions  of  several  of  the  classics  by 
Allen  and Greenough,  Andre 
Harkness,  Sehmitz.  Weale.  a 
collections  of  this  kind  in 
published  at  Berlin,  undei 
Sauppe  and  ITaupt.  and  at  Leipsic.  by  the  firm 
of  Teubner.  The  latter,  in  1876,  consisted  of  61 
volumes. — Histories  of  Roman  literature  have 
been  published  by  Ivlotz  (  Leipsic.  1845);  Thomp- 
son (London,  1852)  ;  Browne  (London,  1853)  ; 
Munk  (Berlin.  1861);  Bahr  (3  vols..  4th  ed., 
Carlsruhe,  1867)  :  Bernhardy  (Brunswick.  5th 
ed.,  Is72>;  Teuffel  (3d.  ed..  Leipsic,  1«7(> ;  Engl. 
transl.,  London.  1873). 

LATIN  SCHOOLS,  a  name  given,  in  several 
German  states  as  well  as  in  the  Netherlands,  to 
a  class  of  secondary  schools.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  fact  that  Latin  was  formerly,  in  these 
schools,  the  most  prominent  branch,  and  generally 
even  the  medium,  of  instruction.  These  schools 
gradually  developed  out  of  the  "trivial  schools," 
which,  in  the  course  of  the  middle  ages,  sprung  up 
in  many  towns  by  the  side  of,  or  even  in  opposi- 
tion to,  the  convent  schools,  and  the  cathedral  and 
collegiate  schools.  The  name  hi/in  sehimh\i\\  not 
come  into  general  use.  but  alternated  with  that  of 
particular  school.  When,  in  the  Kith  century,  the 
word  gymnasium,  and  (more  rarely)  padago- 
gium  was  applied  to  those  Latin  schools  which 
were  completely  organized,  and  prepared  their 
pupils  for  the  university,  the  name  Latin  school 
was  commonly  reserved  for  the  lower  half  of  the 
institution.  Only  in  exceptional  cases  (as  in 
Halle!,  has  a  complete  gymnasium  retained  the 
name  Latin  school,  which  is  now  generally  on 
the  wane.  In  Prussia,  no  distinctive  name  is 
any  longer  given  to  the  lower  classes  of  a  com- 
plete gymnasium  ;  and  schools  containing  only 
tin-  lower  classes  of  a  gymnasium,  are  called 
progymnasia.  The  largest  proportion  of  these 
schools  is  to  be  found  in  the  kingdom  of  Wiir- 
temberg.  where  many  of  them  have  only  one 
or  two  teachers.  In  Bavaria,  the  name  is  still 
given  to  the  five  lower  classes  of  the  classical 
gymnasium,  which  is  there  called  Studienanstatt, 
and  also  to  those  schools  which  only  contain 
the  five  lower  gymnasial  classes.  In  the  Nether- 
lands, the  difference  between  Latin  schools  and 
gymnasia  is  not  defined.  (See  Netherlands.) 
In  the  L'nited  States,  one  of  the  best  known 
of  such  schools  is  the  public  Latin  school  of 
Boston. 


LAW    SCHOOLS 


515 


LAW  SCHOOLS  have  been  in  use  as  a 
means  of  education  for  the  bar.  almost  from  the 
time  when  the  bar  first  became  a  recognized 
profession.  In  ancient  times,  the  schools  of 
Rome,  Berytus,  and  Constantinople,  with  some 
of  minor  importance,  were  the  recognized  nurs- 
eries of  the  legal  profession.  The  most  eminent 
of  the  Roman  jurists  taught  in  these  schools. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  at  least  one  such 
school  remained  at  Ravenna  up  to  a  period  not 
very  long  before  the  revival  of  the  law;  if,  indeed. 
it  was  not,  as  some  have  supposed,  the  germ  from 
which  the  famous  school  of  Bologna  afterwards 
sprung.  From  the  time  of  Irnerius,  early  in  the 
12th  century,  the  history  of  European  juris- 
prudence has  been  identified  with  that  of  the 
schools  of  law,  in  the  states  of  modern  Europe. 

At  present,  u] that  continent,  the  law  schools 

of  the  various  universities  are  the  recognized 
portals  of  the  legal  profession,  and  of  the 
bench.  In  England,  le-,,1  education  was,  at  first. 
conducted  in  tie  same  method.    The  arrival  of 

in  the  reign  of  Stephen,  marks  the  introduction 
of  scientific  jurisprudence  into  England.  He  con- 
tinued to  teach  for  a  period  not  definitely  ascer- 
tained, but  long  enough  to  found  a  school  which 
has  left,  in  its  glosses  and  other  legal  writings, 
considerable  traces  of  its  existence.  The  Inns  of 
Court. at  London,  were  probably  intended,  in  the 
first  place,  as  rivals  of  this  civilian  school,  and 
were  devoted,  from  the  beginning,  to  instruction 
in  the  common  law.  During  their  flourishing 
period  as  schools,  the  attendance  of  students 
there  was  very  large,  in  proportion  to  the  entire 
population  of  the  metropolis  and  of  the  kingdom. 
The  well-known  account  given  by  Forteseue  (in 
his  treatise  Be  laudibiis  legum  Anglioz,  cap.  19.) 
of  the  life,  anil  mode  of  instruction  in  these 
schools,  proves  the  importance  of  the  position 
which  they  held  as  the  chief,  if  not  the  only, 
mode  of  preparation  for  the  English  bar  of  that 
time.  Their  activity  in  this  respect  seems  to 
have  been  at  its  height  about  the  time  of  For- 
teseue, or  in  the  15th  century.  In  the  16th, 
they  became  rather  places  of  gaiety  ;  and  the 
readership  and  other  offices  were  perverted  to 
means  of  ostentatious  display.  The  number  of 
students  declined ;  and,  from  the  middle  of 
the  17th  century,  the  course  of  instruction  in 
them  ceased  to  be  any  thing  more  than  a  mere 
form.  Education  for  the  bar  was,  henoeforth, 
conducted  in  the  offices  of  special  pleaders,  con- 
veyancers, and  other  practicing  lawyers ;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  present  generation  that  the 
Inns  of  Court  have  again  made  the  effort  to 
resume  their  original  function.  The  Inner 
Temple  led  the  way  in  this  reform,  by  establish- 
ing, in  1833,  two  lecturcrships.  one  of  common 
law  and  equity,  the  other  of  general  jurispru- 
dence and  international  law.  The  latter  was  filled 
by  John  Austin,  whose  lectures,  though  only  the 
first  six  were  published  in  his  life-time.  I,a\  i  since 
exerted  so  great  an  influence  upon  the  revival 
of  scientific  jurisprudence  in  England  /.  hires 
on  Jurisprudence,  or  ike  Philosophy  of  Positive 


516 


LAW   SCHOOLS 


Lair;  edited  by  his  widow,  1861 — 3;  3d  edition 
by  Robert  Campbell,  1869).  In  184",  another 
attempt  was  made  to  establish  readerships  or 
lecturerships,  originating  in  the  Middle  Temple, 
by  which  body  Mr.  George  Long  was  appointed 
reader  on  civil  law  and  jurisprudence.  The 
other  Inns  followed  the  example,  and  moot- 
courts  and  examinations  were  added  by  tin- 
lecturers.  But  no  joint  action  of  the  four  Inns 
was  had  until  18.VJ,  when  a  standing  committee, 
or  council  of  legal  education,  was  appointed  :  five 
readerships  were  established,  in  which  those 
previously  appointed  by  the  several  Inns  were 
merged  ;  and  students  were  required,  before  ad- 
mission, either  to  attend  at  least  two  of  the 
courses  for  a  year,  or  t<>  pass  a  public  exami- 
nation. In  the  mean  time,  a  committee  of  in- 
quiry, appointed  by  parliament  in  1846,  had 
reported  in  favor  of  uniting  the  four  Inns  into  a 
single  law  university;  and,  in  1854,  a  royal  com- 
mission was  appointed,  which  investigated  the 
subject  very  thoroughly,  and  reported  in  favor  of 
the  proposed  measure,  and  of  a  compulsory  exami- 
nation before  a  call  to  the  bar.  No  practical 
result,  however,  followed  so  far  as  the  Inns  are 
concerned  until  1873,  when  these  recommen- 
dations were  partially  carried  out.  The  four  Inns 
of  Court  now  elect  a  council  of  legal  education, 

of  right  members,  called  the  I  lommittee  of  Edu- 
cation and  Kxamination,  to  superintend  the  edu- 
cation and  examination  of  students  for  the  bar. 
The  council  also  appoint  six  readers  or  lecturers, 
to  hold  office  for  three  years,  and  a  certain  num- 
ber of  tutors  for  private  instruction.  There  is 
also  a  paid  board  of  examiners,  six  in  number, 
holding  office  for  two  years,  and  re-eligible  only 
after  an  interval  of  a  year;  and  studentships,  ex- 
hibitions, and  certificates  of  honor  are  awarded 
to  those  who  pass- [examinations.  I  Jut  at- 
tendance on  the  lectures  and  examinations  is  not 
compulsory;  and  any  person  may  still  qualify  for 
admission  to  the  bar  by  passing,  previous  to  his 
admission  to  an  Inn  as  a  student,  examinations  to 
I  In-  Knji-li  and  Latin  languages  and  in  Kngli.-h 
history,  and  by  spending  a  year  as  pupil  with  a 
barrister  or  pleader. — All  that  has  been  said  thus 
far  relates  only  to  education  for  the  English  bar 
as  distinct  from  the  body  of  solicitors.  Admis- 
sion to  this  body  has  always  been  in  the  hands  of 
common  law  judges  and  masters  of  the  rolls;  and 
the  Incorporated  Law  Society,  a  very  iiillm-nt  ial 
organization,  succeeded,  as  early  as  L836,  in  intro- 
ducing a  system  of  examinations,  preliminary, 
middle,  and  final,  as  a  strict  condition  of  admis- 
sion to  the  roll.  Candidates  are  examined  by  a 
committee  of  sixteen  solicitors,  generally  chosen 
from  the  council  of  that  society,  together  with 
the  masters  of  the  common  law  courts.  The 
council  also  appoint  annually  three  lecturers,  by 
whom  Lectures  are  delivered  to  articled  clerks. 
Attendance  at  these  is  voluntary,  but  no  solicitor 
can  be  admitted  without  passing  the  examinations 
for  which  they  prepare  the  student. — In  July, 
1870,  the  Legal  Education  Association,  composed 
of   both   barristers   and   solicitors,   and   headed 


by  Sir  Roundell  Palmer,  now  Lord  Selborne, 
was  formed,  with  the  avowed  objects  of  bringing 
about  the  establishment  of  a  law  university  for 
the  education  of  students  intended  for  the  pro- 
fession of  law.  and  the  placing  of  the  admission 
to  both  branches  of  the  profession  on  the  basis  of 
a  combined  test  of  collegiate  education  and  an 
examination  by  a  public  board  of  examiners.  In 
every  session  of  parliament,  from  that  time  to 
1873,  they  made  vigorous  efforts  to  secure  these 
objects  by  resolutions  and  bills,  an  account  of 
which  will  be  found  in  Mr.   Campbell's  preface 


courts,  the  methods  of  procedure,  and  the  fusion 
of  law  and  equity.  The  association,  however,  is 
still  engaged  in  prosecuting  its  reforms,  which 
have  been  materially  facilitated  by  these  changes. 
The  law  schools  of  the  United  States  have 
no  historical  connection  with  those  already  men- 
tioned. Their  existence  is  due  entirely  to  the  wants 
of  that  country.  Before  the  Revolution,  it  was 
not  uncommon  for  law  students  who  could  afford 
it.  to  go  to  the  mother  country,  and  prosecute 
their  legal  studies  there,  nominally  in  the  Inns  of 
I 'unit,  really  in  the  offices  where  other  English 
students  of  the  time  prepared  themselves  for  tin- 
bar ;  but  the  number  of  these  was,  of  course, 
small,  and  the  bar  of  the  colonies  was  composed 
in  a  large  measure,  of  those  who  had  read  only 
in  the  office  of  the  nearest  practicing  attorney. 
The  number  of  these  was  comparatively  large. 
In  a  work  published  at  London  in  L 790,  entitled 
.1  Review  of  the  Laws  of  the  United  States  etc., 
it  is  stated  that  tlie;-e  were  at  that  time  three 
hundred  practicing  lawyers  in  I  lonneeticut,  and 
that,  "in  New  Y oik. and  from  thence  through  all 
the  northern  states,  lawyers  swarmed."  This  natu- 
rally led  the  attention  of  thoughtful  men  to  the 
1  ii  issil  ii  lity  i  if  improvement  in  legal  education;  and 
James  Wilson,  one  of  the  signers  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Independence,  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention which  framed  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States,  and  an  associate  justice  of  the 
supreme  court,  has  the  honor  of  having  been 
the  first  to  deliver  a  formal  course  of  lectures 
upon  American  law.  lie  held  the  law  professor- 
ship in  the  College  of  Philadelphia,  then  the 
federal  capital,  and  in  the  winter  of  1790 — 91, 
delivered  his  first  course ;  a  second  course  was 
commenced  in  the  following  winter,  but  was  never 
completed.  The  college  became  incorporated 
with  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  in  April 
1792;  and  the  law  school,  fm- some  unexplained 
reason. was  discontinued.  The  lectures  delivered 
by  Judge  Wilson  are  published  in  his  collected 
works  in  three  volumes,  8vo  (Philadelphia,  1804). 
The  honor  of  precedence  is  sometimes  claimed 
for  the  Litchfield  school,  next  to  be  mentioned. 
Judge  Parker,  in  his  pamphlet  on  the  Harvard 
law  school  (Boston.  1871),  says  that  Timothy 
Reeves  established  the  Connecticut  school  in 
I  782  or  1  784.  But  there  is  no  reason  to  believe 
that  the  instruction  given  by  Judge  Reeves  in 
the  earlier  years  differed  in  any  respect  from  that 


LAW   SCHOOLS 


511 


usually  given  by  lawyers  in  their  offices,  till 
Judge  Gould  became  associated  with  hiin  in 
1798.  The  Philadelphia  school  was  at  least  the 
first  one   formally  incorporated,  while   that  of 


.hl.Ure    lie 


<t   successful    one.     It 
[  by  the  Hon.  James 

Treatise  on  Pleading. 

.re   than    thirty   wars. 


University  of  Michigan,  was  established  in 
L858,  and  that  of  Columbia  College,  in  New 
York  (which  had  previously  been  established 
under  Chancellor  Kent,  but  discontinued  after 
a  brief  existence),  dates  its  present  existence 
from  the  same  year.  These  are  now  the  two 
largest  schools  in  the  country;  and  the  .late  of 
their  establishment  may  well  be  taken  as  the 
period    when    the    more    rapid   growth    of    law 


John  Hooper  Ashnuin.  having  been  elected  to  a 
position  at  Harvard.  The  Litchfield  school  had 
students  from  all  parts  of  the  Union,  but  its 
numbers  were  never  large.  The  attendance  at 
no  time  exceeded  50;  and  the  total  number  of 
its  students,  from  1798  to  1827,  was  730,  or  an 
average  of  about  25  per  annum.  The  third  law 
school,  and  the  oldest  now  in  existence  in  the 
United  States,  is  that  of  the  Law  Department  of 
Harvard  University.  A  single  professorship 
was  established  in  1815;  and  the  school,  in  L817. 
Until  18'29.  its  success  was  very  meager;  but,  m 
that  year,  a  gift  from  the  Hon.  Nathan  Dane 
established  a  new  professorship  to  which  Judge 
Story  was  elected.  Professor  Ashiuun  was  as- 
sociated with  him;  and  the  Harvard  School 
sprung  at  once  to  the  position  which  it  has  ever 
since  retained,  tit  the  head  of  American  law- 
schools.  Among  its  professors  have  been  the 
distinguished  Icjal  authors  Simon  Greenleaf, 
L832— 48;  Theophilus  Parsons,  1848—70;  and 
EmoryWashburne,  L855  -76;  besides  manj  other 

distinguished    men.      Several    Other  law  schools 

were  'started   in   various   parts  of  the  country 

prior  to  1830;  but  tin Iv  ones  now  surviving 

without  a  break  of  existence  are  believed  to  be 
those  of  Vale  College,  1824,  and  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Virginia,  1825.  The  history  of  the  thirty 
years  from  1829  to,59,maybesuinuied  up  by  say- 
ing that  law  schools  were  few  and  neglected,  and 
that  their  graduates  were  but  an  insignificant  mi- 
nority of  the  profession.  Even  the  great  name  and 
influence  of  Joseph  Story,  and  the  success  of  the 
Dane  Law  School,  under  his  direction,  formed  but 
an  exception  to  the  rule,  without  perceptibly  mod-  ' 
dying   the  general  custom  of    legal   education    in 

private  offices.    In  L842,  if  we  may  trust  a  table 

published  the  following  year,  there  were  only 
10  law  schools  in  nominal  existence  in  the  coun- 
try, with  19  professors  among  them,  and  .'1st 
stin  lents.  No  school  had  more  than  three  teachers; 
and  some  of  the  most  frequented,  like  the 
University  of  Virginia,had  only  one.  Harvard 
had  only  two.  but  they  were  Judge  Story  and 
Simon  Creenleaf:  and  their  reputation  attracted 
115  students,  while  no  other  law  school  in  the 
country  had  more  then  7.">.  The  only  schools  still 
existing  which  date  from  this  period  are  the 
following:  Indiana  University,  at  Bloomington, 
L842 ;  Louisiana  University,  at  New  Orleans. 
1847:  Albany  Law  School,  now  a  branch  of 
Union  University.  1851  ;  University  of  New 
York,  New  York  City,  1857:  Cincinnati  Law 
School.  L833;  Ohio  State  and  Union  Law  Col- 
lege, Cleveland.  L856;  Cumberland  University, 
Lebanon.  Tenn..  1847.     The  Law  School  of  the 


it  which  mie;ht 


part  of  the  preparation  for  the  actual  work  of 
the  bar;  but,  about  this  time,  several  causes  con- 
tributed to  produce  a  change  in  the  system  of 
legal  education.  'I  he  rapid  development  of  the 
West,  and  the  number  of  lawyers  required  by  its 
business  gave  a  great  stimulus  to  professional 
education;  while  it  became  evident  that  the  tra- 
ditional method  of  instruction  in  offices  would 
not  meet  the  wants  of  the  country, outside  of  the 
few  great  cities.  The  introduction  of  codes  also, 
and  the  change  from  a  mm  technical  practice  to 
an  informal  one.  together  with  the  immense  in- 


an  evident  necessity;   and   the    recent    growth   of 

law  scl Is  has  been  the  result,   rather  than  the 

cause,  of  the  change  which  has  come  over  the 
whole   system  of  professional   education.      The 

scl I  at   Ann   Arbor  was   also  the  first  to  place 

its  tuition   fees  at  a  rate  within  the  means  of) 

general  disposition  on  their  part  to  take  a  course 

in  the  law  school,  as.  a.  !,,,-..  a  par.  „t  thci,  pro- 
fessional education.  Thegrowth  in  numbers  of 
this  school  was  entirely  unprecedented. — In  1860J 
as  we  learn  from  the  United  States  census  of 
that  year,  there  were  in  the  country  twenty  law 
schools,  distributed  as  follows ;  five'  in  the  state 
of  New  York,  two  in  Indiana  .and  one  each  in 
the  states  of  Connecticut,  Illinois.  Kentucky, 
louisiana.    Massachusetts.    Michigan.    Missouri. 


,h,,,,l,i. 


lint 


what  mav  be  called  a  sub-tanti.d  existence  at 
that  time.  Nearly  all  of  these  remain  in  full 
operation  at  present.  Since  that  time  the  number 
has  been  more  than  doubled,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  table  we  give  below.  Some  of  the  most 
flourishing  schools  at  present  have  been  estab- 


518 


LAW    SCHOOLS 


lished  since  that  period;  as.  for  instance,  those 
at  Boston,  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Iowa  City,  and 
Washington;  and  most  of  the  older  schools 
have  been  reorganized  and  improved. — The  fol- 
lowing table,  will  show  the  remarkable  recent 
increase  of  these  institutions. 


1S4,2    American  Almanac 

for  1843)  

1SC0  (American  Almanac, 
for  1861) 


(U. 


1870  U.S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 

1871  (do.)'.!.'."."!!.'.".'.!! 

1872  (do.) 

187:)      (do.) 


It  will  be  noticed  that,  of  late  years,  the  numbe 
of  teachers  has  increased  much  more  rapidly  ii 


propni 


rtion  than  that  of  students. 


as  a  single  and  uniform  system.  The  course  is 
composed  of  detached  fragments,  in  each  of  which 
a  siugle  topic  of  law  is  treated  with  no  reference 
to  others,  and  no  attempt  at  consistent  treat- 
ment by  different  teachers.  The  result,  too  fre- 
quently, is.  that  students  go  through  a  course 
with  no  conception  of  the  law  as  a  whole,  and 
with  no  training  of  that  power  of  legal  judgment 
which  is  the  first  requisite  of  a  lawyer. 

Admission. — Most  of  the  schools  throw  open 
.  their  doors  to  all  comers,  and  require  no  partic- 
ular amount  of  education  for  admission.     The 
course  is  intended  to  be  taken,  in  all  cases,  at  the 
very  beginning  of  professional  education.    None 
'of  the  schools  require  any  previous  knowledge  of 
^jlaw,  except  in  cases  where  students  apply  for 
y  (advanced  standing. — Two  or  three  of  the  older 
jfrschools  have  recently  adopted  a  rule  by  which 
fc&students  are    required    to    present    a    college 
r    diploma,  or  to  pass  an  equivalent  examination, 
i  J  This  rule  is  not  to    take  effect  until  the  next 
college  year,  1877 — 8;   and  its  operation  must 


Orijaniziition,  Course  of  Xtmli/.  etc. — Although  be  considered  as  yet  an  unsolved  problem, 
there  is,  in  the  nature  of  the  case,  no  statutory  t  Length  of  Course,  and  Graduation.  —  The 
or  other  ride  prescribing  the  organization  and  course  of  study  varies  in  length,  from  a  single 
conduct  of  American  law  schools,  in  general,  yet  session  of  five  or  six  months  to  three  years.  Only 
a  few  prominent  features  are  common  to  all.  one  or  two  schools,  however,  have  as  yet  adopted 
The  faculty  usually  consists  of  lawyers  in  the  i  the  latter.  The  majority  require  either  a  single 
active  practice  of  the  profession,  or  judges  oc-  year  of  continuous  study,  or  a  course  nominally 
cupying  seats  upon  the  bench:  and  the  time  of  two  years,  composed  of  two  annual  sessions  of 
which  they  give  to  instruction  is  usually  but  a  five  or  six  months  each.  The  advantage  of  the 
small  part  of  that  required  by  theirother  duties,  latter  arrangement  is  supposed  to  lie  in  the  op- 
Only  a  few  schools  have  yet  succeeded  in  secur-  portunity  given  to  students  to  prosecute  their 
ing  to  themselves  the  constant  services  of  one  or  studies  in  an  office  between  the  two  sessions.  In 
more  resident  professors  who  devote  themselves  such  cases  students  are  usually  admitted  to  the 
entirely  tn  the  work  of  instruction  in  law. — The  senior  class,  upon  examination,  and  are  thus 
method  of  instruction  differs  in  different  schools,  enabled  to  reduce  the  period  of  actual  attendance 
but  is  usually  either  by  lectures,  or  by  recitation  to  one  session;  but,  as  methods  of  instruction  im- 
frorn  text-books.  The  latter  are  for  the  most  part  prove. a  tendency  is  manifest  to  insist  more  upon 
the  treatises  which  have  been  prepared  for  the  use  the  discipline  acquired  in  the  school  itself,  and 
of  practicing  lawyers,  and  very  few  of  them  are  !  to  make  a  constant  term  of  attendance  a  condi- 
fit  for  elementary  instruction.  Still,  the  method  tion  of  graduation.  The  usual  degree  at  gradu- 
of  recitation  is  so  much  more  effective  than  the  '  ation  is  that  of  LL.  B.  It  was  formerly  given 
mere  delivery  of  lectures,  that  the  present  tend-  j  as  a  matter  of  course,  after  the  requisite  period 
ency  is  to  an  increased  use  of  textbooks.  A  "of  attendance;  but,  at  present,  an  examination 
few  teachers  have  made  an  effort  to  combine  [  is  required  in  every  case.     This  examination,  in 


the  two,  thus  affording  a  method  really  adapted 
to  the  use  of  beginners,  or  have  prepared  them- 
selves printed  synopses  of  their  lectures,  or  col- 
lections of  cases,  to  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  class  for  study.  Attention  has  recently  been 
drawn  to  this  subject,  and  to  the  great  waste  of 
time  and  labor  caused  by  the  previous  neglect  of 


some  schools,  is  conducted  by  the  faculty  ;  in 
others,  by  a  committee  appointed  by  the  courts 
of  the  state,  orin  some  other  manner.  The  extent 
and  rigor  of  examinations,  of  course,  vary  widely 
in  different  institutions;  but,  upon  the  whole, they 
are  so  much  more  thorough  and  severe  than 
those  to  which  applicants  were  subjected  under 


all  effort  toward  better  teaching.  Another  defect    the  former  system,  that   they  have  undoubtedly 
of  the  schools  may  be  traced  to  the  circumstances  ,  done  much  to  raise  the  standard  of  professional 


of  their  origin  As  they  grew  up  only  to 
plement  the  old  method  of  instruction  in  offices, 
they  have  relied  entirely  upon  such  instruction 
for  the  training  of  students  in  professional 
habits,  and  in  the  details  of  practice.  They  have 
confined  themselves  exclusively,  or  almost  so,  to 
the  task  of  assisting  the  student  in  memorizing 
rules  of  law;  and  a  course  of  introductory  lect- 
ures like  the  encyclopaedia  and  methodology  of 
the  <  irrman  schools  is  almost  unknown.  Very 
few  schools  give  their  students  a  view  of  the  law 


cquire tits. — Quite 


r  of  schools  have, 
ing  students  to  the 
,'  are  situated.  In 
nt  for  a  graduate 


to  present  his  diploma,  and  take  the  attorney's 
oath;  though,  in  some  instances,  the  diploma 
serves  merely  as  a  substitute  for  examination, 
and  the  applicant  must  also  prove  moral  char- 
acter, etc.  A  warm  controversy  has  recently 
been  waged,  in  Xew  York  and  some  other  states, 
in    regard  to  the  value  and    propriety   of  this 


LAW   SCHOOLS 

privilege.  The  schools  themselves  are  by  no 
means  unanimous  in  desiring  it.  The  better 
opinion  seems  to  be  that  it  should  be  granted 
only  in  cases  where  the  examination  for  the 
degree  is  not  left  with  the  faculty  alone,  but  is 
under  the  direction  of  the  supreme  court  of  the 
state,  or  of  some  other  body  whose  position  will 
guarantee  its  fairness  and  impartiality.     Where 


again  bcfo 
pointed  for  lo 


railuates  to  appear 
as  air  usually  ap- 
s.  As  a  general  rule. 


i  degree  but  that  of  LL.  B.,  giv. 
pletion  of  the  usual  course,  is  b 
American  law  schools.  The  Ya 
•ever,  now  offers  the  degree  of 
(M.  L.)  to  such  students  as  puiM 
course  for  one  year  after  takin 
degree,  and  the  degree  of  Poetoi 
(It.  C.  L.)  for  a  second  year  of  ; 
The  University  of  Georgia  offers  the  degree 
of  Doctor  of  Jurisprudence  to  such  of  its 
graduates  as  have  pursued  the  practice  of  law 
with  success,  and  maintained  an  honorable  and 
virtuous  character,  for  seven  years  after  grad- 
uation.—  The  subjoined  table  contains  a  list 
of  all  the  important  law  schools  in  the  United 
States : 


Law 


il   Law 

study. 


Union  .    11.    :    I ... . 

M.Keii.livo  <  ■  .1 1 ,  ■- 
Lincoln  University. 
-Indiana  University. 
Iowa  Coll.  of  Law 
.Simpson  (rut.  Cull. 

-  Iowa  state  Uiiiv 

IuwaW.-s.Univ 

K.-ntu  kv  Univ 

Central  Univ 

"  Univ.  of  Louisiana. 
-Univ.  of  Maryland.. 

Boston  University. 

Harvard  University 
-«Univ.  of  Michigan.. 
-Univ.  of  Missouri.. 

Washington  Univ... 

Albanv  Law  School. 

Hamilton  College.. 

Coluuilna  College.  . 
-Univ.  of  N.  Y.  citv. 

lluth.  llurd  College 

Trinity  College 

Cmeiiiliati  Law  Sole 

(Cincinnati  C  -ll.  g 

■  Ohio  Stale  &  Union 

Law  College 

Wilb.Tforce  Univ.. 

I.afay,  He  College.. 

-  Univ    of  Fenns 

-  University  of  S.  C... 
Neoj.h'gau  LawSch 
Cumberland  Univ.. 

^Univ.  of  Virginia  .. 

Sen.  of  J.aw.'.r.pitv 
WasL.  .';  Lee  Univ... 
-Univ.  of  Wisconsin. 

Columbian  Univ 

Howard  Univ 

Georgetown  Univ... 
National  Univ 


Lebanon,  111 

Lincoln.  Ill 

Bloomingt'n,  Ind. 
Pes  Moines,  la.. . 


NewOrleaus.La.. 
Baltimore,  Mil.... 

Cambridge,  Mass 
.inn  Arbor,  Mich. 

Columbia,  Mo 

St.  Louis,  Mc 

Albany,  N.  Y 

Clinton,  N.  Y 

New  Y. >rk,  N.T... 
New  York,  K.Y... 
Happy  Homo.N.C 

Trinity,  N.C 

Cincinnati,  O 

Cleveland,  O 

Xenia,    0 

Kaston,   Pa 

Philadelphia,  la. 
Columbia,  s.  c... 
Gallatin,  Tcnn.... 
Lebanon,  Tcnn. . . 
Charlottesv'le.Ya. 

Lexington,  Ya 

Madison,  Wis 

V.ashington.P.  C. 
Washington,  P.  C. 
Washington,  P.  C. 
Washington,  D.  C. 


El-aii 


1-.G7         2 
^^         2 

1S72^™ 


isgo  ■    2    37 

1870  I     2      S4 
1870        2  I  36 


EBANON   VALLEY  COLLEGE    51!> 


Abbott,    bom    in    Groton, 

■2  ;  .lied  in  Huston,  Aug.  IS., 


to  1862.  His  chief  claim  to  remembrance  in 
the  educational  world  was  his  founding  of  the 
Lawrence  Scientific  School,  at  Cambridge,  in 
1847. 

LAWRENCE,  Amos,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, merchant,  born  in  Groton,  Mass.;  April 
22.,  L786;  died  in  Boston,  Dec.  31,  1852.  After 
in  L831,  he  retired  from  active 
luted   the    remainder  of  his  life 


nary 


a  serious  illness  in  i.^.ii.  n 
business,  and  devoted  the 
to  acts  of  benevolence,  expending  in  this  way 
..ver  $600,000.  Among  the  educational  institu- 
tions which  were  the  obj<  cts  of  his  bounty,  may 
be  enumerated  :  \\  lilian.s  ( lollege.the  1  awrence 
Academy  of  Groton,  Wabash  College,  Kenyon 
College,  and  the  theologi 
gor,  Me. 

LAWRENCE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WIS- 
CONSIN, at  Appleton,  Wis.,  chartered  in 
1*47,  is  under  Methodist  Episcopal  control.  It 
is  supported  by  tuition  fees,  etc..  and  the  income 
of  an  endowment  of  about  $60,000.  It  has 
chemical  and  philosophical  apparatus,  a  cabinet 
of  minerals,  botanical  specimens,  etc.,  and  a  li- 
brary of   nearly    8, I    volumes.     The   regular 

tuition  fees  vary  from  $15  to  $21  a  year. 
The  university  comprises  both  the  College  and 
the  Institute,  and  consists  of  six  departments, 
as  follows:  (1)  The  Preparatory  Department; 
(2)  The  Academic  Department;  (3)  The  Com- 
mercial School;  (4)  'the  Conservatory  of  Mu- 
sic; (5)  The  School  of  Drawing  and  Painting; 
((>)  The  .hivenilo  Department:  and  the  Col- 
lege (opened  in  1853),  which  has  a  classical,  a 
scientific,  and  a  civil  engineering  course.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  14 
instructors.  The  number  of  students  was  as  fol- 
lows :  collegiate,  102  (58  males  and  44  females) ; 
preparatory,  97  ;  academical.  38;  commercial, 
45  ;  music,  33  ;  drawing  and  painting,  14  ;  ju- 
venile, 29  ;  total,  deducting  repetitions.  333  (1 85 
males  and  1  18  females).  There  were  \1'i  ahomii 
(114  males  and  59  females).  The  Rev.  W.  H. 
Sampson,  A.  M.,  was  principal  of  Lawrence 
Institute  from  1848  to  1853.  The  presidents  of 
the  university  have  been  as  follows :  the  Rev. 
Edward  Cooke,  D.D.,  1853—61 ;  the  Rev.  R.  Z. 
Mason,  LL.  I).,  1801—5 ;  and  the  Rev.  George 
M.  Steele,  D.  D.,  the  rresent  incumbent  (1870), 
appointed  in  1865. 

LEBANON  VALLEY  COLLEGE,  at 
Annville,  Pa.,  under  the  control  of  the  United 
Brethren  in  Christ,  was  founded  in  18G7  by 
the  East  Pennsylvania  Conference  of  that 
church.  It  has  an  endowment  of  $20,000, 
but  is  chiefly  supported  by  several  conferences 
of  the  church,  and  by  contributions  and  tuition 
fees.  The  regular  fees  are  from  $40  to  $17  a 
year.  The  college  has  a  beautiful  campus  of 
about  seven  acres,  two  line  buildings,  a  cabinet, 
and  a  library  of  over  1,200  volumes.  The  cur- 
riculum embraces  three  courses  :    a  classical,  a 


o20 


LECTURES 


ladies',  and  a  scientific  course.  There  is  also  a 
preparatory  department.  In  1875 — 6, there  were 
6  instructors,  and  116  students  (classical  course, 
30;  ladies'  course,  3;  scientific  course,  S3),  of 
whom  S-l  were  preparatory.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows:  T.  R.  Vickroy,  1867—71; 
Lucian  H.  Hammond.  1*71 — 6  ;  and  1).  D.  De 
Long,  the  present  incumbent,  elected  in  1*76. 

LECTURES,  or  Lecture  System,  a 
method  of  giving  instruction  by  formal  expo- 
sitions, generally  written  out  and  read  to  the 
learners.  Hence  the  term  lecture  (from  the 
Latin,  meaning  reading  or  something  read). 
Lectures  are,  however,  quite  often  extempora- 
neous, or  delivered  without  previous  preparation 
of  the  language.  The  lecture  differs  from  the 
lesson  chiefly  in  dispensing  with  the  ordinary 
processes  of  the  recitation  room— question  and 
answer,  repetition,  etc.  The  learners  simply 
listen,  or  take  notes,  while  the  lecturer  nails  or 
speaks,  with  or  without  illustrations  by  means 
of  the  blackboard,  maps,  pictures,  apparatus, 
etc. — Lectures,  as  a  system  of  instruction,  are 
chiefly  depended  on  in  higher  education  in  col- 
leges and  universities,  also  in  technical,  scien- 
tific, and  professional  schools,  because  the  stu- 
dents are  supposed  to  have  acquired  a  consider- 
able maturity  of  intellect,  enabling  them  not 
only  to  receive  knowledge  without  exercises 
specially  designed  to  awaken  attention  or  stim- 
ulate the  understanding,  but  to  exercise  their 
own  faculties  in   arranging  it  in  their  minds  for 

previously  acquired  knowledge.  I'hey  are,  be- 
sides, supposed  to  appreciate  the  importance  of 

the  information  communicated,  so  as  not  to  need 


LESLIE 

year  are  the  same  in  all  the  courses.  This 
institution  was  originally  designed  to  impart  a. 
technical  education,  and  the  school  of  general 
literature  (similar  to  the  ordinary  college  course) 
was  added  subsequently.  In  1875 — 6,  there 
were  x  professors,  li  other  instructors,  and  113 
students.  The  Rev.  John  M.  Leavitt,  D.  1>..  is 
(1876)  the  president 

LELAND  UNIVERSITY,in  New  Orleans,, 
La.,  chartered  in  1870  and  opened  in  1873, 
is  uniler  Baptist  control.  It  was  especially  de- 
signed tor  colored  youth,  but  no  one  can  be  ex- 
cluded on  account  of  race,  color,  sex,  or  religion. 
It  is  supported  by  contributions,  tuition  fees,  and 
the  products  of  10  acres  of  cultivated  land.  The 
buildings  and  grounds  are  valued  at  about 
$75,000,  toward  which  the  Freedmen's  Bureau 
contributed  $17,500,  and  benevolent  individuals 
and  churches  the  residue.  The  cost  of  tuition  is 
SI  per  month,  which  is  remitted  to  ministers  and 
licentiates.  An  opportunity  is  afforded  students 
to  support  themselves  in  part  by  labor  on  the 
farm.  The  university  has  an  academic  and  a 
college  preparatory  course,  of  three  years  each,  a 
college  course  oi  four  years,  and  a  theological 
department.  In  1874-   5,  there  were  4 instructors 

whom  5  were  in  the  eolleee   preparatory  course. 


dies. 


LESLIE,  Sir  John,  a  celebrated  natural 
ulosopher,  teacher,  and  author  of  scientific 
orks.  born  in  Largo,  Scotland,  April  L6.,  1766; 
ed  iu  Coates,  Fifeshire,  Nov.:!..  1832.  While 
boy,  bis  strong  inclination  for  natural  science 
as  shovi  n,  and  led  to  his  entrance  into  the  uni- 


'  LEHIGH  UNIVERSITY,  at  South  Be 
lehem,  Pa,  chartered  in  L866,  is  under  Proti 
ant  Episcopal  control.  It  was  founded 
Asa  Packer,  of  Maueh  Chunk,  who.  in  L8 
appropriated  $500,000  and  suitable  grounds 
the  purpose.  Tuition  is  entirely  free.  Tin 
are  three  tine  buildings,    besides   houses   for  t 


ph  family  of  Vir- 
to  London,  where 
-clt  as  a  lecturer 
g  in  this,  he  be- 

Mr.  Wedgcwood, 
vhile  traveling  in 
.  made  a  transla- 
v  of Birds  (1793), 
/  Inquiry  into(he 

I!  1-iit).  Iu 
i  the  part  of  the 
rcted   professor  of 

if  thai  place,  suc- 
1819,on  the  death 


equipped  observatory,  a  museum. and  collections 
in  natural  history.  It  comprises  five  schools: 
(1)  general  literature ;  (2)  civil  or  statical  en- 
gineering; (3)  mechanical  or  dynamical  engineer- 
ing;  (4)  mining  and  metallurgy;  (5)  chemistry. 
The  courses  are  each,  if  four  years,  except  that  for 
the  degree  of  Engineer  of  Mines,  which  requires 
four  years  and  a  half.  The  studies  of  the  fresh- 
man year  and  of  the  first  half  of  the  sophomore  I 


.!/.,//„ 


nine  of  his  Elements  of  Natural  Philosophy. 
The  latter  was  never  completed.  Shortly  before 
his  death,  in  L832,  he  was  created  a  knight  of 
the  order  of  Guelph.  As  an  able  and  versatile 
writer  in  almost  every  department  of  science,. 


LEWIS 

and  an  inventor  of  philosophical  instruments, 
his  merit  is  generally  acknowledged.  The  inven- 
tion of  a  differential  thermometer,  a  hygrometer, 
and  a  photometer,  also  of  a  process  of  artificial 
congelation,  and  a  method  for  freezing  mercury, 
are  some  of  the  results  ot  his  experimental  labors. 
Bis  chief  publications,  in  addition  to  those  men- 
tioned.are  An  essay  on  the  Resolution  of  Inde- 
terminate Equations  (Edin.,  1788);  Philosophy 
of  Arithmetic  (1817) ;  Progress  of  Mathemalr 
icaland  Philosophical  Science  during  the  18th 
Century,  the  fifth  dissertation  in  the  Ekcyclopa* 
dia  Britannica. 

LEWIS,  Dio,  an  American  physician  and 
author,  horn  in  Auburn.  N.  Y.,  March  .'!..  1823. 
He  was  educated  at  Harvard,  and  practiced 
medicine  at  I'ort  IJvron  and  Buffalo.  While 
in  the  latter  place, he  published  a  medical  maga- 


phys 


LIBRARIES 


521 


ers  accordin 

cation.     Th 
advocated  fi 


for 

1863,  he  established  in 

in 

stitution 

the  training  of  teach- 

iii 

to  his  n 

system  of  physical  edu- 

le 

necessit; 

IT  Ot 

such  education  he  has 
j,  and  sought  to  intro- 

the    |.n 

bin- 

try  i 

school  system  of  the 
liter  the  destruction  of 

:es  are  admitted.  Tn  1 874 — 5, 
tors  and  ss  ■students.  The 
i  as  follows:  the  Rev.D.A. 
;  the  Rev.  Joseph  Barwick, 
e  Rev.   L    \1.    Albright,  A. 


A.  M. 


I.-TI. 


LIBERAL  EDUCATION,  literally,  that 
liich  is  suited  to  the  condition  and  wants  of  a 
wiiian  or  a  gentleman,  that   is.  extending  be- 


whichcollectivi 
LIBERIA, 


mblished  works  i 
i.862);    Weak  L. 


md  how  to  make  them 
m.  1863);  Talks  about  People's 
Stomachs  (1870);  Our  Girls  (New  York.  1871); 
and  Chats  with  Young  Women  (New  York. 
1874). 

LEWISBURG,  University  at,  an  in- 
stitution at  Lewisburg,  Pa,  under  Baptist  con- 
trol, was  founded  in  ls47.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  fees,  room  rent,  and  the  income  of  an 
endowment  of  $130,000.  Its  library  contains 
about  5,000  volumes.  The  institution  has  a 
cabinet  of  geology  and  mineralogy,  collections 
in  natural  history,  and  philosophical  and 
chemical    apparatus.     The    cost   of    tuition    in 


institute.  In  1  ST.") — li.  the  c 
had  C>  instructors.  The  inn 
118;  namely,  collegiate.  6 
academy,  '21.  The  preside! 
have  been  the  Rev.  How 
1851—8;  and  the  Rev.  Jus 
the  present  incumbent,  up] 
LEWIS  COLLEGE, 
founded  iii  1866,  is  under 


t  the  university 
\lalcom,  I).  I>., 
.  Loomis,  LL.  I)., 


vary  trom  $dU  to  >  H>  per  year,  and  by  the  liber- 
ality of  its  founders,  the  Lewis  family  of  Howard 
county.  It  has  a  library  of  about  3,000volumes, 
and  comprises  a  primary,  an  academic,  a  prepar- 
atory, and  a  collegiate  department,  the  last  hav- 
ing a  classical  and  a  scientific  course.  Oppor- 
tunity is  also  afforded  for  theological  and  musical 


hey  are  found  on  tli 
he  republic,  and  exta 


ier  of 
iorof 

38    Of 

hools 

lead 


professor  in  Fourah  Bay  College,  Sierra  Le e), 

The  Republic  of  Liberia,  its  Status  and  its 
Fields,    in    the    Methodist    Quarterly    Review 

(1872). 

LIBRARIES    constitut. f    the  most 

in  schools.  This  has  been  recognized  in  the 
legislat of  many  of  the  states  of  the  Amer- 
ican Union,  by  making  provision  for  supplying 

the  sel Is  and   school-districts  with    libraries  of 

interesting  and  useful  1 ks.   In  1827,  Governor 

Clinton,  of  New  York,  recommended  the  estab- 


o22 


LIBRARIES 


lishment  of  school-district  libraries:  and.  in 
1835  ,  a  law  was  passed  by  the  legislature  of 
that  state  which  permitted  school-districts  to 
raise  money  by  tax  for  the  support  of  libraries. 
In  1838,  further  provision  was  made  by  author- 
izing an  annual  appropriation  of  S.Vi.OllO  from 
the  general  school  fund  for  this  purpose,  on  con- 
dition that  the  districts  would  raise  an  equal 
sum.  In  1ST5,  the  legislature  of  this  state  re- 
duced the  appropriation  to  $50,000.  Massachu- 
setts enacted  a  permissory  law  in  1837,  and,  in 
1842.  granted  a  premium  of  $15  to  each  district 
which  raised  an  equal  sum  by  taxation.  Maine, 
Connecticut,  New  .Jersey,  Ohio,  Michigan,  Illi- 
nois, Wisconsin,  and  <  'al'ifornia  have  passed  acts 
similar  to  that  of  New  York.  These  provisions 
have,  however,  been  found  inadequate  ;  and,  in 
some  of  the  states,  township  libraries  have  taken 
their  place.  Such  libraries,  administered  as  a 
part  of  the  common-school  system,  have  been 
established  in  Michigan.  Indiana,  and  Wisconsin  ; 
but  the  results  are  said  not  to  be  wholly  satis- 
factory. In  Massachusetts,  the  library  has  been 
separated  from  the  school  system,  being  made 
public,  or  open  to  all.  In  1851,  a  law  was 
passed  authorizing"  cities  and  towns  to  establish 
and  maintain  public  libraries,"  and  the  system 
thus  inaugurated  has  proved  eminently  success- 
ful. In  1869,  there  were  58  public  libraries  in 
the  state,  wholly  or  partly  maintained  by  taxa- 
tion. At  the  present  time,  there  are,  probably, 
more  than  three  times  that  number.  "  Public 
libraries,"  says  the  I'.  S.  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation, in  his  report  for  L874,  "arc  now  univers- 
ally regarded  by  school  officers  and  friends  of 
education  as  an  indispensable  complement  to 
our  system  of  free  schools,  and  no  educational 
report  can  now  be  considered  complete  which 
does  not  recognize  their  importance.  ' 

Tin'  \  iluc  of  ;i  school  binary  will  depend  up- 
on the  character  of  the  books  of  which  if  is 
composed,  and  the  uses  to  which  it  is  applied. 
A  large  and  expensive  collection  of  books  is  not 
needed;  but  the  books  should  be  instructive  and 
interesting  to  children,  so  that  through  their 
perusal  they  may  not  only  obtain  useful  infor- 
mation, but  imbibe  a  taste  for  reading.  By  this 
means,  an  antidote  may,  in  part  at  least,  be  ap- 
plied to  the  influence  of  the  trashy,  exciting,  and 
sensational  literature,  which  so  greatly  abounds 
at  the  present  time,  and  which  is  so  apt  to  cor- 
rupt both  the  minds  and  morals  of  the  young. 
"  A  library.'  says  How  to  Teach  (N.Y.,  1874), 
"is  the  indispensable  supplement  to  the  system- 
atic mental  instruction  given  in  the  i  lass  room. 
If.  for  instance,  care  be  taken  and  opportuni- 
ties sought  during  the  lessons  in  geography,  his- 
tory, or  in  any  of  the  departments  of  science,  to 

introduce  some  little  1 k  from  the  library,  and 

to  read  a  few  interesting  paragraphs  illustrating 

the  lesson,  a  brief  notice  and  < mendation  of 

the  book  at  the  close  of  the  exercise,  with  a  few- 
hints  as  to  how  best  to  read  it.  will  utilize  many 
a  valuable  work  that   mighf  otherwise   remain 

untouched  upon  the  shelves A  teacher  lias 

failed  in  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  his 


LICENSE 

functions,  if.  being  in  possession  of  a  good  school 
library,  he  has  not  fixed,  in  at  least  some  of  his 
pupils,  the  habit  and  love  of  self-culture,  by 
leading  them  to  become  habitual  readers." 

LICENSE,  Teacher's,  a  legal  permission 
to  give  instruction,  generally  in  a  public  school. 
This  license  is  usually  conferred  after  exami- 
nation, and  attested  by  a  certificate,  either  tem- 
porary or  permanent,  which  is  evidence  to 
employing  school  boards  that  the  holder  is  a 
qualified  teacher,  sometimes  called  a  certificated 
teacher.  The  object  of  such  a  license  to  teach 
is  to  protect  the  interests  of  the  community 
against  the  evils  arising  from  the  employment 
of  incompetent  persons  by  those  who  might  not 
be  able  to  test  the  qualifications  of  applicants, 
or  who  might,  from  favoritism  or  corrupt  mo- 
tives, be  willing  to  employ  as  teachers  persons 
not  possessing  the  requisite  qualifications.  In 
the  I" inted  States,  the  requirement  that  all  teach- 
ers should  be  duly  examined  and  licensed  previ- 
ous to  appointment  is  almost  universal.  The 
practice  in  regard  to  the  mode  of  examination, 
and  the  forms  and  grades  of  the  certificate, 
varies  considerably  in  the  different  states,  for 
information  in  regard  to  which,  see  the  titles 
of  the  states,  respectively.  In  all  an  unqualified 
attestation  of  moral  i  haracter  is  n  quired,  in  ad- 


W. 


The  J., 


N.  V 


Morality)      State   certificates,  thai  is,  certih- 

cati  s  i> mi i  d  by  state  boards  of  education  or  state 
superintendents,  entitle  the  holders  to  teach  in 
any  part  of  the  state  without  an  examination 
before  count}-,  town,  or  district  boards  or  officers. 
Such  certificates  arc.  however,  usually  overruled 
by  city  boards  of  education,  who  make  an  ex- 
amination and  license  by  their  own  officers — 

usually  the  city  superintendent— a  c lit  ion   of 

employment.  In  some  states,  the  standard  for  a 
license  is  fixed  by  the  state  board  of  education 
or  by  the  superintendent;  in  others,  each  locality 
fixes  its  own  standard.  This  gives  rise  to  a  great 
want  of  uniformity,  which  has  often  been  in- 
veighed against  as  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of 
teachers  and  of  the  profession.  American  teachers 
have  been,  and  still  are,  to  a  diminished  extent 
however,  subjected  to  great  wrong  and  injustice 
by  being  obliged  to  pass  examinations  before  in- 
competent persons,  that  is.  persons  who  have 
Deither  scholarship  nor  professional  knowledge, 
either  theoretical  or  practical.  'I  he  examiners  in 
the  rural  districts  are  rarely  teachers,  and  hence 

qualifications,  except,  indeed,  elementary  schol- 
arship and  moral  character.  At  the  meeting  of 
the  National  Educational  Association,  in  1872, 
this  subject  was  discussed,  and  the  following 
decided  uponasthe  proper  conditions  for  award- 
ing teachers'  certificates  :  (1)  a  comprehensive 
system  of  state,  city,  county,  and  town  boards 
of  examination  ;  (2)  such  boards  to  be  composed 
of  school  superintendents  and  professional  teach- 
ers ;  (3)  a  graded  series  of  certificates  from  life 
diplomas  down   to   annual   certificates,    to    be 


LICENSE 

granted  only  upon  actual  examination ;  (4)  legal 
recognition  by  each  state  of  professional  certifi- 
cates and  normal  school  diplomas  issued  in  other 
states.  In  the  state  of  New  York,  the  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  can  issue  his  cer 
titicate  only  to  those  who  have  been  found  on 
examination  qualified  to  receive  it ;  and  it  is  Ids 
duty  to  appoint  examiners,  at  such  times  and  in 
such  places,  as  he  may  deem  necessary,  for  the 
purpose  of  examining  candidates.  (See  New 
York.) 

The  English  Elementary  Education  Act  (1870) 
provides  that  "before  any  grant  is  made  to  a 
school,  the  Education  Department  must  be  satis- 
fied that  the  principal  teacher  is  certificated ;" 
and  that  •'teachers,  in  order  to  obtain  certificates, 
mast  be  examined,  and  must  undergo  probation 
by  actual  service  in  school;''  that  is.  "after  suc- 
cessfully passing  their  examination, thsy  must, 
tus  teachers  continuously  engaged  in  the  same 
schools,  obtain  two  favorable  reports  from  an  in- 


iceli 


Mil: 


i  at  an  m- 
sport,  i.s  re- 
rt  is  favor- 
under  pro- 


tiiem  :  and  if  the  first  of  tl 
preceded  by  service  of  three  u 
since  the  examination,  a  thin 
terval  of  one  year  after  the  s 
quired  ;  if  the  second  or  thi 
able,  a  eertiticat"  is  issued.  'I 
bation  satisfy  the  conditions 
schools  be  kc] it  by  certificated  teachers.''  The 
Scotch  Education  Act  (1872)  provides  that  "no 
person  shall  be  appointed  to  the  office  of  prin- 
cipal teacher  in  a  public  school,  who  is  not  the 
holder  of  a  certificate  of  competency."  Those 
who  hold  university  degrees  are  entitled  to  re- 
ceive the  certificate  without  further  examination 
in  the  studies  in  which  tliev  were  examined  for 
the  degree.  Too  great  laxity  seems  to  exist  in 
the  granting  of  these  certificates;  as  appears 
from  the  following  statement  oi  the  Educational 
News  (Edinburgh,  June  3.,  L876  i  "A  gradual 
deterioration  in  the  value  of  eertiticat'  s  has  been 
going  on  for  the  last  twenty  years,  under  pre- 
tence of  making  it  the  badge  of  practical  skill 
rather  than  of  literary  attainments  and  scientific 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  teaching;  and  so 
thorough  has  been  the  transformation,  that  it 
now  affords  no  evidence  whatever  of  the  posses- 
sion of  knowledge,  and  next  to  none  even  of 
practical  skill ;"  which  strong  statement  is  based 
•on  the  fact,  as  alleged.,  that  "  the  Education  De- 
partment seems  bent  on  interfering  with  the 
intentions  of  parliament  in  this  matter  by  grant- 
ing certificates 'without  examination.'  although 
the  act  unmistakably  makes  examination  a  nec- 
essary conditi t  granting   a   certificate." — In 

Austria,  most  of  the  teachers  are  compelled  to 
spend  four  years  in  the  normal  schools,  after 
which  they  are  required  to  pass  an  examination 
before  an  independent  commission  appointed  by 
the  government,  before  they  can  obtain  a  license 
to  teach.  In  Prance,  the  teachers  of  private  as 
well  as  of  public  schools  are  required  to  obtain  a 
license  by  passing  an  examination  before  the 
governmental  officers  ;  and  their  schools  are  also 
subject  to  official  supervision.     In  the  German 


)23 


stales,  persons  are  prohibited  from  keeping 
schools  without  being  licensed  ;  and  to  obtain  a 
license  are  required  to  pass  an  examination  ; 
upon  which  they  receive  certificates  showing  the 

grade  of  school  they  are  qualified  to  teach  ;  and 

lhe\  are  interdicted,  under  a  severe  penalty,  from 
issuing  a  prospectus  for  any  higher  school.  Sim- 
ilar legal  provisions  exist  in  Sweden,  Denmark. 
and  some  other  European  countries. 

LIEBER,  Francis,  a  noted  publicist  and 
teacher,  born  in  Berlin,  March  IS..  1800i  died  in 
New  York.  Oct.  '.'..  1872.  lie  entered  the  uni- 
versity of  Jena,  in  1819,  but  left  it  in  1821 :  and. 
after  traveling  on  foot  through  Switzerland,  em- 
barked at  Marseilles  for  Greece,  w  here  he  entered 
the  Greek  army  as  a  volunteer.  Returning  to 
Rome,  he  became  an  inmate  of  the  family  of 


:ity   of   Halle,  but   was   at 
d  at  Kopenick,  where  he 


cession  of  Nieb 
name  of  Franz  . 
another  arrest,  h 
to  England,  wb 


uhlished    under    t 
ill"    threatened  in 
iin.iii  L825,and  tl 

li 
•d 

bile  in  England. 

iodi.als.  and    urn 

I: 

which  was  published,  m  i:{  volumes,  in  I'lula- 
delphia  1 1  828— :('_>).  ]!v  invitation  of  the  trus- 
tees of  Girard   College  in  Philadelphia,  he   fur- 


nished 

a   plan 

of   education  and 

list 

uction    for 

chair' 

South 

f-,r'lo- 

ry  andpol 
,  College,  a 

Ileal    ei 

Colun 

';;;; 

:i  position 

e     1  lie    most 

which 

le  held' 

till   1856. 

These 

wei 

fruit  fu 

years 

of   his  life 

Here 

he 

wrote  his 

Marnu 

I  of  1 

olitical  Eth 

cs  (Boston 

1838—9), 

conmit 

nded    1 

j    Kent   an 

1   Story 

d    adopted 

by  Ha 

v.iril  t 

ext-ba 

k  : 

Legal  and 

Poliiii 

,1  lb  n 

11  /,.  util  s    1  1 

oston,  1 

)  ;  a  trans- 

lation 

if    Ran 

.-horn.-    La 

my 

ns  (1839); 

Great 

Events 

describi  d 

by   Gr 

the    US, 

at 

(N.T. 

1847) 

essays  on 

<>f 

the  Study 

of  Lot 

n  and 

Greek,  as 

Elements 

of  Educa- 

tion  ; 

m  the 

Study  of 

History 

an 

1  Political 

./.,„ 


riii 


otts  other  e.-savs.  letters,  ami  reports.  liilM,, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  history  and 
political  science  in  Columbia  Coll,-,,,  N.  Y.,  and 
remained  in  that  position  till  his  death.  The 
labors  of  Dr.  liebcr  were  of  great  importance, 
and  their  value  has  been  fully  recognized  both 
in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe.  Although 
passing  most  of  his  life  in  the  professor's  chair,  his 
commanding  ability  gave  him  a  reputation  such 
as  is  usually  the  reward  of  long  public  service. 


524 


LILY 


LILT,  William,  a  celebrated  English  schol- 
ar and  teacher,  the  friend  of  Erasmus  and  Sir 
Thomas   More,  was  bom  at  Odiham,  Hants,  in 

England,  in  1466.  and  died  in  l.Vj:',.  lie  was 
educated  at  Oxford  University,  and,  soon  after 
arriving  at  manhood,  traveled  in  the  Kast  to 
obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  and 
subsequently  studied  for  a  time  at  Koine,  and 
also  at  Paris.  On  his  return  to  England,  he  ac- 
quired a  very  high  reputation  for  scholarship, 
being  the  first  teacher  of  Greek  in  London;  and, 
in  L512,  he  was  appointed  by  Dr.  John  Colet, 
dean  of  St.  Paul's  church,  London,  high  master 
of  St.  Paul's  school,  then  recently  established 
through  the  dean's  niuiiitiecuce.  This  position 
he  filled  until  his  death,  lie  published  several 
educational  works,  but  is  chiefly  noted  for  his 
Latin  grammar  (Brevissima  Tnstitutio  seu  Ratio 
Grammatices  Gognoscenda?,  4to,  London.  1513), 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  text  books.  In  the 
compilation  of  this  work.  Colet,  Erasmus,  and 
Cardinal  Wolsey  had  a  share  :  the  English  rudi- 
ments being  written  by  •  'olet,  the  preface  to 
the  first  edition  by  Wolsey,  and  the  Latin  syn- 
tax chiefly  by  Erasmus.  This  book  was  thus 
the  joint  production  of   four   of   the   greatest 

scholars  of  the   age.      Few    scl 1    books    have 

had  so  long  a  career,  or  have  passed  through  so 
many  editions,  being  used  to  this  day  in  St. 
Paul's  school.  King  Henry  VIII.  wrote  an 
introduction  to  grammar,  making  Lily's  gram- 
mar the  basis;  he  also  caused  a  law  to  be  en- 
acted prescribing  this  as  the  grammar  to  be  ex- 
clusively used  in  all  the  schools  of  the  kingdom  ; 
and.ai •dingly.it  remained  the  accepted  gram- 
matical standard  in  English  schools  for  more 
than  three  centuries.  Beneeit  bore  on  it-  title- 
page,  Qmiiii  solam  R  p  i  1/;  ■  s  in  omnibi  i 
scholis  docendam  prcecepil.  This  grammar  is 
also  noteworthy  as  being  the  basis  of  the  first 
English  grammars. — See  Filler.  History  of  the 
Worthies  of  England  (1622) ;  Samuel  Knight, 
Life  of  Dr.  John.  Colet  (1724)  ;  Dibdin,  The 
Biographical  Decameron  (London.  1817);  Jor- 
nv    Life  of   Erasmus  (1758—60).     (See  also 

LINCOLN  COLLEGE,  at  Greenwood,  Mo., 
was  founded,  in  1869,  by  the  United  Presbyte- 
rians. The  grounds  comprise  five  acres,  reserved 
for  the  site  of  a  college  when  the  town  was  laid 
out.  The  building  was  erected  through  the  efforts 
of  the  Rev.  Randal  Ross.  A.  M.,  who  has  been  the 
president  of  the  board  of  directors  from  the  first. 
II ie  college  i-  supported  by  tuition  fees  of  $30 
a  year.  Ft  has  a  classical  course  of  four  years, 
and  a  scientific  cause  of  three  years;  both  sexes 
are  admitted.  In  ls75 — G,  there  were  5  instruct- 
ors and  75  students. 

LINCOLN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Lincoln. 
111.,  under  the  control  of  the  Cumberland   Pres- 


LOCKE 

tific  and  a  select  course.  A  theological  depart 
ment  has  also  been  organized.  In  1873 — 4.  there 
were  12  instructors  and  386  students  (332  pre- 

'  LINCOLN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Oxford,  in 
Chester  Co.,  Pa.,  opened  in  1856,  is  under 
Presbyterian  control.  It  is  especially,  but  not 
exclusively,  designed  for  colored  students.  The 
value  of  its  buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is 
§125.000.  The  grounds  include  80  acres,  and 
contain  four  university  buildings  and  four  pro- 
fessors' houses.  The  library  contains  3.500  vol- 
umes. The  university  has  valuable  philosophical 
apparatus  and  a  lnineralogical  cabinet.  It  has  a 
collegiate  department,  a  normal,  preparatory,  and 
business  department,  and  a  theological,  a  law. and 
a  medical  department.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were 
111  instructors  and  147  students  (74  collegiate, 
57  preparatory,  and  16  theological.  The  Rev. 
Isaac  \.  Randall,  D.D.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 
LINDSLEY,  Philip,  an  American  edu- 
cator, born  at  Morristown.  N.  .1..  in  17Mi;  died 
at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  in  1855.  After  graduating 
at  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  in  1804,  he  was 
for  three  years  tutor  in  that  institution.  In  1813, 
be  became  professor  of  languages,  and,  in  1817, 
vice-president  of  the  college.  In  1823,  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  institution,  but  he  de- 
clined. In  1824,  he  accepted  the  thrice  tendered 
presidency  of  the  university  of  Nashville,  which, 
through  his  efficient  administration,  attained  a 
very  high  rank  among  American  colleges.  So 
jnat  was  the  reputation  which  he  acquired  in 
that  position,  that  no  less  than  ten  different  col- 
leges offered  him  the  presidency.  He  retired  in 
Oct.  1850,  and  spent  the  last  four  years  of  his 
life  at  New  Albany,  teaching  part  of  the  time. 

in  the    tl logical    seminaiv    oi    thai  tow  I).      III-. 

works  ha\e  been  edited  l.y'l.. -I.  Halsey  (Phila.). 
LING,  Peter  Henrik,  a  Swedish  poet,  and 
the  founder  of  a  system  of  gymnastics  for  the 
cure  of  disease,  was  born  in  Ljunga,  Nov.  16., 
1  776.  and  died  in  Stockholm,  May  3..  1839.  Un- 
derlie name  of  hinesipalhy  [movement  cure), 
his  system  has  been  put  into  practice  to  some 
extent  in  other  countries,  but,  like  many  similar 
discoveries,  has  not  fully  answered  the  expec- 
tations of  its  too  sanguine  advocates.  In  lsl.'i, 
the  Royal  Central  Institution  of  Stockholm  was 

system.  I  ing  being  appointed  director.  His 
Elemental)  Pr /■'  s  of  Gymnastics  was  pub- 
lished after  his  death  (Stockholm,  1840). 

LINGUISTICS.     See  Language. 

LOCKE,  John,  an  illustrious  English  philos- 
opher, born  at  Wrington,  in  Somersetshire,  Aug. 


\\i 


in  1-72.  Theva 
apparatus  is  -'I" 
nve  funds, $834, 
volumes.  Both 
preparatory. a 


•  libraries  contain  22, 

B  admitted.     There   is  a 

Latin-scientific,  a  scien- 


himself  to  the  study  of  medicine  with  such  suc- 
ee-s  as  to  win  the   special  approbation  of  Dr. 

Sydenham,  the  great  est  medical  authority  of  his, 
time.  In  1664,  he  went  to  Berlin,  as  secretary  to 
the  British  envoy.  SirW'illiam  Swan,  but  returned 
within  a  year  to  pursue  his  studies  at  Oxford. 


His   perplexity,  at  this 

ime 

as  to  the  choice  of 

a  profession,  was  very  g 

reat 

three  being   open 

to  him.  A  preferment  i 

i  ih 

•  church  was  offered 

him  by  the  duke  of  0 

continue  in  diplomatic  s 

arii 

e,  either  in  Spain  or 

Germany,  were,  also,  n 

ade 

own   inclinations  were 

tow 

ml    the  practice    of 

medicine,  forwhichhe  ha 

iwn  special  aptitude. 

While  engaged    in  the 

stu 

Iv    of  experimental 

stu' lies'!' 'lie     torm'TVl, 

with    his    medical 
Laintance  of    Lord 

by  Locke's  skill ;  and  at 

ihi. 

0    have   been    saved 

sprung  up  between  the 

11,  \ 

bich  Led  to  Locke's 

taking-  up  his  residence 

it   I 

ord    Ashley's  house 

in  J Ion,  where  he  ap] 

himself  to  the  study 

of  polities  and  philosop 

IV. 

There  he  met  the 

earl  of    Northumberlai 

i,  t 

16   earl    of    Halifax. 

the  duke   of    Bnckingh 

Tin 

and  others  of  the 

most  eminent  persona  of 

t  day.     In  L6G8,he 

accompanied  the  earl  of 

N 

irthumberland  on  a 

tour  in   France,  and,  o 

n  1 

is   return,  was  em- 

ployed  by  Lord   Ashley. 

fchi 

i  chancellor  of  the 

exchequer,  to  draw  up 

the 

constitution  of  the 

Some   of  his   recommendations  in  this  respect. 
)f  course,  become  antiqui 

lade   in    physiology   and 


haw.  of  course,  become  antiquated  by  the  prog- 
know  1- 


In  regard  to  the  training  of 
rations  concerning  the  time  at 
begun,   the  means  to  be  em- 


cators.  r  or  insti 
record  as  entirely  i 
it,  except  for  obi 
would   have  the  1 


drrs- 


L675,h 

health. 

ouaintc 


ears  later.  In 
benefit  of  his 
he   became  ac- 


it  was  not  his  intention  to 
.il   theory  of  education,  bi 

educating  the  young.      The 
children' is    very    rarclv    < 


ason.left  the  country.  Lock.-  accompanied 
king  up  his  residence  in  Amsterdam, 
a  conjunction  with  Limborch,  Le  Clerc, 


1681 


On  Tnh'r.d,,,,,.  In  the  latter  year,  he 
to  England,  in  the  fleet  which  com 
princess  of  Orange,  and  shortly  alt. 
published  his  celebrated  h'ssm/.  The  :■ 
this  work,  largely  aided   by  the  viole 


.  editions 
ins  of  it 


which  it  was  attacked,  was  very  great, 

appearing  in  1 1  years,  besides  translai 
into  Latin  and  French,  which  gave  th 
European  reputation.  In  1693,  apj 
Thoughts  Concerning  Education.  'J 
the  value  of  which  has  been  variously 
by  distinguished  critics,  isof  special  i 
educators,  inasmuch  as  i1  wi  Brs 

in  England,  to  deal  with  the  subject  of 
in  a  comprehensive  and  practical  way 
written  as  a  guide  to  the  education  of  a  young 
gentleman,  in  this  respect  resembling  Montaigne's 
essay  on  the  same  subject.  Indeed,  Ixjcke's  work 
was  an  amplification,  through  in  no  sense  an  im- 
itation, of  Montaigne's.  The  subject  is  considered 
from  the  beginning,  and  rules  were  laid  down  not 
only  for  mental  and  moral  development,  but  for 
physical  training,  I ke's  education  as  a  physi- 
cian  especially   qualifying   him   for  the   latter. 


It    was 


children  to  do  right  -  that  of  rewards,  or  .if  ap- 
pealing to  their  love  of  approbation.  He  care- 
fully guards  himself  here,  by  explaining  that  the 
reward  or  the  approval  must  not  be  given  for 
any  "particular  performance  that  they  show  an 
aversion  to.  or  to  which  they  would  not  have 
applied  themselves  without  that  temptation", 
'But  ,  1..'  says,  "to  make  the  sense  of  esteem  or 
Lisgl  ice  sink  the  deeper,  and  be  of  the  more 
weight,  other  agreeable  or  disagreeable  things 
i-hould  constantly  accompany  these  different 
states;  not  as  particular  rewards  and  punish- 
ments of  this  or  that  particular  action,  but  as 
iinr.-sni!)  In  longing  to.  and  constantly  attending, 
one.  who.  by  hi-  carriage,  has  brought  himself 
intoa  state  of  disgrace  or  commendation."  It 
is  doubtful  whether  any  more  powerful  agent  can 
be  brought  to  b..ur  practically  in  influeiieiiig  t In- 
child.  It  has.  indeed,  been  doubled  whether  any 
higher  motive  for  doing  right,  can  be  presented 
to  the  majority  of  adults,  than  this  of  the  ap- 
probation of  their  fellows,  which  is  usually 
known  as  public  opinion.  To  attempt  to  in- 
fluence children,  therefore,  exclusively  by  higher 
motives,  would  hardly  be  practical,  or  productive 
of  benefit.  That  Locke  was  not  forgetful  of  these 
higher  motives,  however,  the  following  words  will 
show:  "Concerning  reputation,  1  shall  only  re- 
mark this  one  thing  more  of  it  ;  that  though  it 
be  not  the  true  principle  and  measure  of  virtue 
(for  that  is  the  knowledge  of  a  man's  duty,  and 


526 


LOCKE 


the  satisfaction  of  it  is  to  obey  his  Maker,  in  fol- 
lowing the  dictates  of  that  light  God  has  given 
him,  with  the  hopes  of  acceptation  and  reward), 
yet  it  is  that  which  comes  nearest  to  it,  and, 
being  the  testimony  and  applause  that  other 
people's  reason,  as  it  were,  by  a  common  con- 
sent, gives  to  virtuous  and  well-ordered  actions, 
it  is  the  proper  guide  and  encouragement  of 
children,  till  they  grow  able  to  judge  for  them- 
selves, and  to  find  what  is  right  by  their  own 
reason."  His  disapproval  of  public  schools,  also, 
is  not  in  accordance  with  our  modern  view,  but 
of  this  there  are  two  extenuating  circumstances, 
—  one.  the  fact  that  his  essay  was  intended  to 
be  used  in  the  education  of  a  young  nobleman  ; 
the  other,  that  the  public  schools,  in  Locke's  day, 
were  so  inferior  to  those  of  to-day,  that  his  cen- 
sure can  hardly  be  construed  as  applying  to  the 
latter.  His  slight  opinion  of  the  classics,  also, 
must  be  modified  in  our  estimate  of  it,  by  the 
same  fact  mentioned  above,  that  it  was  the  edu- 
cation of  the  man  of  affairs  that  he  had  in  view, 
and  not  that  of  the  scholar.  Ilis  recommendations 
in  regard  to  the  study  of  natural  philosophy,  in- 
terspersed, as  they  are.  with  theological  con- 
siderations and  directions  concerning  "spirits",  of 
course,  show  the  confusion  of  mind  in  regard  to 
this  subject,  prevalent  in  his  day.  and  furnish  no 
guide  for  that  branch  of  study  at  the  present 
time.  His  high  opinion  of  the  value  of  history, 
civil  law,  English  law,  style,  and  letters  will,  by 
many,  be  thought  to  show  the  bias  produced  by 
his  long  association  witli  them,  and  the  station  of 
the  pupil  for  whom  bis  treatise  was  intended  : 
while  his  depreciation  of  music, as  part  of  a  liberal 
education,  is  accounted  for  by  the  low  state  of  that 
art  during  his  time,  and  will  hardly  be  acepted 
now  as  a  true  statement  of  its  merits.  Not- 
withstanding the  objections  which  can  be  urged 
against  Locke's  method,  owing  to  the  changed 
condition  of  society,  the  great  progress  thai  has 
been  made  in  many  brandies  of  learning,  and  the 
creation  of  new  ones,  his  treatise  remains  a 
memorable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the 
great  subject  of  which  he  treats,  and  a  landmark 
in  its  history.  That  it  is  not  without  errors  and 
short-comings. ami  that  lie  was  conscious  of  them, 
his  own  concluding  words  will  show:  "Though 
I  have  now  come  to  a  conclusion  of  what  ob- 
vious remarks  have  suggested  to  me  concerning 
education.  I  would  not  have  it  thought  that  I 
look  on  it  as  a  just  treatise  on  this  subject.  There 
are  a  thousand  other  things  that  may  need  con- 
sideration ;  especially  if  one  should  take  in  the 
various  tempers,  different  inclinations,  and  par- 
ticular defaults  that  are  to  be  found  in  children: 
and  prescribe  proper  remedies.  *  *  *  *  Each 
man's  mind  has  some  peculiarity,  as  well  as  his 
face,  that  distinguishes  him  from  all  others  ;  and 
there  are  possibly  scarce  two  children  who  can 
lie  conducted  by  exactly  the  same  method.  " 
But  having  had  here  only  some  general  views  iu 
reference  to  the  main  end  and  aims  in  education, 
and  those  designed  for  a  gentleman's  son.  whom, 
being  then  very  little.  I  considered  only  as  white 
paper  or  wax  to  be  molded  and  fashioned  as  one 


LONDON    UNIVERSITY 

pleases,  I  have  touched  little  more  than  those 
heads,  which  1  judged  necessary  for  the  breeding 
of  a  young  gentleman  of  his  condition  in  general, 
and  have  now  published  these  my  occasional 
thoughts,  with  this  hope.  that,  though  this  be 
far  from  being  a  complete  treatise  on  this  sub- 
ject, or  such  asthat  everyone  mayfindwhat  will 
just  fit  his  child  in  it.  yet  it  may  give  some  small 
light  to  those  whose  concern  for  their  dear  little 
ones  makes  them  so  irregularly  bold,  that  they 
dare  venture  to  consult  their  own  reason  in  the 
education  of  their  children,  rather  than   wholly 

L'HOMOND,  Charles  Francois,  a  French 
pries!  and  educate] ,  was  born,  in  1727,  at  Chaul- 
nes:  died  at  Paris,  in  1794.  Be  was  for  some  time 
at  the  head  of  the  i  •ollege  dlnvUh  at  Tails,  and 
from  there  passed  to  the  College  du  Cardinal 
Lemoine  where  he  was  for  twenty  years  teacher 
of  the  sixth  class.  After  becoming  professor 
emeritus,  he  devoted  his  time  to  the  compilation 
of  school  books,  many  of  which  attained  a  very 
wide  circulation.  His  work  He  fin's  ittustribus 
urbis  Roma;,  is  still  in  extensive  use,  not  only 
in  1'ranee.  but  in  the  1'nited  States,  England, 
Germany,  and  some  other  countries,  and  is  re- 
garded by  many  distinguished  educators  as  the 
best  Latin  reader  that  has  ever  been  issued.  In 
1860,  his  native  town  erected  a  statue  to  him. 
(See  Latin  Language.) 

LOMBARD  UNIVERSITY,  at  Gales- 
burg.  111.. under  the  control  of  I  'nivcrsalists.  was 
founded  as  the  Illinois  Liberal  Institute,  in  1851, 
and  chartered  as  a  university,  in  1853.  It  is 
supported  by  the  income  of  an  endowment  of 
$100,000,  anil  by  tuition  fees.  The  regular  fees 
vary  from  .<!.">  to  $33  per  year.  It  has  a  large 
and  valuable  cabinet,  and  libraries  containing 
over  4,000  volumes.  The  university  embraces 
two  departments  of  instruction, — the  collegiate 
and  the  preparatory.  The  collegiate  includes 
three  different  courses  of  study. — the  classi.-al.  the 
scientific,  and  the  literary  course,  on  the  comple- 
tion of  which  the  degrees  of  Bachelor  of  Arts, 
Bachelor  of  Science,  and  Laureate  of  Arts  are, 
respectively,  conferred.  Both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted. In  1875 — 6,  there  were  '■>  instructors 
and  114  students,  of  whom  25  (7  classical,  Li 
scientific,  and  5  literary)  were  in  the  collegiate 
department,  and  69  (24  pursuing  ancient  and 
modern  languages,  and  4  5  English  studies),  in  the 
preparatory  department.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Paid  R.  Kendall,  A.  M., 
18ol_G;  Trof.  J.  V.  N.  Standish  (acting), 
1856—7;  the  Rev.  Otis  A.  Skinner.  D.  D., 
Is57— 0  ;  the  Rev.  J.  I'.  Weston.  I».  !>..  1859— 
Til:  Prof.  Win.  Livingston  (provisional),  1873 
-  -5;  and  the  Rev.  Neliemiali  White.  Ph.D.,  the 
present  incumbent,  appointed  in  1875. 

LONDON,  University  of,  was  created  bv 
royal  charter  bearing  date  Nov.  28.,  1836.  It 
was  founded  on  the  same  principles  of  liberality 
as  University  College,  London  (q.  v.),  out  of 
which  it  sprung.  By  an  oversight,  the  first  char- 
ter was  granted  only  during  "royal  will  and 
pleasure",  and   would  have   expired  six  months 


LONDON    UNIVERSITY 


after  the  death  of  the  king.  A  new  charter, 
therefore,  not  so  determinable,  was  granted  in 
the  following  year  by  Queen  Victoria.  The 
early  constitution  of  the  university  bore  a  rough 
resemblance  to  that  of  the  universities  of  ( Ixford 
anil  Cambridge,    there  being,  on  the  one  hand. 


in  fact,  had  not,  in  many  cases,  been  working 
well  ;  many  whom  the  university  would  gladly 
have  welcomed  as  candidates,  were  kept    away; 


sity  ot  Iaiiic 
in  one  local 
some  of  tl: 
colonies.  In 
every  candii 
examinatioi 
a  certificate 


to 


prised,  in  addition  to  the  universities  of  t 
United  Kingdom  and  of  Sydney,  37  other  c, 
leges  and  schools.  The  most  important  of  th. 
were  University  College  and  King's  Collej 
London,  and  Owens  College,  Manchester  (q.  \ 
Most  of  the  remainder  were  theological  coUeg 
in  connection  with   the    Roman  Catholics,  t 

Independents,  the  Baptists,  and  other  dei lii 

tions. 

The  government  of  the   university  is  in  t 


of  whom  arc  appointed  l.v  the  Crown   for  life  or 

until  resignation.     All  by-laws  and  regulations, 

however,  have  first  to  be  submitted  to  the  ap- 
proval of  one  of  her  Majesty's  principal  secre- 
taries of  state.  It  had  been  proposed,  as  early  as 
1840,to  give  the  graduates  some  influence  in  the 
management  of  university  affairs.  This  scheme, 
taken  up  in  earnest  in  Is  IN,  was  agitated  year 
after  year,  until  a  new  charter  was  obtained  in 
L858.  This  charter  formed  the  graduates,  then 
about  1,000  in  number,  into  a  corporation, giving 
them  the  right  to  meet  in  convocation  and,  to  in- 
tervene by  discussion  and  opinion  in  university 
affairs,  to  nominate  one-fourth  of  the  senate,  anil 
the  right,  along  with  the  senate,  of  accepting  any 
new  charter  or  of  surrendering  a  charter.  The 
charter  also  gave  the  right  to  confer  new  degrees 
in  science,  in  music,  or  in  any  department  of 
knowledge  whatever,  theology  always  excepted. 
It  is  expected  that  the  degrees  in  music  will  be 
instituted  shortly. 

Whilst  the  draft  charter  was  under  considera- 
tion, in  the  earlier  half  of  L857,  a  new  clause  was 
introduced  by  the  senate  which  provoked  great 
,  excitement  and  strong  opposition  from  all  the 
affiliated  colleges  except  one,  and  from  a  decided 
majority  of  the  graduates.  A  -cording  to  this 
36th  clause,  all  persons,  wherever  educated,  were 
t»  be  allowed  to  compete  for  degrees,  other  than 
medical.  The  senate,  notwithstanding  the  oppo- 
sition they  met  with  from  without,  persevered 
in  their  course,  and  the  new  charter  came  into 
force  on  April  9.,  1858.     The  certificate  system, 


ht  to  be  secured  by  making  the  exam- 
more   frequent.      There   had,   for   in- 

irinerly  lieen  two  examinations,  includ- 
iculatnin,  for  ]',.  A.. with  at  least  two  years 
them;  henceforth,  there  were  to  be  three, 


s.  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  theap- 
if  its  opponents  have  been  realized. 
•  number  of  graduates  now  is  nearly 
it  was  18  years  ago,  the  value  of 
in  public  estimation  has  not  di- 
t  increased.     Nor  have  the  colleges 


lowing  statistics  relating  1 
for  the  ordinary  P..  A.  de 
candidates.  J!!  described 
from  certain  colleges  and 


Mill  I 


lie  comparison  would  be 
■  examinations  for  honors 


mi 


The  first  examination  in  the  university  is  the 
matriculation  examination  (to  be  carefully  dis- 
criminated from  matriculation  at  Oxford  or 
Cambridge)  ;  for  this  there  were,  in  1875,  1,021 
candidates,  of  whom  522  passed.  It  may  be 
passed  at  the  age  of  Hi;  but  the  average  age  of 
candidates  i*  19.  and  sum,  imie.-,  'JO  years.  It  is 
an  examination  in  Latin  ;  in  any  two  of  the  fol- 
lowing languages.-  Creek.  French,  German;  in 
KngliMi:    in  mail,,  man.-,   and    in  natural  ,  hilos- 


aritv  of  the  examination,  as  of  tl tier  pass 

examinations,  is,  thai  a  candidate  is  rejected  if 
he  fails  entirely  in  any  one  .subject,  however  well 
he  may  do  in  all  the  rest.  Of  those  who  pass 
this  examination,  about  one-third  go  no  further. 
Those  who  do,  henceforth  pursue  diverging 
courses.  They  may  proceed  to  prepare  for  de- 
grees in  arts,  in  science,  laws,  or  medicine. 
The  university  grants  the  higher  degrees  of 
Master  and  Doctor  only  after  the  passing  of  a 
further     examination,    which    differs    from    the 


particular,  "nave  always  had  a  high  reputation. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  leading  physicians  in 
London  tire  graduates  of  this  university.     The 


i.L'S 


LORINSER 


matriculation  examination  and  the  pass  exami-  | 
nations  for  B.  A.  and  B.  Sc.  are,  on  application 
to  the  senate,  held,  simultaneously  with  the  ex- 
aminations in  London,  at  various  populous  cen- 
ters in  England,  at  some  places  in  Ireland,  and 
in  the  colonies  (e.  g.  Canada.  Mauritius,  and 
Tasmania).  They  will  shortly  be  held  also  in 
Scotland. 

An  unintended  omission  in  the  charter  of 
1858  made  a  new  charter  necessaryin  1863;  and, 
in  1867,  a  supplemental  charter  was  obtained, 
conveying  the  right  to  hold  examinations  for 
women.  There  have  been,  at  times,  a  majority 
in  Convocation  who  were  willing  to  admit  wom- 
en to  degrees  on  the  same  terms  as 
whether  the  movement  will  be 
mains  to  be  seen.  The  program m.'  of  the  gen- 
eral examination  for  women  will,  next  year,  be 
completely  assimilated  to  the  matriculation  pro- 
gramme ;  and  that  is  the  amount  of  success 
which  the  movement  has  attained  so  far.  Wom- 
en, after  passing  this  examination,  may  be  ex- 
amined for  certificates  of  higher  proficiency  also. 
The  Reform  Act  of  1867  gave  the  members  of 
Convocation  the  right  of  returning  a  represent- 
ative to  Parliament  :  the  first  member  for  the 
university  is  the  Right  lion.  Robert  Lowe. 
Convocation,  in  March,  1876,  numbered  1.663 
members.  The  entire  number  of  graduates  is 
nearly  double  this,  only  those  of  them  being 
members  of  Convocation  who  are  of  a  certain 
standing,  and  have  paid  the  prescribed  fee. 

The  estimate  of  the  expenses  of  the  univer- 
sity, for  1876 — 7,  is  as  follows  :  salaries  (of  the 
registrar  and  his  assistant,  of  the  clerks,  etc.) 
£2,765  5s  8d;  examiners,  £5,300;  exhibitions, 
scholarships,  prizes,  and  medals,  i.'l.!»7'_'  Hi  s.; 
incidental  expenses,  6520;  total,  £10,557  15s.  8d. 
If  from  this  be  deducted  £4.500,  which  it  is 
estimated  the  fees  will  yield  during  the  same 
period,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  university  is  a 
yearly  charge  to  the  country  to  the  extent  of 
about  tii.ono.  It  must  be  added  that  the  beauti- 
ful new  buildings  in  Burlington  Gardens,  which 
are  the  first  home  of  its  own  the  university  has 
had,  and  which  were  opened  by  the  Queen  in 
1870,  were  built  entirely  at  public  cost.  The 
earl  of  Burlington,  now  the  duke  of  Devonshire, 
was  the  first  chancellor  of  the  university;  be 
still  retains  a  seal  in  thesenate.  Thesecondand 
present  chancellor  i-  Ear]  Granville.      3ee  the 

yearly  Ca    idar     t  D        -        of  1     id 

and  the  Win  a  s  of  th  S  not  .  T)  Urn  >ersity 
of  London  and  its  Influence  on  Education  in 
Scotland,  in  Frazer's  Magazine  (Aug.  1876). 

LORINSER,  Karl  Ignaz,  a  distinguished 


(Zum  Schutzt    der  Gesundheil  aufSckulen),  in 

which  he  severely  inveighed  against  the  condition 
of  the  gymnasia,  a  -.-emu-  that-  the  great  variety 
of  studies  pursued,  the  long  school  hours,  and 
tli'  exce  ive  amount  of  home  work,  tended  to 
undermine  the  health  of  the  pupils.  This  criti- 
cism of  the  school  management  gave  rise  to  a 


LOUISIANA 

bitter  controversy,  more  than  seventy  pamphlets 
being  written  pro  and  con.  King  Frederick 
William  III.,  of  Prussia,  declared  himself  in 
sympathy  with  Lorinsers  views,  and  ordered  the 
ministry  of  education  to  draw  up  a  plan  to  rem- 
edy the  evils  described  in  the  pamphlet.  The 
minister  Altenstein,  however,  in  his  decree  vir- 
tually denied  the  charges.  An  important  result 
of  this  controversy  was,  that  gymnastics  were 
again  introduced  into  the  gymnasia,  and  that  the 
necessity  of  making  school  hygiene  a  subject  of 
special  and  thorough  study,  was  generally  ad- 
mitted. The  autobioeraphv  of  Lorinser  was  pub- 
lished in  1864.  by  his  son. 

LOUISIANA,  one  of  the  southern  states  of 
the  American  I  'nion.  was  originally  a  part  of  the 
French  province  of  Louisiana,  which  was  ceded 
t..  the  Tinted  States  in  1 MI3.  This  vast  tract, 
stretching  from  the  Mississippi  river  westward 
to  the  Rock}- mountains,  was  at  first  divided  into 
two  territories,  that  of  Orleans  and  Louisiana, 
the  former  including  the  present  state  of  Louisi- 
ana, and  the  latter  all  the  remainder.  In  1812, 
the  territory  of  Orleans  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  the  state  of  Louisiana.  The  population, 
in  L810,  was  76.556,  of  whom  34,660  were 
slaves,  ami  7 .5*5  free  colored  persons;  in  1870, 
the  population  was  726,915,  of  whom  362,065 
were  whites.  364.210  colored  persons,  569  In- 
dians, and  71  Chinese. 

'Educational  History. —  While  Louisiana  was 
yet  a  territory,  provision  was  made  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  primary  schools  in  each  parish. 
In  1819,  these  schools  were  placed  under  the  su- 
pervision of  police  juries;  and,  in  1821,  under 
live  trustees  appointed  by  the  police  jury  of  each 
parish,  from  the  resident  land-owners.  In  that 
year,  the  sum  of  SMio  was  appropriated  for  the 
support  of  schools,  and  authority  was  given  to 
increase  that  amount  by  a  tax  on  the  property 
of  each  parish.  By  an  act  of  the  legislature,  in 
I-;:.;,  the  -ccretan  of  .-tale  was  made  superin- 
tendent of  public  education,  and  acted  as  such 
from  that  time  until  1846.  The  result  not 
proving  satisfactory,  however,  a  bill  was  passed 
in  L847,  providing  for  the  appointment  of  a 
state  superintendent  and  parish  superintendents, 
the  collection  of  a  one  mill  tax  on  property,  and 
the  establishment  of  a  state  school  fund  by  a 
consolidation  of  the  land  grants  (amounting  to 
7*6.044  acres)  and  individual  donations.  The 
object  of  this  legislation  was  to  establish  a  free 
public-school  system  for  all  the  white  children 
between  the  ages  of  6  and  16  years.  Additional 
legislation,  in  1855,  imposed  a  poll-tax  of  $1.00 
on  each  tree  white  male  inhabitant  over  twenty- 
old.  In  1850,  there  were  675  public 
schools  in  the  state,  taught  by  845  teachers,  and 
giving  instruction  to  •.'5.716',  pupils.  There  were 
also  l  12  academies,  and  8  colleges.  In  1860,  the 
number  of  public  schools  had  increased  to  713, 
with  31.813  pupils;  and  the  school  revenue 
amounted  to  $469,210.  In  1868,  the  new  state 
constitution  provided  that  a  state  superintendent 
should  be  elected  for  four  years,  aud  that  all  the 
children  of  the  state  between  the  ages  of  6  and 


LOUISIANA 


529 


21  years,  should  be  admitted  to  the  public  schools 

or  to  other  state  institutions  of  learning,  without 
regard  to  race,  color,  or  previous  condition.  A 
special  act  to  carry  out  these  provisions  was 
passed  in  March,  18f>9.  This  required  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  state  board  of  education  to  con- 
sist of  the  superintendent  of  public  education, 
one  member  from  each  congressional  district  in 
the  state,  and  two  from  the  state  at  large.  To 
this  board  were  committed  the  supervision  and 
management  of  the  educational  interests  of  tin- 
state."  The  state  was  to  be  divided  into  six 
districts,  with  a  division  superintendent  foreach, 
whose  duty  it  was  to  supervise  and  manage  the 
schools  in  his  district,  subject  to  the  control  of 
the  state  board.  Hoards  of  directors  for  each 
district  in  the  state  were  also  to  be  appointed  by 
the  state  board,  for  the  purpose  of  establishing 
and  supervising  schools  in  their  respective 
districts,  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  division 
superintendents.  A  two  mill  property  tax  was 
directed  to  be  levied,  leaving  it  optional  with 
the  voters  to  raise  by  local  taxation  whatever 
additional  funds  were  necessary  for  the  erection 
or  hiring  of  school  buildings.  During  the  earlier 
years  of  legislation,  the  sparseness  of  the  popu- 
lation rendered  the  school  laws. in  many  respects, 
inoperative;  and,  during  the  last  twenty  years, 
political  disturbances  ending  finally  in  civil  war, 
by  producing  class  distinctions  founded  on  color, 
made  the  work  of  education  in  the  state  a  matter 
of  great  difficulty.  Since  the  establishment  of 
the  school  system,  in  1870,  considerable  progress 
has  been  made.  The  school  boards  have  been 
energetic  and  judicious  ;  the  school  funds  have 
been  managed  with  economy  and  prudence, 
many  new  schools  have  been  established,  and  an 
increased  number  of  pupils  brought  under  in- 
struction. The  first  state  superintendent  under 
the  new  law  was  Thomas  \V.  ( !onway,  who  was 
succeeded,  in  1872,  by  William  6.  Brown,  the 
present  incumbent  (1876). 

School  system. — The  public  schools,  according 
to  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  March  lfi.,  1870, 
arc-  governed  by  the  state  board  of  education, 
which  consists  of  a  state  superintendent  and  six 
division  superintendents:  there  is  also  an  assistant 
superintendent  for  the  city  of  New  Orleans.  The 
duties  of  the  board  are  to  appoint  parish,  city, 
town,  and  district  directors,  to  make  all  needful 
rules  for  the  government  of  schools,  to  enforce 
the  constitutional  provisions  relating  to  the  ad- 
mission into  the  schools  of  all  children  without 
regard  to  race,  color,  or  previous  condition,  to 
recommend  a  uniform  series  of  textbooks,  and 
to  prescribe  a  course  of  study.  The  state  super- 
intendent is,  ex  officio,  president  of  the  board,  and 
its  chief  executive  officer.  He  is  charged  with 
the  care  of  all  educational  reports  and  docu- 
ments, exercises  a  general  supervision  over  the 
division  superintendents,  holding  meetings  with 
them  in  the  several  divisions  of  the  state,  at  least 
once  a  year,  issues  teachers'  certificates  of  quali- 
fication, apportions  the  school  fund,  examines 
and  approves  all  plans  for  school  buildings 
erected,  and  makes  a  report  to  the  general  as- 


sembly at  each  session.- — Division  superintend- 
ents have  control  of  the  schools  in  their  respective 
divisions,  examine  teachers,  issue  certificates  of 
qualification  good  for  one  year  in  the  division 
where  issued,  hold  teachers'  institutes,  organize 
teachers'  associations,  audit  treasurers'  accounts, 
make  reports  to  the  state  board  and  Btate  super- 


superintendent.-  Hoards  ,,,'sc',.,.,'  ,/,,;. tors  dis- 
charge  all   the   duties    usually  appertaining  to 

such  bodies  in  other  states.     The  school  ith 

consists  of  four  weeks  of  five  days  each.     The 
Bible  is  not  excluded  from  the  public  schools, 


but  no  pupil  is  required  to  read  it  contrary  to 
the  wishes  of  his  parents  or  guardians. 

Educational  condition.  — The  total  number 
of  school  districts  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was  473; 
and  the  number  of  public  schools,  1,032;  besides 
which  there  were  reported  418  private  schools. 
The  whole  amount  of  school  income  for  the  year 
was  $789,068.95,  of  which  $314,818.03  was  de- 
rived from  state  apportionments.  Other  items 
of  the  school  statistics  arc  given  below  : 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  280,387 

Number   enrolled  in  public  schools  74,846 

Xinnlier  attending  private  schools  22,300 

Number  of  teachers,  males,         707 

females,      7C0 

Total,  1,557 

Average  salary  of  teachers  per  mouth  $37.00 

Expenditures,  for  salaries,        $573,144.44 
11  oilier  purposes,       290,247.42 


Normal  Instruction. — Although  the  law  pro- 
vides for  the  establishment  of  a  normal  school  in 
the  state,  no  steps  have  yet  been  taken  to  carry 
out  its  provisions  in  this  respect.  The  city  of 
New  Orleans  had  formerly  a  normal  school :  but, 
owing  to  the  inability  of  the  school  board  to 
sustain  it  with  appropriations,  it  has  passed  from 
their  control,  and  is  now  a  department  of  the 
New  Orleans  University.  Straight  University 
and  the  Peabody  Normal  Seminary,  in  the  same 
city,  also  afford  normal  instruction  and  training. 
The  division  superintendents  are  required  by 
law  to  hold  teachers'  institutes  annually  in  their 
respective  divisions. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  institutions  of 
this  grade,  in  the  state,  are  (1)  private  schools, 
(2)  high  schools,  and  (3)  business  colleges.  The 
first,  in  1875,  reported  846  teachers  and.  22,306 
scholars.  Of  the  high  schools,  four  are  mentioned 
in  the  state  superintendent's  report  for  1875,  three 
being  established  in  New  Orleans,  and  the  other 
recently  open  at  Baton  Rouge.  One  of  those 
located  in  New  Orleans  is  for  boys ;  the  other 
two,  for  girls,  The  Central  High  School  for 
boys,  is  divided  into  six  departments,  as  follows : 
English  literature;  Latin  and  Greek;  science; 
mathematics ;  commerce,  comprising  penman- 
ship, drawing,  and  book-keeping  :  and  French. 
During  the  first  year  in  this  school,  all  pursue 
the  same  studies;  after  that  time,  the  study  of  the 
classics  is  optional.     Four   business  colleges  re- 


530  LOUISIANA 

ported,  in  1874,  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, 12  teachers  and  915  pupils,  of  whom 
860  were  males,  and  So  females.  Their  courses 
of  instruction  vary  from  three  months  to  a  year. 
Superior  Instruction. — The  institutions  which 
afford  opportunities  for  higher  instruction,  in- 
cluding the  Louisiana  State  University  (q.  v.), 
are  enumerated  in  the  following  table  : 


When 

Religious 

NAME 

Location 

r,.m,.i. 

de"t'™'na" 

Centenary  College 

Jackson 

l.S'Jo 

M.  Epis.S. 

N.  Orleans 

Non-sect. 

Bat.  limine 

ih.-,:i 

Non-sect. 

New  Orleans  University.. 

N.  Orleans 

1873 

M.  Epis. 

St.  Charles  College 

Gr.  Coteau 

E.  C. 

St. Marv  Jefferson  College. 

St.  James 

1861 

Straight  University 

N.  Orleans 

Evangel. 

Centenary  College,  the  oldest  in  the  state,  is 
also  one  of  the  most  efficient.  The  New  Orleans 
University,  like  Straight  University,  makes  no 
distinction  of  race  or  sex  in  its  requirements  for 
admission.  It  has  a  preparatory,  a  normal,  a  col- 
legiate, anil  a  theological  department.  The  Silli- 
man  Female  Collegiate  Institute,  at  Clinton, 
under  the  control  of  the  Presbyterians,  also 
affords  superior  instruction.  It  has  a  collegiate 
course,  and  is  authorized  to  confer  degrees. 

Scientific  and  I'mfeasimial  fiistrnc/itiii.- 
The  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of 
Louisiana  was  opened  June  1.,  1874.  in  the 
building  of  the  Louisiana  University,  in  pursu- 
ance of  an  act  of  the  legislature,  passed  in  April 
of  the  same  year,  making  provision  for  carry- 
ing into  effect  the  purposes  of  the  donation,  by 
the  United  States,  of  public  lands  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  agricultural  and  mechanical  col- 
lege in  the  state.  The  Chalmette  battle-ground, 
in  the  parish  of  St.  Bernard,  where  the  state 
owns  'JHII  acres  of  land,  was  selected  as  a  site  for 
the  college.  The  only  schools  of  theology  are  the 
Biblical  department  of  New  Orleans  University. 
the  theological  department  of  Straight  Univer- 
sity, which  is  open  to  all  denominations,  and 
the  theological  department  of  Leland  University. 
The  law  department  of  the  University  of 
Louisiana  performs  the  office  of  a  law  school, 
besides  which  there  is  a  law  department  in 
Straight  University,  instructed  by  members  of 
the  New  Orleans  bar.  By  a  special  act  of  the 
legislature,  a  diploma  from  this  department  en- 
titles the  graduate  to  practice  in  all  the  courts 
of  the  state.  The  same  institution  has  also  a 
medical  department. 

Special  Instruction.—  The  Louisiana  Institu- 
tion for  the  Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb, 
at  Baton  Kongo,  was  founded  in  1854.  In  1874, 
it  had  51  pupils,  ami  111  instructors.  The  value 
of  its  grounds,  buildings,  etc.,  is  about  $200,000. 
The  Institution  for  the  Instruction  of  the  Blind, 
also  at  Baton  Rouge,  was  founded  in  1871.  It  is 
represented  to  be  in  a  flourishing  condition.  In 
1874,  it  had  65  pupils,  and  1  9  instructors  and 
other  employes.  The  value  of  its  grounds  and 
buildings  is  about  $100,000.  This  institution 
includes  also  an  industrial  home  for  the  blind. 
Besides   these  institutions,   there   is   an   insane 


LOUISVILLE 

asylum,  at  Jackson,  supported  by  the  state  at  an 
annual  cost  of  about  $40,000. 

LOUISIANA  STATE  UNIVERSITY, 
at  Baton  Rouge,  La.,  was  chartered  in  1853,  be- 
ing founded  upon  grants  of  land  made  by  Con- 
gress to  the  state  for  the  establishment  of  a 
seminary  of  learning.  It  was  opened  at  Alex- 
andria, in  January.  I860,  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  Col.  (now  <icn.)  Win.  T.  Sherman,  and 
continued  in  operation  till  June.  1861,  when  it 
was  closed  on  account  of  the  war.  It  was  re- 
opened in  1862 — 3,  under  the  superintendence 
of  Col.  Wm.  E.  M.  Linfield  and  Prof  Wm.  A. 
Seay.but  was  again  closed.  It  was  again  opened 
in  October,  1865,  under  the  superintendence  of 
Col.  David  F.  Boyd,  who  resigned  in  1875,  but 
is  still  (1876)  in  charge  of  the  institution.  In 
1 869,  the  university  building  having  been  burned, 
the  institution  was  transferred  to  the  buildings 
of  the  Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  at  Baton 
Rouge.  This  location  is  intended  to  be  tempo- 
rary, until  the  edifice  at  Alexandria  shall  be  re- 
built. The  university  owns  state  bonds  to  the 
amount  of  $138,000,  on  which  it  receives  6  per 
cent  interest.  It  has  a  library  of  13,000  vol- 
umes, good  chemical  and  philosophical  appara- 
tus, and  museums  of  natural  history,  fine  arts, 
etc.  The  value  of  its  real  and  personal  property 
is  about  $160,500.  The  cost  of  tuition  is 
$80  a  year.  An  act  of  1 870  provided  for  the 
education  and  maintenance  of  two  indigent 
youths  from  each  palish,  and  'JO  from  the  city  of 
New  Orleans,  who,  after  remaining  at  the  uni- 
versity four  years,  were  required  to  teach  school 
in  the  state  two  years.  No  provision,  however, 
has  been  made  recently  for  carrying  this  act  into 
effect.  By  act  of  the  legislature,  the  professors- 
of  engineering,  mineralogy,  geology,  botany.and 
zoology,  of  this  in.-titution.  are  required  to  make 
surveys  of  Louisiana,  in  their  respective  depart- 
ments. Several  reports  of  these  surveys  have 
been  made.  The  organization  of  the  university 
is  thoroughly  military,  and  there  are  daily  drills 
and  parades.  The  course  of  study  embraces  a 
preparatory  and  an  academic  department,  a  spe- 
cial school  of  civil  engineering,  and  a  commercial 
school.  The  academic  department  has  a  literary 
(or  classical),  a  scientific,  and  an  optional  course. 
The  degrees  conferred  are  B.  A.,  B.  S.,  B.  Ph., 
A.  M.,  and  0.  E.  In  1872—3,  there  were  12  in- 
structors and  140  students.  Since  then,  the 
unsettled  condition  of  the  state  and  the  con- 
sequent withdrawal  of  legislative  support  have 
greatly  embarrassed  the  institution  :  and,  in  1*70, 
there  were  only  22  students.  The  number  of 
graduates,  from  1869  to  1874.  inclusive,  was  58. 

LOUISVILLE,  the  chief  city  of  the  state 
of  Kentucky,  having  a  population,  according  to 
the  U.  S.  census  of  1870,  of  100,753,  of  whom 
14.956  were  colored  persons,  and  25,668  foreign- 
ers, the  latter  including  14.380  natives  of  Ger- 
many. This  city  has  grown  up  during  the  pres- 
ent century,  its  population,  in  1810,  being  only 
1.357.  The  town  was  established  by  an  act  of 
the  Virginia  legislature  in  1  7S0,  and  called  Louis- 
Mile,  in  honor  of  I-ouis  XVI.,  king  of  France, 


LOUISVII.I.K 


531 


important  aid  having  been  furnished  by  tli.it 
country  to  the  United  .States  in  their  struggle 
for  independence. 

Educational  History.— Among  the  earliest 
efforts  in  the  cause  of  education  in  Kentucky. 
were  those  made  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  who 
established  Bchools  in  connection  with  their 
churches,  in  many  parts  of  the  state;  and  it  is 
probable  that  Ixjuisville  shared  in  the  benefits  of 
these  efforts.  In  1819,  an  institution  known  as 
the  Seminary,  gave  instruction  in  the  several 
branches  of  an  Knglish  and  classical  education. 
It  was  under  the  direction  of  the  trustees  of  the 
town,  but  was  not  well  supported,  the  wants  of 
the  community  requiring  little  beyond  elementary 
education.  In  1837,  the  -Medical  Institute  was 
organized,  having  received  an  appropriation  of 
$50,000  from  the  city  council,  and  opened  with 
80  students.  In  1847,  the  building  for  the  Uni- 
versity of  Louisville  was  sufficiently  near  comple- 
tion to  permit  the  opening  of  its  law  department. 
the  first  lectures  in  which  were  delivered  to 
about  30  students.  At  that  time,  there  were,  in 
the  city,  4  large  public-school  buildings,  and  24 
schools,  of  which  (i  were  grammar  schools, — 3 
for  males  and  3  for  females.  In  1861,  a  high 
school  for  males,  with  all  the  rights  and  privi- 
leges of  a  university,  was  chartered  by  the  legis- 
lature, as  an  institution  for  superior  instruction, 
iu  connection  with  the  public  schools  of  the  city. 
In  1862 — 3,  the  average  daily  attendance  of 
pupils  in  the  public  schools  was  3,851.  Two 
years  afterward,  instruction  in  vocal  music  was 
made  a  part  of  the  common-school  course  ;  and. 
in  18G8,  the  study  of  the  German  language, 
which  harl  been  previously  introduced,  had  been 
bo  far  extended,  thai  one-naif  of  all  the  pupils 
(over  4,000)  rec  lived  instruction  in  it.  In  1870, 
there  were  2  high  schools,  and  17  schools  of  an 
inferior  grade.  The  progress  of  the  school  sys- 
tem has  been  uninterrupted  since  that  time.  The 
number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  the  public  schools 
has  increased,  during  the  ten  years  ending  in 
1875,  from  9,388  to  17,593;  and  the  cost  of  the 
system,  from  §103.425.05  to  S255.529.02. 

School  System. — The  public  schools  are  under 
the  management  of  a  board  of  trustees,  consist- 
ing of  24  members,  2  from  each  ward  of  the  city. 
The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  system  is  the 
superintendent  of  the  public  schools,  who  exer- 
cises a  general  supervision  over  the  schools,  and 
makes  an  annual  report  to  the  board  of  trustees. 
There  is  also  a  superintendent  of  German  in- 
struction, who  is  subordinate  to  the  superintend- 
ent of  schools,  but  acts  under  the  direction  of 
the  committee  on  German,  of  the  board  of  trust- 
ees. The  board  of  examiners  of  public  schools 
consists  of  the  superintendent  and  six  or  more 
professional  teachers,  who  hold  principals'  cer- 
tificates, selected  by  the  committee  on  examina- 
tions and  course  of  study  of  the  board  of 
trustees ;  and  there  is  also  a  German  board 
of  examiners,  consisting  of  the  superintendent 
and  other  persons  selected  by  the  committee. 
All  teachers  are  required  to  be  at  least  18  years 
of  age.     The  schools  are  divided  into  primary,  | 


district,  intermediate,  and  high  schools,  besides 
the  evening  schools  and  the  training  school  for 
teachers.  The  studies  pursued  embrace  .ill  in- 
ordinary common-school  branches,  besides  Ger- 
man and  music,  which  are  taught  in  all  the 
grades  of  the  schools. — The  length  of  the  school 
course  is  designed  to  be  71  years  in  the  lower 
grades,  5  years  in  the  male  high  school,  4  years 
in  the  female  high  school,  and  2  years  in  the 
training  school.  The  support  of  the  schools  is 
chiefly  derived  from  a  city  tax.  The  daily  ex- 
ercises in  each  are  commenced  by  the  reading  of 
a  selection  from  the  Scriptures.  The  legal  school 
age  is  from  (i  to  20  years.  Children  living  out- 
side the  city  limits  arc  permitted  to  attend  the 
public  schools  on  payment  of  a  tuition  fee  ran- 
ging from  $20  to  $50  per  annum. 

Educational  Condition. — The  whole  number 
of  schools,  in  1875,  was  34,  as  follows:  2  high 
schools, — 1  male,  and  1  female,  6  intermediate 
schools,  14  district  schools.  7  primary  schools,  4 
night  schools,  and  1  training  school.  Of  the 
schools  of  the  lower  grade,  5  are  for  colored 
children.  The  principal  items  of  school  statistic*, 
for  1875,  are  as  follows  : 

Whole  number  of  children  of  school  age 44,S27 

Whole  number  of  pupils  enroll,  .1 17,503 

Number  of  colored  pupils  enrolled 2,034 

Average  daily  attendance 11,551 

Average  attendance  in  the  night  schools 010 

Number  of  teachers,  English 2S6 

"        "        "  German 27 

"        "        "     of  music .     4 

Total  number  of  teachers 317 

Total  receipts  for  school  purposes $301,655.72 


The  course  of  instruct  ion  iu  the  training  school, 
or  class,  embraces  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
liistory,  English  grammar  and  composition,  elo- 
cution, physical  geography, physiology,  astronomy, 
chemistry,  and  theory  and  methods  of  teaching. 
The  whole  number  of  pupils  iu  this  school,  in 
1875,  was  42.  The  Male  High  School  contains 
five  classes,  including  the  preparatory  class.  The 
studies  taught  are  comprised  in  the  following 
departments :  belles-lettres,  ancient  languages, 
pure  mathematics,  chemistry  and  technology,  ap- 
plied mathematics,  and  modern  languages.  Any 
student  who  passes  a  satisfactory  examination 
in  any  of  these  departments  is  entitled  to  a  cer- 
tificate of  graduation  in  the  same.  Tins  institu- 
tion, in  1875,  had  an  enrollment  of  221  students, 
and  a  faculty  of  G  members,  including  the  pres- 
ident. For  admission  into  the  Female  High 
School,  applicants  are  required  to  pass  an  ex- 
amination in  the  branches  taught  in  the  first 
grade  of  the  Intermediate  Schools.  They  mast 
also  be  at  least  12  years  of  age.  The  number  of 
teachers  in  the  school,  in  1875,  was  424. 

Besides  the  institutions  for  superior,  pro- 
fessional, and  scientific  instruction  mentioned  in 
the  article  on  Kentucky,  there  are  several  pri- 
vate schools  and  academies,  and  .'i  public  libra- 
ries, having  an  aggregate  of  about  40  000  volumes. 
The  Public  Library  of  Kentucky  alone  contains 
20,000  volumes. 


532 


LOVE 


LOVE,  on  the  part  of  pupils  for  their  teach- 
er, is  one  of  the  most  essential  elements  of  his 
success,  just  as  antipathy  (q.  v.)  constitutes  an 
insurmountable  obstacle  to  the-  exertion  of  any 
important  educational  influence.  The  first  thin*;, 
therefore,  which  the  educator  should  strive  to  do 
is  to  win  the  affection  of  his  pupils;  if  that  is 
accomplished,  every  thins  else  will  be  done  with- 
out difficulty.  It  is  of  little  use  to  address 
merely  the  intellect  of  children.  Their  curiosity, 
it  is  true,  can  be  excited,  their  attention  aroused, 
and  the  faculties  of  their  minds,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, be  developed  and  sharpened  ;  but  the  real 
elements  of  character  are  behind  all  this  ;  ami 
these  cannot  be  affected  in  any  important  degree 
by  mere  intellectual  training.  The  heart— the 
sensibilities  and  the  will  —  must  be  reached; 
and  the  key  to  success  in  this,  the  greatest 
office  of  the  educator,  is  love.  When  love  for 
the  teacher  reigns  in  the  bosom  of  his  pupil, 
there  is  entire  confidence  in  him.  a  desire  to  obey 
him,  to  please  him,  to  listen  to  Iris  precepts,  to 
imitate  his  example,  both  in  words  and  in  acts; 
indeed,  by  an  inexplicable  psychologic  law,  the 
pupil  seems  to  be  bound  to  the"  teacher  by  a  kind 
of  magnetic  chain,  and  is  subject  in  every  thing 
to  his  will.  Fear,  on  the  other  hand,  repels,  and 
thus  prevents  the  operation  of  that  influence 
without  which  educational  processes  are,  more  or 
less,  nugatory.  The  fear  to  do  wrong,  and  of  the 
punishment  which  is  to  follow  it,  is  not,  how- 
ever, inconsistent  with  a  love  of  the  teacher. 
(See  Pear.)  The  latter  must  make  himself,  and 
the  authority  which  he  wields,  respected  ;  or  he 
will  incur  the  contempt  of  his  pupils  ;  and  this 
is,  of  course,  antagonistic  to  love.  Children 
naturally  recognize  authority,  however  much 
they  may  strive  to  evade  or  defy  it ;  and  its  just 
and  rightful  exercise  does  not  interfere  with 
their  warmest  affections  toward  parents  and 
teachers.  Hence,  love  is  not  to  be  inspired  by 
making  improper  concessions  to  children,  for 
these  they  construe  into  weakness,  which  they 
despise.  Minute  directions  may  be  given  for  the 
winning  of  the  pupil's  affections ;  but  these 
would  be  either  unnecessary  or  futile.  Love  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  can  alone  produce  love  in 
the  hearts  of  the  pupils.  He  cannot  put  on  a 
semblance  of  affectionate  regard  for  his  pupils  ; 
he  must  feel  it.  Children  have  naturally  deep 
intuitions  into  character,  and  detect  hypocrisy 
almost  instantly ;  hence  they  at  once  discern 
whether  there  is  any  real  affection  in  the  mind 
of  the  teacher  towards  themselves,  or  only  a  mere 
pretense.  Love  will  show  itself  in  his  appear- 
ance, his  words,  his  manners ;  every  tone  of  his 
voice  will  indicate  it.  if  it  exist,  and  the  pleasant 
smile  beaming  habitually  from  his  countenance 
will,  while  making  his  own  labors  pleasant  and 
easy,  make  light  the  hardest  tasks  of  his  pupils, 
by  exciting  their  ambition  and  determination  to 
accomplish  it.  The  teacher  should,  however, 
never  forget  the  relation  existing  between  him 
and  his  pupils.  "Some  teachers,"  says  Hart  (In 
the  School-Room,  Phila.,  1868),  "in  avoiding  a 
hard,  repulsive  manner,  run  to  the  opposite  ex- 


LUTHER 

treme,  and  lose  the  respect  of  their  scholars  by 
undue  familiarity.  Children  do  not  expect  you 
to  become  their  playmate  and  fellow,  before 
giving  you  their  love  and  confidence.  Their 
native  tendency  is  to  look  up.  They  yearn  for 
repose  upon  one  superior  to  themselves." 

LOYOLA  COLLEGE,  in  Baltimore,  Md., 
was  opened  in  1852,  and  chartered  in  1853.  It 
is  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  controlled  by 
members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus.  It  has  a  mu- 
seum, philosophical  apparatus,  and  libraries  con- 
taining 21 ,5(10  volumes.  There  is  a  classical,  a 
commercial,  and  a  preparatory  course.  The  cost 
of  tuition,  in  the  preparatory  course,  is  $50  a 
year ;  in  the  other  courses,  $75.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  16  instructors  and  140  students. 

LUTHER,  Martin,  the  author  of  the  great 
religious  movement  of  the  16th  century,  was 
born  at  Eisleben,  Nov.  10.,  1483  (according  to 
others,  1484),  and  died  in  the  same  town  Feb. 
18..  1546.  After  attending  the  town  school  of 
Mansfeld  and  the  Latin  schools  of  Magdeburg 
and  Eisenach,  he  went,  in  1501,  to  the  university 
of  Erfurt  in  order  to  study  law.  In  1505,  he 
entered  the  Augustinian  convent  at  Erfurt,  and 
in  1508,  received  the  appointment  of  professor 
in  the  university  of  Wittenberg.  There  he  be- 
gan, in  1517,  the  religious  reform  which  made 
his  name  so  famous.  As  Luther  held  that  all 
Christians  should  read  the  Bible  in  their  native 
tongue,  the  governments  which  adopted  the  Ref- 
ormation had  to  direct  their  attention  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  schools  in  all  the  parishes.  Luther 
himself,  in  1524,  issued  a  powerful  appeal  to 
"  the  burgomasters  and  magistrates  of  all  towns 
in  the  German  countries,"  in  which  he  urged  them 
to  establish  schools, and  to  provide  for  the  educa- 
tion of  school-teachers,  and  the  establishment  of 
school  libraries.  He  laid  great  stress  upon  the  im- 
portance of  religious  instruction  and  the  ancient 
languages,  and  made  many  suggestions  in  regard 
to  an  improvement  of  the  methods  of  teaching, 
which  were  adopted  by  educators  of  the  follow- 
ing centuries.  His  German  translation  of  the 
Bible  and  his  smaller  catechism  were  generally 
introduced  into  the  Lutheran  schools,  and  have 
remained  in  extensive  use  up  to  the  present  day. 
The  first  German  primer  (FtbeVj,  which  appeared 
about  this  time,  is  by  some  ascribed  to  Luther; 
by  others  to  Melanchthon.  It  contained  the  alpha- 
bet, and  as  reading  exercises  the  ten  command- 
ments, the  creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  some  pas- 
sages from  the  Bible,  and  prayers.  At  the  end, 
the  numbers  from  1  to  100,  and  the  multiplica- 
tion table  were  given.  Many  of  the  measures 
wdrich  were  taken  by  Melanchthon  for  the  refor- 
mation of  schools,  were,  in  great  part,  due  to  the 
advice  and  co-operation  of  Luther.  For  the 
schools  which  he  recommended  the  German 
burgomasters  to  establish,  Luther  drew  up  a 
comprehensive  course  of  studies,  which  he  sent  to 
his  friend  Spalatin  with  the  request  to  submit  it 
to  the  elector  of  Saxony.  This  course  of  studies 
is  cither  verbally  contained  in  the  Book  of  Visita- 
tion (VisitalionsbucMein,  published  by  Melanch- 
thon in  1528),  or  at  least  forms  the  basis  of  the 


LUTHKRAN    CHURCH 


53:i 


one  published  by  Melanchthon. — See  Gedike, 
Luther' a  Padagogik  (1792);  Bri  estlein, Luther's 
Einfluss  iiuf  das  Voffcsschulwesen  und  den 
Religionsunterricht  (1802)  ;  J.  Schiller,  Dr.  M. 
Luther  tiber  chrisUiche  Kinderzucht  (2d  ed., 
1854). 

LUTHERAN  CHURCH,  the  name  of  the 
religious  denomination  which  arose  in  the  16th 
century,  from  the  church  reformation  effected  by 
Martin  I  Ait  her.  It  has  also  been  designated  by 
the  name  Evangelical,  Evangelical  Lutheran, 
or  Protestant  ( 'hurch,  or,  as  in  Austria,  the 
Church  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  The  three 
general  creeds  of  the  ancient  church,  and  the 
Confession  of  Augsburg  have  generally  been  re- 
garded by  Lutherans  as  standards  of  faith.  In 
respect  to  constitution  the  Lutheran  churches 
greatly  differ.  Sweden.  Norway,  and  1  lenmaxk 
have  an  episcopal,  most  of  the  other  churches 
a  synodal  or  consistorial,  form  of  government ; 
the  latter,  which  means  a  government  of  the 
church  by  state  boards  called  ronsistories,  is. 
however,  on  the  wane.  In  Prussia  and  some  of 
the  other  German  states,  the  Lutheran  Church 
has  been  united  with  the  Reformed  Church  into 
one  ecclesiastical  organization,  called  the  United 
Evangelical  Church  (q.  v.) ;  but  the  Lutherans 
to  a  large  extent  have  regarded  this  as  a  mere 
confederation  which  does  not  impair  or  alter  their 
standing  as  Lutherans.  In  Germany,  as  in  other 
countries,  the  predominance  of  rationalistic 
views,  and  the  almost  unlimited  freedom  of  be- 
lief or  unbelief,  which  has  been  practically  con- 
ceded to  the  clergy  and  members  of  the  church, 
have,  to  a  great  extent,  swept  away  the  distinctive 
landmarks  of  the  Lutheran  denomination.  It  has 
been  calculated,  however,  that  of  the  2.">  millions 
of  Protestants  in  the  t  lerman  empire.  20.0011.(1110. 
at  least,  are  of  Lutheran  extraction.  In  the  Scan- 
dinavian kingdoms,  which  have  an  aggregate 
population  of  about  8,000,000,  as  well  as  in  the 
grand-duchy  of  Finland,  and  in  the  Baltic  provin- 
ces of  Russia,  nearly  the  entire  population  is  Lu- 
theran. Austria  hail,  in  lMill.  a  Lutheran  popu- 
lation of  l,365,000,and  Russian  Poland, 240,000. 
France  has  lost  almost  all  her  Lutheran  pop- 
ulation by  the  annexation  to  Germany  of  Alsaee 
and  l/itraine.  The  entire  Lutheran  population 
of  the  world  (including  the  Lutheran  portion 
of  the  United  Evangelical  Church)  has  been 
estimated  at  about  40,000,000.  In  consequence 
of  the  close  connection  of  church  and  state  in 
Europe,  the  Lutheran  Church  has  exerted,  and 
to  some  extent  still  exerts,  a  very  great  influence 
upon  the  educational  institutions  of  those  coun- 
tries in  which  it  prevails.  Universities  and 
gymnasia  have,  however,  so  generally  passed 
under  the  sole  control  of  the  state,  and  in  the 
German  churches  so  wide  a  departure  from  the 
official  creeds  of  the  Protestant  churches  has 
been  generally  allowed  to  theologians,  that  it 
would  be  extremely  difficult  to  state  in  a  few 
wonls  the  relation  of  the  Lutheran  Church  to 
the  learned  institutions  of  the  countries  named. 
It  may  be  said,  however,  that  at  present  (1876) 
the  universities  of  Rostock,  Erlangen,  and  Leip- 


sic,  in  Germany,  those  of  Copenhagen,  Lund,  and 
Upsal,  in  the  Scandinavian  kingdoms,  and  of 
Dorpat.in  Russia,  are  seats  of  a  strictly  Lutheran 
theology.  (See  Germany,  Denmark,  Finland, 
Norway,  Sweden.) 

The  immigration  of  Lutherans  into  the  United 
States  began  as  early  as  1621,  when  a  few  came 
to  New  York  from  Holland.  Their  first  church 
was  built  in  1671.  They  were  soon  followed  by 
a  Lutheran  colony  from  Sweden,  and  by  more 
numerous  emigrants  from  Germany,  who  chiefly 
settled  in  Pennsylvania.  In  the  10th  century,  the 
immigration  into  the  United  States,  from  the 
Lutheran  countries  of  Europe. — Germany,  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  and  Norway,  increased  so  rap- 
idly, that  the  number  of  preachers  and  of 
communicants,  which,  in  1820,  was  only  170  and 
35,000,  respectively,  rose,  in  1875,  to  2,669  and 
573,149.  'I  lie  first  generation  of  immigrants  re- 
tain their  native  tongue  in  divine  worship;  of 
their  descendants,  a  considerable  number  have, 
in  the  course  of  time,  substituted  for  it  the  En- 
glish. Still  the  church,  school,  and  family  lan- 
guage of  a  large  majority  of  these  churches  is 

|  even  now  chiefly  German.  Some  idea  of  the 
proportion  of  the  languages  spoken  among  the 
Lutherans  of  the  Tinted  States  may  be  formed 

'  from  the  fact,  that  of  their  periodicals,  22 
are  published  in  the  English  language.  30,  in 
the  German,  5,  in  the  Swedish,  and  8,  in  the 
Danish  or  Norwegian  language.  Like  the  Meth- 
odists and  Baptists,  the  Lutherans  of  the  United 


1-21 


In  it  the  En 
It  allows  lar 
in  both  doct 
Augsburg  C 


;  formed  in 
the  oldest    of   the    general    bodies. 


irship. 

-This 


■xposmon  of 
st  adherence 


formed 

in  1867.  It  exacts  a  strict  adherence  to  the 
unaltered  Augsburg  Confession,  and  recognizes 
the  Apology  for  the  Augsburg  Confession,  Lu- 
ther's greater  and  smaller  catechisms,  the 
Schmalkalden  Articles,  and  the  Formula  of 
Concord,  as  forming,  with  the  unaltered  Augs- 
burg Confession,  the  full  creed  of  the  same 
faith. 

(3)  The  Si/nodical  Conference.— This  is  the 
most  numerous  Lutheran  body  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  also  the  most  strict  in  its  inter- 
pretation of  the  standards,' and  in  its  rules  of 
membership  and  fellowship.  It  was  formed  in 
1872,  and  the  language  used  in  its  churches  and 
schools  is  almost  wholly  German. 

ill  TheSouOiern  Synod.— This,  withdrew  from 
the  General  Synod  during  the  civil  war,  chiefly 
for  political  reasons,  and  formed  the  General 
Si/inn!  Simlli.  Resides  these  four  general  organi- 
zations, there  are  seven  particular  synods,  which 
are  entirely  independent. 


534 


LUTHERAN   CHURCH 


The  Lutheran  bodies  in  the  United  States  have 
always  felt  the  importance  of  the  educational  work 
required  of  them,  and  have  endeavored  to  meet 
its  demands  as  far  a.s  they  have  had  the  means. 
In  1773,  Drs.  Schmidt  and  Hellmuth  opened,  in 
Philadelphia,  a  Latin  school  and  a  private  semi- 
nary for  the  instruction  of  candidates  for  the 
ministry.  It  continued  in  operation  for  more 
than  twenty  years,  and  was  finally  closed  by  the 
necessities  of  war  during  the  Revolution.  In 
1787,  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  established 
Franklin  College,  Luicaster,  of  which  Henry 
Ernest  Muhlenberg  was  the  president 
especial  benefit  of  the  Germans  of  the  c 
wealth,  and  as  a  reward  for  their  services  in  the 
war.  In  1791,  the  Church's  services  to  education 
were  further  recognized  by  the  legislature  of 
Pennsylvania,  by  the  gift  of  five  thousand  acres 
of  land  to  the  Free  Schools  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  in  Philadelphia.  Tn  1784,  Johann 
Christoph  Kunze,  of  Philadelphia,  accepted  a 
call  to  the  High  German  Congregation,  in  Xew 
York,  in  the  hope  that  he  might  establish  a 
Lutheran  theological  professoishi 


ilii;i 


College,  lie  became  professor  of  oriental  lan- 
guages in  that  institution.  The  Lutherans  at- 
tach  great  importance  to  theological  instruction, 
and  theological  seminaries  receive  very  great 
consideration  from  them.  Their  oldest  in- 
stitutions, in  fact,  seem  to  have  been  at  first 
theological  schools,  around  which  literary  de- 
partments were  afterwards  formed.  Hartwiek 
Seminary,  New  York,  was  founded  in  1816. 
The  theological  school  there  was  the  first  pub- 
lic training  school  of  the  American  Lutheran 
Church  for  candidates  for  the  ministry.  The 
theological  seminary,  at  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  was 
founded  by  the  General  Synod  in  L826.  Pre- 
vious to  that  time,  the  Rev'.  Dr.  S.  S.  Schmucker, 
of  New  Market,  Va.,  and  the  Rev.  I).  F.  Schaef- 
fer,  of  Frederick,  Md.,  had  received  a  limited 
number  of  young  men  as  students,  and  in- 
structed them  in  theology.  The  Gettysburg 
seminary  celebrated,  in  187C,  the  completion  of 
the  fiftieth  year  of  its  existence.  It  had  then 
furnished  thirty-nine  professors  to  various  in- 
stitutions, nearly  all  the  editors  of  the  English 
periodicals  and  reviews  of  the  General  Synod, 
and  five  hundred  and  thirty-eight  ministers. 
Pennsylvania  College,  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  was 
founded  in  L832,  six  years  after  the  theological 
seminary.  The  General  Synod  has  also  the 
following  higher  institutions  of  learning:  Wit- 
tenberg College.  Springfield,  Ohio  (founded 
in  L846),  to  which  a  theological  department 
(founded  in  L845)  is  attached;  Swedish-American 
Ansgari  College,  Cnoxville,  111.  (1873),  with  a 
theological  department:  Carthage  College,  Car- 
thage, Mo.  (1871);  and  Practical  Theol.  Seminary, 
Marshall,  Wis.  (1876).— The  General  Synod 
South,  has  the  care  of  Roanoke  College,  Salem, 
Ya.  (1H54),  a  theological  seminary  at  the  same 
place  (1830,  at  Lexington, S.  ('..and  removed  to 
Salem,  Va.,  in  1872)  ;  Newberry  College,  Pal- 
ilalia, S.  C.  (1858).  North  Carolina  College,  Mt. 
Pleasant,  N.  0.(185!)),  and  the  theological   de- 


LYCEUM 

[  partnient  of  the  same  (1872),  are  connected  with 
the  North  Carolina  Synod.  The  General 
Council  lias  a  theological  seminary  at  Phila- 
delphia, which  was  founded  in  1864.  Its  other 
collegiate  ami  theological  seminaries  are :  Muh- 
lenberg College,  Allentown,  Pa.  (1867);  Augus- 
tana  College  and  theological  seminary  (the  latter 
founded  in  1803), at  Rock  Island.  111.;  Mosheim 
College.  Mosheim.  Tenn. ;  German  American 
College,  Rousselville,  Texas ;  Thiel  College, 
Greenville,  Pa.  (1870)  ;  Wartburg  Theological 
Seminary,  Mendota,  111.;  and  the  Norwegian 
Lutheran  Seminary,  at  Madison.  Wis.  (1876). 
The  principal  theological  school  of  the  Sy nodical 
Conference  is  the  Concordia  Theological  Semi- 
nary, of  which  the  theoretical  department,  at  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  was  founded  in  1840,  and  the  prac- 
tical department,  at  Springfield,  111,  in  1H40. 
Its  other  higher  institutions  are  :  Capital  Uni- 
versity, Columbus,  Ohio  (1)n>(>),  with  a  theolog- 
ical department  (1830)  ;  Concordia  College, 
Fort  Wayne,  Ind.  (1840,  and  organized  after 
the  plan  of  a  German  gymnasium)  ;  Luther 
College,  Decorah,  Iowa  (1863);  North  West 
University,  Watertown,  Wis.  (1865). — The  con- 
ference of  the  Norwegian-Danish  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church  sustains  the  A.ugsburg  The- 
ological Seminary,  at  Minneapolis.  Minn.  The 
synod  known  as  Graham's  Buffalo  Synod  sup- 
ports Martin  Luther  College,  with  a  theological 
department,  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  and  the  Synod  of 
Iowa  supports  the  College  of  the  Iowa  Synod, 
Mendota,  HI.  The  Lutheran  almanacs  give  also 
lists  of  twenty-two  classical  schools  and  acad- 
emies and  seven  female  seminaries  under  the 
patronage  of  the  various  Lutheran  bodies,  or 
looking  to  Lutherans  for  support. — Orphans' 
homes  and  schools  are  supported  by  the  general 
bodies  and  several  synods  at  i-oysville,  Zelienople, 
Rochester,  Middlctown.  and  Germantown,  Pa., 
Mt.  Vernon  and  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Toledo,  Ohio, 
Jacksonville,  Addison,  and  Andover,  111.,  Vasa, 
Minn.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Boston,  Mass.,  Norris, 
Mich.,  and  Andrew,  Iowa.  The  Missouri  Synod 
has  a  deaf  and  dumb  institute,  at  Norris,  Mich. — 
The  Synodical  Conference  enumerates,  among 
the  conditions  required  for  admission  to,  and 
membership  in,  its  organization,  the  providing  of 
Christian  school  instruction  for  the  congrega- 
tions. Accordingly,  parochial  schools  are  gen- 
erally connected  with  its  congregations.  For  the 
education  of  its  school  teachers,  the  Synodical 
Conference  supports  a  teachers'  seminary  at 
Addison,  111.,  which,  in  1875,  had  5  instructors 
and  1 14  students.  Three  educational  papers, 
in  the  German  language,  were  published  in 
1877,  the  Schvlblatt  and  Abendsckule,  at  St. 
Louis,  and  the  Schulzeitung,  at  Milwaukee. 

LYCEUM  (Gr.  Mbatm,  named  after  the 
neighboring  temple  of  Apollo,  '/mime,  a  surname 
which  is  differently  explained  by  Greek  etymol- 
ogists), a  gymnasium  or  public  palestra  with 
covered  walks,  in  the  eastern  suburb  of  Athens, 
where  Aristotle  and  the  philosophers  of  his  school 
taught.  The  Romans  gave  the  name  lyceum  to 
several  similar   institutions,  as   to  those  in  the 


LYCURGUS 

Tusculanum  of  Cicero,  and  in  the  villa  of 
Adrian  at  Tibur.  In  the  middle  ages,  lyceum 
denoted  an  institution  in  which  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy  was  taught.      In  modern  times,  the 


countries.     In  \\  iirtemberg 

.  it    is  equivalent    to 

a  progymnasiuin,  or  the    ti\ 

e  l,,«er  classes  of  a 

gymnasium ':  in  Alsace-  l.oi 

aine,  it  is  still  given 

to  some  of  the  gyiuna-ia,  «  i 

h  which  a  real  Bchool 

is  connected  ;  in  France,  the 

1  vi -en in  is  the  highest 

Secondary  school  and  compi 

is  a  eight  classes  ;  in 

Italy,  it  corresponds  to  the 

three    higher  classes 

of  the  German  gymnasium 

in  Finland,  some  of 

the  lyceums    which  have 

seven   classes    corre- 

spond  to  the  German  gymnasium,  and 
which  have  only  four  classes,  to  the  higher  clas- 
ses of  the  gymnasium  ;  in  Ronmania,  the  lyceum 
has  seven  classes,  and  equals  the  complete  gym- 
nasium. In  England  and  in  the  United  States, 
the  word  is  not  applied  to  any  class  of  schools, 
but  is  sometimes  given  to  literary  associations. 
For  a  fuller  account  of  the  modern  lyceums  see 
the  articles  on  the  several  countries  ;  for  an  ac- 
count of  the  American  Lyceum,  see  Holrrook, 
Josiah. 

LYCURGUS  (Greek  \vKovpyIK,  the  light- 
producer],  the  reputed  author  of  the  Spartan 
system  of  education.  He  is  said  to  have  lived 
in  the  9th  century  before  Christ:  but  so  little  is 
known  of  his  life,  that  even  his  existence  has 
been  doubted  by  some,  his  name  being  regarded 
by  them  as  the  personified  origin  of  a  new  era  of 
culture.  According  to  the  traditional  view,  he 
belonged  to  the  royal  family  of  Sparta,  and  was  I 
guardian  of  his  nephew,  king  Oharilaus.  Having  ! 
been  forced  by  an  opposing  patty  to  leave  his' 
country,  he    made   extensive    travels    in    Asia  i 


McGUPFEY  535 

Minor. and  in  Crete,  where  he  became  acquainted 
with  the  laws  of  Minos.  He  was  finally  recalled 
to  Sparta,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  increasing 
disorders,  for  which  purpose  he  enacted  the  laws 
which  have  made  his  name  in, mortal.     He  made 

should  return  from  Delphi,  where  he  was  to  ask 
the  god's  opinion  as  to  their  value.  As  the  oracle 
predicted  for  Sparta  an  unfailing  prosperity  ai 
long  as  these  laws  should  be  observed,  he  never 
returned  to  his  native  land.  According  to  one 
legend,  he  starved  himself  to  death,  having  pre- 
viously ordered  the  ashes  of  his  corpse  to  be 
thrown  into  the  sea  in  order  that  they  might  not 
be  brought  back  to  Sparta  so  as  to  release  tin' 
Spartans  from  their  pledge.  That  the  whole  of 
the  political  and  educational  system  of  Sparta 
was  not  the  work  of  Lycurgus.  is  admitted 
even  by  those  who  have  entire  faith  in  the 
existence  of  a  famous  lawgiver  of  that  name. 
(See  Sparta.) 

LYON,  Mary,  an  American  teacher,  born 
in  Buckland,  Mass..  Feb.  28.,  I7'.)7:  died  in 
South  Hadley,,  -Mass..  Mar.  5.,  1849.  Iu  the  face 
of  many  obstacles,  she  acquired  sufficient  educa- 
tion to  enable  her  to  teach,  which  she  did  with- 
out notable  result  till  1837,  when  she  established 
at  South  Hadley.  Mass..  the  Mount  Holyoke 
female  Seminary,  the  first  of  Several  similar  es- 
tablishments founded  by  her  pupils.  The  dis- 
tinct feature  of  the  Mount  1  lolyoke  seminary  was 
the  union  of  domestic  labor  with  intellectual  and 
moral  instruction.  Her  published  works  are 
Tendencies  of  the  principles  embraced  and  tlie 
system  adopted  in  the  Mount  Holyoke  Female 
Semi?iary(184ff);  and  the  Missionary  Offering 
(Boston,  1843). 


McCORKLE  COLLEGE,  at  Bloomfield 
(Sago  P.  0.),  Ohio,  was  founded  as  a  high  school 
in  1862  by  the  Rev.  Wm,  Ballantine,  A.  M.,  who 
has  been  its  president  from  the  first.  It  was  in- 
corporated as  an  academy  in  1868,  and  as  a  col- 
lege in  1873.  It  is  under  Associate  Presbyterian 
control.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  The  prin- 
cipal design  of  the  institution  is  to  qualify  young 
men  for  the  study  of  theology ;  yet  a  general 
and  thorough  course  of  education,  well  adapted 
to  qualify  students  for  the  pursuit  of  any  of  the 
learned  professions,  is  given,  in  languages",  mathe- 
matics, and  the  sciences.  There  are  three  depart- 
ments: a  preparatory,  two  years  ;  and  a  classical 
and  a  scientific,  each  four  years.  The  cost  of 
tuition  ranges  from  $18  to  $30  per  year.  In 
18  id — f>,  there  were  5  instructors  and  13  students. 

McCOSH,  James,  an  eminent  Scottish 
scholar,  teacher, and  metaphysician,  born  in  Ayr- 
shire, in  1811.  He  was  educated  in  the  univer- 
sities of  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh;  and,  in  1835, 
ordained  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland. 
at  Arbroath.  Subsequently,  while  pastor  at 
Brechin,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.     In  1851, 


lintment   of    professor  of 
in   Qneen'a  College   Bel- 

th 


as  a  lecturer  and  a  metaphysician,  pnl 
|  Intuitions  of  //<•■  Mind  (London.  I860), 
of  great  merit  for  its  originality  and  act 


he   accepted   tin 
logic  and  metal 
fast ;   and  wl 
lecturer 

ork 
great  merit  for  its  originality  and  acuteness. 
i  Inl8G8,he  was  elected  president  of  the  College  of 
!  New  Jersey, at  Princeton,  which  position  he  still 
i  occupies.  As  an  educator  he  has  exerted  a  very 
I  extensive  influence,  by  the  breadth  and  sagacity 
i  of  his  views.  His  reputation  as  a  metaphysician 
J  is  not  exceeded  by  that  of  any  living  scholar. 
|  In  this  department  of  intellectual  research,  his 
|  writings  have  been  very  numerous,  and.  as  is 
!  universally  conceded,  are  characterized  by  re- 
I  niarkable  depth  of  thought  and  acuteness  of 
I  reasoning. 

McGUFFEY,  William  Holmes,  an  Amer- 
■  ican  educator,  born  in  Washington  Co..  I 'a., 
!  Sept.  23..  1800;  died  in  Charlottesville,  Va., 
May  4.,  1873.  He  graduated  at  Washington 
j  College,  in  Pennsylvania,  in  1826,  and  was 
soon  afterwards  elected  professor  of  ancient  lan- 
guages in  Miami  University,  at  Athens,  Ohio, 
I  in  which  institution  he  was  transferred,  in  1832, 


536 


McKENDREE    COLLEGE 


MAGER 


to  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy.  In  1836, 
he  was  elected  president  of  Cincinnati  Col- 
lege ;  but,  in  1839,  he  returned  to  Miami  Uni- 
versity to  take  the  position  of  president  of  the 
institution.  In  1845,  he  accepted  the  appoints 
ment  of  professor  of  moral  philosophy  and  po- 
litical economy  in  the  University  of  Virginia, 
where  he  remained  until  his  death.  while 
president  of  Cincinnati  College,  he  began  the 
preparation  of  the  Eel f die  Serin  of  school  read- 
ing-books, which  became  widely  popular,  more 
than  a  million  copies,  it  is  said,  having  been 
issued.      It  is  by  these  that  he  is  best  known. 

M'KENDREE  COLLEGE,  at  Lebanon, 
111.,  established  in  1828,  was  chartered  in  1834, 
and  rechartered  in  1839.  It  is  under  Methodist 
Episcopal  control.  It  has  beautiful  grounds,  and 
buildings  well  adapted  for  college  purposes.  The 
location  is  healthful  and  easy  of  access.  The 
libraries  contain  about  7,:">00  volumes  ;  and  the 
apparatus  is  extensive.  The  institution  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  an  en- 
dowment of  $45,000.  Both  sexes  are  admitted. 
The  collegiate  department  has  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course,  and  there  is  a  preparatory 
and  a  law  department.  The  cost  of  tuition  in 
the  collegiate  department  is  $24  a  year.  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  8  instructors,  and  220  stu- 
dents, of  whom  129  were  in  the  collegiate  and 
8  in  the  law  department.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows :  the  Rev.  Peter  Akers,  D.  D.,  7 
years;  the  Rev.  John  W.  Merrill,  D.  D.,3  years  ; 
the  Rev.  James  Finley,  D.  D.,  4  years ;  the 
Rev.  Erastus  Wentworth,  D.  D.,  4  years ;  the 
Rev.  Anson  Cummings,  I).  1).,  2  years;  the 
Rev.  Nelson  Cobleigh,  I).  D.,  5  years ;  the  Rev. 
Robert  Allyn,  D.  D.,  13  years;  and  the  Rev. 
John  W.  Locke,  I).  D.,  the  present  incumbent 
(1876),  2  years. 

McMINNVILLE  COLLEGE,  at  McMinn- 
ville,  Oregon,  under  the  control  of  Baptists,  was 
chartered  in  1N59.  It  has  an  endowment  fund 
of  $25,000.  It  comprises  a  primary,  an  academic, 
and  a  collegiate  department,  in  which  the  cost 
of  tuition  is  §18,  $30,  and  $44  a  year,  respect- 
ively. Both  sexes  are  admitted.  In  1873 — 4, 
there  where  6  instructors  and  150  students. 

MADISON  UNIVERSITY,  at  Hamilton, 
N.Y.,  under  Baptist  control,  was  chartered  in 
1846.  It  comprises  a  theological  seminary,  a  col- 
lege, and  an  academy.  The  seminary  was  opened 
in  1820  ;  the  college  and  academy  were  organ- 
ized in  1832.  The  college  has  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course.  The  endowment  amounts  to 
$435,000.  The  university  has  extensive  cabinets 
of  natural  history,  and  valuable  chemical  and 
philosophical  apparatus.  The  libraries  contain 
11,000  volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  col- 
lege is  $30  a  year,  in  the  academy  $20  ;  in  the 
seminary,  tuition  and  room  rent  are  free.  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  in  the  seminary,  5  instruct- 
ors and  33  students;  college,  9  instructors  and 
87  students;  academy,  9  instructors  and  89  stu- 
dents; total,  deducting  repetitions,  19  instructors 
and  209  students.  The  Rev.  Ebenezer  Uodge, 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 


MADRAS  SYSTEM.  See  Monitorial 
System. 

MADVIG,  Johann  Nikolai,  a  Danish 
educator  and  philologist,  born  in  Svanike,  on 
the  island  of  Bornliolm,  in  1804.  He  graduated 
at  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  where  he 
became  professor  of  the  Latin  language  and 
literature  in  1829.  In  1848,  he  was  appointed 
minister  of  public  worship,  and  in  1852,  di- 
rector of  public  instruction.  He  has  edited  the 
works  of  Cicero,  Juvenal,  Livy,  and  Lucretius. 
In  1829,  he  published  a  pamphlet  in  which  he 
attempted  to  prove  that  the  JJe  Orthographia, 
attributed  to  Apuleius.  and  first  published  by 
Mai  in  1823,  was  written  as  late  as  the  15th 
century.  He  has  also  published  a  (fiance  at  the 
Constitutions  of  Antiquity;  The  Creation,  De- 
velopment, ami  Life  of  Language;  Adversaria 
<  'ritica  ml  Scriptores  Grcecos  et  Latinos  (vol.  i., 
1871);  and  a  Latin  Grammar  for  Schools. 
This  last  was  translated  by  the  Rev.  G.  Woods 
(Oxford.  1859). 

MAGER,  Karl,  a  distinguished  German 
educator,  was  born  near  Pusseldorf,  Jan.  1., 
1810;diedin  Wiesbaden,  June  10.,  1858.  He 
studied  in  Bonn.  Berlin,  and  Paris,  where  he 
early  attracted  attention  by  his  talents  and 
scholarship.  After  his  return  to  Germany,  he 
engaged  in  the  study  of  the  philosophical  sys- 
tems of  Hegel  and  Ilerbart,  and  in  those  of  edu- 
cation and  instruction,  introduced  by  Pestalozzi 
and  Diesterweg.  For  the  Wegweiser  fur  deutsche 
Lehrer,  edited  by  the  latter,  he  wrote  an  essay 
on  the  teaching  of  foreign  languages  (1835  and 
1838),  after  which  he  became  professor  in  the 
cantonal  school,  in  Geneva.  This  position  he  soon 
resigned  on  account  of  a  spinal  disease,  from  which 
lie  found  some  relief  in  Cannstadt.  a  watering- 
place,  near  Stuttgart.  In  1840,  he  founded  the 
P&dagogische  Revue,  which  soon  became  one  of 
the  leading  journals  for  all  questions  of  education 
and  instruction  in  Germany   and  Switzerland. 


.ks 


school  of  Aarau,  Switzerland.  After  a  few  years, 
he  resigned  this  position,  to  give  all  his  time 
to  the  Padagogische  Revue,  which,  for  his  con- 
venience, had  been  removed  from  Stuttgart  to 
Zurich.  In  1848,  he  was  invited  by  the  Staats- 
minister  Wydenbruck,  in  Weimar,  to  take  the 
direction  of  the  real  gymnasium  in  Eisenach,  an 
institution  that,  had  been  organized  according 
to  his  plan  and  ideas.  He  began  his  work  with 
his  usual  ardor;  but,  unfortunately,  his  disease 
grew  worse,  and  his  health  became  so  much 
impaired,  that,  in  1852,  he  was  obliged  to  retire 
from  his  office,  and,  even  to  give  up  all  literary 
work,  thus  being  unable  to  show  whether  his 
practical  skill  as  a  teacher  and  head  of  an  insti- 
tution was  equal  to  his  extensive  scholarship  and 
the  brilliancy  of  his  writings.  His  death  oc- 
curred a  few  years  after  his  retirement.  Mager 
was  without  doubt  an  eminent  reformer  in  the 
field  of  education  and  instruction;  and  his  coun- 


MAGER 

try  is  largely  indebted  to  him  for  his  efforts  in 
the  introduction  of  the  genetic  method  and  the 
creation  of  the  higher  real  school  or  real  gym- 
nasium. (See  Real  Schools.)  A  few  words 
will  suffice  to  characterize  Mager's  ideas  oil  the 
genetic  method,  which  he  calls  the  combination 
of  analysis  and  synthesis.  There  is  a  method 
of  development  proper  to  every  object — a  pecu- 
liar mode  of  growth,  both  in  form  and  substance; 
this  is  objective  method.  But  the  term  method 
has  also  a  subjective  meaning,  implying  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  pupil  acquires  knowledge,  and 
hence  having  reference  to  his  self-activity,  which 
it  is  the  office  of  the  educator  to  stimulate,  to 
restrain,  or  to  guide.  Now,  psychology  and  ex- 
perience teach  us  that  the  human  mind  has  to 
go  through  different  stages  in  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge:  intuition,  perception,  and,  finally, 
abstraction  ;  and  the  mode  of  instruction  must 
conform  to  the  operations  of  the  human  mind. 
Applying  these  principles  to  the  study  of  foreign 
languages,  it  is  obvious  that  grammar  cannot  be 
its  beginning,  but  must  be  its  end.  Man  speaks 
in  sentences.  The  simplest  form  of  human  speech 
is  not  a  word,  but  a  sentence.  The  old  gram- 
matical school  said,  the  sum  of  the  parts  of  a 
thing  is  the  thing;  but  this  is  not  true;  the  sum 
of  the  parts  of  a  watch  is  not  necessarily  a 
watch;  only  when  they  are  combined  in  a  proper 
manner  so  that  they  indicate  time,  they  are  a 
watch.  Just  so  it  is  with  language.  Hence,  gram- 
matical lexicography,  inflections,  parsing  of 
words,  etc.,  must  In-  .subordinate  to  syntax.  Now. 
every  sentence  contains  a  verb,  and  the  verb 
alone  can  form  the  whole  sentence,  though  now 
more  rarely  than  in  the  older  languages;  there- 
fore grammatical  instruction  must  be-in  with 
the  verb.  As  the  simple  sentence  is  the  begin- 
ning of  language,  so  the  most  developed  period 
is  its  completion.  So  far  for  the  genesis  of  the 
substance;  but  also  the  form  of  the  instruction 
must  follow  the  process  of  human  thought — in- 
tuition, perception,  abstraction — first,  the  lan- 
guage (example),  then  its  rides.  But  the  study 
of  language  is  not  merely  theoretical,  it  is  prac- 
tical also.  He  who  learns  a  language,  has  to 
apply  it,  to  use  it;  and.  therefore,  Mager  ends 
with  the  free  speaking  and  writing  of  the  for- 
eign language.— Besides  several  articles  in  the 


MA  INK 


531 


fP 


n  l.s;iT— 40); 
rh  heuristisdh- 
)  ;  Ueber  den 
(Essen,  1838)  ; 


Wissenschqft  der  Mathen 

genet  ixrln'r  M-lhmle   (Her 
Uhterricht  in  fremden  S/ 

Die  kShere  Bvrgersehde  (Stuttgart,  1840); 
Deutsches  Elementarwerh,  Sprack-  und  Lese- 
buch  (a  posthumous  work,  completed  and  edited 
by  Charles  Schlegel,  Stuttgart.  1866)  ;  FranzS- 
sisches  Sprach-  and  I.-  sebuch,  revised  by  Charles 

Schlegel,  Stuttgart,  1862   :    D      lerne  Philo- 

hgiewnddied  uischen  Schvlen  (Stuttgart,  1844); 
Die genetische  Methods  (Zurich.  1846);  Die  En- 
rt/kbpddie,  t/'/x  Si/stem  des  Wisscus,  ein  Lese- 
bttch  (Zurich,  1847). 


MAINE,  until  1820  a  part  of  Massachusetts, 
has  an  area  of  35,000  sq.  in.,  and  a  population, 
according  to  the  census  of  1870,  of  029,915, 
found  mostly  in  the  southern  half  of  the  state. 

Educational  History,  —  This  will  embrace 
(I)  The  establishment  of  schools;  (II)  The  main- 
tenance of  schools  ;  (HI)  The  supervision  of 
schools. 

I.  The  school  system  of  Maine,  when  it  became 
a  distinct  state,  in  1820,  was  the  same  as  that 
of  the  parent  state,  Massachusetts.  In  the  con- 
stitution of  Maine,  the  duty  of  the  state  to  pro- 
vide its  people  with  the  means  of  education,  and 
its  right  to  control  public  education  throughout 
its  entire  extent,  are  asserted  in  the  following 
article:  "A  general  diffusion  of  the  advantages 
of  education  being  essential  to  the  preservation 
of  the  rights  and  liberties  of  the  people,  to  pro- 
vide this  important  object,  the  legislature  are 
authorized,  and  it  shall  be  their  duty,  to  require 
the  several  towns  to  make  suitable  provision,  at 
their  own  expense,  for  the  support  and  mainte- 
nance of  public  schools:  and  it  shall  furl  her  be 
their  duty  to  suitably  endow,  from  time  to  time, 
as  the  circumstances  of  the  people  may  author- 
ize, all  academies,  colleges,  and  seminaries  of 
learning,  within  the  state,  provided  that,  at  the 
time  of  making  any  donation,  grant,  or  endow- 
ment, the  legislature  of  the  state  shall  have  the 
right  to  giant  any  further  powers,  to  alter,  limit, 
or  restrain,  any  of  the  powers  vested  in  any  such 
literary  institution,  as  shall  be  judged  necessary 
to  promote  the  best  interests  thereof."  —  The 
school  law  of  Maine  remained  the  same  as  that 
of  Massachusetts  until  the  second  legislature,  in 
1821,  enacted  a  general  school  law  differing  from 
the  former  one  only  in  requiring  each  town  to 
raise,  by  a  tax  on  polls  and  property,  a  sum  of 
not  less  than  forty  cents  for  cadi  inhabitant,  to 
be  apportioned  among  the  several  districts  in  the 
town,  and  annually  expended  tor  public  schools, 
instead  of  requiring  each  town. as  in  the  original 
law,  to  sustain  its  schools  for  a  certain  prea  ribed 
length  of  time  each  year.  The  district  system 
had  become  fixed  in  the  school  law  of  Massachu- 
setts previous  to  the  separation,  and  it  has  been, 
up  to  the  present  time,  recognized  in  the  school^, 
law  of  Maine.  At  first,  the  towns,  at  their  annual 
meetings,  elected  agents  for  the  several  districts; 
later,  districts  were  allowed,  on  the  vote  of  towns, 
to  choose  their  agents,  and  agents  were  allowed 
to  expend,  at  their  own  discretion.  10  per  cent  of 
the  school  money  for  repairs.  A  return  of  sta- 
tistics to  the  office  of  the  secretary  of  state  was 
required;  and  abstracts  of  these  were  made,  and 
transmitted  to  the  various  districts.  The  bank 
tax  of  one-half  of  one  per  cent  on  the  capital 
stock  of  state  banks  was  divided  among  the  va- 
rious towns  according  to  the  number  of  persons 
between  the  ages  of  four  and  twenty-one  years 
of  age,  for  the  benefit  of  public  schools:  and 
power  was  given  to  districts,  in  1827,  and  still 
further,  in  1 S42.  "to  classify  scholars  and  to  grade 
their  schools."  The  district  system  has  proved 
unfavorable  to  the  highest  degree  of  efficiency 
in  schools,  and  a  few  years  since  a  law  was  en- 


538  MA 

acted  authorizing  towns  to  abolish  school-districts 
and  to  adopt  a  uniform  township  system.  A  law 
was  enacted  in  1873,  encouraging  the  establish- 
ment of  free  high  schools  at  the  joint  expense  of 
town  and  state. 

II.  The  public  schools  of  Maine  have  always 
been  free.  Their  support  has  been  derived  from 
(1)  Taxes ;  (2)  The  income  of  permanent  funds. 

(1)  Taxes. — The  sum  of  forty  cents  for  each 
inhabitant,  required  by  the  law  of  1821,  to  be 
raised  annually  for  the  support  of  schools,  was 
increased  by  subsequent  legislation,  in  1854,  to 
sixty  cents,  in  1865  to  seventy-five  cents,  and  in 
18fi8  to  one  dollar.  In  1872.  a  law  was  enacted 
assessing  annually  a  tax  of  one  mill  per  dollar 
upon  all  the  property  of  the  state,  according  to 
the  valuation  thereof,  to  be  distributed  to  the 
several  towns  of  the  state  according  to  the  num- 
ber of  persons  of  school  age  in  each  town.  Up- 
on the  passage  of  this  act.  called  the  Mill  Tax 
Law,  the  per  capita  tax  was  changed  from  one 
dollar  to  eighty  cents  for  each  inhabitant. — For 
many  years,  a  large  sum  was  added  to  the  school 
fund  annually  by  a  tax  upon  deposits  in  the 
state  banks.  This  amounted  sometimes  to  80,000 
dollars  in  a  year.  With  the  change  from  state  to 
national  banks,  this  sum  decreased  until  it  be- 
came nothing.  In  1872.  a  tax  of  one-half  of  one 
per  cent  was  assessed  upon  deposits  in  savings- 
banks,  to  be  distributed  among  the  several  towns 
of  the  state  according  to  their  school  population. 
Many  towns  raise  by  taxation  a  larger  sum  than 
is  prescribed  by  the  law.  and  "any  school  district 
maintaining  graded  schools  is  authorized  to  raise 
for  the  support  of  these  schools  a  sum  of  money 
not  exceeding  that  which  it  receives  from  the 
town,  in  addition  thereto." 

(2)  Income  of  Permanent  Funds. — These  funds 
are  state  and  local.  The  state  fund  is  derived 
from  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  twenty  town- 
ships of  public  lands  formerly  set  apart  f  >r  school 
purposes,  increased  from  year  to  year  by  the  ad- 
dition thereto  of  unexpended  balances  of  school 
money.  The  local  funds  are  derived  in  part  from 
the  sale  of  lands  assigned  to  towns  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools,  and  in  part  from  various  other 
sources,  such  as  bequests,  etc.  An  amount  equal 
to  six  per  cent  of  the  permanent  school  fund  is 
distributed  to  the  schools  each  year.  This  fund 
at  present  amounts  to  §400,558. 

III.  Sn]ii>rrisiim  if  Schools. — Notwithstand- 
ing the  emphatic  statements  of  the  constitution 
as  to  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  state  in  regard 
to  public  education,  there  was  in  the  law  a  great 
lack  of  the  elements  of  an  effective  system  until 
1 846,  when,  in  response  to  determined  action  of 
the  friends  of  education,  a  law  was  passed  estab- 
lishing a  state  board  of  education  consisting  of 
one  member  from  each  county,  chosen  by  the 
school  committees  of  the  county  in  joint  con- 
vention, with  a  secretary  chosen  by  the  board. 
Wm.  G-.  Crosby,  afterwards  governor  of  the 
state,  was  secretary  of  the  board  from  1 84(1  to 
1849.  He  then  resigned,  and  was  succeeded  by 
K.  M.  Thurston,  who  served  until  the  abolition 
of  the  board,  in  1852.     Great  good  was  effected 


by  this  board  of  education.  County  institutes 
were  held,  and  were  attended  by  large  numbers 
of  teachers.  Teachers'  associations  were  organ- 
ized  in  every  county  of  the  state.  Better  school- 
houses  were  built,  and  the. -tandard  of  teaching  wa.s 
raised  ;  moreover,  the  state  owes  several  improve- 
ments in  the  school  law  to  this  period  of  its  his- 
tory. In  1852,  an  act  was  passed  directing  the  ap- 
pointment by  the  governor  of  a  school  commis- 
sioner for  each  county,  thus  replacing  the  board 
of  education  by  a  much  less  efficient  agency.  In 
1853.  tins  law  was  repealed,  and  the  office  of  state 
superintendent  was  created,  the  superintendent 
being  appointed  by  the  governor  and  the  coun- 
cil. The  following  is  a  list  of  the  successive  state 
superintendents,  with  the  dates  of  their  appoint- 
ment to  office  :  Charles  A.  Ixjrd,  June  26.,  1854; 
Mark  H.  Dunnell.  March  27..  1855;  John  P. 
Craig.  Feb.  28.,  1856  ;  Mark  II.  Dunnell,  Jan. 
29.,  1857  ;  Edward  P.  Weston.  March  5.,  1860  ; 
Edward  Ballard,  May  8..  1865:  Warren  Johnson 
March  30.,  1868  ;  and  Wm.  J.  Corthell,  the 
present  incumbent,  Oct.  26.,  1876. 

In  1869,  acts  were  passed  directing  the  ap- 
pointment, by  the  governor  and  the  council,  of  a 
board  of  county  supervisors  for  a  term  of  three 
years. and  making  provision  for  county  institutes. 
In  1872.  the  first  of  these  laws  was  repealed  ;  and, 
three  years  later,  the  second  was  also  repealed. 
The  efforts  of  the  friends  of  education  to  secure 
more  efficient  means  for  the  training  of  teach- 
ers were  for  a  long  time  fruitless.  For  several 
years  appropriations  were  made  by  the  state  to 
academies  for  the  maintenance  of  normal  depart- 
ments. The  results  proving  unsatisfactory,  the 
first  state  normal  school,  located  at  Farming- 
ton,  was  established  by  an  act  of  the  legislature, 
approved  March  25.,  1863  ;  and  the  school  went 
into  operation  Aug.  24.,  1864.  The  second  state 
normal  school,  located  at  Castine,  went  into  oper- 
ation Sept.  7..  1867.  A  state  teachers' associa- 
tion was  organized  in  1859  ;  but  it  was  not  con- 
tinued, holding  its  last  session  in  1 864.  Another 
association  was  organized  in  1867, and  still  holds 
annual  sessions.  Of  county  and  town  associa- 
tions, there  are  very  few. 

School  System. — The  public  schools  of  the  state 
are  under  the  supervision  of  the  state  superintend- 
ent of  common  schools  and  the  town  superintend- 
ing school  committees.  There  is  no  intermediate 
agency.  The  stub'  supei-iiitcni/citt  is  appointed 
by  the  governor  and  council  for  the  term  of  three 
years,  "  or  during  the  pleasure  of  the  executive." 
It  is  his  duty  to  exercise  a  general  supervision 
over  the  schools  of  the  state  ;  to  advise  and  di- 
rect town  committees  in  the  discharge  of  their 
duties,  devoting  all  his  time  to  the  duties  of  his 
office  ;  to  collect  and  disseminate  information 
as  to  the  school  systems  of  our  own  and  other 
countries ;  to  prescribe  the  studies  for  the  com- 
mon schools  of  the  state,  town  committees  hav- 
ing also  the  right  to  prescribe  additional  studies, 
and  to  make  a  report  to  the  governor  and  coun- 
cil, annually  prior  to  the  session  of  the  legislature. 
The  superintending  school  committees  examine 
all  teachers,  and  employ  teachers  for  the  school- 


■districts  when  authorized  to  do  so  by  the  town. 
They  direct  the  general  course  of  instruction,  se- 
lect a  uniform  system  of  text-books. and  exercisea 
general  supervision  and  control  over  the  several 
schools  of  the  town.  They  are  required  to  make 
a  written  report  of  the  condition  of  the  schools 
in  their  respective  districts,  for  the  preceding  year, 
at  the  annual  town  meeting,  and  to  transmit  a 
«opy  thereof  to  the  state  superintendent  of  com- 
mon schools.  They  are  also  required  to  make  an 
annual  statistical  report  to  the  state  superintend- 
ent on  or  before  the  first  day  of  May  of  each 
year.  Supervisors,  and  members  of  the  school 
committee,  receive  for  their  services  SI. 50  a  day, 
besides  the  necessary  traveling  expenses. 

A  town,  at  its  annual  meeting,  or  at  a  special 
meeting  called  for  that  purpose,  may  determine 
the  number  anil  limits  of  school-districts  therein: 
but  these  districts  must  not  be  altered,  discon- 
tinued, or  annexed  to  others,  except  upon  the 
written  recommendation  of  the  municipal  officers 
and  of  the  su]ierintending  school  committee.  A 
town  may  abolish  its  school-districts;  and  it  must 
thereupon  take  possession  of  all  the  school  prop- 
erty therein,  levying  upon  the  town  a  tax  equal  to 
the  appraised  value  of  such  school  property,  and 
remitting  to  the  tax  payers  of  each  district  the 
appraised  value  of  the  property  thus  taken.  The 
town  must  annually  expend  for  the  support  of 
schools  the  amount  received  from  the  state  school 
fund,  under  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  its  share  of  the 
fund  for  the  ensuing  year;  anil  it  must  raise  and 
expend  annually  for  the  support  of  schools,  ex- 
clusive of  income  from  any  other  source,  at  least 
eighty  cents  for  each  inhabitant,  or  forfeit  not  less 
than  twice,  nor  more  than  four  times,  the  amount 
of  its  deficiency,  and  also  its  share  of  the  state 
school  fund.  The  assessors  and  the  school  com- 
mittee may  annually  apportion  among  the  smaller 
districts  of  the  town,  in  addition  to  their  per  capita 
share  of  the  school  money.  20  per  cent  of  money 
raised  by  the  town  and  of  that  received  from 
the  state,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  them  equal 
educational  advantages  with  the  larger  districts. 

The  town  may  provide  school  books  to  pupils 
of  the  public  schools  at  cost,  or  free  of  cost.  It  is 
required  to  choose  a  school  committee  of  three 
for  a  term  of  office  of  three  years,  one  to  go  out 
of  office  each  year,  or  a  supervisor  instead  of 
school  committee.  Towns  are  empowered  to  make 
such  by-laws,  not  repugnant  to  the  laws  of  the 
state,  concerning  truants  and  children  between  6 
and  17  years  of  age  not  attending  school,  and 
having  no  regular  and  lawful  employment,  as  are 
most  conducive  to  their  welfare  and  the  good 
order  of  society.  ( 'hildren  under  1  5  years  of  age 
cannot  be  employed  in  a  cotton  or  woolen  niami- 

scribed  portion  of  the  year  next  preceding,  and 
no  person  under  the  age  of  Hi  can  be  employed 
by  any  corporation  more  than  ten  hours  a  day. 
A  law  was  passed  in  1875,  compelling  the  at- 
tendance at  school  for  at  least  twelve  weeks 
each  year,  of  all  children  between  the  ages  of  6 
and  15  years,  unless  excused  by  the  school 
.officers,  for  reasons  prescribed  in  the  act. 


[NE  539 

Every  school-district  is  a  corporate  body,  and 
all  school  property  therein  belongs  to  the  dis- 
trict, and  is  under  its  full  control  ;  but  all 
plans  tor  the  election  or  reconstruction  of  a 
school-house  voted  by  a  district  must  be  ap- 
proved by  the  .-chooi  committee.  Each  school- 
district,  at  its  annual  meeting,  chooses  a  moder- 
ator, a  clerk,  and  an  agent,  unless  by  vote  of 
the  town  the  agents  arc  chosen  in  town  meet- 
ing. Two  or  more  districts  may  unite  to  sup- 
port a  union  school  for  advanced  scholars,  or  to 
maintain  a  graded  school;  and  a  district  main- 
taining a  graded  school  may  choose  a  committee 
to  classify  and  grade  the  pupils  therein.  Wher- 
ever, in  the  opinion  of  the  school  committee,  a 
school-district  unreasonably  neglects  or  refuses 
to  raise  money  to  provide  proper  school  build- 
ings or  grounds,  the  matter  may  be  brought  be- 
fore the  next  town  meeting,  and  the  town  may 
vote  to  raise  the  money  by  a  tax  upon  the  dis- 
trict, to  be  expended  by  a  committee  appointed 
by  the  municipal  officers.  A  school-district  non- 
appropriate a  sum  not  exceeding  1(1  per  cent 
of  its  school  money  for  any  year,  for  the  pur- 
chase of  a  school  library  and  school  apparatus  ; 
and  adjacent  districts  may  unite  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  si  1 1  agent  attends  to  the  finan- 
cial affairs  of  the  district,  and  employs  teachers, 
unless  by  vote  of  the  town  they  are  employed 
by  the  school  committee.  The  agent  may.  at 
his  discretion,  expend  for  repairs,  each  year. 
10  per  cent  of  the  money  apportioned  to  the 
district. 

Any  town  establishing  and  maintaining  a  free 
high  school  for  at  least  ten  weeks  in  any  one  year, 
is  entitled  to  receive  from  the  state  one-half  of  the 
amount  actually  expended  for  instruction,  not 
however  exceeding  $500   from  the   state  to  any 

!  one  town.  Two  oi  more  adjoining  towns  may 
unite  in  sustaining  such  a  school ;  and  so  long  as 
any  town  shall  decline  to  avail  itself  of  the  pro- 

,  visions  of  this  act.  any  school-district,  or  union 

I  of  school-districts,  in  the  town  may  do  so. — 
Every  teacher  of  a  public  school  is  required  to 
keep  a  register  containing  the  names  and  attend- 
ance of  his  pupils,  and  a  record  of  such  other 
facts  as  may  be  required  by  the  blank  forms 
provided  for  annual  or  other  reports;  and  he  is 
required  to  leave  such  register  completed,  and 
signed  by  the  school  committee,  as  a  condition 
of  receiving  his  salary. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school-districts  returned  in  1875,  was  8,953;  and 
the  number  of  parts  of  districts,  368.  The  num- 
ber of  towns  in  the  state  was  421,  and  the  num- 
ber of  these  which  have  abolished  the  district  sys- 
tem was  25.  The  country  schools  are  generally 
ungraded.  In  the  cities  and  larger  villages,  pri- 
mary and  grammar  schools  are  maintained  ;  and. 
in  the  cities  and  a  few  of  the  larger  villages,  high 
schools  have  also  been  established.  There  were 
maintained,  in  1875,  for  one  or  more  terms.  157 
free  high  schools,  at  an  annual  cost  of  §116,308, 
of  which  the  state  paid  .538.633.     There  are  no 

returns  by  which  the  number  of  graded  schools, 
or  departments  in  each  grade,  can  be  ascertained. 


540 


For  the  support  of  public  schools  there  was 
paid,  in  1875,  $1,261,297,  from  the  following 
sources : 

Permanent  school  fund $22,193 

Local  funds 25,585 

Total  from  funds $47,778 

Municipal  taxation  for  current 

expenses $662,658 

School  mill-tax 224,579 

Savings-bank  tax 145 ,935 

For  free  high  schools 116,308 

"    supervision 36,968 

"     normal  schools 15,500 

To  prolong  schools 11,671 

Total   taxation $1,213,51:) 

Total  current  expenses  $1,261,297 

There  was  also  expended  for  new  school- 
houses  in  1875,  $110,725  ;  and  hereafter  $13,00(1 
for  the  support  of  normal  schools  will  be  taken 
annually  from  the  general  school  fund,  instead 
of  being  made  a  special  appropriation. 

The  folio wiug  are  other  important  items  of 
school  statistics  for  1875  : 

The  number  of  teachers  : 
In  summer,  males,  I  71 ;   females,  4,426;  total,    4,597 
In  winter,  males,  l,!)s4;  females,  2,47:,;  total,    4,450 
The  average  wages  per  month,  excluding  board, 
was  of 

Male  teachers  $36.96 

Female  teachers 17.16 

The  average  cost  per  mouth  nftea.ch- 

ers'  board  was $9.52 

Whole  number  of  -.li.il.ir-  between  4  and  21..  221,447 

Number  registered  in  summer  schools 117,821 

Number  registered  in  winter  schools 130,343 

Average  attendance  in  summer  schools '.15,05s 

Awrairc  attendance  in  winter  schools 105,1125 

Werage  lengthof  schools  for  the  year 
(.U  days  to  a  week) 21  w-eeks  1  day. 

Normal  Instruction. — The  date  of  establish- 
ment of  the  two  state  normal  schools  has  been 
given  in  the  historical  sketch.  For  their  support 
$13,000  is  drawn  from  the  common-school  fund 
each  year.  The  law  establishing  these  schools 
prescribes  thai  they  ••shall  be  thoroughly  devoted 
to  the  work  of  training  teachers  for  their  profes- 
sional labors."  that  "  the  course  of  study  shall 
include  the  common  English  branches  in  thorough 
reviews,  and  such  of  the  higher  branches  as  are 
especially  adapted  to -prepare  teachers  to  con- 
duct the  mental,  moral,  and  physical  education 
of  their  pupils,"  and  "that  the  art  of  school 
management,  including  the  best  methods  of  gov- 
ernment and  instruction,  shall  have  a  prominent 
place  in  the  daily  exercises  of  said  schools." 
Candidates  for  admission  must  be,  if  females,  16 
years  of  age  ;  if  males.  17  ;  they  must  pledge 
themselves  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  Maine 
for  as  long  a  time  as  they  shall  have  remained 
connected  with  the  normal  school,  and  pass  a 
satisfactory  examination  in  reading,  spelling, 
writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  and  English 
grammar.  The  course  requires  two  years  for 
its  completion,  and  comprises  the  usual  studies 
of  an  English  high-school  course,  together  with 
history  of  education,  school  laws,  and  didactics, 
and  practice  teaching.  The  schools  arc  sup- 
plied with  libraries  and  apparatus,  and  with 
models  and  copies  for  free-hand  drawing. — The 
normal  schools  are  under  the  direction  of  a 
board  of  trustees  consisting  of  seven   members, 


five  of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  governor  and 
executive  council  for  a  term  of  three  years,  the 
governor  and  the  state  superintendent  of  schools 
being,  ex  officio,  members  of  the  board. 

S.r,,„, l.iri/  Instruction  (comprehending  the 
hiijlt  schools  and  the  acnilemies). — Of  the  high 
schools  an  account  has  already  been  given.  The 
right  and  duty  of  the  state  to  aid  institutions  of 
this  class  is  explicitly  asserted  in  the  constitution; 
and,  in  its  early  history,  many  academies  received 
grants  of  public  lands.  Several  academies  were 
incorporated  by  Massachusetts  before  Maine  be- 
came a  state.  For  many  years  the  elements  of 
an  effective  system  were  lacking  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  state  ;  and  the  academies,  always 
tuition  schools,  effected  much  good.  The  period 
from  1830  to  1850  was  perhaps  the  period  of 
their  greatest  influence.  Since  the  latter  date, 
improvements  in  the  public-school  system,  and 
other  causes,  have  led  to  their  decline,  and  some 
have  been  incorporated  with  the  public-school 
system  as  high  schools.  Several  have  been  en- 
dowed by  religious  del inations,  or  made  pre- 
paratory schools  for  the  several  colleges  of  the 
state.  Of  these  the  most  prominent  arc  Maine 
VVesleyan  Seminary  and  Female  College,  at 
Kent's  Hill,  the  East  Maine  Conference  Semi- 
nary.at  Bucksport,  both  conducted  by  the  Meth- 
odists :  the  Westl.rook  Seminary,  by  the  Dni- 
versalists;  Waterville  Classical  Institute,  He- 
bron Academy,  and  Houlton  Academy,-  prepar- 
atory schools  for  Colby  University,  Maine  Central 
Institute,  at  Pittefield.  and  \  icliols  1  at  in  School 
at  Lewiston,  —  preparatory  schools  for  Hates 
College,  and  Hallowell  Classical  Institute,  a 
preparatory  school  for  Bowdoin  College. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — 
Most  of  the  academies  of  the  state  were  origi- 
nally founded  by  the  efforts  of  religious  denom- 
inations. The  most  prominent  have  been  named 
in  the  preceding  section.  Of  parochial  schools, 
there  are  none  but  a  few  small  Roman  Catholic 
schools  in  connection  with  local  churches. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  Bowdoin  College 
(q.  v.).  the  oldest  college  in  Maine,  situated  at 
Brunswick,  received  its  charter  in  1794, with  a> 
grant  of  five  townships  of  land.  It  derives  its 
name  from  James  Bowdoin.  governor  of  Mas- 
sachusetts in  1 785.  The  board  of  trustees  and 
the  board  of  overseers  met  in  1801  and  elected 
a  president,  and  a  professor  of  languages.  At 
the  installation  of  these  officers,  in  1802,  8  stu- 
dents were  admitted,  and  in  1S06  the  first  class, 
consisting  of  8,  was  graduated.  It  has  uow  an  aca- 
demical faculty  of  15,  and  numbered,  in  1875 — 6, 
148  students.  —  Waterville  College,  located  at 
Waterville.  was  established  in  1820;  and  a  few- 
years  since,  the  name  was  changed  to  Colby  Uni- 
versity (q.  v.),  in  honor  of  Gardner  Colby,  a  bene- 
factor of  the  college.  It  has  a  faculty  of  12.  and 
01  students.  Bates  College  (q.  v.),  located  at, 
Lewiston,  was  founded  in  L863.  It  is  named  in 
honor  of  Joshua  Bates,  a  benefactor  of  the  college- 
It  lias  a  faculty  of  7,  and  numbers  96  students. 

Profess iom 1 1  and  Scientific  Ins/ruction. —  Un- 
der this  head  are  included   Theological  Schools. 


MANHATTAN    COLLEGE 

Medical  Schools,  and  Scientific  Schools,  of  which 
the  following  is  an  enumeration  : — The  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  (Congregationalist)  at  Bangor, 
was  organized  in  1819.  In  the  year  1875 — 6,  it 
iad  39  students.  The  Theological  School  of 
Bates  College  (Free  Baptist)  was  organized  in 
1870.  In  the  year  1875—6,  it  had  25  students. 
The  Medical  School  of  Maine  was  organized  in 
1820.  By  art  of  the  legislature  it  is  placed 
under  the  superintendence  and  direction  of  the 
Board  of  Trustees  and  Overseers  of  Bowdoiu 
College.  In  the  year  1875 — 6,  it  had  93  stu- 
dents. The  Maine  State  College  of  Agriculture 
and  the  Mechanic  Arts,  situated  at  Orono,  was 
established  upon  the  basis  of  the  congressional 
grant  of  public  lands  for  such  instruction.  In 
the  year  1 875 — 6,  it  had  in  its  various  courses  115 
students.  The  Scientific  Department  of  Bowdoin 
College  should  also  be  named  among  the  scientific 
schools.  Its  course  of  study  is  four  years,  parallel 
with  the  classical  course,  and  its  students,  in 
1875 — 6,  numbered  50,  already  included  in  the 
enumeration  of  Bowdoiu  College. 

Special  Instruction. — There  is  a  State  Reform 
School  for  boys  at  Cape  Elizabeth,  and  one  for 
girls,  at  Gardiner.  There  is  a  Soldiers'  Orphan 
School  at  Bath. 

Educational  Literature. — No  works  have  been 
published  upon  the  schools  of  Maine,  with  the 
exception  of  the  reports  of  the  secretary  of  the 
board  of  education  and  of  the  superintendent 
of  common  schools.  The  Mime  Teacher,  a 
monthly,  published  forseveral  years,  was  followed 
by  the  Mane  Journal  of  Education,  which  was 
merged,  in  1874,  in  the  New  England  Journal 
of  Education. 

MANHATTAN  COLLEGE,  a  Roman 
Catholic  institution  in  New  York  City,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Christian  Brothers,  was 
chartered  in  1863.  It  comprises  a  collegiate,  a 
commercial,  and  a  preparatory  department.  The 
library  contains  about  10,000  volumes.  In 
1874 — 5,  there  were,  in  all  the  departments,  48 
instructors  and  61)4  students.  Bro.  Paulian  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

MANITOBA,  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada;  area  13,923  sq.  m..  population, in  1870, 
11,963.  This  portion  of  the  Dominion  was  first 
visited  by  the  French,  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing trading  posts  at  various  points.  In  1767, 
it  was  for  the  first  time  visited  by  English 
traders.  It  subsequently  belonged  to  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company,  who,"  in  1869,  gave  up  their 
territorial  rights  to  the  imperial  government, 
which,  in  1870,  transferred  them  to  the  Canadian 
government.  The  schools  of  this  province  are 
divided  into  two  sections  :  one  for  Protestants, 
and  one  for  Roman  Catholics.  Each  section  has 
its  own  superintendent,  but  there  is  only  one 
board  of  education,  in  which  both  sections  are 
represented.  The  forms  of  prayer  prescribed  in 
Ontario,  and  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  or 
the  saying  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  are  employed  in 
opening  and  closing  each  session  of  the  Protest- 
ant schools.  The  school  hours  are  required  to 
be  not  less  than  five  per  day,  for  five  days  in  the 


MANN 


541 


week  ;  and  the  school  year  is  divided  into  two 
parts  of  100  days  each.— The  legislative  grant, 
which,  in  1874,  amounted  to  $7,000,  is  divided, 
according  to  law.  between  the  two  sections  in 
proportion  to  the  relative  average  attendance  of 
pupils  at  the  schools  of  each.  In  1874,  it  was, 
however,  for  some  reason,  divided  equally  be- 
tween the  two  sections.  In  1 874,  there  were  22 
Protestant  schools,  with  1,248  pupils  enrolled, 
and  an  average  attendance  of  i">.'S.">.  The  number 
of  Catholic  schools  was  21,  with  998  children 
enrolled,  and  21  teachers.— The  Manitoba  Wes- 
leyan  Institute  was  opened  in  1873.  It  prepares 
its  pupils  to  enter  any  of  the  universities,  the 
course  of  studies  comprising,  besides  the  common 
English  branches.  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics, 
French,  and  German.  It  is  governed  by  a  board 
of  management, appointed  by  the  Methodist  Con- 
ference of  Canada.  Manitoba  ( 'ollege,  in  Winni- 
peg, was  incorporated  in  1873.  Its  affairs  are 
conducted  by  a  board  appointed  by  the  general 
assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  (  liurch.  The  cur- 
riculum of  study  of  the  college  is  divided  into 
three  courses  :  a  regular,  a  commercial,  and  a 
special  course.  The  regular  course  fits  for  ma- 
triculation, and  for  first-year  examinations  in 
the  University  of  Toronto,  for  matriculation  in 
law  or  medicine,  as  well  as  for  entrance  upon 
the  courses  of  civil  engineering  and  agriculture, 
and  for  commencing  the  study  of  theology  in 
any  of  the  Canadian  colleges.  A  preparatory 
department  has  been  organized  in  connection 
with  the  college.  St.  John's  (.'ollege,  belonging 
to  the  Episcopal  Church,  has  also  a  preparatory 
department  and  a  theological  school  connected 
with  it.  The  Roman  ( 'atholies  have  a  college  at 
St.  Boniface;  and  the  Sisters  of  Charity  have  also 
a  large  convent  at  St.  Boniface,  an  academy  for 
young  ladies,  an  orphanage,  and  four  missions 
in  the  province. — See  Marling,  Canada  Edu- 
cational Directory  for  1876;  Lovell's  Gazetteer 
of  British  North  America,  1873. 

MANN,  Horace,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
of  American  educators,  born  in  Franklin.  Mass., 
May.  4.,  1796;  died  in  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio, 
Aug.  2.,  1859.  The  cause  of  education  in  Amer- 
ica is  deeply  indebted  to  this  remarkable  man. 
Barely  have  great  ability,  unselfish  devotion, 
and  brilliant  success  been  so  united  in  the  course 
of  a  single  life.  More  rarely  still,  has  the  prep- 
aration for  that  success  been  made  under  such 
discouraging  circumstances  of  poverty,  want  of 
opportunity,  and  ill  health.  To  say  that  the 
childhood  and  youth  of  Horace  Mann  were 
passed  in  poverty,  is  only  to  repeat  the  story 
common  to  the  early  lives  of  very  many 
eminent  men.  The  degree  of  poverty,  how- 
ever, in  his  case,  appears  to  have  been  excep- 
tional ;  his  biographer  telling  us  "that  it  was  the 
misfortune  of  the  family  that  it  belonged  to  the 
smallest  district,  had  the  poorest  school-house, 
and  employed  the  cheapest  teachers,  in  a  town 
which  was  itself  both  small  and  poor."  The 
hard  manual  labor  to  which  he  was  subjected 
giving  him  no  time  for  recreation,  in  either  sum- 
mer  or  winter,   weighed    upon    his    naturally 


542  Mj 

buoyant  spirits,  and  left  an  ineffaceable  impres- 
sion on  his  memory.  Many  years  after,  he 
speaks  of  this  want  of  happiness  in  his  child- 
hood as  an  "  irretrievable  misfortune."  Left 
fatherless  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  he  remained  at 
home,  with  no  opportunities  for  cultivation 
beyond  those  furnished  by  the  few  and  unsuit- 
able books  of  the  household,  and  the  ancient 
histories  and  theologies  contained  in  a  small 
library  which  had  been  given  to  his  native  town 
by  Franklin.  Always  thirsting  for  knowledge, 
he  declares  that,  up  to  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  had 
never  received  more  than  eight  or  ten  weeks' 
schooling  in  any  single  year.  He  remained  at 
home  till  the  age  of  twenty,  eagerly  treasuring 
up  every  thing  that  could  add  to  his  scanty 
store  of  information.  About  that  time,  having 
snatched  some  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek, 
and  of  English  grammar,  from  an  itinerant  school- 
master, he  pivs  sited  himself,  after  six  months 
of  such  intermittent  schooling,  for  admission  to 
the  sophomore  class  in  Brown  University,  ami 
entered  it  in  181C.  Illness — the  consumptive 
habit  bequeathed  him  by  his  father — now  inter- 
rupted his  work,  and  compelled  him  to  leave. 
Poverty  succeeded,  requiring  him  again  to  ab- 
sent himself  during  the  winter,  in  order  to  teach 
school  for  his  support  while  in  college.  In  spite 
of  these  drawbacks,  however,  he  graduated  in 
1819,  with  the  first  honors,  conceded  by  the 
unanimous  consent  of  both  faculty  and  class- 
mates. He  immediately  entered  a  law  office;  but 
had  been  there  only  a  few  months,  when  he  was 
offered  the  position  of  tutor  of  Latin  and  Greek 
in  the  college  he  had  just  left.  He  accepted, 
principally  on  account  of  the  facilities  it  gave 
him  for  self-improvement ;  and  at  once  began  a 
course  of  study,  to  be  carried  on  simultaneously 
with  his  teaching.  His  method,  in  the  latter, 
already  foreshadowed  his  fitness  for  the  teacher's 
vocation.  In  1821,  he  resigned  his  position  as 
tutor,  and  entered  the  law  school  at  Litchfield, 
Ct„  where  he  remained  about  a  year.  Leaving 
it,  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1823,  and 
immediately  opened  an  office  for  the  practice 
of  law.  During  the  fourteen  years  of  his  pro- 
fessional practice,  the  probity  which  was  so 
marked  a  characteristic  throughout  his  life,  was 
always  apparent.  In  1827,  he  entered  political 
life,  having  been  elected  representative  for  the 
district  of  Dedham,  in  which  he  resided  ;  and 
to  this  office  he  was  successively  re-elected  till 
1833,  when  he  removed  to  Boston,  where,  shortly 
after,  he  was  elected  to  the  state  senate,  serving 
four  consecutive  terms,  during  which  time,  he 
was  twice  chosen  the  presiding  officer.  Through- 
out his  legislative  career,  Mr.  Mann  took  an 
active  part  in  all  discussions  relating  to  internal 
improvements,  temperance,  and  education.  The 
state  lunatic  asylum  at  Worcester  was  almost 
entirely  his  creation,  he  having  suggested  it,  and 
carried  it,  almost  single-handed,  through  the 
various  stages  of  legislation.  His  services  in 
this  respect  were  so  generally  recognized,  that  he 
was  appointed  chairman  of  the  board  of  com- 
missioners for  its  erection,  and,  on  its  comple- 


tion, chairman  of  its  board  of  trustees.  In 
1835,  he  was  appointed  by  the  senate  one  of  a 
committee  to  codify  the  statute  laws  of  the  state, 
and  assisted  in  their  publication.  In  1837,  the 
legislature  appointed  a  board  of  education,  to 
revise  and  re-organize  the  common-school  system 
of  the  state.  In  view  of  the  laborious  duties 
inseparable  from  this  work,  the  good  judgment 
required  for  its  successful  issue,  and  the  great 
length  of  time  necessary  for  its  completion,  it 
was  no  ordinary  compliment  that,  on  the  organ- 
ization of  the  board,  Mr.  Mann  was  chosen  its 
secretary.  rl  here  is  complete  evidence,  however, 
that  he  fully  comprehended  the  magnitude  of 
the  work  before  him  :  but,  having  found,  at  last, 
a  congenial  field  of  labor,  he  did  not  hesitate. 
Kecognizing  the  necessity  of  entire  devotion  to 
his  new  undertaking,  and  the  necessity,  also,  of 
an  unbiased  position  in  regard  to  it,  he  declined 
re-election  to  the  senate,  left  political  life  entirely, 

fave  up  all  professional  engagements,  and  placed 
imsclf  simply  in  the  position  of  a  citizen  of  his 
native  state.  From  this  stand-point,  he  ap- 
proached the  work  before  him,  and,  for  twelve 
years,  applied  himself  solely  to  his  duties  as. 
secretary.  Notwithstanding  the  sacrifices  he. 
had  made,  however,  for  the  purpose  of  freeing 
his  work  from  any  suspicion  of  partisan  bias,  the- 
difficulties  he  had  to  encounter  were  appalling. 
The  abuse  of  enemies,  open  and  covert;  the. 
jealousies,  not  only  of  political  partisans,  but  of 
religious  denominations,  educational  associations, 
and  private  schools ;  the  opposition  of  tax-pay- 
ers ;  and,  more  than  all.  the  deep-rooted  conserv- 
atism, which,  through  indolence  or  ignorance, 
or  both  combined,  resists  all  chance,  constituted 
a  formidable  opposition  which  might  have  well 
led  him  to  decline  the  duties  that  now  devolved 
upon  him.  <  hi  the  other  hand,  the  aid  on  which 
he  was  to  depend  was  often  lukewarm,  seldom 
enthusiastic.  His  method  of  procedure  was  com- 
prehensive and  effectual.  He  began  the  pub- 
lication of  a  periodical  on  his  own  account — 
Ttie  Common-School  Journal,  in  which  he  gave 
in  detail  his  views  concerning  general  school 
management,  and  methods  of  instruction  and 
training  ;  while  he  visited  all  parts  of  the  state, 
conferring  with  teachers,  attending  conventions, 
and  delivering  lectures  and  addresses.  His  most 
effective  instrument,  however,  was  the  annual 
report,  which  the  duties  of  his  position  required 
him  to  make  to  the  board.  In  these  reports,  of 
which  there  are  twelve,  the  entire  subject  of 
education  is  treated  in  a  practical  and  exhaustive 
manner.  The  sound  judgment,  wide  experience, 
and  comprehensive  grasp  displayed  in  these 
papers,  constitute  them  a  classic  on  the  subject 
of  which  they  treat ;  while  their  clear  and  vigor- 
ous statements,  apt  illustrations,  and  felicitous- 
style  carry  conviction  even  to  careless  readers, 
and  amply  justify  his  selection  as  the  instrument 
for  working  out  the  great  reform  proposed. 
Their  publication  and  broad-cast  dispersion  over 
the  state,  gradually  changed  the  current  of  pub- 
lie  opinion,  and  raised  up  friends  in  every  quar- 
ter.    Not  without  opposition,  however,  were  all 


MANN 

these  changes  effected.  In  1840, in  the  midst  of 
his  manifold  wearying  and  distracting  labors,  a 
bill  was  introduced  into  the  legislature,  calling 
for  the  abolition  of  the  board  of  education,  thus 
undoing  the  work  of  three  years,  and  remanding 
the  schools  to  their  former  condition.  Happily 
the  bill,  though  sustained  by  a  majority  of  the 
committee,  was  defeated.  The  publication  of 
his  seventh  annual  report  gave  rise  to  a  fierce 
opposition.  Up  to  this  time,  his  reports  had 
treated  the  subject  of  education  in  a  philosoph- 
ical way,  with  a  constant  reference  to  first  prin- 
ciples, and  with  illustrations  drawn  from  the 
practical  experience  of  every  reader.   His  seventh 


MANNERS 


543 


report,  however,  gave  the  result  of  his 
tions  in  Europe,  singling  out  Prussia  for  special 
commendation,  and  comparing  her  system  of  in- 
struction with  that  of  his  native  state,  to  the 
disadvantage  of  the  latter.  A  rancorous  hostil- 
ity, founded  on  national  jealousy,  was  the  im- 
mediate result,  and  Mr.  Mann  found  himself,  his 
motives,  and  his  work  assailed  by  means  of  let- 
ters, newspapers,  and  pamphlets  in  the  most 
violent  manner.  The  result  of  this  attack,  how- 
ever, was  that  the  attention  of  the  public  was 
specially  called  to  the  subject  under  discus- 
sion, without  impairing  the  work  of  the  board, 
either  in  its  extent  or  its  efficiency.  In  1848, 
Mr.  Mann  was  elected  to  Congress  to  fill  the 
vacancy  caused  by  the  death  of  John  Quincy 
Adams;  and,  in  November  of  the  same  year, 
was  re-elected.  In  1850,  though  failing  of  the 
nomination,  lie  was  elected  again  as  an  independ- 
ent candidate.  It  was  thought  by  many,  per- 
haps by  Mr.  Mann  himself,  that  by  re-entering 
the  field  of  politics  at  Washington. 'he  might  in- 
fluence the  government  to  establish  a  bureau  of 
education  eith  t  ind  ■pendently.  or  in  connection 
with  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  This,  how- 
ever, was  not  accomplished.  Leaving  politics, 
therefore,  he  accepted  the  presidency  of  Antioch 
College,  where  he  hoped  to  be  able  to  effect 
something  in  the  way  of  further  reforms  in  the 
pursuit  he  had  most  at  heart.  In  the  organiza- 
tion of  this  institution,  his  shaping  hand  is  again 
recognized;  and  the  objects  attained  before  his 
death,  which  happened  a  few  years  after,  are 
said  to  have  satisfied  him  of  the  feasibility  of  his 
plans.  The  great  glory,  however,  of  Mr.  Manns 
career — that  which  is  now  acknowledged  to  be  his 
distinctive  work — was  the  reform  accomplished 
in  the  Massachusetts  common  and  normal  school 
system,  during  his  labors  in  the  board  of  educa- 
tion. His  twelve  annual  reports  led  to  many 
radical  reforms,  which  extended  beyond  the  bor- 
ders of  his  native  state  ;  and  the  knowledge  on 
the  subject  of  education  which  they  contain  ren- 
ders them  a  necessary  part  of  every  school  library. 
Mr.  Mann's  other  published  works  are:  A  Few 
Thoughts  for  a  Young  Man  (1850);  Slavery, 

Lrltrrs  mitl   S/ rites    (1851);     Lrrturrs  tin    ht- 

temperance  (1852);  Powers  and  Duties  of 
Woman  (1853)  ;  besides  numerous  reports, 
lectures,  and  addresses.  A  complete  edition  of 
his  works  with  a  biography  [Lifr  mid  Works  of 
Horace  Mann,  2  vols.)  was  published  in  Cam- 


bridge, in  1867;  a  selection  from  his  works 
(Thoughts  selected  from  his  Writings),  in  1869. 
A  biography  was  published  by  his  wife,  Mary 
Peabody-Mann  (Boston,  1865).  1 1  is  lectures  on 
education  were  translated  into  French  by  Eugene 
ile  (iuer.  with  a  preface  and  biographical  sketch, 

byLaboulaye  (1873). 

MANNERS,  the  genuine  or  simulated 
manifestations  of  disposition  towards  each  other, 
which  occur  in  the  intercourse  of  human  beings. 
The  ordinary  use  of  the  word  manners  re- 
stricts it  to  those  personal  and  visible  peculiar- 
ities of  deportment  which  characterize  the  inter- 
course mentioned.  The  agents  commonly  cm- 
ployed  for  this  purpose  are  the  eye,  the  voice,  lan- 
guage, and  gestures.  When  persons  are  brought 
together  without  previous  knowledge  of  each 
other,  or  with  no  common  ground  of  taste  or  ex- 
perience between  them,  custom  has  prescribed  a 
conventional  code  of  formal  manners,  character- 
ized as  etiquette,  which  serves  to  relieve  the 
awkwardness  of  the  situation.  That  this,  how- 
ever, is  temporary  in  character,  and  not  intended 
to  survive  its  original  uses,  is  evident  from  the 
fact,  that  after  it  has,  in  great  measure,  been  laid 
aside,  any  attempt  to  revive  it,  as  the  exclusive 
medium  of  kindly  expression,  is  regarded  as  just 
cause  for  resentment.  The  fugitive  character  of 
mere  etiquette  can  never  constitute  it  an  equiv- 
alent for  that  abiding  kindliness  of  disposition 
which  finds  expression  in  genuine  politeness. 
Manners,  therefore,  are  more  decidedly  moral  in 
their  nature  than  a  superficial  observation  would 
lead  us  to  suspect ;  hence  the  usual  association 
of  "  morals  and  manners."  The  basis  of  agree- 
able manners  is  that  humanity,  or  feeling  of 
brotherhood,  which,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
pervades  the  human  race,  and  which  every  cent- 
ury, by  its  multiplied  means  of  communication, 
is  tending  to  extend  and  strengthen.  It  is.  there- 
fore, essentially  Christian  ;  and  pleasant  man- 
ners may  he  regarded,  not  as  an  accomplishment 
merely,  but  as  one  of  the  legitimate  ends  of  a 
thorough  education.  In  social  intercourse,  agree- 
able manners  are  far  more  powerful  than  intel- 
lectual accomplishments ;  while  the  displeasure 
produced  by  rui  le  manners  often  neutralizes  moral 
worth,  and  renders  mental  acquisitions,  however 
great,  comparatively  useless.  Momentous  issues  — 
even  the  destiny  of  a  lifetime  —  may  hang  upon, 
the  apparently  unimportant  question  of  man- 
ners. To  educate  thoroughly,  therefore,  and 
neglect,  the  means  by  which  that  education  is  to 
be  made  effective,  is  self-evident  folly.  Beyond 
the  ordinary  rules  of  etiquette,  no  set  rules  can 
be  given  for  the  production  of  good  manners ; 
since,  in  addition  to  the  moral  basis  above  re- 
ferred to,  they  are  largely  dependent  upon  tem- 
perament ;  but,  no  precept  is  half  so  powerful  in 
furtherance  of  this  end,  as  the  daily  example  of 
the  teacher,  the  parents,  or  other  persons  with 
whom  tin'  pupil  is  brought  into  daily  contact. 
The  indirect  though  constant  insistence  upon  the 
claims  of  every  individual  to  respect  anil  kindly 
attention,  which  results  in  a  practical  recognition 
of  this  by  the  pupil,  together  with   the  daily 


544     MANUAL  LABOR  SCHOOLS 

example  referred  to,  constitute,  perhaps,  the 
most  effective  method  for  the  grafting  of  agree- 
able manners  on  the  conduct  of  the  pupil. — See 

(Jllir.    (too,/    Morals    U,ul    tWlltlc     Man„rrS\Vm. 

and  X.  Y..  1ST.'!).    (See  also  Moral  Kin  rvnovi 
MANUAL  LABOR  SCHOOLS.     See  IN- 
DUSTRIAL   SCI LS. 

MAP-DRAWING.     See  Urography. 

MARIETTA  COLLEGE,  Marietta,  Ohio, 
was  founded  in  1*35.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees  and  the  income  of  an  endowment  of  $115,000. 

The  libraries  contain  27,000  volumes.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  $38  per  annum.  There  are  several  schol- 
arships exempting  the  holders  from  the  payment 
of  tuition,  and  aid  is  extended  to  candidates  for 
the  ministry.  The  college  has  four  buildings  and 
valuable  cabinets  and  apparatus.  There  is  a  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate  department.  In  1875 
-6,  there  were  9  instructors  and  162  students,  of 
whom  82  were  of  the  collegiate  grade.  The  num- 
ber of  graduates  in  the  classical  course  is  421; 
in  the  scientific  course,  11.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows :  the  Rev.  Joel  II.  Linsley,  D.  I>., 
1 835 — 16  ;  the  Rev.  I  lenry  Smith,  D.  D.,  LL.  D., 
1846 — 55;  and  the  Rev.  Israel  ^Vard  Andrews, 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  the  present  incumbent,  appointed 
in  1855. 

MARYLAND,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  having  an  area 
of  11,124  sq.  m.;  and  a  population,  according  to 
the  census  of  1870.  of  780,894,  of  whom  605,497 
were  whites,  175,391  colored  persons,  4  Indians, 
and  2  Chinese.  In  respect  to  population,  the 
state  ranks  as  the  20th. 

Educational  History. — In  many  counties  of 
the  state,  free  schools  were  established  as  early 
as  1723.  when  an  act  was  passed  "  for  the  en- 
couragement of  learning.and  erecting  schools  in 
the  several  counties  of  this  province."  Under 
it,  a  "  public  free  school"  was  established  at  the 
county-seat  of  Calvert  county  (Battle  Creek), 
which  existed  without  a  rival  for  fifty-two  years. 
In  1775. another  school  was  established  at  Lower 
Marlboro',  the  efficiency  of  which  was.  in  177'.i. 
increased  by  the  addition  to  its  funds  of  the 
proceeds  from  the  sale  of  the  buildings  and 
lands  of  the  first  school.  Though  this  is  one  of 
the  earliest  schools  on  record  in  the  state.  Talbot 
county  claims  to  have  had  the  first  absolutely 
free  school.  Between  the  years  1750  and  1753, 
the  Rev.  Thomas  Bacon  established  a  charity 
working  school  in  the  parish  of  St.  Peter,  which 
continued  in  existence  to  the  time  of  the  Revo- 
lution, when  the  building  in  which  it  was  kept, 
was  converted  into  a  home  for  the  county  poor. 
No  general  interest  appears  to  have  been  aroused 
on  the  subject  of  education  till  1825.  when  the 
legislature  passed  an  act  "  to  provide  for  the 
public  instruction  of  youth  in  primary  schools." 
The  offices  of  state  superintendent,  county  com- 
missioners, and  school  inspectors  were  created 
by  this  law;  and  a  system  of  public  schools  for 
the  city  of  Baltimore  was  authorized  to  be 
established  by  the  mayor  and  common  council, 
for  which  purpose  they  were  empowered  to  levy 
a  tax.     In  1827,  the  office  of  state  superintend- 


MARYLAND 

ent  was  abolished.  For  some  years  from  this 
time,  little  mention  is  made  of  the  schools  of 
the  state,  and  little  action  was  taken  for  their 
benefit  outside  of  the  city  of  Baltimore.  In 
1828,  six  school  commissioners  were  appointed 
to  establish  a  system  of  city  schools.  The  next 
year,  three  schools  were  opened ;  the  following 
year,  two  more,  the  highest  number  of  pupils  up 
to  that  time  being  402.  In  1839,  the  first  high 
school  was  opened;  and,  in  1840,  the  number  of 
common  schools  had  increased  to  nine.  In  1840, 
there  were  127  academies  or  grammar  schools, 
with  4,178  pupils;  and  507  common  and  pri- 
mary schools,  with  16,982  pupils.  In  1850,  of 
104,438  cducable  children  in  the  state,  only 
34. 407  attended  school,  for  which  there  was  an- 
nually expended  $225,260.  The  school  fund,  in 
1852,  was  $148,509.  In  1864,  the  constitution 
gave  a  generous  recognition  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation, for  the  first  time,  by  decreeing  that  free 
schools  should  be  opened  in  every  school  district, 
and  taught  six  months  every  year.  A  state 
board  of  education  was  created,  consisting  of 
the  governor,  lieutenant-governor,  speaker  of  the 
house,  and  state  superintendent.  Local  super- 
vision was  to  be  exercised  by  school  commission- 
ers, and  an  annual  tax  was  levied  upon  the 
property  of  the  state  for  the  creation  of  a  school 
fund.  Acting  on  this  suggestion,  the  state  super- 
intendent prepared  a  detailed  plan  for  a  system 
which  was  adopted  in  1865,  and  continued  in 
operation  till  1808.  It  was  then  superseded, 
and  the  school  system  of  the  state  has  been 
variously  modified  since  that  time,  principally  in 
1868, 1870,  and  1872.  Under  the  system  estab- 
lished in  18C5,  Rev.  L.  Van  Bokkelen  was  the 
state  superintendent  ;  and  on  the  change  of  the 
system,  in  1808.  M.  A.  Newell,  principal  of  the 
state  normal  school  since  1865,  became,  by  the 
operation  of  the  law,  the  state  superintendent. 
This  position  he  still  holds  (1876). 

School  System. — The  care  of  the  schools,  at 
present,  is  confided  to  a  state  board  of  education 
which  consists  of  the  governor,  the  principal  of 
the  state  normal  school,  and  four  persons  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor  with  the  consent  of  the 
senate.  These  four  persons  are  appointed  for 
two  years,  and  must  be  chosen  from  among  the 
presidents  and  examiners  of  the  county  boards, 
one  of  whom  must  be  a  resident  of  the  'astern 
shore.  The  members  of  the  board  are,  ex  officio, 
trustees  of  the  state  normal  school.  The  prin- 
cipal of  this  school  is  the  executive  officer  of  the 
board,  his  office  corresponding  to  that  of  state 
superintendent.  The  boards  of  county  school 
commissioners  consist  of  three,  or  five  members, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  county,  who  are  ap- 
pointed for  two  years  by  the  judges  of  the  cir- 
cuit courts.  They  elect  a  person,  not  of  their 
number.  to  act  as  secretary,  treasurer,  and  ex- 
aminer, and  when  necessary,  an  assistant  exam- 
iner in  the  larger  counties.  The  county  com- 
missioners fix  teachers'  salaries,  and  decide  what 
text-books  shall  be  used.  District  school  trustees, 
three  in  each  district,  are  annually  appointed  by 
the  county  commissioners.     They  have  the  more 


MARYLAND 


immediate  supervision  of  the  schools  in  their 
respective  districts,  subject  to  the  county  com- 
missioners and  the  state  board.  A  special  board 
of  trustees  is  appointed  by  the  county  board  for 
each  colored  school.  Countj  examiners  are  re- 
quired to  visit  tli<'  schools  under  their  jurisdiction 
at  least  twice  every  year,  and  to  make  quarterly 
reports  to  the  county  board.  Teachers  must  be 
graduates  of  the  normal  school,  01  have  a  certif- 
icate from  the  state  board,  or  the  county  exam- 
iner. Teachers'  institutes  must  be  held,  once  a 
year,  for  five  days,  in  each  county.  For  this 
purpose,  time  is  allowed  from  the  school  session, 
aula  portion  oi  the  traveling  expenses  is  paid. 
These  institutes  are  presided  over  by  the  county 
examiner,  or  by  the  principal  or  a  professor  of  the 
normal  school.  The  law,  also,  encourages  asso- 
ciations in  districts  and  counties. ami  state  teach- 


Ifi.i  females.  The  number  of  graduates  was  21. 
There  is  also  a  normal  school  for  the  education 
of  colored  teachers,  which  was  organized  in  1866. 


must  be  kept  open  ten  months  each  year,  th 
sessions,  of  five  hours  each,  to  be  held  five  day 
of  each  week.  The  school  age  is  from  11  to  21  fo 
whites,  and,  in  the  city  of  Baltimore,  from  6  t 
2(1  for  colored  persons.  For  the  latter,  separal 
schools  hue  been  established  in  each  election  di 


The  school  revenue  is  made  up  of  a  state 
school  tax.  a  five-school  luml.  an  academic  fund. 
and  a  county  tax.  The  state  tax  is  limited  to 
ten  cents  on  the  $100  :  the  county  tax  is  levied 
by  the  county  officers  at  a  rate  varying  from  ten 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
schools  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was  1,846, — in  the 
city  of  Baltimore.  125  ;  and  iu  the  counties, 
1,721.  The  other  principal  items  of  school  sta- 
tistics, for  lci7.">,  are  the  following  : 

143,003 

irj,:i!w 
69,259 


Receipts  ic\,  ept  city  of  Baltimore): 

State  school  tax $336,110.11 

Appropriations  to  col- 
ored  schools 81,170.16 

County  taxation 3iW.iii;'J.:Vi 

Other  sources  ....   ]:!."i.7.V7..M 


Total 

Expenditures  (counties): 

Teachers' salaries  .  .  .$i;n:i.(i::.-,.07 
Buildings,  repairs.ete.   1ii."i.17.',.i:."> 

Other  expenses 209,898.23 

Total 

Expenditures  iu  Hie  city  of  Baltimore 


7IC.'. 


i.82 


Total  in  the  state SI  ,641,047.77 

Normal  Instruction.. — A  state  normal  school 
was  established  in  Baltimore  in  1865,  to  which 
200  pupils.upon  the  recommendation  of  the  city 
or  county  commissioners,  are  admitted  free,  if  in- 
tending to  teach  in  the  state;  otherwise,  payment 
for  tuition  is  required.  An  appropriation  of 
8100,000  has  recently  been  made  by  the  legis- 
lature for  a  new  building,  which  is  now  in  proc- 
ess of  erection.  The  number  of  instructors,  in 
1874,  was  10;  number  of  pupils,  174, — 9  males, 


ICipal  Of  the  Mate 

amineris,  by  law. 
■ncy  to  substitute 
s  the 
"The 
annual 
i  Mary- 


Secondary    Instruction.-     The   provision   for 

thi-  purpo.-e.  1  iv  the  establishment  and  mainte- 
nance of  high  schools,  has  been  somewhat  re- 
tarded by  the  existence  of  the  old  academies  of 
the  Mate  which,  by  rec,  iving  from  the  state  an- 
nual appropriations  too  small  to  maintain  them 
in  a  ci. million  of  efficiency,  and  yet  too  large  to 
permit  of  their  extinction,  act  as  a  bar  to  prog- 
ress in  the  means  of  secondary  instruction.  The 
old  law  provides  that  each  academy  shall  edu- 
cate one  pupil  free  of  charge  foi  every  $100 
received  from  the  state.  This  was  intended  to 
encourage  the  academies,  and,  at  the  same  time. 
to  educate  a  few  of  the  most  deserving  poor. 
The  first  object  seems  not  to  have  been  attained, 
at  least  not  to  the  extent  expected;  while  the  sec- 
ond has  tailed  entirely,  on  account  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  public  schools.  Anotherresult  has 
been,  that  these  academies  have  become,  in  many 


in  others,  that  of  high  si 
cult  to  classify  them  in  I 
Male.  The  city  college  . 
cipal  Inch  school  of  the 
professors  and  ion  stude 


elementary  schools. 

s.  so  that  it  isdiffi- 

1 1  system  of  the 

Itiniorc  is  the  prin- 
e.     It  numbers  10 
Its  English  course, 
alone,  furnishes  a  good  commercial  education  ; 
while  the  full  course  is  an  ample  preparatory 

one  for  entrance  into  any  colleg •  university. 

Two  female  Inch  schools  are  also  located  in  Bal- 
timore, with  30  teachers,  and  an  attendance  of 

years  each,  and  give  instruction  iu  the  ordinary 

branches  of  a  g 1   English  education,  besides 

the  accomplishments  of  drawing  and  music. 
Many  other  academies  and  secondary  schools  ex- 
ist in  the  state  ;  but  the  reports  from  them  arc 
incomplete  or  entirely  wanting.  In  l>74.a.-far 
as  heard  from  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 
they  gave  employment  to  243  teachers,  and  had 
an  attendance  of  3,694  pupils.  There  are.  through- 
out the  state,  a  number  of  private  schools  and 
academies,  the  courses  of  study  in  which  are 
various,  furnishing  all  degrees  of  preparation, 
from  that  necessary  to  enter  commercial  life  to 
that  required  for  admission  to  college. 


546 


MARYLAND 


Denominational  anil  Parochial,  Schools. — 
Several  of  these  exist  in  the  state,  but  from  the 
amount  of  instruction  imparted,  they  are  more 
properly  classed  under  the  head  of  schools  for 

Superior  Instruction.  -  The  following  table 
contains  the  principal  institutions  of  this  grade. 


v\MK 


College   ..I   SI.  .lilllH'9.  - 
Frederick   ('..llr-a,-.  , 

".tolms  Hopkins  Univer 

Loyola  College 

"Ml.  St.  Mary's  College 


I'm  ilil-i.-k 
llaltlhlorc 

Baltimore 
Emniettsbnrg 
Ellicottcity 
I'.lh.ott  City 
Annapolis 
Chestertown 
Westminster 
odstoik  College '. .  Woodstock 


St.  Charles's  College 

St.  John's  College  

Washington  College 

Western  Maryland  College 


Location 


''"'''    "      n..t 


M     l.pis 
Noll  see. 


St     .In 


College 


is  the  usual  col 
scholarships  are 
senatorial  distric 

titled  to  rent  of  i 


reported,  in  1874,  11  pro- 
ui'l  8  graduates.  Its  course 
le  one  of  four  years.  Six 
ded  .it  this  college  for  each 

holders  of  which  are  en- 
anil  tuition  five;  and  board 


is  furnished  free  to  two  of  them  from  each  dis- 
trict, who  agree  in  return  to  teach  in  the  slate. 
after  graduation,  not  less  than  two  years.  For 
the  latter  purpose,  $10.00(1  of  the  S'J.,,ilO<)  annual- 
ly appropriated  by  the  state,  is  devoted.  The 
Western  Maryland  I  lollege  reported  l3professors 

and  131  students,  of  whom  61  were  females,  for 
whom  there  is  a  three  years'  course  of  study.  This 
college  also,  has  several  state  scholarships.  Wash- 
ington College  had  '1  professors,  27  students,  and 
:{  graduates.  It  supports  6  state  scholarships  as 
provided  by  the  act  of  1874.  Mt.  St.  Mary's 
college  had,  in  1873— 4, 13  professors,  and  L82 
students,     liesides  the  usual   collegiate  emirs,.,  it 


m  aaom 
ceived  n 

profess,, 

for  stui 
Woodsl 
sively  It 

ti 

spective 
to  be  co 
U.  S.  1 
58  instr 
Prof. 
Agricul 


led  only 
church. 

is  I'Xellt- 


reported  to  the 
They  numbered 


!■;: 


l-or, 


professions  of  medicine,  surgery,  etc.,  are  repre- 
sented by  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 

r.altimore.    the    Maryland    Dental    College,  'the 

Maryland  College  of   Pharmacy,  and  the  scl Is 

attached  to  the  Washington  I  niversity  and  the 

University  of  Maryland. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Institution  for  the 
Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was  opened  at 


Frederick,  in 

ore  of  all 


.had  II 


extends  over  seven  years,  and  comprises  the 
branches  usually  taught  in  the  public  schools, 

together  with  instruction  in  several  kinds  of 
manual  labor.  The  study  of  written  language 
receives  special  attention.  It  is  found  that  com- 
paratively few  of  the  pupils  remain  to  complete 
the  course.  The  whole  number  of  pupils  in- 
structed in  the  institution  since  its  opening  is 
146  ;  of  these  the  number  who  have  engaged  in 
teaching  in  similar  institutions,  is  very  small. — 
The  Institution  fur  the  Instruction  of  the  Blind 
at  Baltimore  was  organized  in  1853.  Pupils  be- 
tween the  ages  of  !)  and  is  are  received,  and 
may  be  educated  free,  upon  the  recommendation 
of    the   governor.      The  instruction   afforded   is 

that  of   a  common-scl I  course,   with   special 

instruction  in  vocal  and  instrumental  music. 
Such  branches  of  trade  or  manual  labor  also  are 
taught  as  are  specially  suited  to  the  condition  of 
the  blind.  The  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings, 
and  apparatus  is  estimated  at  $255,000.  The 
Maryland  Institution  for  Colored  Blind  and 
Deaf-Mutes  was  established  in  1872,  in  Balti- 
more. The  faculty  consists  of  -1  instructors. 
The  number  of  pupils  during  the  year  1874  was 
12,  —  5  males  and  7  females. — The  McDonough 
Institute  was  organized  in  1ST.'!  by  private  mu- 
nificence to  give  "instruction  in  the  Christian 
religion,  a  plain  English  education,  music,  and 
the  art  of  husbandly  or  farming  to  poor  boys 
of  good  character,  of  respectable  associations  in 
life,  residents  of  the  city  of  Baltimore."  It  has 
an  endowment  Fund  of'  $725,000,  with  which  it 


it,  and  furnishes  partial 
students  from  each  con- 
has  a  preparatory  and  a 
and    has  !>  professors    and 


Sulpiee,  bo 
in  theology 
of  the  other 
part  of  the  University  of  Maryland,  while   the  ,  exercises   consisting   of   debates   upon    subject 


bes 

colic 


the  theological  depi 

A  scl I   of   law  forms  a 


tor  colored  girls  by  the  St,  Francis  Academy  of 
Baltimore.  It  was  established  by  the  Oblate 
Sisters  of  Providence,  a  religious  order  founded 


by  means  of  a  library,  a  gallery  of  paintings,  and 
yearly  courses  of  concerts  and  lectures. 

Teachers'  Associations. — The  Maryland  State 

School-Teachers  Association  hasl n  in  existence 

about  ten  years.  It  holds  an  annual  convention 
at    some    convenient    point    in    the   state    foitlie 

discu  ion  of  such  questions  as  pertain  to  the 
welfare  of  the  teachers,  or  the  cause  of  educa- 
tion.     Day  ami  evening  meetings  are   held,  the 


MARYYILLE   COLLEGE 

affecting  the  schools,  recommendations  of  im- 
proved methods  of  instruction,  and  listening  to 
papers  previously  prepared  by  members  desig- 
nated fur  the  purpose,  or  to  casual  addresses  by 
distill  'wished  educators  from  other  states. 

MARYVILLE  COLLEGE,  at  Maryville. 
Tenn.,  founded  in  L819,  is  under  Presbyterian 
control.  The  grounds  comprise  65  acres,  beauti- 
fully situated,  and  contain  three  new  buildings, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  $50,000.  The  college  has  a 
library  of  3,000  volumes,  and  valuable  chemical 
and  philosophical  apparatus.  It  comprises  a  col- 
legiate, a  preparatory,  a  normal,  a  ladies',  and 
an  English  course.  In  L875 — ii.  there  were  -  in 
structors  and  137  students,  of  whom  27  were  of 
collegiate  grade.  The  Rev.  P.  M.  Bartlett,  D.  D., 
is  (1876)  the  president. 

MASON',  Lowell,  an  American  composer 
and  teacher  of  music,  born  in  Medtield.  Mass  . 
January  8.,  L792  ;  died  in  Orange.  \.  •!..  August 
11.,  1872.  lie  manifested,  at  a  very  early  age. 
a  fondness  for  music,  and  adopted  it  as  his  pro- 
fession, teaching  it  successfully  and  organizing 
choirs  and  musical  associations.  In  L821,  he 
made  his  first  effort  at  musical  publication,  the 
Boston  Handel  and  Haydn  C  <  of  Ghw  I 

Music.  In  1827,  at  the  instance  of  several  gen- 
tlemen interested  in  the  improvement  of  church 
music,  he  removed  from  Savannah  to  Boston, 
where  he  devoted  himself  more  particularly  to 
the  training  of  children's  voices.  His  efforts 
wera  highly  successful,  resulting  in  a  general 
awakening,  to  the  value  of  music,  of  the  com- 
munity in  which  he  dwelt,  and  paved  the  way 
for  its  introduction  into  the  school  system  of  the 
city  and  state,  and  to  the  formati  in  of  the  Boston 
Academy  of  .Music.  Mr.  Mason  ha  I  Keen  success- 
ful formanyyears  agapractii  il  teacher  of  vocal 
and  instrumental  music,  by  the  use  of  what  is 
now  known  as  the  arbitrary  or  text-book  method, 
when,  about  1827,  at  the  instance  of  his  friend 
Mr.  W'ooilbridge.  lie  turned  his  attention  to  the 
method  of  Pestalozzi.  For  a  long  time,  he  re- 
sisted its  conclusions,  his  own  method,  pursued 
with  success  for  many  years,  appearing  to  furnish 
a  practical  refutation  of  its  utility.  He  consented, 
at  last,  however,  to  make  the  experiment  of 
publicly  teaching  a  class  according  to  the  new 
method;  and  the  success  attending  it  was  so 
great,  that  he  frankly  accepted  the  result  as 
conclusive,  and  always  afterwards  pursued  it, 
continuing  the  practice  for  more  than  thirty 
years.  A  lecture  given  in  1830,  by  Mr.  Wood- 
bridge,  before  the  American  Institute  of  Instruc- 
tion, illustrated  by  a  class  of  Mr.  Mason's  pupils, 
called  renewed  attention  to  the  subject  of  music, 
and  led  to  the  formation  of  large  classes  among 
the  children  of  the  public  schools,  in  which  the 
study  of  music  has  now  become  a  striking  fea- 
ture, and  from  which  it  has  spread  throughout  the 
state  and  the  Union.  In  1837,  Mr.  Mason  visited 
Europe,  where  he  examined  the  different  systems 
of  musical  instruction,  with  a  view  to  improve- 
ment. The  result  of  his  observations,  however,  was 
to  confirm  him  in  his  opinion  of  the  wisdom  of 
the  method  of  Pestalozzi ;  and,  on  his  return,  he 


MASSACHUSETTS 


547 


applied  the  method  more  carefully  and  rigorously 
than  before,  with  the  most  satisfactory  results. 
In  L855,  the  University  of  New  York  conferred 
on  Mr.  Mason  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Music. 

MASSACHUSETTS,  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the  American  Union,  having 
an  area  of  7. Mill  sip  m.  and  a  population,  accord- 
ing to  the  census  of  1870.  of  1 .457.3."il,  of  whom 
13,947  were  colored.  Though  ranking,  accord- 
ing to  population,  as  the  7th  state  in  the  I  uion, 
and  in  size  as  the  35th,  its  influence  has  always 
been  very  great  in  every  thing  that  pertains  to 
education,   literature,  and  general  improvement. 

Educational  History.  —  'I  his  topic  will  be 
treated  under  the  three  following  heads  :  i  i  i  'I  he 
establishment  ot  sc  hools  :  1 1 1 )  'J  he  mode  of  main- 
taining them ;  (111)  The  mode  of  supervising 
them. 

I.  As  far  back  as  1C35,  the  people  of  Boston 
expressed  by  vote  their  appreciation  of  the  need 
of  a  school,  and  requested  "Brother  Philemon 
Purmont  to  become  si  hool-master  for  the  teach- 
ing and  nurturing  of  children."  The  following 
year,  a  small  subscription  was  made  by  some  of 


colledge  whereof  £200  to  bee  paid  thei,e\i  ware. 
and  £200  when  the  worke  is  finished,  and  the 
next  court  to  a]. point  wluarc.and  what  building." 
'I  he  next  year  the  court  directed  that  the  college 
should  be  established  at  Newtown.  'J  lie  first 
educational  ordinance  of  the  colony  is  dated  in 
1642.  By  it.  the  selectmen  of  every  town  are 
enjoined  to  have  a  •■vigilant  eye  over  their  breth- 
ren and  neighbors, to  see.  first. that  none  of  them 
shall  suffer  so  much  barbarism  in  any  of  their 
families  as  not  to  endeavor  to  teach,  by  them- 
selves or  others,  their  children  and  apprentices  so 
much  learning  as  may  enable  them  perfectly  to 
read  the  English  tongue,  and  knowledge  ,,t  1 1  n  - 
eapital  laws,  upon  penalty  ot  twenty  shillings 
therein."  Bythe  lawof  1647, it  wasordi  n  d  bj  the 
court,  that  every  township  of  fifty  householders 
should  appoint  one  of  their  number  to  teach  all 
children  that  might  be  sent  to  him  to  read  and 
write,  the  wages  of  such  teacher  to  be  paid  either 
by  the  parents  or  guardians  of  the  children  sent, 
or  by  the  inhabitants  in  general  :  the  penalty  at- 
taching to  the  disregard  of  this  ordinance  for 
one  year  to  be  £10.  It  was  also  ordered  that 
every  town  of  one  hundred  families  should 
maintain,  in  addition  to  its  common  school,  a 
grammar  school  for  the  fitting  of  pupils  to  enter 
the  university.  In  lfi.70.  Ezekiel  I  heever  ,  ame 
to  reside  in  Ipswich,  taking  charge  of  the  gram- 
mar school  there.  Iii  L661,  lie  ren 
Charlestown,  and  became  principal  of  the  Town 
Free  School,  which  position  he  filled  till  1(170, 
when  he  removed  to  Boston,  where  he  took 
charge  of  the  first  school  founded  in  the  state, 
continuing  his  labors  there  thirty-eight  years. 
From  lOoO,  the  time  of  his  teaching  in  the 
Ipswich  school,  which  he  made  •■famous  in  all 
the   country,"    down  to    1708,   he   contributed 


548 


MASSACHUSETTS 


powerfully  to  the  fame  of  Massachusetts  as  an 
educational  renter,  and  encouraged,  more  than 
any  other  man,  that  love  of  learning,  the  prac- 
tical activity  in  behalf  of  which  lias  always  been 
a  characteristic  of  the  state.  (See  Chebver.) 
Further  enactments  were  made,  from  time  to 
time,  as  required  by  the  wants  of  the  growing 
colony.  'Thus,  in  1683,all  towns  of  five  hundred 
families  where  required  to  maintain  two  gram- 
mar  schools  and   two  writing  schools;  and  any 

required  t,,'~pav  al  iirst  flo'iind  afterwards  {211 
to  the  nearest  school  kept  in  compliance  with  the 

substantially  were  kept  in  force.  Thee stitu- 
tion  of  17*0  made  special  mention  of  the  impor- 
tance of  education  ;  and  after  the  revolution, 
when  new  townships  were  created,  a  lot  was  re- 
served in  each  for  a  school,  in  1789,  a  general 
act  of  the  legislature  directed  that,  in  every 
town,  schools  should  In-  maintained  in  which 
children  should  lie  taught  to  read  and  write,  and 
to  receive  instruction  in  the  •■  English  language, 
arithmetic,  orthography,  and  decent  behavior." 
It  was  further  directed  that  towns  should  be 
divided  into  scl I  districts  which  were  after- 
wards erected  into  corporations,  with  power  to 
sue  and  be  sued,  and  to  hold  property  for  the 
use  of  the  schools;  that  towns  of  200  families, 
instead  of  100,  as  before  enacted,  should  consti- 
tute the  basis  for  the  maintenance  of  grammar 
.schools  ;  that  the  teacher  should  have  a  c  i  i  in.  al 
of  good  moral  character;  and,  lastly,  that  pupils 
should  be  permitted  to  pass  from  the  common 
school  to  the  grammar  school  after  a  certain  pro- 
ficiency had  been  attained.  For  the  violation  of 
this  law.  penalties  in  money  were  imposed, gradu- 
ated according  to  the  size  of  the  towns  dii-obcy- 
ing.  In  compliance  with  this  law,  the  town  of 
Dedham  was.  in  L818,  indicted,  tried,  and  con- 
victed for  neglecting  for  a  year  to  keep  and  sup- 
port a  grammar  school  for  the  instruction  of 
children  in  the  Wreck.  Latin,  and  English  lan- 
guages. This  was  the  first  law  in  which  women 
were  recognized  in  Massachusetts  as  teachers 
In  I*'-!  I,  the  law  was  mollified  somewhat  in  favor 
of  towns  having  a  population  of  less  than  5,000, 
the  maintenance  of  a  grammar  school  being 
waived  in  this  case,  and  a  common  school  being 
accepted  in  its  stead,  if  the  inhabitants  so  de- 
sired. In  1832,  incomplete  returns  showed  that 
the  sum  of  SI. :k  per  pupil  was  the  average  annual 
expenditure:  and.  in  Is.'!  I,  it  was  ascertained  that 
five-Sixths  of  the  cdueal  lie    children  of    the    state 

received  instruction  in  the  public  schools,  the  re- 
mainder attending  private  schools.  In  this  year 
(1834)  a  law  was  passed  prohibiting  children 
tinder  I  .">  years  of  age  from  working  in  factories, 
unless  they  had  attended  school  for  at  least  three 
months  during  the  preceding  year.  In  1*37. 
the  state  board  of  education  was  created,  and 
Horace  Mann  was  elected  itSSei  n  tan    June 29 

1837).     It  was  made  the  duty  of  th i.uv. 

"to  collect  information  of  the  actual  condition 
and  efficiency  of  the  common  schools  and  other 
means  of  popular  education ;  and  to  diffuse  its 


widely  as  possible,  throughout  every  part  of  the 
commonwealth,  information  of  the  most  ap- 
proved and  successful  methods  of  arranging  the 
studies  and  conducting  the  education  of  the 
young."  I  p  to  that  time,  though  much  had  been 
done,  throughout  the  state,  for  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation, the  gnat  lack  of  uniformity,  in  system 
and  action,  had  deprived  the  results  of  much  of 
their  practical  usefulness.  This  uniformity  the 
board  set  itself  vigorously  to  work  to  supply. 
.Mr.   Ma,,,,.,,,    particular.   iaWcd    lone  and  ca'r- 


tice  ol  ms  profession,  ami  devoting  Imnsefl  tor 
twelve  years  to  the  work.  (See  Mann,  Horace.) 
The  result  of  the  labors  of  the  board  was  a  uni- 
form common-school  system,  which  was  adopted 
by  the  legislature,  and  which  has  continued  in 
force  to  the  present  time.  In  1*39.  two  normal 
schools  were  opened,  —  one  at  Lexington,  and 
the  other  at  I'.arre.  These  were  first  designated 
state  normal  schools  in  1842;  and  their  number 


compulsory  in  this  state  was  passed;  being  ren- 
dered necessary,  in  the  opinion  of  the  legislature, 
by  the  fact  that  the  number  of  persons  in  the 
state  who  were  unable  to  read  and  write  was 
rapidly  increasing,  the  presence  of  which  class 
had  always  been  regarded  with  distrust.  Previ- 
ous to  I  819,  accurate  information  in  regard  to 
the  schools  had  not  been  obtainable;  but.  in 
(hat  year,  a  law  was  passed,  specifying  that  the 
income  of  the  permanent  school  fund  should  be 
apportioned  among  those  cities,  towns,  and  dis- 
tricts only  which  had  raised  by  taxation  the  sum 
of  §1.50  for  the  education  of  each  child  between 
the  ages  of  5  and  15  years.  By  thus  making 
the  amount  raised  for  each  child  the  unit  of  ap- 
portionment, definite  statistical  information  as 
well  as  accuracy  of  appropriation,  was  insured. 
Various  changes  and  amendments  of  minor  im- 
portance were  made  in  the  school  laws  from  this 
time  to  1857,  when  the  state  constitution  itself 
was  altered  in  the  interest  of  free  non-sectarian 
education.  By  this  amendment  it  is  provided, 
that  "  no  person  shall  have  the  right  to  vote,  or 
shall  lie  eligible  to  office  under  the  constitution 
of  this  commonwealth,  who  shall  not  be  able  to 
read  the  constitution  in  the  English  language, 
and  write  his  name,  unless  prevented  by  physical 
disability  from  complying  with  the  requirement, 
and  unless  he  already  enjoys  the  right  to  vote. 
All  moneys  raised  by  taxation  in  towns  and 
cities  for  the  support  of  public  schools,  and  all 
in ys  appropriated  by  the  state  for  the  sup- 
port of  common  schools,  shall  never  be  appropri- 
ated to  any  religious  sect  for  the  maintenance 
exclusively  of  its  own  schools."  In  1869,  upon 
petition  of  several  citizens  of  the  state,  an  act 
was  pa-sed  aiuendine  a  previous  act  so  as  to  in- 
clude drawing  in  the  common-school  course,  and 
providing,  in  addition,  that  every  city  and  town 
having  more  than  10,000  inhabitants,  should 
make  annual  provision  for  giving  free  instrue- 


MASSACHUSETTS 


tion   in  industrial  and  mechanical  drawing  to 
pupils  over  fifteen  years  of  age. 

II.     There    have   been    live   Sources  of  income 

for  the  support  of  scl Is  and  colleges:  (1)  ln- 

dividual  guts;    2)  Tuition   fees,  or  rate  bills; 
(31  Taxes  :     1 1  The  in.  ome  of  permanent  funds; 


(l)In 


\l.i 


'he  first  mention  made 
of  a  fund  for  the  es- 
s  that  of  a  gift,  in  the 
Klein  1636,  by  several 
ii,  for  the  school,  of 


the 


people  nt    the  towns  all.l  selln 

any  substantial  aid  trom  the 
the  establishment  of  the  .-.-1 
less  aid  has  been  furnished  b; 

support  of  tl .minion    scl 

period  from  L835  to  I  -  15,  thi 


who  bequeathed  6779  and  a  library  of  300  vol- 
umes to  the  college  already  founded  at  New- 
town.    A  year  after,  the   name  of  Harvard  Col- 

of  Newtown  was  changed  to  Cambridge,  in  com- 
pliment to  the  English  university  of  that  name. 

of  which  some  of  the  settlers  were  graduates! 
Since  that  time,  the  history  of  e  lucation  in  the 
state,  particularly  since  the  Revolution,  is 
adorned  by  continual  gifts  made  by  enlightened 

citizens   for  the  establishment,  maintena or 

improvement  of  schools  or  colleges.  <  Ihief  among 
these  benefactors  may  be  mentioned,  Samuel 
Appleton.  John  Lowell,  jr..  Amos  Lawrence, 
Abbott  Lawrence.  Nathaniel  Thayer,  Edmund 
Dwight,  and  George  Peabody.  Probably  no 
state  has  produced  a  larger  number  of  pecuniary 
contributors  to  the  cause  of  education. 

(2)  Tuition  Fees.  -Theearliest  met  hod  employed 
for  the  payment  of  the  teacher  was  that  of  a  fee 
charged  to  each  parent  or  guardian,  according  to 
the  number  of  children  sent.  This  method  con- 
tinued in  force  for  a  century  and  a  half  after 
the  first  school  law  was  passd.  Even  after 
towns  were  compelled  by  law  to  maintain  a 
free  school  by  a  special  yearly  tax,  the  original 
method  was  continued  in  many  country  districts 
down  to  a  very  late  day.  These  fees  took 
different  tonus  according  to  locality,  in  the  cities 
and  large  towns  being  usually  in  money  ;  in  the 
country,  consisting  of  board  for  the  teacher,  con- 
tributions of  fuel.  etc. 

(3)  Taxes. — The  first  educational  law  passed 
by  the  colony  —  that  of  1  (",47 — provided  that 
the  teacher  should  be  paid  either  by  the  parents 
or  masters  of  the  children  taught,  or  by  "the 
inhabitants  in  general,  by  way  of  supply,  as  the 
major  part  of  those  that  order  the  prudentials 
of  the  town  shall  appoint ;  provided  that  those 
that  send  their  children  be  not  oppressed  by 
paying  much  more  than  they  can  have  them 
taught  -for  in  other  towns."  Through '  every 
period  of  the  subsequent  history  of  this  state. 
taxation  has  been,  to  a  considerable  extent,  re- 
sorted to  as  a  means  of  supporting  schools.  As 
already  stated,  the  towns  wen.  obliged,  under 
stringent  penalties,  to  support  schools":  and  this, 
of  course,  could  only  be  effected  by  paving  taxes. 
In  1 627,  the  legislature,  in  the  school  law  of  that 
year,  authorized  the  towns  to  raise  as  much 
m..iie\  as  they  might  deem  necessary  for  school 
purposes.    The  method  of  raising  money  for  the 


d  from  time 
ne,|   priorto 


expended  for  the  purpose  of  instruction  in  each 
town;  but,  in  1S4.">,  more  than  $3  for  every 
child  of  that  age  was  actually  raised  by  tax  in 
53  towns,  and  more  than  $2  in  1 'JO  towns,  the 
average  being  $2.99. 

(I)   The  Income  of  Permanent  Funds.     The 
first  trace  of  any  thing  like  a  permanent  fund 


Of  a  pel 
the  laws 
should  o 


taut  step  was  taken 
system  of  the  state 
the  establishment 

.  Chapter  L69  of 
led  that  this  fund 
in  the  treasury  de- 


lands  i 
and   all 


itarv  services  and 
This  fund  was  not 

common  sei 1st 

v  in- more  than  it 
ose.  This  created 
nanent  fund  of 
from  that  amount. 
At  the  close  of 
the  fund  was  up- 
I   of   L853,   it  had 


in   !!..st 


I  si 


il lose  oi   1-7  1.  82,117,732.82.     By  an  act  of 

the  legislature,  passed  in  1-71.  one  half  of  the 
income  derived  from  this  fund  is  applied  to  the 
support  of  the  common  schools,  the  other  half 
being  used  for  the  maintenance  of  normal 
schools,  teachers'  institutes,  repairs  of  school 
buildings,  the  salary  of  the  secretary  of  the  board 
of  education,  printing,  etc.  Any  surplus,  re- 
maining after  the  payment  of  expenses,  is  to  be 


550 


MASSACHUSETTS 


added  to  the  fund.  For  some  time,  the  principal 
of  the  fund  was  increased  by  these  unexpected 
balances,  but  at  present  this  is  not  the  case.  By 
a  liberal  interpretation  of  the  law,  various  sums 
of  money  were,  from  time  to  time,  drawn  from 
the  income  of  the  permanent  fund  for  the  pur- 
pose of  aiding,  in  an  indirect,  way  new  normal 
schools,  till  it  was  discovered  that  the  income 
was  becoming  insufficient,  and  the  half  devoted 
to  the  support  of  common  schools  was  being  en- 
croached upon.  This  was  due  to  the  increase  in 
educational  wants  produced  by  the  growth  of 
the  state  iu  population,  and  has  been  remedied, 
from  year  to  year,  by  special  acts  of  the  legis- 
lature. 

(5)  SpecialAppropriaiions. — The  first  special 
appropriation  made  for  educational  purposes  was 
that  of  L636,  by  which  £400  was  devoted  to  the 
founding  of  a  school  or  college.  The  appropria- 
tions from  that  time  to  the  present  have  been 
many,  and  for  various  purposes,  and  have  in- 
creased rapidly  in  number  with  the  growth  of  the 
state,  being  most  frequent  as  we  approach  the 
present  time.  Thus,  in  L836,  the  foundation  of 
school  libraries  was  made  secure  by  an  act  of 
the  legislature  which  authorized  the  expenditure, 
in  each  school  district,  of  150  the  first  year,  and 
$10  each  succeeding  year,  tor  their  establishment 
ami  maintenance.  In  Ix.'f".  SIO.IMHI  was  appro- 
priated for  the  establishment  of  two  normal 
schools,  a  like  sum  having  been   contributed   for 

the    - ■   purpose    by   Hon.   Edmund   Dwight  : 

and.  in  L842,  $6,000  was  appropriate!  annually 
for  three  years  to  continue  these  schools.  In 
1 873,  a  special  act  of  the  legislature  set  apart  the 
sum  of  $7,500  to  establish  a  state  normal  art- 
school  in  Boston. 

III.  The  supervision  of  the  common  schools  of 
the  state  appears  to  have  been  committed  to  the 
selectmen  at  the  first,  afterward  (in  lx'2(i)  to  school 
committees  appointed  in  the  different  towns.  In 
1837,  the  reorganization  of  the  public-school 
system  was  undertaken  by  the  board  of  educa- 
tion. The  secretary  of  the  board,  Horace  Mann, 
in  his  first  annual  report,  makes  special  mention 
of  tin-  unsatisfactory  manner  in  which  the  schools 
were  supervised,  hiving  great  stress  upon  the 
need  of  properly  qualified  school  committee- 
men. "  They  occupy,"  says  the  report.  "  a  con- 
trolling position  itL  relation  to  our  common 
schools.  They  are  the  administrators  of  the 
system  ;  and.  in  proportion  to  the  fidelity  and 
intelligence  exercised  by  them,  the  system  will 
flourish  or  decline."    t  >ne  of  the  most  important 

duties  imposed  upon  the  scl 1-committees  (by 

the  law  of  1826)  was  to  obtain  evidence  of  the 

- 1  moral    character  of  all    instructors,  and    to 

ascertain  their  "literary  qualifications   and   ca 

parity  for  the  government  of  scl Is."     Tie' law 

expressly  req I  evert  teacher  to  obtain,  from 


Sell.. 


of  his  qualifications  befoi 
The  laxity  with  which  thi 
enforced    received    severe 

Mr.   Mann,  in  the  report  al 

employment  by  the  board  of  education  of  state 


tg  the  scl I. 

the  law  was 
version  from 
rred  to.     The 


uijeuts  constitutes  a  peculiar  feature  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts system.  Their  duties,  as  denned  by 
the  general  statutes  of  the  state,  are  "  to  visit 
the  several  towns  and  cities,  for  the  purpose  of 
inquiring  into  the  conditions  of  the  schools,  con- 
ferring with  the  teachers  and  committees,  and 
lecturing  upon  subjects  connected  with  educa- 
eation."'  In  L850,  the  legislature  appropriated 
$2,000  to  the  board  for  this  purpose;  and  ac- 
cordingly, six  agents  were  employed  to  visit  the 
towns  in  the  early  summer.  Among  these,  were 
X.  P.  Hanks,  and  S.  S.  Greene,  the  latter  after- 
wards of  Brown  University.  The  experiment, 
was  eminently  successful;  and  accordingly,  the 
legislature,  in  L85] .  made  a  similar  appropriation 
for  two  years,  which  was  renewed  in  1853,  L855, 
and  L857,  with  the  authority  in  the  last  instance 
to  expend  a  sum  not  exceeding  $4,000  in  one 
year.    15.  (i.  Xorthrup  was  sole  agent  from  I860 

to  1867,  when  he  was  suet led   by  Abner  B. 

Phipps,  who  has  continued  in  office  till  the  pres- 
ent time  (1876).  The  legislature  of  1871  made 
a  special  appropriation  of  $10,000,  for  this 
purpose,  payable  from  the  "moiety  of  the  in- 
come of   the  scl 1    fund  appropriated   to   ovn- 


qf  art-education,  to  which  position  Walter 
Smith  was  appointed  in  1871.  In  1x75.  the 
legislature  made  an  appropriation,  for  the  same 
purpose,  of  $14,000,  payable  from  the  state  treas- 
ury, and  thus  enabled  the  board  to  increase  the 
number  of  its  agents. —  The  following  named 
persons  have  filled  the  office  of  secretary  of  the 
board,  of  education  since  its  creation  in  1837: 
Horace  Mann,  until  1848;  Barnas  Sears,  from 
L848  to  1855;  George  S.  Boutwell,  from  1855 
to  L861  ;  Joseph  White,  from  1861  to  the  pres- 
ent time  (1876).-  Teachers' Institutes  were  first 
organized  in  1x45:  and.  in  1846,  the  legislature 
for  the  first  time  made  an  appropriation  for 
their  support. 

In  1 850,  the  first  truant  law  was  passed,  which 
simply  authorized  the  towns  to  make  needful 
by-laws  concerning  habitual  truants,  and  re- 
quired the  towns  that  availed  themselves  of  the 
act  to  appoint  truant  officers  em  powered  to  carry 


enact  by-laws  concerning  truants:  and  such  is 
the  law 'at  present.  An  amendment,  made  in 
I  873,  requires  the  school  committee,  instead  of 
the  town  or  city,  to  appoint  the  truant  officers, 
and  fix  their  compensation.  This  is  the  duty  of 
the  committee  independently  of  the  action  of 
the  town  ;  since  there  arc  other  laws  besides 
those  relating  to  truancy  which   only  the   truant 

System,  The  control  of  the  educa- 
tional interests  of  the  state  rests  immediately 
with  the  legislature.  All  information,  however, 
iii  regard  to  the  schools,  colleges  and  other  in- 
stitutions of  learning,  on  which  its  action  is 
based,  is  derived  from  the  annual  report  of  the 
state  board  of  education,  which  is  composed  of 
the   governor,   lieutenant    governor,   and    eight 


MASSACHUSETTS 


persons  appointed  by  the  governor,  who  hold 
office  for  eight  years,  one  retiring  each  year.  To 
this  board  is  entrusted  the  care  and  management 


Educational  Condition.  -  The  number  of 
elementary  public  schools  in  the  state,  in  L875, 
was  5,551  :  the  number  of  high  schools,  208  ;  of 


id   value,  as  returned   by  comi 
houses  and  grounds,  was  $20,f 
■  amount  of  money  received   fa 
if  the  schools  was  as  follows: 
e  "i  stati  school  fund.      $88,613.45 


any  multi| 
intend  the 
the  school 


above  eiiuiiicr.it"  1.  Tie-  >  il  nv  ■ 
tendent  is  axed  by  the  school  c 
by  appointing  this  officer  relinquish  all 
to  compensation  for  their  own  services. - 
dential  committees  are  elected  in  some 
towns,  consisting  of  one  person  in  each  .1 
who  must    be   an    actual    resident.     The 

those  of  the  town  school  committee.  I 
and  guardians  are  required,  un  ler  a  pen 
$2  I,  to  send  th  sir  chil  ben  between  8  a 
years  of  age.  to  school  at  Last  20  week 
year,  six  weeks  of  which  must  be  consei 
The  only  exemptions  are  cases  of  p 
physical  or  ment  il  incapacity  on  the  part 
child,  or  when  the  child  is  otherwise   pr 


e,  who 
claim 
-Pru- 
of  the 
istrict, 


$4,650,260.99 

Expenditures  mi  public  schools  alone,  ex- 
clusive of  the  repairing  and  erecting  of 
school-houses  and   the  cost   •  >!  school 

books $4,668,472.09 

AniMiiet  expended   in    1*74  for  erecting 

school-houses $1,148,133.65 

Average  wages  per  month,  male  teachers.        fs*.:;7 

female  teachers $:«.:« 

The  other  most    important  items  of  the  school 
statistics  for  the  year  1874 — 5  are  the  follow- 
ing :— 
Xuinlier  of  children  „i  -chool  age 2H4.7US 


■  public 

302,118 

iar  

216,861 

illed.... 

2,383 

died 

32,986 

,169 

Number  over  15  years  of  age  euro 

Number  of  teachers,  males 

"        '        "  females 8.047 

Total 9,216 

Average  length  of  school  term         s  mo.  17  days 

Normal  Instruction. — 'I  here  are  five  normal 
schools   in    the    state,  exclusive  of   the    Normal 


they  reside.— The  school  age  is  betweei 
15  years;  ami  the  public  schools  of  the  si 
free  to  alt  persons  of  school  age,  without 
to  religion,  race,  or  color. —  The  daily  i 
of  a  portion  of  the  Scriptures  is  requi 
every  school.  -The  school  fund,  which. 
1st  of  January  L876, amounted  to«2  1)65, 

is   in   charge  of    a  board    ol    C in.     ii  i 

sistingof  the  secretary  of  the  board  of  e  hi 
and  the  treasurer  ami  receiver-general.  <  »i 
ety  of  it  is  distributed  among  the  towns 
portion  to  the  school  population  of  each,) 
other  is  applied  to  the  support  of  normal  > 
teachers'  institutes,  etc.  A  special  fund 
vided  for  the  education  of  Indians. 


ber  of  pupils  in  at 


was  opened 


I Is, 

s  pro- 


of graduates,  lib— '.)  males,  ami  to  females 
normal  school  at  Westfield  is  for  both 
The  number  of  students  in  attendana 
winter  term.  1.'!."), — 11  males,  124  females; 
mer  term,  126, — 11  males,  11.")  females; 
ber  of  graduates,  42, — 3  males,  39  females 


lec 1 

imber 
.   The 


552 


MASSACHUSETTS 


normal  school  at  Worcester  was  established  in 
1874  The  number  in  attendance  the  first  year  was 
93.  The  intention  is  to  make  these  schools  com- 
plete, in  all  aids  to  a  higher  education,  with  spe- 
cial reference,  however,  to  the  career  of  the  grad- 
uates as  teachers.  For  this  purpose,  libraries, 
laboratories,  cabinets  of  specimens,  and  courses  of 
lectures  have  been  provided;  and  each  of  the 
schools  is  visited  annually  by  a  board  of  visitors 
who  report  to  the  secretary  of  the  state  board 
of  education.  —  The  Normal  Art-School,  at 
Boston,  was  established  in  1873,  and  grew  out 
of  the  necessities  first  made  apparent  by  the 
attempt  to  carry  out  the  law  of  1870,  which 
provided  that  every  city  or  town  containing 
more  than  10,000  inhabitants  should  establish 
and  maintain  a  school  for  the  teaching  of 
mechanical  and  industrial  drawing.  This  law 
was  inoperative  from  the  want  of  competent 
teachers  to  conduct  such  schools;  and  with  the 
view  to  supply  this  want,  the  Normal  Art-School 
was  founded.  The  number  of  pupils  the  first 
year  was  133.  This  number  was  increased,  in 
the  second  year,  to  239, — -1  m.dcs.  and  L55  fe- 
males.    The  establishment  of  tliis  bcI I  was  in 

answer  to  a  petition  made  to  the  legislature  by 
the  manufacturing  and  mechanical  interest.-  ,,t 
Boston,  in  which  it  was  represented  that  those 
interests  were  suffering  from  a  lack  of  skilled 
employes.  The  ease  with  which  graduates  from 
this  institution  have  found  employment  since 
their  graduation  is  considered  ample  proof  of 
the  wisdom  shown  i„  it-  establishment.— Teach- 
ers' Institutes  were  Bra)  organized  in  1845.  From 
this  time  to  1874  inclusive,  242  institutes  have 
been  held,  averaging  8  annually.  The  annual 
average  attendance  lias  been  1,060,  or  L3J3  at 
each  institute.  The  average  cost  of  each  institute 
is  about  $3,000;   average  cost  of  each  teacher 

attending,  between  S'_'  and  S3:   total  ; lal  c.M 

to  the  state  for  eight  institutes,  about  $2,550. 

Evening  Schools.— In  addition  to  the  scl Is 

for  primary  instruction  enumerated,  there  are 
exeniiie.  schools  ill  many  of  the  large  towns  and 
cities,  the  opportunities  afforded  by  which  are 
eagerly  sought  by  many  whose  early  educational 
privileges  have  been  neglected.  The  reports  an- 
nually made  in  regard  to  them  show  a  larger 
attendance  of  adults  than  in  other  schools,  ami 
of  pupils  of  both  sexes,  drawn  principally  from 
the  mechanical  and  laboring  classes.  Their  sessions 
being  short,  and  held  generally  during  only  the 
winter  months,  and  the  attendance  being  fluct- 
uating, the  results  are,  of  course,  not  as  satis- 
factory as  in  other  schools.  The  instruction  im- 
parted  also  is  necessarily  elementary  in  character. 


had  failed  to  comply  with  the  law,  while  40  such, 
schools  were  maintained  in  3K  towns  not  required 
to  do  so.  The  high  schools  are  of  various  degrees 
of  excellence,  ranging  from  about  that  of  the 
ordinary  grammar  school  to  that  of  the  best  pre- 
paratory school  for  admission  to  college.  It  is 
estimated  that  about  one  third  are  of  this  latter 
class,  stui  lents  passing  from  them  into  college  with- 
out difficulty.  The  former  class  numbers  also 
about  one  third,  their  condition  of  comparative  in- 
feriority being  attributed  to  the  want  of  teachers 
and  apparatus,  and  to  the  mixed  character  of 
the  pupils.  rl  he  remaining,  or  middle  third, 
furnish  their  pupils  with  only  a  tolerable  prepa- 
ration for  college,  but  with  a  good  English  edu- 
cation. The  state  includes  among  its  academics 
and  private  schools,  a  very  large  number  of  in- 
stitutions for  the  education  of  girls.  All  these 
various  schools  draw  their  pupils  largely  from 
other  states,  the  high  reputation  of  .Massachusetts 
in  respect  to  education  securing  for  them  an  ex- 
tensive patronage. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — Of 
schools  of  this  class,  a  comparatively  small  num- 
ber is  reported,  the  intellectual  instruction  usu- 
ally given  in  such  schools  being  furnished  by  the 
many  non-sectarian  or  public  schools  of  the  state. 
Superior  Instruction.  —  The  institutions  in 
the  state  for  supplying  a  higher  education  are 
numerous,  and  have  always  sustained  an  envi- 
able reputation.  Their  number  and  efficiency, 
and  the  completeness  of  their  outfit  in  all  the 
means  necessary  for  furnishing  a  liberal  edu- 
j  cation,  have  long  rendered  them  the  objects  of 
!  just  state  pride.  They  have  been,  also,  the  re- 
cipients of  a  greater  amount  of  private  munifi- 
cence, proportionally,  than  those  of  any  other 
,-t ate.  Special  mention  is  made  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  these  institutions  in  other  parts  of 
this  volume.     Their  names  arc  given  below  : 


NAME 

Location 

When 

ed 

KuliLiious 

Ainli-  rsf  College 

r.i.>t.ai  College 

Huston  Cniwisity.. 
Coll. of  the  H-l,  n..- 

Harvard  College 

Tnt'ts  College 

Williams  College 

Amherst 

Boston 

Worcester 
Cambridge 
Medford 
Willianistown 

1864 
1873 
1813 
1638 

1793 

Cong. 
K.C. 
M.  Epis. 
R.  C. 
\   n-seoi 

Cong. 

soho 


Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction.— 
This  includes  principally  institutions  for  the 
study  of  science,  law,  medicine,  and  theology. 
Many  of  the  colleges  just  enumerated  under  the 
head  of  superior  instruction  have  departments 
or  courses  in  which  the  subjects  classed  as  pro- 
fessional or  scientific  may  be  pursued,  but  there 
are  in  addition  the  following: 


Th. 


schools,    incorp  irated    academies,    ai 

academies  ill    tin     State  lu-   all'eadv  ben 

208,  6.3,  and  369   respectively.     Of 
numbering  over   500   families,  and  th 
quired  each  to  maintain  a  high  schi 


1,  6  only  i  New  Cnurc 


Non  sort. 
I'.aptist 
N.  J.  Ch. 


MASTER   OP  ARTS 

Special  Instruction. — The  Clarke  Institution 
for  Deaf-Mutes  was  established  at  Northampton 
in  1867.  Pupils  axe  instructed  in  the  ordinary 
branches  of  an  English  education,  besides  philos- 
ophy, zoology,  chemistry,  and  drawing.  There 
is  attached  to  the  institution,  also,  a  cabinet  shop 
in  which  many  of  the  pupils  work  a  part  of  each 
day.  Though  founded  by  private  benefaction, 
it  receives  an  animal  appropriation  from  the 
state,  the  amount  from  the  latter  source  being, 
in  187.1,  811,415.  The  number  of  pupils  during 
the  year  was  50  J  the  number  of  instructors,  s. 
The  Boston  Day-School  for  Deaf-Mutes  was 
founded  in  L869.  It  is  a  city  free  school  for  both 
sexes,  and  is  supported  entirely  by  taxation.  The 
number  of  pupils,  in  1874 — 5,'  was  <!.'!;  the  num- 
ber of  instructors.  7.  The  Perkins  Institution  and 
Massachusetts  Asylum  for  the  Blind  was  estab- 
lished in  1829,  Samuel  (i.  Howe  being  its  first 
superintendent.  (SeeHowE,S.  G.)  The  total  num- 
ber of  pupils  admitted  into  it  since  its  foundation 
was.  in  1871—"'.  865.  All  blind  children  who 
are  residents  of  the  state,  who  are  suitable  sub- 
jects for  instruction,  and  who  arc  recommended 
by  the  governor,  arc  received  for  education.  The 

of  the  state  form  the  course  of  study;  to  which  is 
added  instruction  in  music  and  in  some  branch 
of  manual  labor.  In  addition  to  the  original 
donation  made  by  its  founder,  it  receives  from 
the  state  an  annual  grant  of  $30,000.  Besides 
the   residents   of  the   state   who   are   educated 

gratuitously,  it  r< ives  pupils  from  other  states. 

upon  payment  of  a  certain  annual  sum.  The 
number  of  instructors  and  employes  was  55  ;  the 
number  of  pupils,  156.  There  is  also  a  school 
for  idiotic  ami  feeble-minded  youth  in  Boston, 
founded  in  1848,  the  number  of  instructors  and 
employes  in  which,  in  1874—5.  was  l(i,  of  pupils 
118  ;  a  private  institution  for  the  same  purpose, 
founded  in  Barre  in  1S4S,  with  50  instructors 
etc..  ami  75  pupils;  and  one  for  backward  and 
peculiar  children,  in  Payville.  with  7  instruc- 
tors and  8  pupils.  There  are  nine  industrial 
and  reform  schools  in  different  parts  of  the  state 
for  the  reformation  of  children,  principally  those 
between  the  ages  of  7  and  17  years,  who  have 
been  committed  for  poverty,  truancy,  vagrancy, 
and  petty  crimes. 

MASTER  OF  ARTS.     See  Degrees. 

MASTERY  METHOD.     See  Latin  Lan- 

MATHEMATICS.  -The  term  mathematics 
is  the  Latin  word  mathematical,  or  the  Greek 
word  fia&Jifianica,  anglicized.  The  Greek  word 
was  derived  from  jiavdavu,  to  learn;  whence 
jiaftrimr,  learning.  Both  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans  used  the  word  mathematica  as  we  do 
the  word  mafliemalics.  The  use  of  the  plural 
form  indicates  that  this  department  of  human 
knowledge  was  formerly  considered  not  as  a 
single  branch,  but  as  a  group  of  several  branches, 
much  as  we  use  the  phrase  the  mathematical 
sciences.  This  group  of  sciences  is  subdivided 
into  pure  mathematics  and  mixed,  or  applied, 
mathematics.     In  this  article  we  are  concerned 


MATHEMATICS 


I  mainly  with 
and  geomelr 


under  the  term'    mathematics.  lia>  as  yet  hec'n 'so 

ment  that  "  mathematics  i-  the  Bcience  of  quan- 
tity" is  often  flippantly  repeated  as  a  defini- 
tion, but  it  can  scarcely  serve  for  that  purpose. 
Comte  defines  mathematical  science,  as  the  sci- 
ence which  has  for  "its  object  the  indirect 
measurement  of  magnitudes,  and  constantly 
proposes  to  determine  certain  magnitudes  from 
others,  by  means  of  the  precise  relations  existing 
between  'them."  It  is  not  a  little  singular  that, 
while  this  great  thinker  rules  geometryoul  of 
the  realm  of  pure  mathematics,  he  bases  his 
definition  of  the  science  exclusively  on  the 
geometrical  conception.  That  he  does  so  is  espe- 
cially apparent  in  the  discussion  from  which  he 
deduces  the  definition.    Moreover,  it  is  not  clear 


In-  ,1. 


mult 


plier  is  equal  to  the  sun 
parts  of  the  multiplica] 
"The  root  of  the  produ 
equals  the  product  of 


?sof 


win 


ligation  of  the  properties  and  relations  of  quan- 
tity comprehending  number,  and  magnitude 
as  the  result  of  extension  and  of  form.  It  will 
be  observed  that  this  definition  embraces  that, 
of  Comte,  inasmuch  as  the  measurement  of 
quantities,  or  the  determination  of  unknown 
from  known  quantities,  is  effected  by  an  in- 
vestigation of  their  relations  ;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  can  scarcely  say  that  all  investiga- 
tions of  the  relations  of  quantities  are  for  the 
purposes  of  measurement,  or  of  determining  un- 
known quantities  from  known. — But  the  chief 
purpose  of  this  article  is  to  inquire  as  to  the 
place  which  mathematical  studies  should  occupy 
in  our  courses  of  elementary  instruction.  In 
such  an  inquiry,  the  leading  considerations  are, 
(I)  Por  what  purpose  should  these  studies  he 
pursued  in  such  courses?  (II)  To  what  extent, 
should  they  lie  pursued?  and  fllli  What  gen- 
eral principles  should  govern  our  methods  of 
teaching? 

I.   Mathematical  studies  should  be  pursued  in 
elementary  schools  primarily  as  a  means  of  mental 


554 


M  ATI  I  KM  ATI  <'S 


Sir  Willi. 


-1,  develoj 
well  adapted 


ulnle 


discipline.  Notwithstanding  all  t 
Hamilton  has  said,  and  the  fori 
names  which  he  adduces  in  sup] 
it  may  still  be  claimed   that    tl 

line  of  study  pursued  in  scl Is, 

the  mind  in  so  many  ways,  and  i 
to  every  stage  of  mental  growth,  as  mathemat- 
ical studies.  It  has  been  asserted,  and  quite  gen- 
erally conceded,  that  the  pow 
is  not  developed  by  matheinati 
the  truth  is.  that,  from  the  most  elementary 
mathematical  notion  which  arises  in  the  mind  of  a 
child  to  the  farthest  verge  to  which  mathematical 
investigation  has  been  pushed  and  applied,  this 
power  is  in  constant  exercise.  By  otiservation, 
as  here  used,  can  only  be  meant  the  fixing  of 
the  attention  upon  objects  (physical  or  mental) 
so  as  to  note  distinctive  peculiarities — to  recog- 
nize resemblances,  differences,  and  other  relations. 
Now.  the  first  mental  act  of  the  child  recogniz- 
ing the  distinction  between  one  and  more  than 
one,  between  one  and  tiro,  two  and  three,  etc.,  is 
exactly  this.  So,  again,  the  first  geometrical 
notions  arc  as  pure  an  exercise  of  this  power  as 
can  be  given.  To  know-  a  straight  line,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  a  curve  ;  to  recognize  a  triangle 
and  distinguish  the  several  forms  —  what  are 
these,  and  all  perceptions  of  form,  but  a  series 
of  observations?  Nor  is  it  alone  in  securing 
these  fundamental  conceptions  of  number  and 
form  that  observation  plays  so  important  a  part. 
The  very  genius  of  the  common  geometry  as  a 
method  of  reasoning — a  system  of  investigation 
— is.  that  it  is  but  a  scries  of  observations.  The 
figure  being  before  the  eye  in  actual  representa- 
tion, or  before  the  mind  in  conception,  is  bo 
closely  scrutinized,  that  all  its 
uresare  perceived;  auxiliary  lim 
imagination  leading  in  this),  and  a  new  scrie-  of 
inspections  is  made;  and  thus,  by  means  of  duvet, 
simple  observations,  the  investigation  proceeds. 
So  characteristic  of  the  common  geometry  is  this 
method  of  investigation,  that  (Jomte,  perhaps 
the  ablest  of  all  writers  upon  the  philosophy  of 
mathematics,  is  disposed  to  class  geometry,  as  to 
its  methods,  with  the  natural  sciences,  as  being 
based  upon  observation.  Moreover,  wdien  we  con- 
sider applied  mathematics,  we  need  only  to  notice 
that  the  exercise  of  this  faculty  is  so  essential, 
that  the  basis  of  all  such  reasoning,  the  very 
materials   with  which  we  build,  have    received 


;  arc  clr 


to  consider  the  whole  ran-c  of  the  human  facul- 
ties, and  find  for  most  of  them  ample  scope  for 
exercise  in  mathematical  studies.  Certainly. 
the  memory  will  not  be  found  to  be  neglected. 
The  very  first  steps  in  number.-  counting,  the 
multiplication  table,  etc.,  make  heavy  demands 
on  this  power;  while  the  higher  branches  re- 
quire the  memorizing  of  formulas  which  are 
simply  appalling  to  the  uninitiated.  Ho  the 
imagination,  the  creative  faculty  of  the  mind, 
has  constant  exercise  in  all  original  mathematical 
investigation,  from  the  solution  of  the  simplest 
problem  to  the  discovery  of  the  most  recondite 
principle  ;  for  it  is  not  by  sure,  consecutive  steps, 


as  many  suppose,  that  we  advance  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown.  The  imagination,  not 
the  logical  faculty, leads  in  this  advance.  In  fact, 
practical  observation  is  often  in  advance  of  log- 
ical exposition.  Thus,  in  the  discovery  of  truth, 
the  imagination  habitually  presents  hypotheses, 
and  observation  supplies  facts,  which  it  may  re- 
quire ages  for  the  tardy  reason  to  connect  logic- 
ally with  the  known.  Of  this  truth,  mathemat- 
ics, as  well  as  all  other  sciences,  affords  abundant 
illustrations.  So  remarkably  true  is  this,  that 
to-day  it  is  seriously  questioned  by  the  majority 

of    thinkers,    whether    the    subliinest    branch    of 

mathematics— the  infinitesimal  calculus— haa 
any  thing  more  than  an  empirical  foundation, 
mathematicians  themselves  not  being  agreed  as 
to  its  logical  basis. — That  the  imagination,  and 
not  the  logical  faculty,  leads  in  all  original  in- 
vestigation, no  one  who  has  ever  succeeded  in 
producing  an  original  demonstration  of  one  of 
the  simpler  propositions  of  geometry,  can  have 
any  doubt.  Nor  arc  induction,  analogy,  the 
scrutinizing  of  premises  or  the  search  for  them, 
or  the  balancing  of  probabilities,  spheres  of 
mental  operation  foreign  to  mathematics.  No 
one.  indeed,  can  claim  a  pre-eminence  for  math- 
ematical studies  in  all  these  departments  of  in- 
tellectual culture,  but  it  may,  perhaps,  be  claimed 
that  scarcely  any  department  of  science  affords 
discipline  to  so  great  a  number  of  faculties,  and 
that  none  presents  SO  complete  a  gradation  in  its 
exercise  of  these  faculties,  from  the  lirst  prin- 
ciples of  the  science  to  the  farthest  extent  of  its 
application,  as  mathematics.  There  arc,  however, 
two    respects    in    which,  probably,   special  pre- 


study 


the  habit  of  forming  clear  and  definite  concep- 
tions, and.  of  clothing  these  conceptions  in  exact 
and  perspicuous  language.  'I  his  pre-eminence 
arises,  in  part,  from  the  fact  that,  in  this 
branch  of  knowledge,  the  term.-,  convej  exactly 
the  same  meaning  to  all  minds.  Thus,  there  can 
be  no  difference  "between  the  conceptions  which 
different  persons  have  of  five,  six,  a  straight 
line,  a  circle,  a  perpendicular,  a  product,  a 
square  root;  or  of  the  statements,  that  3  and  5 
make  8,  that  the  sum  of  the  angles  of  a  plane 
triangle  is  two  right  angles,  etc.  The  concep- 
tion in  each  case  is  definite,  and  the  language 
may  be  perfectly  clear.  That  this  is  not  so  in 
most  other  sciences,  no  one  needs  to  be  told. 
Can  we  be  sure  that  all  have  tin' same  concep- 


designed  to  be  conveyed  b; 
fissile,  slaty,  laminar, folit 


s7" 


dis- 


tinct that  no  two  mineralogists  will  evei  inter- 
change them?  Is  the  meaning  of  a  Greek  text 
always  unequivocal ?  Is  it  an  easy  matter  for 
any  two  persons  to  get  exactly  the  same  concep- 
tion of  the  causes  which  led  to  a  certain  political 
revolution  ;  can  either  be  absolutely  certain,  from 
any  language  which  he  can  use,  that  no  one  will 


MATHEMATICS 


mistake  his  conception? — That  the  habit  of 
mind  which  rests  satisfied  only  with  clear  and 
definite  conceptions,  and  the  power  of  speech 
which  is  able  to  clothe  such  conceptions  in  lan- 
guage perfectly  unmistakable,  are  most  impor- 

these  are  exactly  the  ends  which  mathematical 
studies,  properly  pursued,  are  adapted  to  secure. 
Ju  this  hasty  review,  nothing  has  been  said  di- 
rectly of  these  studies  as  a  means  of  developing 
the  reasoning  faculties,  since  it  is  generallj  con- 
ceded that  pure  mathematics  is  practical  logic, 
and  that  pupils,  who  do  not  learn  to  reason  by 
their  study  of  mathematics,  fail  of  the  most  im- 
portant end  of  such  study. 

Iloiibtless.the  ri  milium  answer  to  the  question, 
Why  should  mathematical  studies  be  pursued  in 
schools?  would  be,  for  their  practical  value;  by 
which  is  meant,  their  direct  application  to  the 
affairs  of  life,  as  in  reckoning  bills,  computing 
interest,  measuring  distances,  volumes,  areas. etc 
It  is,  indeed,  true,  that,  in  the  every-day  affaira 
of  life,  to  the  accountant,  and  to  the  man  of 
business,  a  certain  amount  of  arithmetical 
knowledge  is  essential  —  that  surveying,  civil 
engineering,   mechanics,    navigation,  geography, 

and  astronomy,  are  based  on  gi etry.    But,  let 

it  be  observed,  that  only  a  special   few  practice 

the   arts   last   named,  and  that   for  the  masses 

embraced    in   the   former  specifications,  a  very 

limited  amount  of  arithmetical  knowledge   i>  all 

that    they   arc    requn 

further,   while  it  is,  i 

business  man  should   1 

multiply,  divide,  and 

these  operations  can  m 

tieal  success  in  life,  ex 

clerks.       Many  of  the 

men   would    make    w 

ledger  columns,  and  th 

deficiencies  to  risk  tin 

numerical  computatio 

of   practical   success 

than  a  specific  knowli 

ence  whatever,  howei 

amount  of  such  know 

callings.     'The  conclus 

importanttpoint  is  noi 

knowledge  can  be  cr 

pupils,  but   ' 


And  still 
y  that  the 
I,  subtract, 
at,  skill  in 


at  methods  of  teaching  and 

of  mind  can  be  secured,  as 
Is  most  efficient  in  performing 


ical  economy.  —  all  these,  and 
!  to  make  up  the  furniture. and 
ne.  of  a  well-cultivated   mind. 


And 


is  1 1 


of  a  graded  school,  or  college,  for  i  he  first  six 
or  seven  years  of  the  ordinary  graded  public 
school  course,  if  we  include  the  mal  lessons,  in 
number  and  form,  of  the  lowest  grade,  arithme- 
tic forms  01 f  the  three  main    studies    for    the 

entire  course;   and.  ii t  a  few  cases,  there  are 

two  arithmetical  exercises,  one  in  mental  (oral), 
and  one  in  writ  1 1  n  aril  hint -t  ic.  or  one  in  arithme- 


tic ; 


t  of  time  which  the  pupil's  niathe- 
,lies   usualh  occupy.and  by  the  fact 


are  pursued  at  the  same  tune.  In  the  college 
course,  one  of  the  three  regular  studies  for  the 
first  two  years  is,  almost  invariably,  mathematics. 

-So  far,  reference  has  1 n  had  exclusively  to 

pure  mathematics,  including  only  arithmetic,  al- 

(analytical)  geometry  and  the  calculus.  What- 
ever of  applied  n. at  hen  cities,  including  surveying, 
navigation,  mechanics,  astronomy,  etc.,  is  to  be 


l.olllt 


netl. 


w, 


Studies 

half  of 
life,  ui 
be  mai 


student  finds  one-third  of  the  time,  for  the  first 

two  years,  scarcely  adequate  to  secure  a  respect- 
able knowledge  of  higher  algebra,  geometry. 
and  trigonometry,  the  elements  of  the  general 
geometry,  and  the  infinitesimal  calculus:  and 
whatever  of  applied  mathematics  is   learned,  as 

of  surveying,  mathematical  drawing,  i lanics, 

astronomy,  etc,  must  find  a  place  in   the  other 


■lief 


favor  of  other  studies  for  the  last 
two  years  of  a  college  course  ;  that  is.  that  read- 
ing, spelling,  writing,  geography,  grammar,  his- 
tory, literature,  rhetoric,  logic,  the  whole  domain 
of  natural  science,  including  the  physical  consti- 
tution of  the  human  system,  chemistry,  languages, 


If.  however,  the  inordinate  demands  of  arithme- 
tic can  be  so  abridged  (see  Aciiumi  nc),  that  the 
grammar  school  course  shall  include,  at  least, 
eighteen  months' study  introductory  to  algebra 
and  geometry,  the  highschooJ  can  save  this  time 
for  other  studies,  ami  also  secure  such  thorough- 


550 


M  ATI  I  KM  AT  I CS 


ness  in  preparation,  that  the  stv 
college  will  be  far  m 
than  at  present.     AVi 
tion  now  secured,  it 

that  the  student  ( i 

true,  been  over  the  1 
so  little  of  the  real  str 
that  course  should 


dent's  course  in 
d  ami  satisfactory 
quality  of  prepara- 

t  should   be  borne   in   mind. 

nn's  to  college   having,  it  is 
requisite  amount,  but  with 

itrength  and  knowledge  which 

impart,  that,  if  he  does  jus- 
tice to  his  mathematical  studies  for  the  first  two 
years,  nearer  one-half  than  one-third  of  his  time 
is  consumed  upon  them.  By  rigidly  confining 
the  study  of  elementary  arithmetic  to  its  proper 
domain,  giving  a  year  in  the  grammar  school  to 
an  introduction  to  algebra,  and  half  a  year  to 
the  definitions  and  facts  of  plane  geometry,  the 
pupil  may  come  to  the  high  school  so  thoroughly 
prepared  in  the  elements  of  the  three  great 
mathematical  studies, — arithmetic,  algebra,  and 
geometry,  that  between  two  and  three  years  in 
the  high  school  will  be  amply  sufficient  tosecure 
such  further  proficiency  in  these  branches  as  is 
consistent  with  the  course  here  marked  out. 
Moreover,  if  the  pupil's  school  life  closes  with 
the  grammar  school,  the  course  thus  secured  will 
be  of  far  more  value  to  him  in  after  life,  both 
for  practical  uses  and  as  a  discipline,  than  the 
ordinary  one.  (See  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and 
Geometry.) — In  the  above,  it  will  be  observed, 
that  the  general  geometry  and  the  infinitesimal 
calculus  are  included  in  the  college  course.  The 
elements  of  the  former  are  usually  required,  al- 
though it  is  quite  common  (for  no  good  reason) 
to  make  the  latter  elective.  By  omitting  the 
calculus,  the  graduate  leaves  college  without  ever 
having  looked  into  one  of  the  sublimest  depart- 
ments of  human  knowledge,  or  having  even 
the  remotest  idea  of  the  language  and  methods 
of  the  mechanics  and  astronomy  of  the  day.  or 
being  able  to  read  an  advanced  treatise  upon 
any  scientific  subject  as  treated  by  the  modern 
mathematician.  Xor  can  the  beauty  and  power 
of  the  general  geometry  be  appreciated  without 
a  knowledge  of  the  calculus.  Thus  the  pupil 
who  is  allowed,  at  his  option,  to  leave  this  out 
of  his  course,  leaves  college  a  hundred  years  be- 
hind his  time,  in  one  of  the  leading  departments 
of  human  knowledge. 

1 1 1.  What  general  principles  should  govern 
our  methods  if  teaching  mathematics?  —  This 
topic  has  been  quite  fully  treated  in  the  separate 
articles  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and  Geometry, 
to  which  reference  is  made.  It  is  proper  to 
add  here,  that,  from  first  to  last,  the  methods 
should  be  such  as  will  give  absolutely  clear  per- 
ceptions and  conceptions,  and  secure  facility, 
accuracy, and  elegance  in  expression.  These  ends 
are  of  vastly  more  practical  importance  than 
the  mere  ability  "to  get  the  answer"  of  special 
problems.  The  notion  which  prevails  among 
some  teachers,  that  if    the  pupil  learns  the  proc- 

I'very  thing  that  is  essential,  and  that,  whatever 
of  the  rationale  may  be  desirable  will  be.  in 
some  way,  induced  by  this  mechanical  process. 
is  an  exceedingly  vicious  one.  In  the  first 
place,  it  is  far  more  important  that   the  pupil 


should  be  able  to  comprehend  the  logic,  and  to 
express  his  ideas  in  intelligible  language  than 
merely  to  solve  any  number  of  problems,  since 
the  former  ability  he  will  have  occasion  to  use 
every  day  of  his  life,  while  he  may  never  need 
the  fatter  at  all.  lint  we  arc  not  driven  to  the 
alternative  of  securing  culture  at  the  expense  of 
mechanical  skill ;  the  very  best  means  to  acquire 
expertness  in  mathematical  manipulations  is 
that  which  secures  the  best  results  in  culture. 
No  greater  intellectual  monstrosity  probably 
ever  presents  itself  than  he  who  is  usually 
known  as  a  mathematical  genius;  that  is.  one 
who  has  a  wonderful  ability  to  do  what  nobody 
else  can  do.  or  cares  to  do — to  solve  knotty  and 
often  senseless  mathematical  problems.  On  the 
contrary,  the  object  of  mathematical  study  should 
be  to  develop  men  with  cultured  minds,  not  to 
make  them  mere  computing  machines. 

Mathematical  Literature. —  It  is  designed,  un- 
der this  topic,  to  point  out  to  the  teacher  a  few 
treatises  which  may  be  helpful  to  him  in  extend- 
ing his  knowledge  of  the  subjects  of  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry  beyond  the  mere  rudi- 
ments;  in  bee ing  acquainted  with  the  history 

of  these  branches;  and  in  providing  material 
for  use  in  class-room  work.  It  is  rather  to  men- 
tion a  few  works  which  are  presume)  I  to  be  w  , . •- 
sible  to  the  teacher  than  to  furnish  an  extended 
list  of  authors.  The  best  catalogues  of  writers 
on  algebra  and  geometry  accessible  to  teachers 
are  those  in  the  Encyclopedia  Britannica.  The 
list  of  writers  on  algebra  contains  171  names, 
and  extends  from  360  A.  1>.  into  the  present 
century.  The  catalogue  of  geometrical  writers 
covers  the  period  from  'J.1'2  A.  I>.  to  the  middle 
of  the  present  century. — By  far  the  most  com- 
plete history  of  arithmetic  with  which  we  are 
acquainted  is  the  article  by  Dr.  Peacock  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana  (vol.  i.  of  Pure 
Science,  pp.  369—482).  The  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica  also  contains  a  fair  history  of  this 
branch,  together  with  as  good  an  outline  of  the 
history  of  algebra  and  geometry  as  the  teacher 
can  usually  find  accessible.  The  Algebra  of 
AVallis.au  Knglish  mathematician  (1<>]6 — 17(13), 
has  a  history  of  the  subject  prefixed.— Of 
Mathematical    Dictionaries,  mention    may    be 


1 8 1  5 
1  Tee 
Matki 


Barlow  (London.  L814);  and  Di 
(N.  V.,  L856). — MontucJa's  His 
malics  |  I  vols..  4to),  besides  being  too  volumi- 
nous for  most  readers,  is  brought  down  only  to 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  and  is 
only  to  be  had  in  Latin  or  French.  A  more 
recent  work  is  Geschichte  der  Maihernatik,  by 
Poppe  (Tubingen,  1828),  to  be  had  only  in 
German.  Among  other  works  in  the  German 
language,  especial  reference  should  be  made  to 
Diesterweg's  Wegweiser  (Essen,  1851).  This 
may  be  called  a  treatise  on  the  Theory  and 
Practieeof  Teaching,  discussing   not  only  the 

in.',  quite  in  detail,  methods  and  even  text- 
books. In  the  second  volume  ipp.  343  -394), 
maybe  found  a  full  list  of  German  text-books. 


MATRICULATE 

on  arithmetic,  in  connection  with  the  discussion 
of  methods.  The  succeeding  chapter  treats  in 
like  manner  .if  geometry.  Among  arithmetics 
not  now  specially  candidates  for  popular  favor 
the  following  will  be  found  interesting  and  val- 
uable in  a  teacher's  library:  An  Introduction  to 
Arithmetic  on  the  Lancasterian  plan,  by  John 
Ruton  (Albany.  1817);  liana  P.  Colburn's 
Arithmetic  will  be  found  exceedingly  suggestive 
to  the  practical  teacher:  Winslows  t  'amjai/ist's 
Manual  contains  a  large  amount  of  practical 
matter  very  useful  to  the  teacher ;  Chase's 
Arithmetic  furnishes  a  vast  amount  of  material 
which  can  be  utilized  by  the  teacher  in  the  reci- 
tation room  ;  Sangster's  Arithmetic  (Montreal, 
l,sti4)  will  be  found  quite  instructive  in  many 
respects.  To  these  the  intelligent  teacher  will  add 
the  various  series  offered  to  the  public  by  lead- 
ing educators  in  the  United  States.  In  algebra, 
among  English  works.  Todhunters  Algebra, 
and  Theory  of  Equations;  Bland's  Examples; 
"Wood's.  Young's.  Hind's,  and  Bonnycastle's  trea- 
tises on  algebra  will  afford  not  only  the  elements 
of  the  subject,  but  an  exhaust  less  mine  of  ex- 
amples for  practice.  Peacock's  A/iji'lira  ['1  vols.. 
8vo,  London)  is  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
theoretical  treatises.  Serret's  is  one  of  the  best 
French  treatises.  Cirode's  and  Oomberousse's 
are  also  valuable.  Hackley's  Algebra  (X.  Y., 
1849)  will  be  found  valuable  for  reference,  being 
one  of  the  most  complete  ever  published  in  this 
country.  In  reference  tog aetry,ii  may  be  sug- 
gested that  cm  it  teai-ln-r  >ln.iiM  ivad  President 
Hill's  two  little  I Its,  /"  /  s  iii  Geome- 
try, and  Second  I!""/,.  Mosl  English  writers  on 
the  elements  of  geometry  have  contented  them- 
selves with  editing  Kuelid  with  slight  modifica- 
tions. The  student  who  wishes  a  knowledge  of  the 
modern  methods  in  elementary  geometry,  will 
find  Mulcahy's  work  quite  satisfactory.  Rouche 
et  Comberousse,  a  French  treatise  (2  vols.,  8vo), 
is  the  most  complete  modern  treatise  on  element- 
ary geometry  with  which  we  are  acquainted. 
and  is  a  complete  thesaurus  of  examples  for  in- 
dependent work.  All  of  De  Morgan's  (English) 
mathematical  works  are  exceedingly  valuable, 
containing  treatises  on  algebra,  geometry,  the 
calculus,  and  other  branches.  In  regard  to  the 
relative  value  of  mathematical  studies,  see  Sir 
William  Hamilton.  Discussions  on  Philosophy 


MEDICAL   SCHOOLS 

MEDICAL  SCHOOLS.    The  earlii 

ration   of lical    science    was    effi 

cans  of   tradition,  and  not  mini  mu.Ii 


iporrates, 
Romans, 
the  first 


no  special  medical  schools,  but  their  scl Is  gave 

scientific  and  philosophical  inr-l  met  ii  i  in  genera  I. 
Such  institutions  could  be  found  in  Athens, 
Alexandria,  Rome,  and  other  cities.  The  name 
medical  school -was  first  used  in  the  9th  centurj 
in  the  city  of  Salerno,  where  an  association  of 
Several  medical  teachers,  of  the  Creek.  Jewish, 
Latin,  and  Arabian  nations, lectured  on  the  heal- 
ing art.  Their  method.  sub>taiitially.coii>i>ted  in 
the  reading  and  explanation  oi  the  old  i  ii.  ek,  Ro- 
man, and  Arabian  parchment  scrolls.  After  the 
foundation  of  universities,  in  the  I  Mi  century, 
the  medical  schools,  as  a  rule,  were  united  with 
them.  (See  University.)  The  earliest  were  those 
,,f  Naples  and  Messina,  founded  in  1224.  by  the 
emperor  Frederick  tl.  of  Germany.  Thedivision 


and  V 


t  made  in  Paris.   Prague, 

e.  1,  luated  nil  dienl  .-el,,  ,,| 


-/  /., 


N.  V 


En.  it  is), 
II.Saf- 


of  Mathematics  as  an  1 

Alii.i.,  Examinati  n$  o/&      II 

Philosophy  (1865);  Grote,  Ifer 

(1868);  Barnard's  Journal  of 

sin.;  Whewell,   On  the  Princ 

University  Education  il.ond.,  1 

ford, Modern  Mathematics  ...  th,  Co  eg    Course, 

in  Proceedings  of  Na  /'       -      ,  •     lssc~ 

ciation,  at  St.  Louis,  1871;  T.  Hill,  '/'■■     Order 

of  Studies  |N.  Y..  L876);  Todhdnter,  The  Con- 

flirt,,/  Studies   (Loud.,  1873). 

MATRICULATE  (Lat.  matricula,  a  public 
roll  or  register),  to  admit  to  membership  in  a 
college  or  university,  by  enrollment.  (See  Col- 
lege, and  University.) 


of  the  early  middle  ages  were,  together  with  those 
above  named,  at  hip.-ie.  I'.asel.  Montpellier.  I.'o- 
logna,  Padua.  Pavia,  and  Salamanca;  at  the  last 
named  of  which,  the  dews  and  Arabs  taught 
mathematics  and  medicine.  In  all  these  institu- 
tions, the  writings  of  the  ancient  physicians 
named  above  formed  the  basis  of  teaching:  and 
only  with  the  development  of  anatomy,  did  the 
scientific  efforts  attain  a  higher  degree  of  perfec- 
tion. In  1308,  the  <  ireat  Council  of  Venice  pro- 
vided, by  a  special  decree,  that  the  medical  pro- 
fession of  the  city  should,  once  a  year,  make  the 
dissection  of  a  human  body:  and.  about  1320, 
the  first  work  on  anatomy,  based  on  his  own  dis- 
sections, was  written  by  Mondini  di  Luzzi.  It 
was  first  printed  in  Padua,  1  t78,  and  for  a  long 
time  was  held  in  the  highest  esteem.  Still,  the 
dissection  of  human  bodies  remained  a  very  rare 
occurrence,  a  special  permission  of  the  pope  hav- 
ing to  be  obtained  in  each  ease.  The  real  father 
of  anatomy  was  Andreas  Yesalius.  professor  in 
Basel;  where  his  celebrated  work,  De  humani 
corporis fabrica,  was  edited  in  1403.  Surgery, 
the  child  of  anatomy,  remained,  for  a  long  time, 
in  the  hands  of  empirics:  and  it  was  not  until 
the  17th  or  18th  century,  that  it,  was  taught 
scientifically,  in  universities.  The  cultivation  and 
development  of  anatomy  also  changed  the  meth- 
od of  teaching,  in  the  medical  schools,  from  a 
simple  lecturing  to  a  more  demonstrative  course: 
and,  with  the  accumulation  of  material  for  teach- 
ing, it  was  natural  that  medical  science  should 
be  more  and  more  divided  into  specialties,  for 
which  separate  instructors  were  appointed.  The 
first  stationary  clinics  were  organized  at  I.eyilen, 
by  Boerhaave,  in  the  first  half  of  the  18th  cent- 
ury, and  at  Vienna,  by  his  pupil  Van  Swieten. 


558 


MEDICAL    SCHOOLS 


These  two,  together  with  Van  Haen  and  Johann 
Peter  Frank,  were  the  founders  of  the  practical 
method  of  medical  instruction.  Previous  to  them, 
the  professors,  of  surgery  for  instance,  lectured 
before  their  audience  for  years,  without  even 
touching  a  patient  with  the  knife.  This  to  us, 
nowadays,  seems  hardly  comprehensible.  The 
first  clinic  of  obstetrics  was  established  in  1720, 
in  Paris,  by  Gregoire.  A  very  celebrated  school 
of  midwifery  \v;us  founded,  about  1730,  at  Stras- 
bourg, and  first  conducted  by  the  renowned 
Johann  Jacob  Fried.  Separate  clinics  for  other 
specialties,  as  ophthalmology,  otology,  skin  and 
venereal  diseases,  etc.,  are  of  more  recent  date. 

Tn  Germany,  every  medical  school  constitutes 
a  faculty  of  a  university;  this  is  also  the  rule 
in  the  other  European  countries.  England  ex- 
cepted. Considering  the  degree  of  preparatory 
instruction,  Germany  ranks  highest.  The  stu- 
dents.after  having  gone  successfully  through  the 
gymnasium,  receive  a  certificate  of  maturity, 
that  enables  them  to  matriculate  in  the  medical 
faculty  of  any  of  the  German  universities  of 
the  German  Knipitv,  Austria,  and  Switzerland. 
No  time  is  fixed  for  the  duration  of  the  course 
of  studies;  but,  generally,  it  takes  five  years.  At 
the  end  of  the  first  or  second  year,  the  student 
has  to  undergo  an  examination  in  natural  philos- 
ophy; and,  at  the  end  of  the  whole  term,  a  rigid 
examination  (rigorosum),  theoretical  as  well  as 
practical,  takes  place  for  the  degree  of  M.  D. 
Besides  this,  the  several  states  require  what  is 
called  a  Stoatsexamen  .state  examination)  before 
grint  iiu  a  liccii-e  i^v  practice,  [n  all  the  German 
iiniversi  ii  -.  the  students  have  absolute  freedom 
to  'el  Mid,  lectures,  and  to  follow  them  iii  such 
order,  as  they  please.  Very  nearly  the  same  are 
the  arrangements  in  the  universities  of  Austria, 
Switzerland,  Denmark,  Norway,  Sweden,  Russia, 
the  Netherlan  Is,  and  Belgium.  France  has 
only  three  me,  lieal  faculties  (Paris.  M<  .lit]  ..Hi.  r. 
and  Nancy)  and  2]  -.-  dledecofl     .  reparatoires. 

At  thefonner,  tl to   ■      s  en    ■'■  kcineelchi- 

rurgie  are  educated  ; 
class  of  physicians  (q 
for  practice  only  in 
France,  no  freedom 
lectures  and  th<  ir  ord 

The  ti f  study  is  fixed  at  3  years  for  the  offi- 

ders  de  sante,  and  at  I  years  for  the  degree  of 
M.  It.  -England  has  preserved  the  old  independ- 
ent institutions  of  the  middle  ages.  The  state 
has  no  influence  upon  the  education  of  medical 
students ;  ami  only  a  weak  control  is  exercised 
by  the  General  Medical  Council  of  London— 
the  highest  medical  authority  of  Great  Britain. 
This  body  a]. points  the  corporations  that  have 
the  right  to  educate  and  license  physicians.  All 
medical  schools  are  private  institutions  main- 
tained by  private  means.  Twenty-three  so-called 
"licensing  bodies"  (7  in  Ei  eland,  II  in  Scotland. 
5  in  Ireland)  bestow  the  privilege  of  practicing 
the  art,  the  qualifications  for  which  may  be  ob- 
tained at   la  medical  -.  I I.-.   <  if  these.  27  are  in 


ie  Ia1 1.  r  train  an  inferior 
..  rs  de  sanie  ,  licensed 

instruction  exists.    The 
are  strictly  prescribed. 


I  Ian, 


and  10  in  Ireland.     The  licensing  bodies  require 


I  4  years'  study,  and  a  certificate  showing  the 
scientific  acquirements  of  the  applicant  to  be 
sufficient  for  the  study  of  medicine.  The  differ- 
ent degrees  that  may  be  obtained  at  the  English 
universities  are  Bachelor  of  Medicine  (M.  B.). 
Bachelor  of  Surgery  (B.  S.|.  Master  in  Surgery 
(M.S.),  and  Doctor  of  Medicine  (M.  D.).  Simi- 
lar to  the  English  medical  schools  are  those  of 
India  and  Australia. — In  Italy.  17  universities 
are  maintained  by  the  state,  and  5  by  municipal 
and  provincial  corporations.  Perfect  freedom  of 
instruction  j.s  allowed,  the  only  control  exercised 
over  the  students  consisting  in  Ii  several  exami- 
nations in  the  different  branches  of  medical  sci- 
ence ;  after  passing  which  the  license  is  granted. 
For  the  diploma  laurea  di  dottore  in  medicina 

Turkey  has  a  medical  school  in   Constantinople, 
divided  into  a  military  and  a  civil  department, 

and  organized  after  the  French  model.  'I  he  same 
J  is  the  ease  with  the  medical  academy  in  Cairo, 


aad 


of  medical  learning.  Medical  instruction  was 
alone  conveyed  in  the  irregular  form  of  medical 
pupilage.  A  few  physicians,  in  different  parts 
of  the  country,  eminent  for  their  skill  and  popu- 
larity, attracted  to  themselves  numerous  pupils, 
who  enjoyed  the  advantages  of  the  library  and  the 
conversation  of  their  preceptor,  compounded  his 
medicines,  and  occasionally  attended  him  in  hia 
visits:  these  preceptors,  after  three  or  more  years, 
signed  certificates  of  attendance  which  supplied 
the  place  of  diplomas.  In  some  sections, a  system 
of  apprenticeship  existed;  the  young  medical 
pupil  being  indentured  for  a  period  of  time,  often 
as  long  as  seven  years.  Those  students  who  as- 
pired to  a  regular  degree  in  medicine,  and  the 
high  public  favor  accorded  to  it.  were  obliged  to 

era   il an  and  to  attend  one  of  the  European 

universities,  a  step  not  unfrequently  taken  by 
those  able  to  afford  the  great  expense  of  such  a 
course.  In  some  of  the  larger  towns,  an  occasion- 
al private  course  of  lectures  on  anatomy,  surgery, 
etc.,  was  attempted  with  success;  and  these  paved 
the  way  for  the  regular  and  ordi  rly  organization 
of  medical  colleges.  The  first  medical  faculty  in 
the  country  was  instituted  in  L765,  under  the 
auspices  of  the  <  'ollegeof  Philadelphia,  which  was 
afterwards  merged  in  the  far-famed  University 
of  Pennsylvania.  In  17(17,  a  second  school  was 
founded  in  New  York,  as  a  department  of  King's 
(now  Columbia)  College,  having  six  chairs,  from 
which  lectures  were,  from  the  outset,  read  upon 
anatomy,  theory  and  practice  of  physic,  surgery, 
chemistry  and  materia  medica,  and  midwifery. 
These  two  faculties,  the  only  ones  established  be- 
fore the  Revolution,  were  possessed  of  very 
meager  means  and  appliances  of  instruction,  but 
they  placed  their  standard  ..f  requirements  very 
high,  much  higher  than  it  has  since  been,  or  is 
even  now.  held.  The  principal  rules  of  the 
New  York  faculty  were  (I)  a  preliminary  exami- 
nation, in  Latin  and  some   branches  of  natural 


MEDICAL  SCHOOLS 


5o<> 


philosophy,  was  required  of  all  matriculants  who 
had  not  taken  a  degree  in  arts;  (2)  after  three 
years'  study  and  one  complete  course  of  lectures, 
the  bachelor's  degree  was  allowed  ;  (3)  after  an- 
other year  aud  a  second  full  course,  students  22 
years  of  age  were  admitted  to  examination  for 
the  doctorate  ;  and  they  were  required  to  pub- 
lish and  publicly  defend  a  thesis  on  some  medical 
subject.  The  examinations  were  conducted  after 
the  pattern  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  the 
regnant  medical  school  of  that  day.  These 
schools  were  broken  up  by  the  Revolutionary 
war,  in  177n'.  at  which  time  they  had  graduated 
about  50  physicians.  With  the  return  of  peace, 
these  institutions  were  resuscitated;  and  other 
faculties  were  formed  in  different  parts  of  the 
country,  principally  as  departments  of  previous- 
ly existing  literary  colleges  or  universities, — that 
of  Harvard  in  L782,  Queen's  in  L792,  and  Dart- 
mouth in  1796.     They  did  not  at  once  enjoy  the 

attendai of  large  classes,  for  the  country  was 

impoverished  and  distressed  l>v  the  effects  of  a 
lone  war:  and  they  exercised  with  caution  and 


with  this  formative  period,  are  the  names  of 
Physick,  Mott,  Drake.  Mussey.  Caldwell,  Cod- 
man,  McDowell,  Knight,  and  Childs.  Unprom- 
ising    as     this     system,    or   want    of    system,  in 

medical    education,    seemed    to   the    conservative 

and  educated  part  of  the  profession,  and  despite 

protests,  in  great  variety,  made  as  early  as 
L827,  against  the  degenerate  tendencies  of  the 
I  now  developed  American  plan,  the  status  of  in- 
struction grew  worse  rather  than  lutter.  Char- 
tered colleges  of  an  inferior  grade,  often-times 
short-lived,   multiplied,     duplicated   even   in  the 


dt!„ 


ttendance 


It 


reserve  their  privilege  of  conferring  medical  de- 
grees, so  that,  with  the  close  of  the  1  8th  century, 
their  graduates  did  not  exceed  253  in  number; 
and  the  honorary  M.D.  was  but  seldom  granted. 
Among  the  eminent  names  allied  to  these  pio- 
neer movements  are  those  of  Morgan,  Rush, 
Jones.  Bard,  Koinayne.  Hosack,  Warren,  and 
Nathan  Smith.  During  the  opening  quarter  of 
the  present  century,  as  national  prosperity  re- 
vived, and  learning  began  to  flourish  and  students 
to  multiply,  a  great  degr if  energy  marked  tin- 
progress  of  medical  education.  In  L825,  the 
number  of  schools  had    increased    from    four   to 


sixteen,  well  distributed,  geographically  in  twelve 
states,  principally  the  Northern  and  sea-board 
states.  Three  were  south  of  the  Potomac,  and 
two  west  of  the  Alleghanies.  They  were,  as  a 
rule,  affiliated  with  some  previously  existing  col- 
lege, but  the  practice  of  seeking  private,  inde- 
pendent charters  had  commenced;  these  charters 
were  readily  granted  by  the  legislatures  of  the 
various  states.  The  American  medical  college 
then  began  to  take  shape  and  direction,  the  same 
essentially  that  it  retains  at  this  clay.  Govern- 
ment, as  a  rule,  withheld  all  support,  endowment, 
or  control ;  and  what  little  protective  legislation 
had  previously  been  enacted  was  then,  or  soon 
after,  repealed  ;  practical  anatomy  was  a  felony 
by  statute  ;  the  populace  were  still  inimical  to 
dissection,  the  last  mob-rising  being  as  late  as 
1820.  Thrown  upon  their  own  resources,  aud 
recognizing  the  necessities  of  the  land  for  prac- 
titioners, the  colleges  broke  away  from  the  line 
of  European  tradition,  at  once  increasing  the 
facilities  and  lowering  the  standard  of  medical 
education.  The  minimum  of  requirements  was 
pretty  uniformly  adopted;  preliminary  qualifica- 
tions were  not  demanded:  the  time  of  study  was 
shortened;  examinations  became  less  difficult; 
the  printed  thesis  and  its  public  defense  were 
remitted  except  on  special  occasions;  and.  about 
1812.  the  primary  degree  of  M.  R.  ceased,  and 
all  diplomas  declined  in  appreciation.  Identified 


the  regulati 

was  reduced 
even  then  w, 
were  rejectc 

with  lithographed  signatures,  were  sold.  About 
this  time  ils.-.O).  largelv  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  the  American'  Medical    \ iation.the 

demand  for  reforms  gradually  made  itself  felt. 
No  radical  change  ol  plan  has  been  adopted 
or  is  immediately  piohahle.  but  a  progivsshe 
growth  from  within  is  manifest.  Schools  of  the 
poorer  quality  are  still  unduly  multiplied;  there 
are  now  over  till  of  all  grade-,,  about  .'SO  others 
having  been  discontinued.  The  time  of  study,  and 
the  length  of  the  lecture-term,  are  vet  too  short, 
although  additional  courses  have  been  added 
which  are  for  the  most  part  optional,  and  the 
number  of  branches  taught  has  been  increased. 
The  instructor  is  still  also  the  examiner  of  the 
candidates  for  graduation,  although  some  visiting 
rr„m,r*  haw  been  appointed.  The  curriculum, 
nominally  the  same  as  fid  years  ago.  is  vastly  iin- 

:  proved  by  the  introduction  of  clini  al  teat  hing, 
by  demonstrative  methods  and  illustration  that 
excite  the  admiration  of  critics  from  abroad. 
and  in  a  few  cases  by  the  gradingof  classes.  The 
superior  appointments  of  the  more  modern 
schools  facilitate  the  work  of  the  studi  i  t,  and 
many  of  them  have  their  buildin  ■  -  '  ti  the 
hospitals.  The  study  of  anatomy  \  <  d  section 
is  now  as  easy  as  formerly  it  was  difficult.  'I  he 
American  plan  favors  the  production  of  a  superi- 
or teaching  corps.  The  success  of  a  school  is 
ordinarily  in  direct  proportion  to  the  merits  of 
professors;  the  brightest  and  most  progressive 
minds,  therefore,  arc  diligently  sought  out.  and 
a  fruitful  emulation  is  excited  among  them  to 
lender  their  lectures  at  once  practical  and  popu- 

!  lar.  From  these  and  other  considerations,  the 
conclusion  is  inevitable  -that  the  colleges  of  the 
United  States  are  destined  to  advance,  however 
defective  their  origin  and  place  may  be.  In  1874, 
the  number  of  instructors  was  780  ;  of  pupils, 
over  7.000.  of  whom  2,000  were  graduated  a 
doctors  in  medicine;  one  student  in  ten  had  pre- 
viously obtained  a  degree  in  arts  or  science.  In 
the  above  enumeration  and  description,  only  the 
■regular  '  schools  are  included.     In  this  century, 

these  sel Is  have  graduate, I  fully  7 >  ■  ■ 

dates.  In  regard  to  the  education  of  women  as 
physicians,  a  favorable  sentiment  has  been  grow- 


OOU 


MEDICAL   SCHOOLS 


ing  up,  and  some  progress  has  been  made,  tliree 
good  schools  being  in  operation.  In  the  medical 
faculties  of  South  America  and  the  British  do- 
minions, the  scale  of  regulations  is  higher  than  in 
the  U.  S.,  both  as  to  preliminary  qualifications 
and  the  term  of  study.  In  Brazil,  there  are  two 
departments  of  medicine;  in  <  lanada,  there  are  six, 
some  of  them  quite  small  and  poorly  sustained. 
The  subjoined  table  contains  a  list  of  the  med- 
ical colleges  and  departments  in  the  U.  S. 


Medical  College 

c  | 

.£„ 

¥  s 

Location 

Department 

-:  g 

-: 

•S.S 

"""  Med.  Coll.  of  Alabama 

Mobil.-.  Ala 

1858 

2 

21 

Mid.  C.  of  the  Pacific 

San  1  lancisoo.Cal.. 

I  KM 

IHH4 

40 

lsp_ 

is;.; 

3 

34 

Atlanta  Med.  Coll 

Ulaiila,  Ga 

17 

—  Univ.  of  Georgia   ....  Augusta,  Ga 

Savannah  Med    Coll..  Savannah,  Ga 

Northwestern  Univ.. .  Chicago,    111 

S.i' 

3 

Bush  Med.  Coll Chicago.    Ill 

3 

M.  C.  of  Evans  villi          1..  ai..-\  i  lie,  Ind 

1 

Coll.ofPlivsiciaiiBa.nl 

2 

1-  Uuiv.oflowa Iowa  City,  Iowa.... 

LH6S 

Coll.  of  Physicians  and 

Ki   iknk.  Iowa 

Louis\  ille,  Ky 

1852 

2 

Ky.  School  of  Medicine 

20 

s~  Univ.  of  Kv Lexington,  Ky 

Central  Univ Louisville,  Ky 

•1 

Louisville,  Ky 

2 

Mew  Orleans.  La.... 

3 

Med.  School  of  Maine. 

1820 

Brunswick,  Me 

Coll.of  Physicians  ami 

Surg,  of   Baltimore 

Baltimore,  Md 

J'i 

/~Univ.  of  Marvlaud.  .  . 

Baltimore,  Md 

I  si  1 , 

Washington  Univ 

Iloslntl,  Mass 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich.. . 

I'lS'J 
1850 

3 
3 

r  Univ.  of  Michigan.... 
Detroit  Med.  Coll.... 

26 

Iletinit.MlCh 

~  Univ.  of  Missouri 

Columbia,  Mo 

a 

Kansas   City   Coll.    of 

Phvs.  and  Sur 

Kansas  City,  Mo 

2 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

St.  Louis  Med.  Coll... 

St.  Louis.  Mo 

'i 

Dartmouth  College.  .  . 

Hanover.  N.  H 

Ubanv,  N.  Y 

r.rnoblvn,  N.  Y 

L.  I.  Coll.  Hospital.  .  . 

1 

36 

Univ.  of  Buffalo 

IiuiValo.    X.  Y 

BellevueHospit.  M.  C. 

New  York.  N.Y 

1861 

j  3 

Coll.  of  Phys.  and  Sur. 

New  York,  N.Y 

New  York,  N.Y 

I8VI 

» 

<—  Univ.  of  City  of  N.  Y  . 

New  York,  N.Y 

lsll 

Women's  Med.  Coll.ot 

New  York,  N.Y 

Syracuse  Univ     Sviacuse,  N.  Y 

1ST'. 

3 

"   3 

1  s  1 '. 

20 

Is.V. 

21 

isi: 

40 

Univ.  of  Wooster    ....  Cleveland,  Ohio.... 

1861 

2 

20 

StarlingM.C.andHosp 
Univ.  of  Willamette.. 

i  ..luhibiis,  Ohio 

lsll 

Salem.  Oregon 

L86V 

3 

Jefferson  Med.  Coll... 

Philadelphia,  Pa.... 

1  - .'  1 

j  a 

22 

"^  Univ.  of  Pennsylvania 

Philadelphia,  Pa.... 

1  J.. 

Women's  M.  C.  of  Pa. 

Philadelphia.  Pa.... 

I'haibstou.  S.   C... 

S'.'t 

Columbia,  S.  C 

M.S 

Univ.  of  Nashville  ami 

Nashville,  Tenn 

Tex.  Med.  C.  andHosp. 

Galveston,  Tex 

1871 

Burlington.  Vt 

j.a 

riiailottesville.Va.. 

IV) 

Kicliinoud,  Va 

2 

37 

Washington,  D.  C... 

1851 

3 

Columbia  Univ 

Washington,  D.  C... 

MEIKROTTO 

Dental  Colleges. — In  the  United  States,  the 
first  institution  of  this  kind  was  the  Baltimore 
College  of  Dental  Surgery,  which  received  its 
charter  in  1839.  In  1876,  there  were  in  the 
U.  S.  the  following  dental  schools : 


New  Orleans  D.  C New  Orleans,  La. . . .  1S6 

Baltimore   College   of 

Iiental  Surgery Baltimi 

Maryland  Dental  Coll.  Baltimore.  Md, 
Boston  Iiental  Col" 
Dental  School  of 

van!  PiiiM  n  t. 


Pa.  Coll.  of  Dent.  Sur.  Philadelphia 

Phila.  Dent.  Coll Philadelphia 

Amer.  Dental  College    Austin.  Tex. 
Univ.  of  California.. .  lOakland,  Ca 

Homoeopathic  Colleges. —  The  homoeopathic 
system  of  medicine  was  first  definitely  propound- 
ed by  Hahnemann  (born  in  Meissen,  Saxony, 
1755;  died  in  Paris,  1843).  The  first  homoeo- 
pathic college  was  founded  at  Allentown,  Pa.,  by 
Dr.  "Wesselhoeft,  but  it  no  longer  exists.  In  1870, 
there  were  in  the  United  States  the  following 
homoeopathic  colleges  and  departments  : 


*::■ 

^   ■ 

1867 

2 

ism 

2 

is,:; 

2 

1  so  ; 

3 

lscs 

2 

I-,,.; 

2 

isni, 

2 

ISs.-i 

2 

IS.Hi 

•1 

IHYS 

1873 

Homoeopathic 

s| 

.=  « 

-:  S 

College  or 

Location 

H 

Department 

-7- 

'■- 

ChicagoHomrrop.Coll. 

Chicago,  111 

1876 

3 

•i\> 

and  Hosp   of I'lii.-ag-.  Chicago,  111 

186(1 

Iowa  Slate  Ci.n.rsiti    Iowa  City.   Iowa 

IS,, 

IH7H 

3 

1H74 

3 

36 

Homo-op  M.<     ,.t  Mo   St    Louis.  Mo 

1858 

2 

20 

St    Lmiis,  Mo 

1876 

N.  Y.  Homteop.  M.  C. . 

New  York.  N.  Y 

1860 

New  York.  N.  Y 

186a 

Cincinnati.  Ohio 

Homreop.  Hosp.  Cull. 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

1849 

2-3 

21 

of  Philadelphia 

Philadelphia,  Pa.... 

I860 

In  Europe,  there  are  chairs  of  homoeopathy 
in  the  universities  of  Munich,  Germany,  and  of 
Buda-Pesth,  Hungary;  also,  a  school  of  homoeop- 
athy in  London,  England. 

MEIEBOTTO,  Johann  Heinrich  Lud- 
wig,  a  German  educator,  born  August  22.,  1742; 
died  September  24.,  1800.  He  was  appointed, 
in  1771,  professor,  and,  in  1775,  rector  of  the 
Joachimsthal  Gymnasium,  in  Berlin ;  in  which 
position  he  was  eminently  successful,  being  called 
the  King  of  Rectors.  AVliile  a  member  of  the 
school  council,  he  traveled  through  the  provinces 
of  Prussia,  Silesia. and  IWn.and  displayed  great 
talent  in  organizing  common  schools.  Besides 
numerous  works  on  various  subjects,  he  wrote  a 
Latin  grammar  constructed  on  a  plan  which  bore 
some  resemblance  to  the  methods  of  Jacotot  and 
Hamilton,  and  which  attracted  considerable  at- 
tention at  the  time  of  its  introduction,  but  soon 
fell  into  disuse. 


MELANCHTON 

MELAKCHTHON,  Philip,  one  of  the 
church  reformers  of  the  L6th  century,  and  one 
of  Germany's  greatest  schoolmen  and  educators, 
was  born  at  Bretten,  a  little  town  near  Heidel- 
berg, Feb.  L6.,  1  197;  died  at  Wittenberg,  April 
19.,  L560.  In  recognition  of  the  extraordinary 
influence  which  he  exerted  upon  the  schools 
of  Germany  in  his  own  and  the  following  cent- 
uries.he  lias  been  honored  witb  the  t it  eol  Prce- 


MEMOHIZING 


i  gymnasium,  invited  Me- 
ts  rector.  He  declined  this 

it  seem  to  lie  uiieiatefu]  to 


in  1507,  he  was  taken  into  the  family  of  his 
grandmother,  who  was  a  sister  of  the  celebrated 
Keuchlin,  and  lived  at  Pforzheim.  Keuchlin. 
who  frequently  visited  his  sister,  was  delighted 
with  the  progress  of  young  Melanchthon,  gave 
him  books,  and,  after  the  fashion  of  the  times, 
changed  his  original  name  Schwarzerd  into 
the  Greek  Melanchthon.  At  the  age  of  only 
twelve  years,  Melanchthon  was  sent  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Heidelberg,  which  two  years  later,  in 
1511,  gave  him  the  baccalaureate  degree,  but, 
in  1512,  by  reason  of  his  extreme  youth,  de- 
clined to  confer  upon  him  the  degree  of  Master. 
While  at  Beidelberg,  Melanchthon  took  charge 
of  the  studies  of  the  two  sons  of  Count  Lowen- 
stein,  and  sketched,  probably  for  their  use,  the 
first  outlines  of  a  grammar  of  the  Creek  lan- 
guage. In  1512,  he  went  to  the  university  of 
Tubingen,  where  he  was  involved  in  the  struggle 
between  the  old  and  the  new  era.  and  with  the 
energy  and  ardor  of  youth  strove  to  compass  all 
branches  of  knowledge.  In  1514,  at  the  age  of 
seventeen.he  was  made  a  Master,  and  at  once 
began  to  lecture  on  Latin  classics.  His  career 
as  an  author  began  about  the  same  time ;  for,  as 
early  as  1  51  6,  he  published  an  edition  of  Terence, 
and,  in  1518,  his  Greek  grammar,  at  the  close  of 
which  he  announced  "  that  he  intended,  in  eon- 
junction  with  a  number  of  his  friends,  to  edit 
the  works  of  Aristotle  in  the  original".  At  the 
same  time,  he  attended  mathematical  and  med- 
ical lectures,  and  studied  the  science  of  law. 
In  1518,  Frederick  the  Wise,  Elector  of  Saxony, 
upon  the  recommendation  of  Reuchlin,  ap- 
pointed him  professor  of  Creek  in  the  university 
of  Wittenberg.  When  he  left  Tubingen,  Simler, 
his  old  teacher,  said  of  him  :  "  As  many  learned 
men  as  the  university  can  boast  of,  they  are, 
nevertheless,  none  of  them,  learned  enough  to 
form  a  suitable  estimate  of  the  learning  of  him 
who  is  about  to  leave  us."  Melanchthon  entered 
Wittenberg  Aug.  25..  1518,  and  remained  there 
until  the  close  of  his  life,  laboring  for  28  years  in 
intimate  connection  with  Luther.  He  lectured 
on  the  most  diverse  subjects,  —  the  Old  and 
the  New  Testaments,  dogmatics,  the  Greek  and 
Latin  classics,  ethics,  logic,  and  physics.  His 
fame  spread  throughout  Europe;  and  the  number 
of  his  hearers  reached  at  times  as  high  as  two  j 
thousand,  embracing  not  only  Germans,  but 
Frenchmen,  Englishmen,  Poies,  Hungarians, 
Italians,  and  Greeks.  Among  the  distinguished 
educators  who  were  formed  under  his  teaching, 
were  Trotzendorf  and  Neander.  He  was  often, 
and  in  various  ways,  appealed  to  for  counsel  in 
school  matters.  The  people  of  Nuremberg  having 


tion  with  scl 1 

L527,  of  the  elm 
undertaken  by  i 
Constant,  and  tl 

ches  and  .school 
rder  of  the  El. 
rough  the  inflm 

of  Thuringia, 

■tor,  John  the 
nee  of  Luther. 

In  company  witl 
he  traveled  over 
published  his  1! 
work  of  great  in 
cation  in  ( lermai 
ginnings,  as  yet 

Myconiusand  . 
he  whole  count 
port,  or  Book  < 

portaiuv  in  the 

v.    Thisl kd 

crude,  of  a  big 

y,and,inl528| 
/'    1  'isitation,  a 

listorv  of  eilu- 
■scribes  the  be- 
i-school  system 

in  that  country,  without  organization,  or  well- 
regulated  activity.  Melanchthon  was  a  prolific 
author  of  text  books,  which  were  universally 
introduced,  and  were  perpetuated  through  many 
editions.  They  comprise  a  Greek  and  a  Latin 
grammar,  two  manuals  of  logic,  one  of  rhetoric, 
one  of  ethics,  and  one  of  physics,  all  character- 
ized by  great  clearness  oi  expression.  Under 
the  title  Jjtvlttiiiitlimn-s,  we  have  a  collection  of 
Melanchthon's orations, which  contain  a  treasure 
of  educational  wisdom.  The  best  edition  of 
Melanchthon's  numerous  works  is  that  of  Bret- 
schneiderand  Bindseil,  in  the  Corpus  Reforma- 
torum  (28  vols..  1834  60).  His  life  has  been 
written  by  Ledderiibse  (Heidelberg,  1847;  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Krotel);  Schmidt  (1861); 
and  many  others. 

MEMORIZING,  committing  to  memory,  or, 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  learning  by  heart, 
generally  implies  repetition  or  rote-learning; 
though  it  need  not  be  without  an  understanding 
of  what  is  memorized.  The  law  of  repetition 
has  tin  important  application  in  many  processes 
of  instruction  that  arc  addressed,  wholly  or  in 
part,  to  the  memory.  The  mere  memorizing  of 
words  or  sentences,  in  order  to  produce  a  show 
of  knowledge  is  a  great  abuse.  Children  may, 
however,  be  required  to  commit  to  memory  some 
statements  which  tiny  do  not  perfectly  under- 
stand, such  complete  understanding  requiring  a 
more  mature  degree  of  intellectual  development. 
"No  doubt",  says  Calderwood  (On  Teaching, 
Edin.,  1H74),  "all  children  must  commit  to 
memory  a  good  many  things  they  do  not  rightly 
understand.  Such  storing  of  the  memory  be- 
longs less  or  more  to  all  study."  This  is  the  view- 
also  of  Thring  (Education  and  School,  Lon- 
don. 1864):  "There  should  be  a  clear  perception 
how  far  it  is  wise  to  explain,  and  to  proceed  on 
the  principle  of  making  a  boy  thoroughly  under- 
stand his  lessons,  and  how  far  they  should  be 
looked  on  as  a  mere  collecting  of  material  and  a 
matter  of  memory.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that,  with  the  young,  memory  is  strong,  and 
logical  perception  weak.  All  teaching  should 
start  mi  this  undoubted  fact.  It  sounds  very 
fascinating   to  talk  about  understanding   every 


562  ME* 

thing,  learning  every  thing  thoroughly,  and  all 
those  broad  phrases,  which  plump  down  on  a 
difficulty,  and  hide  it.  Put  in  practice  they  are 
about  on  a  par  with  exhorting  a  boy  to  mind  he 
does  not  go  into  the  water  till  he  can  swim."  The 
method  referred  to  in  this  citation  is  the  other 
extreme  from  mechanical  word  memorizing,  and 
while  not  as  injurious,  or  as  likely  to  be  adopted, 
is  equally  unphilosophical.  The  extent  to  which 
memorizing  is  to  be  carried,  and  the  branches  of 
instruction  to  which  it  is  to  be  applied,  constitute 
important  subjects  for  the  exercise  of  the  teach- 
er's judgment  and  intelligence.  (See  Concert 
Tkaciiino,  Mkmoky,  and  Roth-Teaching.) 

MEMORY  is  often  represented  as  a  distinct 
faculty  of  the  mind;  but  this  may  do  harm  in 
education.  The  mind  is  one.  and  has  no  sepa- 
rate faculties  distinct  from  each  other,  the  term 
faculty  being  used  merely  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience. It  is  import-ant  to  turn  away  from 
this  m.«le  of  conception,  and  to  look  at  the 
phenomena  as  they  arise  in  the  mind.  An  ob- 
ject and  a  mind  come  into  connection;  what  is 
the  result?  An  impression  is  produced  on  the 
mind,  or  more  correctly  the  mind  forms  an  im- 
pression of  the  object.  What  becomes  of  this  im- 
pression? A  new  object  presents  itself,  and  then 
the  impression  disappears  before  the  new  impres- 
sion which  the  mind  forms  of  the  new  object.  Ifas 
the  former  impression  disappeared  altogether? 
No.  We  believe  that,  in  some  way  or  other, 
it  still  remains  in  the  mind.  If  a  similar  ob- 
ject were  to  come  before  the  mind,  it  woidd  be 
conscious  that  it  had  formed  an  impression  of  it 
before,  and  the  two  impressions  would  blend  into 
one.  We  have  here.  then,  a  peculiar  power  of  the 
mind  to  retain  what  it  has  once  had  ;  and  this 
power  does  not  apply  merely  to  perceptions  or 
other  intellectual  acts,  but  to  feelings  an  1  desires. 
A  longing  for  an  object  has  been  aroused  within 
us.  The  longing  is  displaced  for  a  time  by  some 
other  pressing  passion.  But  the  longing  is  still 
in  the  mind:  and  when  the  appropriate  causes  of 
excitation  occur,  the  longing  will  come  back,  and, 
it  may  lie,  blend  with  the  lieu  longing  which 
helps  to  awaken  it.  or  repel  the  new  longing 
which  has  aroused  it  by  contrast.  This  then  is 
the  liisi  feature  of  memory.  The  soul  has  the 
power  of  retaining  feelings,  volitions,  perceptions, 
and  thoughts.  The  question  has  been  raised, 
can  these  feelings,  volitions,  and  thoughts  en- 
tirely and  absolutely  vanish  from  the  mind?  A 
categorical  answer  cannot,  from  the  nature  of 
the  ease,  be  given  to  this  question  ;  but,  certain 
facts  render  it  likely  that  the  mind  retains  every 

citation  which  is  defective.  Many  circumstances 
which  seem  to  have  been  entirely  forgotten,  are, 
under  peculiar  coudit  ions,  recalled  to  the  memory. 
It  is  said  that  often,  when  persons  have  been 
drowning,  they  have  seen,  as  in  a  rapid  vision, 
their  past  life  in  multitudinous  details  which 
they  had  entirely  forgotten.  People,  in  diseases 
of  the  brain,  have  remembered  languages,  which 
they  had  learned  in  early  days,  but  which  they 
seemed  to  have  lost  completely.   Facts  like  these 


point  to  the  indestructibility  of  that  which  has 
once  had  a  place  in  the  soul. — But  besides  the 
power  of  retention,  there  is  the  other  power  of 


We 


jkat 


the  conditions  of  its  exercise  ;  and.  in  this  con- 
nection, we  must  consider  the  four  following 
principles:  (I)  It  is  plain  that  the  impression 
will  be  reproducible  in  proportion  to  the  strength 
and  vivacity  with  which  it  is  first  made.  'I  his 
strength  depends  partly  on  the  natural  capacity 
of  the  child,  partly  on  whether  the  stimulus 
in  the  object  is  such  as  to  produce  a  strong 
impression.  The  educational  inferences  from 
this  statement  are  numerous.  Thus  it  follows 
that  wherever  a  real  object  can  be  presented 
to  a  child,  it  should  be  used  in  preference  to 
any  picture  of  it.  and  that  a  picture  of  it  is 
better  than  a  mere  verbal  description.  More- 
over, if  more  than  one  sense  can  be  employed,  so 
much  the  better.  If  any  object  is  to  be  re- 
liietnhcrcd,  the  child  will  remember  more  easily, 
if  he  can  touch,  smell,  and  taste  it.  as  well  as  see 
it  This  arises  partly  from  the  fact  that  these 
direct  sensations  produce  strong  impressions, but 
partly  also  from  what  we  call  our  second  prin- 
ciple of  memory: — (II)  Every  means  should  be 
used  to  concentrate  the  attention  on  the  object. 
If  we  wish  to  make  a  child  remember  an  object, 
the  object  must  he  allowed  to  lie  before  the 
child's  eye  or  mind  for  some  time.  In  the  percep- 
tion of  every  object  the  process  is  somewhat  as 
follows:    the  perception  or  sensation  has  first  to 


\\  lliell 

butalsi 

it  may 

acts:    a 


s  executed  at  its  central  moment, 
strength  of  the  connections  u  bid 
lh  the  antecedent  and  subsequent 
strength  depends  partly  on  the 
time  and  attention  with  which  they  can  be  kept 
together  in  the  mind  :  for.  in  every  mental  act, 
there  are  subsidiary  simultaneous  acts  which 
scarcely  reach  the  point  of  consciousness.  For 
instance,  when  1  examine  a  house,  there  is  some 
slight  perception  of  the  intermediate  space  be- 
tween me  and  the  house,  of  the  objects,  such  as 
trees,  which  may  be  in  that  space,  and  of  the  sky 
which  is  overhead.  These  pass  from  the  one 
definite  perception  to  the  other,  and  in  a  latent 
state  help  to  recall  the  one.  when  we  get  the 
other.  The  strength  of  the  connection  is  in- 
creased, if  there  liea  natural  coin tioii  between 

the  two  mental  acts,  such  as  that  of  cause  and 
effect,  means  and  end,  or  if  there  be  some  points 
'  resemblance  between  them,  or  some  points  of 


contrast.  But,  in  all  eases,  time  must  be  given 
to  let  these  points  of  resemblance  or  contrast 
flow  over,  as  it  were,  from  the  one  to  the  other. 
The  danger  to  which  the  educator  is  here  ex- 
posed, is  that  of  attempting  to  do  too  much  and, 
therefore,  doing  what  he  does  too  hurriedly.  He 
must  be  patient.  lie  must  try  to  intensify  the 
impression  by  allowing  the  various  senses  to  deal 
with  it,  and  he  can  thus  concentrate  attention 
longer  on  it  than  he  could  otherwise  do.  And 
he  must. as  far  as  possible,  tiring  only  twoobjeets 
or  two  ideas  at  a  time  before  the  pupil's  mind. 
These  should  be  held  together  for  sometime: 
and  they  should,  it'  it  is  possible,  be  naturally 
connected.  Of  course,  there  are  occasions  in 
which  this  is  neither  possible  nor  advantageous. 
There  are  some  occasions  in  which  the  teacher 
must  pass  over  a  good  deal  of  matter  in  a  short 
time.  He  does  not  wish  his  pupil  to  remember 
the  whole,  nor  would  it  be  good  tor  the  pupil  to 
do  so  ;  but  these  cases  should  be  limited  to  those 
of  necessity.  And  a  warning  should  be  given 
against  the  danger  of  indulging  too  much  in 
reading  books  which,  awakening  the  interest 
strongly  and  thus  disturbing  the  nervous  sys- 
tem, do  not  demand  of  the  reader  an  accurate 
recollection.  This  is  specially  true  of  novels, 
The  frequent  and  rapid  reading  of  these  works, 
in  which  the  reader  has  no  stimulus  and  no  occa- 
sion to  remember  the  incidents  accurately,  tills 
the  mind  with  a  great  number  of  vague  mem- 
ories. These  memories  render  indistinct  what 
ought  to  be  distinct,  for  they  abstract  so  much 
of  the  valuable  power  that  the  mind  possesses 
for  reproduction:  and  the  habit  of  reading  with- 
out caring  to  remember,  is  apt  to  transfer  itself 

to  the   1 ks   and   acts  which  ought  to  have  the 

closest  attention. — (111)  There  must  be  frequent 
repetition.  An  object  or  thought  is  reproducible 
easily,  when  it  has  been  made  to  occupy  a  large 
space  in  the  mind.  The  power  of  reproduction  is 
limited  by  lime,  and  the  mind  can  only  reproduce 
within  certain  limits  in  this  respect.  If.  therefore, 
an  object  is  to  be  reproduced,  the  faded  impres- 
sion must  be  renewed :  and  the  renewal  of  the 
impression  strengthens  its  hold.  It  is  thus  that 
a  fact  may  become  indelibly  imprinted  on  the 
memory.  The  value  of  the  repetition  cannot  be 
overestimated,  but  great  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  make  it  wearisome. — (IV)  The  power  of  re- 
production greatly  depends  on  the  state  of  the 
health.  That  there  is  a  very  close  connection 
between  this  power  and  the  body,  is  proved  most 
conclusively  by  the  numerous  instances  collected 
by  Dr.  Miireioiiibie.  in  which  abnormal  states 
of  the  brain  were  accompanied  by  abnormal 
developments  of  memory.  When,  therefore,  a 
child  forgets,  it  must  not 'be  always  attributed  to 
carelessness.  A  child  learns  a  word  on  Monday, 
ami  knows  it  with  perfect  accuracy;  but  when  he 
comes,  on  Tuesday  morning, to  repeat  it.  he  finds 
he  cannot.  In  all  probability,  the  impression  was 
too  weak  to  last  a  whole  day,  and  to  resist  the 
many  and  more  interesting  idea-  which  have 
intervened  ;  but  the  lesson  is  not  lost.  The  orig- 
inal impression  is  there ;   the  teacher  patiently 


and  pleasantly  renews  the  impression;  and  the 
old  blends  with  the  new.  and  strengthens,  until 
repetition  fixes  it  in  the  mind  forever.  But  it 
maybe  merely  a  temporary  suspension  of  the 
child's  power  of  reproduction,  in  consequence  of 
illness:  and  there  is  no  surer  sign  of  latent  dis- 
ease than  when  a  child,  generally  ready  and 
quick,  stumbles  and  forgets.  Some  phyMoingiMs 
go  the  length  of  affirming  that,  owing  to  the 
freshness  of  the  nervous  system,  the  exercise  of 
the  memory  should  be  assigned  to  the  morning; 
while  other  mental  efforts,  such  as  those  of 
imagination,  should  be  reserved  for  the  evening. 
These  four  principles  lead  not  only  to  the  power 
of  reproduction,  but  to  the  power  of  ready  and 
accurate  reproduction.  In  order  that  the  mem- 
ory may  embrace  a  wide  range  of  subjects,  it  is 
essential  that  the  mind  should  devote  itself  to 
such  a  range  of  subjects.  The  power  of  reprodu- 
cing a  subject  depends  upon  the  frequency  and 
strength  with  which  it  has  come  before  the 
mind.  It  is,  therefore,  not  quite  correct  to  say, 
that  a  person  has  a  good  or  a  bad  memoiy.  Kvery 
one  has  many  kinds  of  memory.  If  he  ii;<^  exer- 
cised his  mind  in  words,  he  will  remember  words; 
if  he  has  given  much  attention  to  numbers,  he 
will  remember  numbers:  if  to  any  other  class  of 
ideas,  he  will  remember  such  ideas.  But.  however 
great  his  practice  in  numbers  may  be.  that  prac- 
tice will  not  enable  him  to  remember  words;  and 
the  converse  is  also  true.  The  teacher  must  care- 
fully exercise  the  pupil  in  each  group  of  notions, 
if  he  expects  him  to  remember  them  readily  and 
accurately.  Perhaps,  one  of  the  questions  which 
deserve  careful  consideration  in  education  is 
what  ought  to  be  forgotten.  The  human  mind 
is  limited  in  its  range,  and  cannot  reproduce 
every  thing.  Ought  it  to  put  into  its  store-house 
any  thing  that  it  cannot  hope  to  reproduce?  We 
think  that  it  ought.  Where  the  aim  is  to  pro- 
duel-  in  the  pupil  a  clear  idea  or  notion,  many 
particulars  must  be  adduced  which,  studied  atten- 
tively for  a  short  time,  will  render  the  notion 
clear  and  distinct :  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  the 
mind  should  retain  all  these  particulars.  This 
is  the  case,  for  instance,  in  geography.  In  order 
to  form  a  correct  notion  of  a  country,  many  par- 
ticulars must  be  carefully  weighed:  but.  after  the 
notion  has  been  attained,  the  pupil  will  wisely 
drop  a  oivat  deal  of  the  knowledge  which  he  has 

temporarily    mastered,  deeming   ii    enough    to 

know  where  he  can  get  the  knowledge  when  he 
wants  it.  Again,  when  the  object  is  to  inculcate 
a  great  principle  of  action,  the  same  course  may 
be  pursued.  If,  for  example,  a  teacher  wishes 
to  impress  upon  1 1 is  pupils  the  Inn-  idea  of  tolera- 
tion, he  may  choose  many  incidents  in  history 
to  bring  it  home  to  their  minds, and  may  go  into 
the  minutest  details  of  these  incidents  in  order 
to  awaken  interest  ;  but  he  succeeds  in  his  pur- 
pose, if  he  leaves  a  strong  and  accurate  genera] 
impression,  even  though  the  pupil  forgets  most  of 
the  details  which  have  been  given  him.  The  power 
of  forgetfulness  is  one  that  can  also  be  directed,  as 
well  as  the  power  of  reproduction.  It  is,  indeed, 
true  that  the  greater   the   effort  to  forget  any 


564  MEN 

thing,  the  more  surely  is  it  impressed  on  the 
memory;  but  this  holds  true  mainly  in  those  mat- 
ters  in  which  there  is  a  strong  persona]  element: 
and  just  as  a  man  who  sleeps  in  a  loom  where  a 
clock  strikes  can  make  up  his  mind  not  to  take 
any  notice  of  the  striking  of  the  clock  in  his 
sleep,  so,  in  the  impersonal  matters  of  the  intel- 
lect, we  can  make  up  our  minds  to  let  such  and 
such  facts  fall  into  oblivion.  Kant  distinguished 
memory  as  the  mechanical,  the  ingenious,  and 
the  judicious.  The  mechanical  is  employed  when 
the  only  bond  of  connection  is,  that  the  two  things 
are  in  the  mind  at  the  same  time,  the  one  im- 
mediately succeeding  the  other.  This  is  what  is 
called  committing  to  memory,  or  learning  by 
heart.  Such  kind  of  memory  must  be  frequently 
used  in  early  education.  It  is  important  for  the 
teacher  to  note  its  character.  It  depends  on 
simultaneity  and  succession,  and  any  disturbance 
of  these  circumstances  disturbs  the  memory.  For 
instance,  it  would  lie  very  difficult  for  anyone  at 
first  tn  repeat  the  Lord's  Prayer  backwards.  He 
lias  learned  it  forwards ;  he  has  not  learned  it 
backwards.  A  boy  learns  a/no,  I  lure.  He  may 
not  have  mastere  1  /  love,  amo.  If  you  ask  him  the 
Latin  word  for  death,  he  cannot  tell  you  ;  but  if 
you  ask  him  the  meaning  of  mors,  he  can  tell  you. 
The  third  method — that  which  Kant  calls  the 
judicious,  is  no  doubt  the  best;  since  by  it,  things 
are  remembered  by  means  of  their  natural  con- 
nection in  thought.  Tin  nights  can  lie  grouped,  and 
one  of  a  group  suggests  the  other.  Phenomena 
stand  in  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect.  The 
cause  will  suggest  the  effect,  or  the  effect  the 
cause. — As  an  "example  of  the  second  kind,  may 
be  mentioned  mnemonics;  which  is  an  attempt  to 
introduce  an  artificial  connecting  link.  Two  ideas 
are  unconnected,  but  they  may  be  linked  by  a 
third  which  is  familiar  to  the  mind.  Thus  a  clock 
has  no  real  connection  with  hope;  but,  having  re- 
solved to  make  a  speech,  I  fix  on  three  objects  in 
the  hall,  with  which  I  arbitrarily  connect  the  three 
heads  of  my  discourse.  The  first,,  for  example, 
is  a  pillar  in  the  hall,  and  with  it  I  connect  the 
idea  of  faith  :  this  will  be  my  first  head,  and, 
■when  I  see  the  pillar.  I  shall  know  how  to  begin. 
Hope  is  my  second  and  I  have  but  to  look  at 
the  clock  to  recall  it  to  mind;  and  a  third  object 
in  the  room,  in  the  same  manner,  will  remind 
me  that  my  third  head  is  charily.  Mnemonic 
systems  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : 
(I)  those  which  connect  the  ideas  with  localities, 
such  as  the  parts  of  a  room,  tablets  divided  into 
different  compartments,  etc.  ;  ('_')  those  in  which 
the  ideas  are  connected  with  letters  or  words  ; 
and  (3)  those  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to 
seize  hold  of  some  natural  connection ;  for  in- 
stance, hair,  mourir,  naitre,  plaire,  rire,  vivre, 
are  irregular  French  verbs,  having  no  connection 
with  each  other ;  but  the  meanings  may  be  so 
arranged  as  to  be  easily  suggestive  of  each  other; 
thus,  die  suggests  lire,  lire  suggests  to  be  born, 
to  be  born  suggests  lain/li.  lamjh  suggests  please, 
and  please  suggests  hate.  Now,  if  two  of  these 
ideas  be  kept  steadily  in  the  mind  together,  they 
will  remain  united  in  the  mind,  and  afterwards 


the  one  will  suggest  the  other.  None  of  these 
mnemonic  systems  are  likely  to  be  of  much  use 
to  the  teacher.  They,  indeed,  often  add  to  the 
task  of  memory;  they  are  apt  to  create  confusion, 
after  a  time,  and  they  tend  to  displace  intelligent 
memory.  The  only  case  in  which  some  good  may 
be  got  out  of  them  is  in  connection  with  dates. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  dates  are  far  more  dif- 
ficult to  remember  than  letters  or  words  ;  and, 
therefore,  a  temperate  use  of  letters  or  words  for 
figures  may  be  recommended. — One  of  the  most 
noted  systems  employing  letters  is  the  old  one 
of  Grey's  Memoria  Technica  (1730).  The  letters 
employed  are  as  follows  : 


b      d      t      f      I        s       p       k       n       z 
Here  a  and  b  stund  for  1  ;    e  and  d.  for  2  ;  i  and  t, 
for  3;  and  so  on. 

These  letters  are  assigned  arbitrarily  to  the 
respective  figures,  and  may  very  easily  be  re- 
membered. The  first  five  vowels  in  order  natu- 
rally represent  1,  2,  3,  4,  5.  The  diphthong  au, 
being  composed  of  a  (1)  and  u  (5),  stands  for  G ; 
oi  for  7,  being  composed  of  o  (4)  and  i  (3);  on  for 
9,  being  composed  of  o  (4)  and  u  (5).  The  diph- 
thong ei  will  easily  lie  remembered  for  eight,  being 
the  initials  of  the  word.  In  like  manner  with  the 
consonants ;  where  the  initials  can  conveniently 
be  retained,  they  are  made  use  of  to  signify  this 
number :  as  I  for  three,  f  for  four,  s  for  six,  and 
n  for  nine.  The  rest  are  assigned  without  any 
particular  reason,  unless  that  possibly  p  may  be 
more  easily  remembered  for  7  or  septem,  k  for 
8  or  i/crii,  d  for  2  or  duo,  b  for  1  as  being  the 
first  consonant,  and  I  for  five,  being  the  Roman 
letter  for  50,  than  any  others  that  could  have 
been  put  in  their  places.  A  much  more  ingenious 
and  more  effective  system,  is  that  taught  by  F. 
Fauvel-Gouraud  (Phreno-Mnemnlechny,  or  Art 
of  Memory,  N.  T.,  1845;  with  Dictionary,  for  a 
ready  application  of  the  system),  which  was  a 
modification  of  Fainagle's  New  Art  of  Memory 
(London,  1812).  In  this,  as  in  other  systems,  the 
underlying  principle  is  the  law  of  association  of 
ideas  ; '  and,  in  order  to  facilitate  this  association, 
arbitrary  facts  and  dates  are  translated  into  the 
expressions  of  ideas  or  thoughts.  Numbers  are 
transformed  into  words  and  sentences  by  the  fol- 
lowing arrangement  of  equivalents : 

0123456  7  89 
stnrurlch  k  fp 
z   d  g  ;soft)  g  (hard)  v   b 

th  sh 

The  vowel  and  the  aspirate  h,  with  the  quasi 
vowels,  w  and  y,  are  not  represented;  and  hence, 
in  forming  a  word  for  the  mnemonic  representa- 
tion of  a  date  or  other  number,  any  of  these  can 
be  used.  Tims  the  number  32  may  be  represented 
by  man,  moon,  many,  human,  woman, etc.  This 
feature  of  the  system  adds  greatly  to  the  facilities 
with  which  it  may  be  applied.  For  example, 
suppose  it  is  desired  to  fix  in  the  memory  in  this 
way  the  date  of  the  passage  of  the  Red  Pea  by 
the  Israelites  (1491  B.  C);  by  a  careful  selection 
from  among  the  numerous  words  and  phrases 


MENNONITES 

that  may  be  taken  to  represent  this  number, 
the  phrase  watery  bed  is  taken,  as  having  some 
connection  in  ideas  with  the  historical  fact  re- 
ferred to.  Then  Gouraud's  association  is  ex- 
pressed in  the  sentence,  "At  the  Passage  of  the 
Bed  Sea,  the  armies  of  Pharaoh  met  their  death 
in  a  watery  bed";  and  as  long  as  this  phrase  is 
remembered,  tin' date  involved  in  it  cannot  be 
forgotten.  The  advantage  of  this  system  is.  that 
it  need  not  living  into  association  heterogeneous 
ideas.  In  the  application  of  it.  many  other  cu- 
rious devices,  such  as  komopAonic  analogies  etc. 
are  used.  —  Of  a  somewhat  similar  character  is 
Dr.  Alex.  Mackay's  Facts  mid.  Bates  (Edinburgh, 
1869).  In  this,  as  in  Gouraud's  system,  every 
date  is  contained  in  a  sentence  which  is  approp- 
riate to  the  event.  Thus  the  sentence  which 
gives  the  date  of  Hannibal's  defeat  at  Zama  is. 
"The  formidable  warrior  is  defeated." — The  art 
of  mnemonics  is  said  by  Cicero  to  have  been 
invented  by  the  Greek  poet  Simonides.  It  is 
described  by  Cicero,  Quintilian,  and  Pliny.  In 
more  modern  times,  works  on  the  subject  have 
been  written  by  Schenkel  (1593),  Bruno  (1582), 
Mink  (1648),  Grey  (1730),  Aretin  (1810),  Fain- 
agle  (1812),  improved  by  Aimce  (Paris  1832), 
Bemowsky  (1842),  Otto  (1843),  Cothe  {System 
der  Mnemonik,  Cassel,  1853),  Pick  (1866),Sayer 
(1867).  Slater  {SententicR  Ghronologicoe,  edit,  by 
Miss  Sewell,  1868),  Mackay  (1869),  Minola, 
Nemos  (1875),  and  many  others.  .V  short  his 
tory  of  Mnemonics  is  given  in  Tick's  work. 

MENNONITES,  "a  denomination  of  Prot- 
testants,  which  on'ginatedat  Zurich, Switzerland, 
in  1525.  They  spread  to  Southern  Germany, 
and  soon  after  to  the  Netherlands,  where  Menno 
Symons,  a  former  Roman  Catholic  priest,  joined 
them  in  L535.  Prom  him  they  took  their  name. 
though  he  was  not  their  founder,  but  only  re- 
organized them.     In  coiiin with   the  Friends. 

they  practice  non-resistance  and  abstinence  from 
oaths;  and,  in  common  with  the  Baptists,  they 
reject  infant  baptism,  administering,  however, 
baptism  by  pouring.  In  the  Netherlands,  in  1700, 
they  numbered  150,000  members;  but  at  present 
have  only  211.0(10;  and,  in  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land, even  less  than  that  number.  In  southern 
Russia,  whither  they  have  gone  from  Germany 
as  colonists,  they  form  a  population  of  more 
than  30,000.  Their  emigration  to  the  United 
States  began  in  1683,  and  continued  throughout 
the  entire  18th  century.  At  present  their  mem- 
bership in  the  United  States  and  I  lanada,  i^  esti- 
mated at  60,000.  They  are  all  of  German  origin, 
and  most  of  them  still  employ  the  German  lan- 
guage. Nearly  all  of  them  are  farmers,  being 
favorably  known  for  their  honesty,  industry,  and 
other  domestic  virtues,  but  greatly  behind  the 
age  in  the  matter  of  education.  Their  first  at- 
tempt to  found  a  high  school  took  place  in  I  -t„-~, 
when  the  Ghristliche  Bildungsanstatt  (christian 
institution  of  learning),  at  Wadsworth,  Medina 
Co.,  Ohio,  was  opened.  It  is  an  academy,  hav- 
ing for  its  principal  a  theological  teacher.  Rev. 
0.  J.  Van  der  Smissen,  but  besides  him  only 
teachers  of  German  and  English  grammar,  mu- 


mkrckrsiurg  coli.kgk    ;>t;;> 

sic,  and  the  elemental  v  brandies.  The  number 
of  pupils,  in  1876,  was  27.  Onlj  one  of  the 
various  divisions  existing  an •_'  the  Menno- 
nites of  this  country,  supports  this  school,  which 

mittee,"  appointed  by  the  general  conference  of 

the  body.  The  other  divisions  of  the  Mennonites 
have  no  institutions  of  learning  whatever.  Even 
Sabbath  schools  exist  only  in  a  minority  of  the 
churches,  and  are  of  quite  recent  origin.  In 
Europe  also,  little  is  done  by  the  Mennonites  for 
the  education  of  the  members  of  their  order. 
They  send  their  children  to  the  public  schools, 
but  support  a  theological  seminary  of  their  own, 
founded  at  Amsterdam. in  lol2, under  the  name 

Be   Kit kschool  der  algemeene   Boopsgezvn.de 

Socieit  it  ter  bevordering  van  de  predikdienst, 
i.  e.,  Seminary  of  the  General  Society  of  Bap- 
tists for  the 'furtherance  of  the  ministry.  This 
seminary  is  under  the  control  of  12  curators, 
who  are  appointed  by  the  trustees  of  tlie  general 
society.  It  has  at  present  (1876)  3  professors 
and  about  30  students.  In  Germany  the  Menno- 
nites have  an  academy  at  Weierhof,  Rhenish 
Bavaria,  founded  in  L868. 

MERCER  UNIVERSITY,  at  Macon.  Ga., 
under  the  control  of  Baptists,  was  founded   in 


is  furnished  with 
heiiiical  apparatus. 
8250,000.  The  li- 
tlnmes,  The  cost  of 


The  i 

ts.with 


comprises  a  college  of  libera]  arts, with  a  classical 
course  of  four  years,  and  a  scientific  course  of 
three  years ;  a  department  of  theology  (not  yet 
separately  organized)  ;  and  a  school  of  law.     In 


college, 
students,  of 
I'he  Mercer 
'o.,  and  the 
e  connected 


Re, 


o.  I..  Dagg,  1>.  I>.,  1843  —  50;  the  Rev. 
M.  Crawford,  It.  D.,  L850— 60;  the  Rev.  II. 
Tucker  1».  I»..  1867 — 71  :  and  the  Rev.  Archi- 
Id.l.  Battle,  D.D.,  appointed  in  1872. 
MERCERSBURG  COLLEGE,  at  Mercers- 
]■!_'.  I'a..  founded  in  1M'>.">.  is  under  the  control 


■med  Chi 
Marsha] 


md  chiefly  by  tuition  fees  and  contributions 
as  an  endowment  of  $18,000.  The  librariet 
tain  about  3,000  volumes.  The  cost  of  tin 
is  $45  per  annum.     There  is  a  preparatory 


and 


II. 


The  presidents  have  been  the  Rev.  Dr.  Thomas 
G.  Apple,  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  E.  E.  Higbee,  the 
present  incumbent  (1876). 


Oiili 


METII S'I'S 


METHODISTS,  the  collective  name  of  a 
number  of  Protestant  denominations  that  have 
sprung  from  the  peculiar  religions  character 
and  influence  of  John  Wesley,  a  Fellow  of  Ox- 
ford University,  and  ordained  as  a  clergyman  of 
the  Church  of  England.  As  early  as  1729,  while 
a  Fellow  at  Oxford.  Wesley  gathered  about 
him  a  number  of  persons  of  like  character,  and 
spent  much  time  in  religious  worship,  in  the 
study  of  the  Bible,  and  in  active  benevolent  la- 
bors among  the  poor.  Their  fellow  studc- its.  either 
in  derision  or  as  a  happy  expression  of  their  char- 
acter, called  them  Methodists,  a  term  which  lias 
been  loosely  employed  not  only  to  describe  any 
who  are  extraordinarily  zealous  in  religion,  but 
as  the  recognized  name  of  several  denominations 
that  can  trace  their  origin,  more  or  less  directly, 
to  the  influence  of  John  Wesley.  The  principal 
Methodist  bodies  in  Great  Britain  are  the  Wes- 
levan  Societies, organized  in  1740;  the  Primitive 
Methodist  Church,organizedl819;  the  Methodist 
New  Connection  church:  the  United  Methodist 
Free  Churches ;  the  Bible  Christian  Church.and 
the  British  Wesleyan  Reform  Union.  There  are 
also  affiliated  Methodist  bodies  in  Krance.and  in 
Australia  ;  ami  lai'ee  and  flourishing  missions  in 
China.  India.  South  Africa,  and  elsewhere,  under 
the  charge  of  British  Methodists;  and  bodies  of 
American  Methodists,  which  promise  soon  in- 
dependent and  affiliated  organizations.  In  Amer- 

from  which  sprung,  in  1844,  the  Methodisl  Epis- 
copal Church,  South;  the  African  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church;  the  African  Zion  M.  E. 
Church;  and  the  Colored  M.  K.  Church  of 
America.  There  are  also  several  smaller  organ- 
izations, called  The  Methodist  Church,  Methodist 
Protestant  Church,  American  Wesleyan  Church, 
Free  Methodist,  and  Evangelical  Association.  All 
these  bodies  are  substantially  identical  in  doc- 
trine, all  maintain  a  regular  itineracy  of  the 
preachers;  and.  ill  fact,  the  M.  E.  Church,  and 
M.  E.  Church, South, embrace  by  far  the  greater 
part  of  all  the  membership  among  the  white 
population.  The  general  summary  of  Methodists 
in  the  United  States,  in  1876,  gave  in  round 
numbers  1  '.1 .110(1  itinerant  ministers  and  nearly 
3,000,000  members,  in  Methodist  Episcopal 
churches;    and    1,500    itinerant    ministers   and 

1«0,000   members,   in    i -episcopal    Methodist 

churches.  In  the  rest  of  the  world,  Methodists 
at  the  same  time  numbered  about  5,000  itin- 
erant ministers  and  1,000,000  members.  Ac- 
cording to  the  U.  S.  census  of  1870,  the  Meth- 
odists had  21,337  church  edifices,  6,528,209 
sittings,  and  church  property  (edifices  and 
parsonages)  worth  $69,854,121;  but  they  have 
rapidly  increased  since  that  time. 

In  Great  Briiain.the  leading  body  of  Meth- 
odists in  England  and  Scotland  is  composed  of 
the  Wesleyan  Societies  under  the  control  of  the 
British  Wesleyan  Conference,  which  has  also  a 
branch  in  Ireland,  and  affiliated  Conferences  in 
the  British  colonies.  As  early  as  1744,  two 
schools,  the  Kings  wood  and  the  Woodhouse 
drove,  were  established,  which  are  still  flourish- 


ing. Two  theological  institutions  were  estab- 
lished in  1838,  which  are  largely  attended,  many 
of  the  ministers  now  receiving  their  education 
at  these  schools.  They  have  also  the  Wesleyan 
Proprietary  School  at  Sheffield,  which  is  recog- 
nized as  one  of  the  colleges  of  the  London  Uni- 
versity.   What  are  called  day  schools  or  parish 

scl is  , ire  established   numerously  in  England. 

complying  with  the  terms  required,  and  sharing 
in  governmental  assistance.  Also,  to  fit  teach- 
ers for  these  schools,  the  Wesleyans  have  a  large 
normal  school  at  Westminster.  They  have  also 
a  college  designed  expressly  for  the  education  of 
those  who  are  preparing  to  be  foreign  mission- 
aries. By  means  of  a  Children's  Fond  and  other 
collections,  many  needy  students  arc  aided  while 
securing  an  education.  The  Irish  Wesleyan  «  in- 
ference has  two  vigorous  schools  under  its  charge, 
—  the  Belfast  College  and  the  Conventional 
School  at  Dublin.  There  are  various  other 
branches  of  Methodists  in  Great  Britain,  all  of 
which  manifest  an  increasing  interest  in  edu- 
cation. The  Primitive  Methodist  Church  has 
a  theological  institute  at  Sunderland  :  the  Meth- 
odist New  Connection  Church,  has  one  at  Shef- 
field :  the  United  Methodist  Free  Societies,  at 
Manchester;  and  the  Bible  Christians,  atSheb- 
bear. 

In  Canada,  there  are  but  two  Methodist  bodies. 
the  one  called  the  Methodist  Church  of  Canada 
and  Eastern  America  :  and  the  other,  the  M.  E. 
Church  of  Canada.  The  former  has  a  flourish- 
ing university  at  Cobourg,  with  colleges  of  arts, 
theology,  law,  and  medicine ;  also  the  Ml.  Alli- 
son Wesleyan  College,  at  Sackville.  N".  B. ;  the 
Wesleyan  Female  College,  at  Hamilton;  Home- 
stead i  'ollege  ;  Theological  <  'ollege.  at  Montreal; 
Collegiate  Institute,  at  IHindas;  Manitoba  Wes- 
leyan Institute,  and  Ontario  Ladies' College,  at 
Whitby.  "These  institutions  have  an  aggregate 
property  oS  about  one  million  dollars.  They  are 
all  under  the  care  of  a  board  of  education.  The 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  of  <  'anada  concen- 
trates its  educational  interests  at  Belleville,  where 
it  has  a  flourishing  institution  called  Albert  (.'ol- 
lege, which  has  university  powers,  and  depart- 
ments in  arts,  theology,  law. and  medicine.  There 
is  also  connected  with  it  a  school  for  females, 
called  Alexandra  College. 

In  Australia,  the  Methodists  have  several 
flourishing  academies  and  colleges. 

In  the  United  States,  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
church  was  not  organized  till  1784;  but  Meth- 
odist Societies  were  established  in  New  York 
and  Maryland  as  early  as  1766.  Rev.  Thomas 
Coke.  LL.D.,  one  of  the  presidents  of  the 
first  conference,  was  a  graduate  of  Oxford  Uni- 
versity, .■mil  deeply  interested  in  education. 
At  this  conference,  a  "Book  Concern",  which 
has  since  become  one  of  the  leading  publish- 
ing houses  in  the  country,  was  provided  for; 
and  it  was  ordered  that  its  profits  should 
be  devoted  to  five  purposes,  one  of  which  was 
the  foundation  and  maintenance  of  a  college 
particularly  designed  for  the  education  of  preach- 
ers.    A  collection  for  this  purpose  was  also  or- 


MKTIH  MUSTS 


all  the  congregations.  Tims 
ved  as  a  part  of  the  legiti- 
lurch  at  the  time  of  its  or- 
illege  thus  established  was 
Ion,    Md.,    in     its;,     and 

Coke  and  Asbury,  Cokes- 
as  well  attended  'till  1797, 


become  preachers  or  teachers, 
ing  conference  seminaries  an 
secure  endowments  in  additi 
buildings.  There  are  but  few 


college  was  re-opened  in  Baltimore;  but  the  new 

building  was  also  soon  consumed  by  fire.  So 
disheartened  was  the  Church  by  these  losses  that 
some  hastily  inferred  that  it  was  "not  the  business 
of  Methodists  to  build  colleges",  and  it  was  im- 
pracl  icable  to  resume  the  enterprise  at  once:  and, 
for  twenty  years,  all  the  educational  work  of 
the  church  was  carried  on  in  a  few  private 
schools  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  These 
schools  were  somewhat  numerous,  and.  in  some 
instances,  formally  recognized  by  the  ( 'liurch:  but, 
for  the  want  of  system  and  permanent  foun- 
dations, the  most  of  what  they  accomplished  has 
not  been  recorded  in  history.  Asa  kind  of  sub- 
stitute for  theological  schools,  the  general  con- 
ference ordered  that  all  who  entered  the  reg- 
ular ministry  should  pmsue  for  tour  years  a 
prescribed  course  of  literary  and  theological  study. 
and  be  examined  annually  in  the  same;  and  their 
promotion    in   the  conference  as    well  as   their 


University,  at  Middletown,  Ct..  in   Li 
college   lias   been   remarkably  success 
character  of  its  alumni,  having gradui 
1,200  in   45  years,  besides    partially 

charters,  about  20  of  which  were  doii 
able  college  work.     Four  or  five  had  i 
to  the  literary  college,  schools  of  med 
or  theology."  The  Northwestern  I  Hi 
Evanston,   111.,  has  associated  with  it 
school  in  Chicago.  The  Boston  Univei 
medical, a  law  .and  a  theological  depart] 
Syracuse    University,  in  Syracuse,  N. 
medical  college;  and  a  college  of  missio 
a  law  school  are  a  part  of  its  plan.  The 

J31. 

ful 

lied 
edll 

about 

prm  ig 
crsity 

jS 

a  medical 

neiit.  The 
Y..  has  a 

naries  and 
buildings 

an  1  stu  ly  for  the  first  four  years  of  their  min- 
istry. This  has  greatly  contributed  to  harmony 
of  belief  and  theological  culture.  It  has.  indeed, 
been  a  great  educating  power,  every  young 
Methodist  preacher  being  specially  charged  to 
spend  from  four  to  mx  hours  in  study  daily. 

In  L817,largely  through  the  influence  of  Rev. 
Wilbur  Fisk.  D.  l'l.,of  New  Fngland.an  alumnus 
of  Brown  University,  an  academy  was  purchased 
by  the  Conference  in  New  England,  and  opened 
as  a  conference  seminary.  Students  of  both 
sexes  were  admitted.  The  ensuing  general  con- 
ference approved  the  enterprise,  and  recom- 
mended all  the  annual  conferences  to  follow 
the  example.  This  has  become  the  general  prac- 
tice. The  greatest  educational  force  of  Meth- 
oili-ts  has  appeared  in  these  seminaries.  There 
have  been  nearly  a  hundred  of  these  conference 
seminaries  founded,  of  which  some  have  become 
extinct  after  doing  a  noble  work,  some  have  be-  i 
come  female  colleges,  and  some  have  grown 
into  regular  colleges;  but  more  than  fifty 
still  remain  in  a  nourishing  condition  on  the 
old  foundation.  The  buildings  and  funds 
of    these    seminaries    are    valued    at    more    than 

34,oiM>.ooO  ;  and  they  employ  about  500  teachers. 


both  sexes.  They  have 
pupils,  mostly  young 
from  16  to  25  years  of 


0.000.  Several  of  these  C 
Uy  to  both  sexes.  The 
len   attending  them  an 


suing  thorough  college 

paratively  small:  but  t 
schools  of  the  Boston 

I'he  establishment  of 

met  with  siderable 

Methodist  Episcopal  ( 
the  teachingwould  ten 

work  :   others   maintaii 

were  well  grounded  m 

I    llu'h 


Which 


and    young  women 
many  of  whom  have 


•iginally  attended  by  stu- 
dents who  had  not  pursued  a  college  course 
of  study.    Dr.    Dempsters  ereat    object    being  a 

scl I  exclusively  theological  foryoung  ministers 

of  whatever  grade  of  scholarship.   Subsequently, 
this  school   was  removed  to   Boston,  and  its 


5(iS 


METHODISTS 


courses  of  study  were  greatly  enlarged;  it  is 
now  a  department  of  the  Boston  University. 
In  1855,  the  Garrett  Biblical  Institute  was 
opened  in  Evanston,  III.,  founded  on  a  bequest 
by  a  Mrs.  Garrett,  of  ( 'hicago.  In  1807.  the 
Drew  Theological  Seminary  was  opened  in 
Madison.  N.  J.  These  three  theological  schools 
are  now  largely  attended  by  college  grad- 
uates; but  they  furnish,  as  yet,  but  a  small 
portion  of  those  who  enter  the  conferences  as 
regular  preachers.  From  the  beginning,  it  has 
been  the  practice  to  admit  to  the  ministry  prom- 
ising young  men,  with  but  a  limited  school 
education  ;  but  the  relative  proportion  of  college 
graduates  is  rapidly  increasing.  Several  of  the 
colleges  offer  special  instruction  to  candidates 
for  the  ministry. 

In  theforeign  missionsoi  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  schools  have  been  established  ac- 
cording to  the  exigences  of  the  place,  some  ele- 
mentary, and  siime  theological,  and  even  medical. 
Martin  Institute,  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main.  I  ler- 
many.  is  a  combination  of  a  conference  seminary 
with  a  theological  school.  There  is  also  a  flour- 
ishing India  Theological  School,  at  Bareilly, 
British  India.  Several  schools  are  under  the 
charge  of  the  Woman's  Foreign  Missionary 
Society. 

Considerable  effort  has  been  made  through 
the  Freedman's  Aid  Society  to  open  and  sup- 
port schools  for  the  freed  colored  people  of  the 
South.  About  twenty  schools  have  been  estab- 
lished, employing  a  hundred  teachers,  and  edu- 
cating many  young  colored  ] pie  for  teachers 

and  preachers.  In  eight  years,  more  than  half  a 
million  of  dollars  was  expended  for  this  purpose. 
Most  of  these  schools  will,  probably,  grow 
into  permanent  and  strong  seminaries  or  colleges. 

In  1869,a  board  of  education  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  was  chartered  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  by  request  of  the  General  Confer- 
ence, designed  to  hold  and  disburse  funds  for 
the  whole  Church,  particularly  to  aid  students 
for  the  ministry,  and  especially  for  missionary 
work ;  and  also,  to  assist  schools,  if  any  funds 
are  intrusted  to  it  for  that  purpose.  The  board 
is  designed  to  be  as  permanent  as  the  Church  it- 
self, consisting  of  two  bishops,  four  preachers, 
and  six  laymen,  appointed  in  sections,  for  twelve 
years  each,  by  the  General  Conference.  In  1872, 
Rev.  E.G.  Haven,  1. 1..  D.,  was  elected  by  the 
General  Continue.-  corresponding  secretary; 
and,  since  that  time,  many  students,  mostly  in 
colleges  and  tin- ■!■  >_i n -.-i!  schools,  have  annually 
received  some  assistance  from  the  board  or  its 
auxiliary  societies,  in  obtaining   an    education. 

The  Genera]  Conference  lias  also  reci tended 

the  observance  of  the  second  Sunday  in  June  as 
"  Children's  May."  and  that  collections  be  taken 
in  the  Sunday-schools  on  that  day  in  behalf  of 
the  board  of  education.     The  beneficiaries  of 

the  board  are  all  pledged   to  repaj  the  m v 

after  ( pleting  their  scl I  education.    They 

receive  money  as  a  loan,  no!  by  gift. 

The  General  Conf erenee  of  1876  made  a  pro- 
vision in  regard  to  education,  w  Inch 


to  render  the  actio] 

more  systemal  ic  ai 
makes  it  the  duty  i 
the  subject  of 


Church  on  that  subject 
•al  than  ever  before.  It 
residing  elder  to  bring 
in  individual  churches, 


before  the  first  quarterly  conference  of  each 
year,  and  secure  the  appointment  of  a  commit- 
tee, of  which  the  preacher  in  charge  shall  be 
chairman  ;  to  organize,  wherever  practicable,  a 
church  lyceum  for  mental  improvement ;  to  or- 
ganize free  evening  schools  ;  to  provide  a  library, 
text-books,  and  books  of  reference  ;  to  popular- 
ize religious  literature  by  reading-rooms,  or 
otherwise;  to  seek  out  suitable  persons,  and,  if 
necessary,  assist  them  to  obtain  an  education, 
with  a  view  to  the  ministry  ;  and  to  do  whatever 
shall  seem  best  fitted  to  supply  any  deficiency 
in  that  which  the  church  ought  to  offer  to  the 
varied  nature  of  man.  In  this  way,  it  is  hoped 
to  make  educational  work  a  part  of  the  duty  of 


accomplished  by  the  direct  agency  of  the  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church  appears  creditable,  it 
must  be  acknowledged  that,  hitherto,  the  efforts 
of  the  denomination  have  not  been  so  systematic, 
and  so  thoroughly  wrought  out,  on  this  subjei  t, 
as  in  many  of  its  other  enterprises.  Its  numer- 
ous Sunday-schools  are  all  carefully  organized 
and  reported,  and  the  circulation  of  Sunday- 
school  literature  is  immense.  Through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Rev.  J.  II.  Vincent,  corresponding 
secretary  of  the  S.  S.  Union,  nearly  every  Sun- 
day-school in  the  whole  Church  feels  the  power 
of  a  central  life  and  controlling  spirit.  The 
seminaries  and  colleges  have  acted  less  in  con- 
ceit, and  some  conferences  have  done  compara- 
tively little  for  education;  but.  at  last,  a  con- 
dition has  been  leached,  in  which  every  society 
is  requested  to  have  a  committee  on  education; 
nearly  every  annual  conference  has  an  education 
society  practically  auxiliary  to  the  board  of  edu- 
cation; every  congregation  is  requested  annually 
to  contribute  for  education 
colleges,  and  theological  si 
steadily  receiving  addition 
an  increasing  proportion 
graduates  of  colleges  and 
and  the  sentiment  is  stron 
education  will  be  far  more 


designed  ,  popular  elementary  edueatii 


:  and  the  seminaries, 
■hools  are  nearly  all 
s  to  their  property; 
if  the  ministers  are 
theological  schools; 
,|  in  the  <  'hurch  that 
thoroughly  advanced 
entury  of  American  Metliodisl 
he  first. 

t  Church  is  decidedly  in  favor 
ool  system,  particularly  of  the 
ils  attended  by  children  residing 
1  times,  the  General  <  inference 
sentiment  of  the  <  'hurch  against 
if  the  state  to  aid  parochial  or 
It  is.h.iwever.  in  favor  of  fol- 


ipio.  oi  Having  tin- 
i  the  public  schools; 
lists  do  not  recoin- 
lat.  This  ( Ihurch 
■k  of  the  state  by 
ecessary  to  secure 
l.     It  claims  that, 


MKTIIwMST- 


oC'.t 


if  the  stalt.'  docs  not  prov 


control.  The  Church  is  competent  to  establish 
and  sustain  colleges  and  universities  in  which 
the  broadest  and  best  culture  shall  be  given  in 
science,  philosophy,  and  religion.  Neither  of 
these  should  be  absent  from  a  college  ora  univer- 
sity ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  them  all  in  a 
college  controlled  by  the  state— The  literary  in- 
stitutions of  every  grade,  under  the  care  of  the 
Church,  are  so  numerous,  and  their  condition  is 
so  constantly  changing  that,  for  an  exact  enu- 
meration of  these,  attention  is  directed  to  the 
Methodist  Almanac  and  other  current  publica- 
tions of  the  <  Ihureh. 

When  the  Methodist  Kpiscopal  Church, in  1844, 
divided  itself  into  two  sections,  that  which  be- 
came the  .Methodist  Kpiscopal  Church,  South, 
retained  all  the  schools  of  every  grade  within  the 
boundary  created  by  what  was  called  the  /'/mi 
of  Separation.  Among  these  schools,  were  several 
chartered  colleges  of  high  standing.  Randolph 
Macon  College  had  been  established  in  1832, 
one  year  after  the  Wesleyan  University  at 
Middletown,  Ct.,  and  is.  therefore,  next  to  the 
oldest  Methodist  College  in  America.  Emory 
College,  at    Oxford,   (la.,   had    been   founded  in 

1837,  and  Emory  and  Henry  College,  at  E ry, 

Va„  in  L838.  Between  1844  and  the  breaking 
out  of  the  civil  war.  other  institutions  were 
added.  Centenary  College,  which  had  been  es- 
tablished  by  the  state  of    Louisiana    in    L825, 

KpTs'copai  Church. ' South'  V'm,itv'  College,  in 
Randolph  <  !o.,  \.  < '.,  arose  (1852)  from  a  school 
commenced  by  the  Rev.  B.  Craven.  )>.  I».  Wof- 
ford  College,  S.  C,  named  after  the  Rev.  Ben- 
jamin Wofford,  who  gave  $100,000  for  its  en- 
dowment, was  opened  in  1855  ;  ( Jentral  <  lollege, 
at  Fayette,  Mo.,  in  the  same  year;  the  Southern 
University,  at  Greenboro,  Ala.,  in  1856;  the 
Kentucky  Wesleyan  University,  at  Millersburg, 
Ky.,  in  L858.  The  civil  war  had  a  most  dis- 
astrous effect  upon  the  Methodist  as  well  as  upon 
the  other  literary  institutions  of  the  Southern 
states.  A  number  of  colleges  and  other  institu- 
tions wholly  perished  :  others  were  closed  during 
the  greater  part  of  the  war,  and  have  been,  since 
then,  but  gradually  revived.  Thus,  there  were 
in  the  state  of  Alabama  three  colleges  for  males. 
all  in  a  flourishing  condition,  two  of  which  had 
their  entire  endowments  swept  away;  while  the 
third,  the  Southern  University,  was  greatly  re- 
duced in  its  means,  and  only  kept  open  in  some 
of  its  departments.  Since  the  close  of  the  war. 
great  efforts  have  been  made  by  the  Church  to 
enlarge  her  educational  work.  The  unfortunate 
condition  in  which  the  finances  of  most  of  the 
Southern  states  found  themselves,  proved,  of 
course.a  great  obstacle;  but,  more  recently. great 
strides  in  advance  have  been  made,  and;  at  pres- 
ent, the  Church,  possesses,  in  Yanderbilt  Univer- 
sity, at  Nashville,  Tenn.,  the  best  endowed  in- 
stitution of  learning  in  the  South.  The  movement 
for  the  establishment  of  this  institution  began  in 


1871.  when  delegates  were  appointed  to  a  con- 
vention to  consi  ler  t  he  subjecl  of  a  university, 
such  as  would  meet  the  wants  of  a  church  do 
maiidnig  a  higher  Christian  education  than 
could  be  obtained  in  the  South  and  South-west. 
It  declared  that  one  million  of  dollars  was  neces- 
sary to  perfect  the  plan,  and  refused  to  author- 
ize steps  towards  the  selection  of  a  site,  until  the 
public  showed  itself  in  sympathy  with  the  move- 
ment, by  a  valid  subscription  of  half  that 
amount.  It  was  early  discovered  that,  in  the 
exhausted  condition  of  the  South,  so  soon  after 
the  war,  it  was  no!  practicable  to  pursue  the  en- 
terprise. The  project  was  in  abeyance,  when 
Cornelius  Vanderbilt.  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
donated  $500,000,  to  which  he  subsequently 
added  $200,000.  'I  he  institution  was  dedicated 
and  inaugurated  in  Oct.,  L875.  (See  Vander- 
tai.T  University.)  In  Texas,  a  convention  was 
called  in  1869,  to  consider  the  propriety  of  con- 
solidating four  chartered  colleges  of  the  Church, 
the  oldest  of  which,  Rutersville  College,  had 
been  chartered  in  18C0  by  the  Congress  of 
the  Republic  of  Texas.     The  convention  met  in 

L870,  resolved  uj the  establishment  of  a  united 

central  institution,  and  declared  not  less  than 
§500,000  necessary  to  carry  out  the  design.  The 
new  institution  was  opened,  in  1874,  as  Texas 
University,  and.  in  1875,  chartered  as  South- 
western University  ((J.  v.).  The  total  number  of 
chartered  colleges  enumerated  in  the  Report  of 
(he  Commissioner  of  I'j  I  neat  ion  for  187  5,  was  1  (i. 
All  of  them  arc  m  the  Southern  states,  with  the 
exception  of  one  in  California,  and  one  in  Ore- 
gon. The  latter.  Corvallis  College  (q.v.),was 
opened  in  1st;:,,  and  the  legislation  of  the  state, 
in  lsi',0,  placed  the  agricultural  college  of  the 
statu  in  connection  with  it.  The  Chun  h  has  a 
huge  number  of  female  colleges  and  high  gi  hools 
under  her  control.  The  Wesleyan  Female  Col- 
lege, at  Macon.  Ga,,  is  tl [dest  institution  of 

chartered  by  the  Legislature  of  Georgia,™  1836, 
under  the  name  of  the  Georgia  Female  College. 
The  Greenboro  Female  College,  at  Greenboro, 
\.  ( '..  is  only  a  few  years  younger,  having  been 
founded  in  L841.  Other  prominent  institutions 
ot  this  i  i  iss  .oe.  the  Montgomery  female  Col- 
lege, at  Christiansburg,  Va  :  the  Central  Female 
College,  at  Lexington,  Mo.;  the Thomasville  Fe- 
male College,  at  Thomasville,  N.  C;  the  Wes- 
leyan Female  [nstitute,  at  Staunton,  Va.;  Dav- 
enport Female  College,  at  Lenoir,  N.  (.'.;  Mar- 
tin Female  College,  at  Pulaski,  Tenn.:  the 
Mariha  Washington  College,  at  Abington,  7a.; 
the  Wesleyan  Female  College,  at  Mnrfreesboro, 
N.  C. — One  of  the  most  interesting  and  impor- 
tant institutions  in  connection  with  the  Southern 
Methodist  Church,  is  the  < 'ulleoka  Institute,  in 
Mora  Co..  Tenn.  It  is  a  model  high  school,  as  well 
as  an  academy  affiliated  to  Vanderbilt  Univer- 
sity. There  has  always  been  a  stroi  '  lit  in 
this  Church  againsl  special  school  of  theology. 
Biblical  instruction  in  connection  with  the  reg- 
ular college  course  is,  however,  afforded  in  most 
Southern  Methodist  Colleges. 


570  ME 

MEXICO,  a  republic  of  North  America;  area, 
741,800  sq.  miles;  population,  about  9,276,000, 
made  up  of  whites,  Creoles,  Indian-  half-breeds, 
and  a  few  negroes.  The  language  <•('  the  country 
is  Spanish;  and  the  ruling  n-li-ion.  tin'  I'onian 
Catholic.  Mexico  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards 
early  in  the  Kith  century,  and  wa.-  conquered  by 
Cortes,1519-  21.  It  continued  in  the  possession 
of  Spain  up  tn  the  beginning  of  the  present  cent- 
ury, when  it  established  its  independence.  Since 
thattime.it  has  passed  through  a  number  of  rev- 
olutions and  civil  wars.  When  the  Spaniards 
came  In  Mexico,  they  found  there  the  intelli- 
gent and  highly  cultivated  Aztecs.  This  people 
had  been  preceded  by  others  who  had  also  at- 
tained a  high  degree  of  civilization.  In  many  of 
the  arts  and  sciences,  the  ancient  Mexicans, 
when  conquered  by  Cortes,  had  made  great 
progress.  Their  calendar  was  more  correct  than 
that  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  They 
knew  how  to  manufacture  paper,  and  possessed 
maps,  on  which  even  the  roads  were  marked 
which  their  ancestors  had  used  when  they  came 
to  .Mexico.  The  education  of  children  was  of  a 
very  severe  character.  In  each  family  of  the  higher 
classes,  the  boys  remained  with  their  mothers 
up  to  the  6th  or  7th  year,  when  they  received  a 
carefully  selected  companion;  and  in  their  I  nth 
or  12th  year,  they  were  sent  to  the  temple,  to  lie 
educated  by  the  priests.  Here  they  were  sub- 
jected to  a  strict  discipline,  and  were  instructed 
in  the  liturgy,  and  in  various  other  subject.-.  The 
girls  were  also  received  into  the  temple,  which 
they  di  I  not  leave  until  they  were  married.  For 
tie'  boys,  there  were  also  military  schools.  As  in 
the  other  Spanish  colonies,  very  little  was  done 
for  education  by  the  Spaniards.  A  university  and 
a  number  of  colleges  had  been  establi-h.d  in 
which  the  teachers  were  generally  priests  who  had 
been  educated  in  Spain.      But  insullicicut  a-  the 


Spanish  rule,  it  b 
ilic.  The  continua 
ress  in   education  ; 


instruction  was,  unde 
worse  under  the  re] 
wars  prevented  all  pr 
the  hatred  for  every  thing  that  came  from  Spain, 
tended  to  destroy  ad  educational  institutions 
previously  established.  Hence,  the  education  of 
the  whites,  who  alone  had  been  cared  for  by  the 
Spanish  government,  was   now  neglected  ;   while 

the  native  population itinued  to  be  neglected. 

By  the  law  of  1840,  the  federal  government 
transferred  the  care  of  the  schools  to  the  separate 
states,  in  some  of  which  considerable  progress 
has  been  made.  Recently,  the  federal  govern- 
ment has  again  established  secondary  schools  in 
the  capital,  principally  for  the  education  of 
teachers.    Compulsory  e  lucation  laws  have  been 


are  eutir.  ly  inoperative.  In  I  ^7~>.  president  Lerdo 

to  education   in   the   following  words :' "Public 

instruction  has  continued  to  merit  particular  at- 
tention. Both  in  the  primary  and  in  the  pro- 
fessional schools,  efforts  have  constantly  been 
made  to  afford  the  elements  of  instruction,  by 
establishing  new  professorships,  as  well  as  by 
providing  all  the  instruments  and  other  useful 


'  apparatus  for  practical  teaching.  With  the  same 
desire  to  obtain  the  mosj  complete  practical  in- 
struction, various  pupils  of  the  national  schools 
j  have  continue.  1  to  be  sent  abroad  upon  the  suc- 
cessful conclusion  of  their  studies." — Primary 
schools  have  now  been  introduced  in  almost  all 
of  the  states.  The  schools  are  supported  by  the 
state  governments,  with  pecuniary  aid  from  the 
federal  government,  the  municipalities,  and  sev- 
eral private  associations,  among  which  the  Lan- 
casterian  Society  and  the  Benevolent  Society 
in  Mexico  occupy  a  prominent  position.  The 
Lancasterian  Society  supplies  the  government 
schools  with  teachers.  '1  here  are  also,  in  all  the 
principal  cities,  private  schools;  but  these  are. 
open  only  to  the  children  of  the  ril  h.  The  plan 
of  instruction  comprises  only  the  most  necessary 
subjects,  and  the  text-books  are  written  in  ac- 
cordance with  this  plan.  In  1874,  the  total 
number  of  private  schools  was  8.040;  of  which 
5,091  were  for  boys;  1,615,  for  girls;  and  the 
rest  were  common  to  both  sexes.  Of  the  total 
number,  603  were  supported  by  the  federal  and 
state  governments  :  5,240,  by  the  municipalities  ; 
378,  by  private  corporations;  and  117,  by  relig- 
ious associations  :  1,518  were  private  schools,  in 
which  tuition  is  paid  for:  and  184  were  without 
classification.  The  proportion  of  the  number  of 
schools  to  the  population,  was  one  primary  school 
to  every  1,111  inhabitants.  The  attendance, 
during  the  Bame  year,  was  about  349,000.  or 
something  less  than  one-tilth  of  all  the  children 
between  i he  ages  of  6  and  13  years.  There  are 
also,  in  some  of  the  larger  cities,  evening  schools 
for  adults  of  both  sexes.  The  total  expenditure 
for  primary  instruction,  during  the  year  1874, 
was  Sl.i,;;2,43u,  of  which  $1,042,000  was  fur- 
nished by  the  municipalities  ;  $417,000.  by  the 
federal  and  state  governments  :  and $173,000, by 
individual-  and  pi  ivatfi  corporations. 

Secondary  instruction  is  imparted  in  national 
and  stale  colleges,  and  in  Catholic  seminaries. 
The  course  of  studies,  in  these  institutions,  com- 
prises Spanish,  Freni  h,  and  Latin  grammar,  his- 
tory, geography,  natural  philosophy,  and  math- 
ematics. In  some  colleges,  other  branches  are 
added;  as  the  English  language  law.  medicine, 
engineering,  agriculture,  a 
there  were  5  I  state  and  n 
9,337  students  :  and  24  Ca 
3,800  students.  Law  was 
colleges  ;  medicine,  ill  11; 
agriculture. 


ional  colleges,  with 
olic  seminaries  with 

aught  in  33  of  the 
engineering,  in  9  ; 
2  :  and  theology,  in  2  \.  There 
were.  also,  la  higher  schools  for' girls,  with  2,300 
students.  The  University  of  Mexico  only  grants 
diplomas,  no  studies  being  pursued  there,  as  all 
the  instruction  is  given  in  the  colleges.  The  total 
expense  of  supporting  the  government  colleges, 
in  1>71.  was  SI. 1  Ultimo,  of  which  8200,000 
was  expended  in  fellow-hip-,  which  entitle  those 

Who  hold  them  to  free  board  and  lodging  ill  the 
college  building.  There  were,  in  the  same  year, 
5  special  schools  in  the  federal  district;  1,  of 
mines  and  engineering;  and  1.  each,  of  medicine, 
law,  agriculture,  and  the  fine  arts  ;  the  last  men- 
tioned was  attended  by  about  700  pupils  of  both 


MIAMI    UNIVERSI 


MIAMI  UNIVERSITY, 


MICHIGAN 


571 


>  a   School  for 

fiscke  Euc,,- 
\qf  the  U.S. 
74. 
ixford,  Ohio, 


incumbent, 4  veal's. —  A  .i/,i/, 7-wf/i.rs'  ussurintiiiii 
was  organized  in  1852.  It  holds  its  meetings  an 
Dually,  in  December;  and  is  sustained  now,  as 
heretofore,  by  the  leading  teachers  and  educators 
in  the  state.  -The  primary-school  fund  of  the 
stale  most  of  which  pays  7  per  cent,  is  $3,130r 
911.05.  There  are  398,080  acres  of  primary- 
school  lands  yet  unsold,  ami  held  at  four  dollars 

School  System. — Each  township  has  a  board  of 

three  school  inspectors,  whose   main  duty   is  to 

;anize  and  regulate  the  boundaries  oi  school- 


undergraduate,  and  a  post-graduate  course,  and 

is  composed  of  six  schools;  namely.  Latin  lan- 
guage and  literature  ;  Greek  language  and 
literature;  modern  languages  and  English  phi- 
lology; mathematics;  natural  science:  and  philos- 
ophy and  literature.   The  cost  of  tuition  is  840  a 

year.  The  libraries  contain  about  9,000  volumes,  districts.  Each  district  has  an  executive  board 
The  university  has  valuable  cabinets  and  appa-  of  three  members,  who  make  provision  for  such 
ratus.  In  1872 — 3,  there  were  0  instructors  and  length  of  school  terms,  as  is  determined  by  the 
Mi  students.  The  university  is  temporarily  closed,  votes  of  the  district;  but  which  must  lie  nine 
MICHIGAN,  one  of  the  western  states  of  months,  in  district*  having  800  children  of  school 
the  American  Union,  was  at  first  included  in  age:  tive  months,  in  districts  ha\ing ■; :!n  children  ; 
the  North-west  Territory,  set  apart  by  the  ordi-  and  three  months,  in  all  districts  containing  a 
!  of  1787.    .Subsequently  it  formed  a  part  !  number  less  than  3d.  under  a  penalty  of  forfeit- 


of  the  territory  of  Indiana ;  but,  in  1805,  was 
organized  as  a  separate  territory.  In  January, 
L837,  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  state, 
Wisconsin  Territory  having  been  formed  from 
its  western  portion.  At  the  next  census,  in  1840, 
the  population  of  Michigan  was  212,267;  in  L870, 

it  was  1,184,059,  of  whom   11,849  wen bred 

persons,  and  4.92(5  Indians.  The  land  area  of  the 
state  is  56,451  sq.  in. 

Educational  History. —  One  of  the  first  acts 


ure  of  their  share  of  the  interest  derived  from 
lary-school  fund  (about  50  cents  per  ca- 
ll the  tax  of  2  mills  on  each  dollar  of  the 
in  the  district,  which  amounts,  on  an 
to  about  .me  dollar  per  child.  This  con- 
al  provision  azures  a  school  in  nearly- 
strict  in  the  state.  The  district  board 
tes  the  amount  of  taxes  to  be  raised  each 
addition    to  the  statutory  two-mil]  tax. 

and  primary  school  money  for  the  support  of  the 


of  the  first   legislature  of   Michigan,  in  the  year     school  ;  but  taxes  for  building  purposes  must  be 
L836,  required    ' 


■rnor  to  appoint  a  super- 


duti 


voted  1 
pcllc 


tl.edistr 


The 


sti  icts  are  not  com- 


>l'l" 


university  and  its  branches."    Th 

was  given  to  the  Rev.  John  I».  Pierce,  who  still 
lives  (1876);  and  few  men  have  ever  lived  to  see 
bo  abundant  fruit  from  the  seed  of  their  plant 
ing.  In  1837,  he  reported  the  -system"  and  the 
"plan,"  and  both  were  adopted,  without  material 
•change,  by  the  legislature.  The  primary  school 
law  comprised  45  sections  originally  ;  and  though. 
from  subsequent  legislation,  the  same  code  now 
numbers  nearly  two  hundred  sections,  yet  the 
general  features,  if  the  system  have  been  changed 
in  no  essential  respect.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  original  plan  of  the  university  :  and  now, 
after  a  trial  of  forty  years,  the  educational 
system  of  Michigan  has  the  reputation  of  Vicing 
one  of  the  best  in  the  Union.  Since  the  adop- 
tion of  the  constitution,  in  1  Halt,  the  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction  has  been  elected  bien- 
nially, with  other  state  officers.  He  has  a  general 
supervision,  without  much  actual  power.over  all 
the  educational  institutions  of  the  state,  includ- 
ing local  colleges  and  incorporated  private 
schools  ;  and  all  such  institutions  are  required  to 
make  an  annual  report  to  him.  Since  the  estab- 
lishment of  tb,  office,  there  have  been  eight 
incumbents,  serving  in  the  order  and  for  the 
time  here  named  :  John  I).  Pierce,  5  years ;  P. 
Sawyer,  Jr.,  2  years ;  C.  C.  Comstock,  2  years  ; 
Francis  \V.  Sherman,  6  years;  Ira  Mayhew,  8 
years  ;  John  M.  Gregory,  6  years  ;  Warnel  Hos- 
ford,  8  years  ;  and  Daniel  B.  Briggs.  the  present 


imal  reports  to  the  inspector*,  by  whom  these 
are  collated,  in  the  several  townships,  and  for- 
warded to  the  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 

writing.and  no  public  money  can  be  legally  paid 
to  a  teacher  who  ha*  not  a  certificate  in  the  form 
prescribed  by  law.  All  school  officers  are  liable  to 
a  fine,  and  district  officers  to  removal,  for  delin- 
quency in  the  discharge  of  their  duty.  Parents 
are  liable  to  a  fine  if  they  fail  to  send  their 
children  to  school  three  months  in  the  year, 
while  over  eight  and  under  fourteen  years  of  age; 
but  little  respect  is  paid  to  this  law.     Districts 


board  o 

this  pn 

been    si 


may  have  a 
enactment  of 
districts  have 


and   high-school    di 
superior  privileges,  exc 
'i  school,   in   w 


may  establish  a  high 
may  be  made  for  tuition,  instruction  in  all  other 
departments  being  free.  A  very  small  number. 
however,  of  the  districts  (nearly  300)  organized 
under  this  law.  have  ever  charged  tuition  to  the 
resident  pupils.  These  high  schools  are,  many 
of  them,  of  a  superior  grade;  and  pupils  graduat- 
ing from  them  after  a  satisfactory  examination, 
are  admitted  to  the  state  university  without  re- 
examination. The  working  of  the  school  system 
is   generally    satisfactory,    except    in    regard    to 


572 


MICHIGAN 


supervision.  After  eight  years'  trial  of  a  county 
superintendency,  the  Btate,  in  1875,  returned  ti> 
a  township  superintendency,  each  township  (not 
including  the  cities)  having  a  superintendent, 
who  examines  teachers,  grants  certificates,  and 
visits  schools.  The  present  system  of  supervision 
is  not,  however,  giving  that  satisfaction  which 
insures  its  long  continuance.  It  may  also  be 
said  that  the  supply  of  really  competent  teachers 
is  not  equal  to  the  demand  :  although  a  marked 
improvement  in  the  qualifications  of  teachers 
was  manifest  under  the  county  superintendency. 

Educational  Condition.  There  are  (1876) 
5,411  ungraileil-schiiol  <listricts.  each  employing 
a  single  teacher,  and  '-".'7  graded-school  districts 
requiring  about  2,000  teachers.  The  graded 
schools  have  regular  courses  of  study,  from  the 
lowest  primary  grade  to  that  of  the  senior  year 
of  the  high  school.  The  whole  number  of  school 
buildings  in  the  state  is  5,787,  valued  in  the 
aggregate  at  SO. I  15,354.  The  297  graded-school 
districts  have  539  buildings,  valued  at  $5,775,790, 
showing  an  average  of  $10,716  each.  Twenty- 
five  of  these  buildings  cost  over  $'20,000  each,  and 
several  cost  from  $50,000  to  $100,000  each. 

The  support  of  the  schools,  during  the  year 
1874—5,  wasderived  from  the  following 

Primary  scl I  interest  hunt      'Jls.ii:if;,*_".i 

District  taxes 2,341,923.71 

Statutory  tax  (2  mills, m  $1).  508,551.87 
Tuition  ot  uou-resideut  pupils  :;7.4.">:;.i;.\ 
All  other  sources 401,722.97 


Total $4,183,580.81) 

Expenditures  during  the  year  1874 — 5  : 
Teachers'  salaries  .$1,958,481.15 

Buildings v.ii.i;i;i.i;i 

Bonded  indebtedness 398,106.41 

Other  purposes,. 619,112.98 

Total. $3,526,362.18 

The  principal  items  of  school  statistics,  for  the 
year  1875-   ('•.  are  the  following: 

Number  oi  children  oi  scl 1  age  (5     20).  ...449,181 

Numbei attending  school 343,:>sl 

Number  of  teachers,  mules 3,150 

females 9,120 

Total   '    12,276 

Average  monthly  wage's  of  teachers ,  male;         -7,1.:") 


receive  instruction  free  of  charge.  Many  avail 
themselves  of  this  privilege.  The  diploma  of  the 
school  licenses  the  holder  to  teach  in  any  of  the 
public  schools  of  the  state.  Nearly  7000  teach- 
ers have  received  instruction  in  this  school  dur- 
ing its  existence.  The  hoard  of  instruction  con- 
sists of  a  principal  and  12  assistants. 

Secondary  Instruction. —  Under  this  head  may 
Declassed  high  schools  and  academies.  There 
were,  in  L874,  311  graded  schools  in  the  state. 
Of  these.  144  made  reports  as  to  organization 
etc.,  and  84  were  reported  as  having  high  school 
departments,  with  an  aggregate'  of  5,(142  pupils, 
and.  in  1S7.').  303  graduates.  The  subject  of  high 
schools  has  assumed  unusual  interest  and  impor- 
tance in  this  state,  (1)  on  account  of  an  effort 
recently  made  to  have  their  existence  declared, 
by  the  courts,  illegal ;  and  (2)  on  account  of  their 
peculiar  status  as  direct  tributaries  to  the  state 
university.  The  first  effort  failed,  the  court,  rul- 
ing that,  though  there  was  nothing  in  the  school 
law  expressly  dire,  ting  their  establishment,  there 
was  nothing,  on  the  other  hand,  forbidding  it. 
This  decision  has  hen  regarded  as  tinahnot  only 
for  the  state  of  Michigan,  but  for  other  states  in 
which  the'  school  law  is  so  worded  as  to  raise  a 
doubt  on  this  point.  (See  High  Schools.)  The 
peculiar  relation  of  the  public  high  schools  to  the 
state  university  is  the  result  of  an  arrangement 

by  which  high  scl Is  that  wish  to  be  recognized 

by  the  university  in  such  a  way  as  to  permit 
their  graduates  to  enter  the  latter  without  further 
examination,  are  visited  and  examined  as  to 
course  of  study  and  methods  pursued,  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  faculty-  This  examination  lasts 
one, lav  for  each  school;  and.  if  the  school  is 
rejected  by  the  committae,  the  reasons  are  dis- 
tinctly stated.  If  the  scl I  is  accepted,  its  gradu- 
ates arc  admitted  to  the  freshman  class  of  the 
university  without  examination.    This  method 


Normal  Instruction . — The  state 
at  Vpsilanti.  was  opened  in  L852 
the  general  supervision  of  a  boar, 
consisting  of  three  members,  eleel 
ticket  for  six  years,  and  the  sup 
public  instruction,  ex  officio.  It  1 
ment  fund  of  $69,255,  the  balanci 
its  support  being, lerived  from  apt 
the  legislature.  The  value  of  Us 
other  property  is  about  $75,000. 
current  expenses  are  nearly  $25,01 
ber  of  students,  in  1 875,  in  the  i 
ment,  numbered  too.  187  male 
males :    in    the   experimental    den; 


..   J51.29  effect  upon  the  high  schools   has  been   beneficial 

-•  ■•t'-'s.I'i  |1V  raising  the  grade  of  scholarship  for  graduates, 

al  school,  and  by  maintaining   the    schools  on   that    higher 

is  under  level  produced  by  the  dignity  of  their  position 
ducation  as  stepping  stones  to  the  university.  In  thelatter, 
i  a  state  the  direct  effect  has  been  uniformity  of  scholar- 
indent  of  ship,  and  a  decrease  of  necessary  watchfulness 
i  endow-  on  the  part  of  professors  and  tutors,  for  individ- 
ssary  for  ual  deficiencies.  Though,  by  the  old  method, 
itions  by  then-  maj  have  been,  in  individual  cases,  greater 
ings  and  proficiency  at  the  time  of  admission,  the  great 
•  annual  diversity  of  attainment  shown  by  members  of 
'he  nunc  the  same  class    was    likely    to   be  maintained   to 

depart-    tl nd  of  the  college  course,  and  the  diplomas 

222    fe-  given  to  graduates  had.  therefore,  widely    diffor- 

it.  there  ent  values.     By   the   new  method,  uniformity  of 

All  stu-  attainment,  by  being   insisted   on    at    an    earlier 

neiii.  are  period,   produces    uniformity   of   attainment   at 

their  in-  graduation.     This  plan,  though  regarded  at  first 

[icr  year;  with  misgiving,  if  not  positive  disfavor,  is  gradu- 


ally  working  its  way  to  general  approval.  Those 
more  immediately  interested  in  it  and  besl  capa- 
ble of  judging  of  its  effects  the  teachers  of  the 
schools, and  the  faculty  of  the  university —  regard 
its  success  in  the  near  future  as  assured.  The 
private  schools  of  the  state  are  reported  by  the 
present  superintendent  of  instruction  as  "few 
and  feeble,  owing  to  the  excellence  of  our  free 
public  schools."  The  number  reported  in  1873 
was  1. '{.'{.  with  <i,701  pupils.  This  is  thought  to 
be  much  below  the  actual  number.  Business 
colleges  exist  in  several  of  the  cities  and  towns, 
13  being  reported  in  ls7-l.  with  .'12  instructors 
and  1,500  students.  Of  the  latter,  196  are  fe- 
males. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — 
These  institutions  are  not  numerous.  A  few  are 
reported  in  different  parts  of  the  state,  managed 
by  Catholics  and  German  Lutherans,  where  in- 
struction is  given  to  a  few  thousand  children, but 
a  vast  majority  of  the  children  and  youth  of  the 
state  rind  their  only  source  of  education  in  the 
public  schools. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  names  etc.  of  the 
higher  institutions  of  learning  are  contained  in 
the  following  table.  For  further  information 
in  regard  to  them,  see  the  respective  titles. 


NAME 

Location 

A  le:„ 
ed 

Religious 

'U"ii"iniLi.i- 

Adrian 

Albion 

Battle  Creek 

Benzonla 

Hillsdale 

Holland  City 

Kalamazoo 

Ann  Arbor 

ISj'.I 

1864 
1875 
1865 
1855 
1863 
ls.,5 
1858 
1841 

M.  Epis. 

M.  Eliis. 
Advent. 
Cong. 

V.  W.  Cap. 
Kef.(HVH) 

Bap. 

Battle  Creek  CoUege.... 
Orand  Traverse  College 
Hillsdale  College 

Kalamazoo  College 

University  of  Michigan 

Non-sect. 

In  none  of  these  institutions  is  any  distinction 
as  to  sex  made  in  the  admission  of  pupils  ;  but 
there  are,  besides,  several  institutions  specially  for 
the  education  of  females,  among  which  maybe 
particularly  mentioned  the  following:  Michigau 
Female  Seminary,  at  Kalamazoo,  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  Presbyterians,  was  organized  in 
1867.  and  conducted  on  the  plan  of  the  cele- 
brated Mt.  I  lolyoke  Seminary  in  Mass.  Its  prop- 
erty is  valued  at  870,000,  and  its  annual  income 
is  about  $10,000.  The  Young  Indies'  Seminary 
and  Collegiate  Institute,  at  Monroe,  was  incor- 
porated under  the  laws  of  the  state,  and  has  been 
in  operation  about  30  years.  It  holds  property 
valued  at  $10,000.  It  has  a  regular  college 
course,  besides  post-graduate  courses.  Music, 
drawing,  painting,  and  the  modern  languages  are 
taught.  Degrees  are  conferred  as  in  colleges  for 
young  men.  The  number  of  instructors  is  8;  and 
the  number  of  students,  in  1875,  was  103. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. 
There  are  two  institutions  for  this  kind  of  in- 
struction,—  the  State  Agricultural  College  at 
Lansing,  and  the  Detroit  Medical  College.  Near- 
ly all  the  institutions,  however,  enumerated  under 
superior  instruction  have  departments  in  which 
professional  or  scientific  instruction  is  given.  The 
Agricultural  College  of  Michigan  was  the  first 
state  institution  of  its  kind  established  in  the 


IGAX  573 

United  States.  By  an  act  of  the  legislature,  in 
1855,  it  came  into  existence  and  was  opened  for 
students  in  the  spring  of  1857.  Until  recently, 
it  has  been  supported  wholly  by  appropriations 

from  the  state  treasury,  aside  from  $56,320  real- 
ized from  appropriated  state  lands.  'I  he  appropri- 
ations from  the  state  treasury  for  the  college,  up 
to  the  present  time,  amount  to  $397,787.  The 
farm  consists  of  070  acres,  situated  on  both  sides 
of  the  Cedar  river,  three  miles  distant  from  the 
capital  of  the  state:  and  300  acres  are  under  cul- 
tivation. The  property  of  the  college  is  valued  at 
$250,000.  The  agricultural  land  grant  by  Con- 
gress, in  1862.  gave  Michigan  2  10,000  acres.  From 
this  has  been  realized  S22S.933.  and  the  portion 
yet  unsold  is  valued  at  $496,543.  These  avails 
go  into  the  state  treasury  and  constitute  a  perma- 
nent fund,  on  which  the  state  pays  7  per  cent. 


cost,  which  is  about  $2.60  per  week  ;  but,  quite 
one  half  of  this  expense  is  met  by  allowances 
granted  the  students  for  manual  labor  performed. 
Tuition  is  free,  and  the  incidental  fees  are  a  mere 
trifle.  The  faculty  and  other  officers  number  14. 
The  control  of  the  college  is  vested  in  a  board 
of  agriculture,  the  members  of  which  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor,  for  a  term  of  six  years. 
The  governor  of  the  state  and  the  president  of 
the  college  are  members,  ex  officio. 

Special  Instruction.— 'Die  State  Public  School 
at  Coldwater,  partakes  of  the  nature  both  of  a 
school  and  an  asylum.  The  object  is  to  educate 
the  dependent  children  from  the  poor-houses. 
It  originated  in  1871,  when  a  state  appropriation 
of  $30,000  was  made,  and  three  commissioners 
were  appointed  to  carry  it  into  effect,  A  gift  of 
20  acres  in  the  town  of  Coldwater  and  of  $25,000 
towards  the  buildings,  led  to  its  location  at  that 
place,  and  this  was  supplemented  by  an  additional 
appropriation  of  $38,000  by  the  legislature.  The 
plan  of  the  buildings  consists  of  a  large  central 
edifice,  and  surrounding  cottages  for  the  home 
residence  of  the  children.  It  receives  children 
between  the  ages  of  4  and  16  years  from  the 
county  poor-houses,  and  provides  for  and  edu- 
cates them  till  good  homes  are  found  for  them. 
They  are  strictly  the  wards  of  the  state  till  21 
years  of  age.  There  is  an  agent  in  each  county 
whose  duty  it  is  to  look  after  those  who  are  in- 
dentured to.  or  adopted  by,  individuals,  and,  in 
case  of  any  violation  of  the  terms  of  indenture, 
to  return  them  to  the  school.  The  school  was 
opened  in  1 874,  with  nearly  200  children ;  the 
number,  in  September  1875,  was  171.  The  num- 
ber of  officers  is  1 8  consisting  of  a  superintend- 
ent, teachers,  matrons,  etc.  The  aim  of  the  insti- 
tution is,  to  give  a  fair  elementary  education. 
Since  its  establishment,  the  legislature  has  made 
appropriations  for  its  support  to  the  amount  of 
$187,565.— The  State  Reform  School,  at  Lan- 
sing, was  established,  in  1856.  for  the  purpose 
of  rescuing,  if  possible,  from  a  life  of  crime,  chil- 
dren and  youths  convicted  of  offenses  against  the 
law.    It  receives  boys  of  from  10  to  16  years  of 


MICHIGAN    UNIVERSITY 


age.  and   is  strictly 
managed  bya  boan 


llcl 


hours  of  each  day  are  Bpent  in  a  hool :  and  four, 

ent  and  an  assistant,  and  .'!  teachers,  besides  over- 
seers of  the  farm  and  shops.  The  annual  ex- 
penses are  from  $25,000  to  830,000.  The  school 
has  at  present  220  Inmates.  Over  1,(500  boys 
have  been  cared  for  by  the  institution  since  its 
establishment. — The  Michigan  Institution  for  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  and  Blind,  was  organized  at 
Flint  in  1854.  About  94  acres  are  contained 
in  the  grounds  and  the  farm  connected  with 
them.  It  is  managed  by  a  principal,  steward, 
matron,  assistant  matron,  physician,  and  17  teach- 


ants.  In  a  Idition  to  the  usual  mental  instruction 
given  in  such  institutions,  tin-  pupils  arc  trained 
in  mechanical  and  industrial  occupations.  In 
some  of  these  departments  the  sale  of  wares  pro- 
duced has  more  than  paid  expenses,  and  the  sur- 
plus has  been  devoted  to  the  support  of  the  libra- 
ry. About  200  inmates  were  receiving  instruc- 
tion in  1874. 

'Y\\f,iliii'iilii)iinl  /o»>-Ws  published  in  the  state 
are.  Tin-  Mirliii/,1,1  Tnirhrr.a.  monthly,  published 
at  Kalamazoo.'  and  Tin'  Sr/,,,,,/.  a  monthly,  pub- 
lished in  Ypsilanti.  The  publication  of  the 
former  was  begun  nearly  I'll  years  ago.  Both  are 
ably  edited,  and  have  a  very  general  circulation 
in  the  state. 

MICHIGAN,  University  of,  at  Aim  Arbor, 
owing  its  foundation  to  a  grant  by  Congress,  in 
1826,  of  two  townships  of  land,  to  the  territory 
of  Michigan,  was  established  by  a  legislative  act, 
March  L8.,  1837,  and  was  first  ope I  for  stu- 
dents. Sept.  20.,  is  12.  It  is  a  part  of  the  public 
educational  system  of  the  state,  and  is  governed 
bya  board  of  regents,  elected  by  popular  vote, 
each  for  a  term  of  eight  years.  Under  certain 
conditions,  the  graduates  of  the  public  high 
schools  of  the  state  are  admitted  without 
examination.  The  university  comprises  the  de- 
partments of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts 
(including  Ih  'school  of  n  lines,  organized  in  1875); 
the  department  of  medicine  and  surgery,  organ- 
ized in  1850;  the  department  of  law,  Is.V.i  ;  the 


•    deer 
id.     St 


The  University  Senate  is  composed  of  all  the 
faculties,  and  considers  ipiestions  of  common 
interest  and  importance  to  them  all.  The  de- 
partment of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts  em- 
braces six  regular  courses  of  four  years  each, 
and  two  shorter  special  courses.  The  regular 
courses,  with  the  degrees  that  are  eon  lei  red.  upon 

their  completion,  are  as  follows:  classical  [Bach- 
elor of  Sorts),  scientific  I  Bachelor  of  Science  . 
Latin  and  scientific  I  Bachelor  oi  Philosophy), 
Greel  and  (scientific  (Bachelor  of  Philosophy), 
civil  engineering  (Civil  Engineer),  mining  engi- 


of  Pharmaceutical  Chemist  is 
dents  may  also  pursue  selected  studies  for  any 
period  not  less  than  one  term.  Postgraduate 
courses  are  provided,  leading  to  the  degrees 
of  Master  of  Art.-,  of  Philosophy,  or  of  Science, 
and  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  as  well  as  for  those 
not  candidates  for  a  second  degree.  After  1877, 
the  master's  degrees  are  not  to  be  conferred  "in 
course."  The  technical  courses  of  the  depart- 
ment of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts,  are 
grouped  together  and  known  as  the  Polytechnic 
School.  The  regular  courses  in  the  professional 
departments  are  for  two  years.  Roth  sexes  are 
admitted  to  all  the  departments;  but  the  courses 
of  lectures  for  women,  in  the  medical  depart- 
ments, are  distinct  from  those  for  men.  The  only 
charges  made  by  the  university  are  to  residents 
in  Michigan,  an  admission  fee  of  .$10,  and  the 
annual  payment  of  iff  15;  to  those  who  come  from 
other  states  or  countries,  an  admission  fee  of 
$25,  and  the  annual  payment  of  $20.  The  num- 
ber of  instructors  and  students  in  the  different 
departments,  in  1875 — 6,  was  as  follows  : 

Departments  Instructors       Students 

Literature,  etc.  31  452 

Law  6  321 

Medic and  surgery  10  312 

Dental  college  3  20 

Homoeopathic  med.  college       2  24 

Total,  deducting  repetitions    49  1,127 

The  Students  in    the  department  of  literature. 


university  grounds  embrace  -l-C  acres,  and  con- 
tain an  astronomical  observatory:  a  central  build- 
ing, called  University  Hall,  for  the  department 
of  literature,  science,  and  the  arts;  buildings 
for  the  departments  of  law  and  medicine ;  a 
hospital;  a  chemical  laboratory;  and  residences 
for  the  president  and  the  prof essors.  The  observ- 
atory, erected  by  citizens  of  Detroit,  was  opened 
in  1854,  and  is  supplied  with  the  most  approved 
instruments.  The  university  museum  contains 
valuable  and  constantly  increasing  collections, 
illustrative  of  natural  science,  ethnology,  art, 
history,  agriculture,  anatomy,  and  materia  med- 
ica.  The  geological,  zoological,  and  botanical 
cabinets  together  are  estimated  to  contain  about. 
57,250  entries  and  255,000  specimens.  The  li- 
braries accessible  to  the  students  contain  about 
31,000  volumes.    The  university  fund,  being  the 

pr eds   of  the   sale   of   the   university  lands, 

amounts  to  about  8550,000.  It  is  held  in  trust 
by  the  state,  which  pays  interest  thereon  at  the 
rate  of  7  per  cent  [per  annum.  The  present  an- 
nual income  of  the  university  amounts  to  nearly 

Previous  to  1*52,  under  the  regulations  then 
in  force, there  was  no  president  of  the  university. 


MIBPLEBURY    COLLEGE 

Since  that  time,  the  office  has  been  filled  as  fol- 
lows :  llcnrv  P.  Tappan,  D.  P.,  1852—63; 
Erastus  O.   Haven,   D.P.,   L863— 9 ;    Henry  S. 

Frieze,  LL.  P.  (acting),  lH(il) — 71  ;  James  B. 
Angell,  LL.D.,  appointed  in  1871  and  still  (1876) 
in  office. 

MIDDLEBURY  COLLEGE,  at  Middle- 
bury,  Vt.,  founded  in  L 800,  though  not  denomi- 
national by  its  charter,  is  under  the  direction 
of  i  longregationalists.  The  grounds,  embracing 
about  30  acres,  occupy  a  commanding  eminence. 
It  has  productive  funds  to  the  amount  of 
8180,000.  a  library  of  more  than  12,000  volumes, 
and  valuable  cabinets  of  natural  history.  The 
cost  of  tuition  is  $45  per  annum.  There  arc 
several  scholarships,  besides  other  beneficiary 
funds,  for  the  aid  of  needy  students.  In  1875--I.. 
there  were  8  instructors  and  53  students.  Ac- 
cording to  the  triennial  catalogue  of  1871,  there 
were  1,160  alumni,  of  whom  ~i2\  were  living. 
Of  the  whole  number  1*1  (274  living)  became 
clergymen.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows  : 
the  Rev.  Jeremiah  Atwater,  8.  T.  D.,  1800  - 
1*119  ;  the  Rev.  llcnrv  Davis.S.T.  P..  1810— 17; 
the  Rev.  Joshua  Bates.  S.  T.  D.,  1818—39  :  the 
Rev.  Benjamin  Labaree,  8.  T.  D.,  L.  L.  D.,  1840 
—06;  the  Rev.  Harvey  Denniaon  Kitchel,  8.  T. 
P.,  1866—1875:  and  the  Rev.  Calvin  B.Hulbert, 
P.  I  >..  the  present  incumbent,  elected  in  1875. 

MILITARY  SCHOOLS.  Special  institu- 
tions for  the  education  of  army  officers  now  exist 
in  all  European  countries,  though  they  are  of 
comparatively  modem  origin.  The  first  military 
school  in  Prance  was  established  by  Louis  XV.. 
at  Yiucennes,  in  1751.  It  was.  soon  after,  re- 
moved to  the  Champ  de  Mars,  Paris,  but  it  has 
long  ceased  to  exist  as  an  institution  for  instruc- 
tion. The  Special  Military  School  of  St.  t  Yr. 
near  Versailles,  was  founded  by  Bonaparte  in 
1802,  and.  for  the  first  few  years,  was  located  at 
Eontainebleau.  Candidates  are  admitted  by 
competitive  examination,  and  must  be  between 
17  and  L'O,  or,  if  from  the  army,  not  over  2.3 
years  of  age.  The  course  is  for  two  years,  and 
embraces  geography,  <  ierman,  literature,  drawing, 
legislation  and  administration,  hygiene,  topog- 
raphy, military  art  and  history,  artillery,  for- 
tification, and  military  exercises.  The  pupils 
pass  either  to  the  Staff  School,  in  Paris,  the 
Cavalry  School,  at  Saumur,  or  to  the  army  as 
sub-lieutenants  of  infantry.  The  St.  <  'yr  School 
has  about  701)  pupils.  The  Polytechnic  School, 
in  I 'arts,  opened  in  1794.  and  organized  by  La 
Place  in  1799,  though  not  specially  military  in 
character,  affords  theoretical  instruction  in  vari- 
ous military  and  related  branches.  There  are 
aLso  the  Artillery  ami  Engineers'  School,  at  Fou- 
tainebleau,  for  officers;  for  the  education  of 
"officers,  the  artillery  schools  at  Valence  and 
N  lines,  the  School  for  Non-commissioned  In- 
fantry Officers,  at  ( 'amp  dAvor  :  also  the  .Mil- 
itary Orphan  School,  at  La  l'l.Vhe.  the  Militarv 
School  of  Medicine  and  Pharmat  v.  in  Pari.-,  the 
Military  Pyrotechnic  School,  in  Bourges,  and  the 
Normal  School  for  Gymnastics,  in  Yiucennes. — 
In  Great  Britain,  the  most  noted   institutions 


MILITARY   SCHOOLS 


founded  in  1741. and  the  Koval  Militarv  Cull,.,,,., 
at  Sandhurst,  founded  in  1799.  The  former  is 
intended  for  officers  of  the  artillery  and  engineers. 
The  course  is  for  two  years  and  a  half,  and  em- 
braces mathematics,  elementary  chemistry  and 
physics,   French   or  German,  military  drawing 


h  .r 


■  liv. drills 


of  age.  The  number  of  pupils  is  about  200. 
The  college  at  Sandhurst  is  intended  for  officers 
of  the  cavalry  and  infantry.  Admission  is  by 
competitive  examination.  The  course  is  for  one 
year,  and  embraces  the  elements  of  tactics,  in- 
fantry and  field-artillery  drill,  the    regulations 

ence,  gymnastics,  riding,  regimental  interior 
economy,  militarv  topography  and  reconnois- 
sance,  field   fortification   and    the   elements   of 

are  250  students.  The  Stafl  Colleg.  at  the  same 
Place,  fo]  tl,  instruct! -,.-,„  ..Mi..-,  former- 
ly the  sc,,„.r  depart at  of   th<    Koyal   Military 

i  ollege.is  now  a  distinct  institution.  LTiecourse 
is  for  two  yea-,  and  embraces  French,  German, 

fortification  and  field  emjucci  inu.  ecology,  mil- 
itary art,  historj  and  geography,  artillery,  riding. 
topography,  /v  .,,„„,  ,/nno//.  < .  and  military  teleg- 
raphy and  signaling.     Admission    here,   also,  is 


Engineering,  at  Chatl 
at    .-1  ..1  uryness,  th 
[ythe  the  Military  5 

and    the    Royal    Hi 

am.  the  S.hool  of 
School  of  Mus- 
edi.al  SchooLin 

is  given  in  the  follow 
8.  the  war  academi. 
br  higher  scientific  et 
general  staff   ;    for 

-    in    Berlin   and 
ucation,  especial 
the  education  oi 

e  united  artillery  and 

■iigineers  schools 

six  schools  for  the  education 
id  officers;  also  the  Medico- 
William  Institute,  the  Med- 
v  Aeademvin  Berlin. the  Mil- 


the   pupils   pass  to  a   war  school,   though  some 
remain  an  additional  year  in  the  senior  cadet 


576 


MILITARY    SCHOOLS 


school.  There  is  an  examination  for  admission 
to  the  junior  schools,  and  to  the  senior  school  for 
those  who  have  not  passed  through  the  junior 
schools.  The  age  of  admission  to  the  junior 
schools  is  about  10  years;  to  the  senior,  about  1 5. 
In  the  former,  the  course  embraces  arithmetic, 
elementary  algebra  and  geometry,  <  lerman  gram- 
mar and  composition,  French,  Latin,  Bible  his- 
tory, natural  philosophy,  drawing,  writing,  his- 
tory, drill,  gymnastics,  fencing,  and  dancing;  in 
the  latter,  urography,  mathematics,  physics,  drill, 
fencing,  imitative  drawing.  Latin,  German, 
French,  history,  military  drawing,  religious  in- 
struction, riding,  and  gymnastics.  For  the  ad- 
ditional year,  the  branches  are  topography,  mil- 
itary service  and  correspondence,  science  of  arms, 
military  exercises,  fortification,  tactics,  military 
surveying  and  drawing,  French,  etc.  Kadi  junior 
school  has  about  200  pupils;  and  the  senior 
school,  about  700.  The  war  schools  are  intended 
for  officers  of  the  infantry  and  cavalry,  and  as 
preparatory  to  the  Artillery  and  Engineers' 
School.  The  course  is  for  about  nine  months, 
and  embraces  musketry  practice,  tactics,  science 
of  arms,  riding,  fencing,  fortification,  military 
surveying  and  drawing,  gymnastics,  manual  of 
the  piece  in  artillery,  drill  in  infantry  exercises, 
with  about  six  weeks'  field  exercise  in  applied 
tactics,  reconnaissance,  and  surveying.  The  War 
Academy  is  intended  for  the  education  of  officers 
for  the  staff,  as  military  instructors,  and  for 
other  high  duties.  Candidates  are  admitted  by 
competitive  examination,  open  to  officers  of  all 
arms  of  three  years' active  service.  The  course 
is  for  three  years,  and  embraces  French,  Rus- 
sian, military  hygiene  and  law,  general,  physical, 
and  military  geography,  tactics,  history  of  liter- 
ature, geodesy,  mathematics,  science  of  arms, 
history  of  the  art  of  war,  fortification,  military 
administration,  history,  surveying,  art  of  siege. 
chemistry,  staff  duty,  physics,  with  practical  field 
instruction  in  staff  duty,  surveying,  field-sketch- 
ing, etc.  There  are  about  275  students  in  this 
institution.  The  military  schools  of  other  Euro- 
pean countries  are  similar,  in  their  general  feat- 
ures, to  those  already  described. — -In  Austria- 
Hungary,  there  are  the  following:  for  officers,  the 
War  School  (for  the  general  staff) .  the  higher  Ar- 
tillery and  the  Higher  Engineering  Course,  the 
Preparatory  Course  for  Candidates  for  the  Artil- 
lery Staff,  the  ( 'entral  Infantry*  lourse,  the  Intend- 
ancy  Course  (affording  a  preparation  for  the  mili- 
tary intendancy),  all  in  Vienna,  and  the  Royal 
Hungarian  Landwehr-Cavalry  School,  at  Jasz- 
bereny  ;  for  the  education  of  officers,  the  Mil- 
itary Academy,  in  Wiener-Neustadt  (for  infantry 
and  cavalry),  the  Technical  Military  Academy, 
in  Vienna  (for  the  artillery  and  engineers),  the 
Ludovica  Academy,  in  Buda-Pesth  (for  the  Hun- 
garian Landwehr);  preparatory  to  the  academies, 
the  Military  Superior  Real  School,  in  Weiss- 
kirchen,  the  military  inferior  real  schools  at  St. 
Polten  and  <iiins:  the  Military  Medical  Course 
and  the  Military  Riding  Institute,  in  Vienna. — 
The  Russian  institutions  are  as  follows:  for 
officers,  the  Nicholas  Academy  (for  the  general 


staff),  the  Michael  Artillery  Academy,  the  Nich- 
olas Engineering  Academy,  the  Military  Jurid- 
ical Academy,  all  in  St.  Petersburg;  for  the 
education  of  officers,  six  war  schools  (two  for  in- 
fantry, and  one  each  for  cavalry,  artillery,  and 
engineers  in  St.  Petersburg, and  one  for  infantry 
in  Moscow),  the   imperial    Page   Corps,  in  St. 


progymnasia ; — f or  special  instruction,  the  Mil- 
itary Law  School,  the  Military  Topographical 
School,  the  Preparatory  School  for  the  Guards, 


est  instruction  and  the  general  staff),  the  Artil- 
lery and  Engineers'  School,  at  the  same  place; 
for  the  education  of  officers,  the  Military  Acad- 
emy, in  Turin  (for  the  artillery  and  engineers), 
the  Military  School,  in  Modena(for  infantry  and 
cavalry);  as  preparatory  institutions  to  the  Mil- 
itary Academy  and  Military  School,  the  military 
colleges,  in  Naples,  Milan,  and  Florence;  also 
the  Normal  Infantry  School,  in  Parma, and  the 
Normal  Cavalry  School,  in  Pinerolo. — Besides 
the  schools  for  officers  of  the  character  already 
indicated,  there  are  in  nearly  eveiy  European 
country  regimental  or  battalion  schools  for  the 
instruction  of  privates  or  non-commissioned 
officers  in  the  common  branches  of  learning. — 
In  Brazil,  military  instruction  is  given  in  reg- ' 
iinental  schools,  for  training  non-commissioned 
ollieers  :  preparatory  schools;  the  Military  School, 
in  Rio  de  Janeiro  ;  the  Depot  of  Artillery  Ap- 
prentices, in  the  same  place ;  the  Cavalry  and 
Infantry  School  of  the  Province  of  Sao  Petro 
do  Rio  Grande  do  Sul ;  and  the  General  Gun- 
nery School  of  t'ampo  Grande. — In  the  Military 
Academy,  at  West  Point,  N.  Y., founded  in  1802, 
the  Tinted  States  has  an  institution  second  to 
none  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  The  organization, 
course,  etc.,  are  described  under  the  appropriate 
title.  (See  West  Point.)  There  is  also  an 
Artillery  School  at  Fortress  Monroe,  organized 
in  18(57.  The  act  of  Congress  of  18(>2,  donating 
land  to  the  states  for  the  establishment  of  agri- 
cultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  includes  milita- 
ry tactics  among  the  branches  to  be  taught  in 
those  institutions.  An  act  of  1800  authorizes 
the  president  to  detail  officers  of  experience  to 
act  as  professors  of  military  science  in  institu- 
tions of  learning,  having  over  1 50  male  students. 
A  number  of  institutions  have  availed  them- 
selves of  this  privilege.  By  the  same  act,  provi- 
sion is  made  for  the  instruction  of  enlisted  men 
in  the  common  English  branches  of  education  at 
every  post,  garrison,  or  permanent  camp.  In 
nearly  every  military  department,  there  are 
schools  for  instruction  in  military  signaling  and 
telegraphy.  A  number  of  academies  or  high 
schools  in  the  United  States  are  organized 
upon  military  principles,  in  imitation  of  West 
Point,  daily  drill  being  required  of  the  pupils. 


577 


Some  of  these  are  designed  for  b( 

liable  to  the   milder  discipline  of 

schools.    Several  institutions  prov 

tion  of  a  collegiate  grade,  in  das 

languages, and  scientific  branches,] 

organization,     »  it   these   the   prin 

Beparate  articles  in   this  work    an 

the    Kentucky  Military  Institute,  i 

Rouge,  LaTNorvrich  University!  i 

Vt.;  Pennsylvania    Military   Acad 

fcer,    Pa.;  Texas   Military   Institub 

Tex.:  and   Virginia    Military  ln.-ti 

ington,  Va.  -Gen.  1  [azen,  in  i tr 

the  French  and  Prussian  syste 1 

French  officers  are  of  necessity  educated  men, 
while,  in  Prussia,  all  must  be.  In  the  French 
schools,  there  is  almost  a  total  absence  of  moral 
control  ;  while,  in  Prussia,  the  opposite  is  true. 
In  France,  the  great  lark  of  a  good  preparatory 

education  is  loudly  comphu I  of,  and  the  almost 

total    neglect    ,,f' mathematical    subjects   in   the 


of  a  military  character.  In  the  French  system, 
the  entire  school  course  is  given  before  service 

is  seen;   but,  in    Prussia,  a  certain   ai int  of 

actual  service  must  precede  any  theoretical  course 
at  the  schools:  nor  is  there  in  France,  as  in 
Prussia,  any  provision  for  recognizing,  utilizing, 
and  educating  the  talent  of  young  men  who 
have,  by  a  fen  years'  service,  developed  mental 
superiority.     In  Prussia,  nothing  is  moje  stril 

ing  than  the  ( nection  between  the  military  and 

civil  education  of  the  country.  The  competitive 
system  is  almost  universally  objected  to,  tun! 
mathematics  are  thought  worthy  of  attention  up 
to  the  highest  grades  only  by  those  of  peculiar 
aptness.  The  Academy,  which  gives  a  superior 
education  to  the  first  men  of  the  army,  is  of 
great  merit  and  usefulness.  The  greatest  pos- 
sible care  is  bestowed  upon  methods  of  study  and 
instruction;  the  must  remarkable  feature  of  the 
system  is  the  attention  paid  to  forming  and  dis- 
ciplining the  mind  and  encouraging  habits  of 
reflection.  Thee  location  is  eminently  practical.  - 
In  reference  to  West  Point  be  says':  -After  see- 
ing much  of  the  best  European  armies,  1  believe 
that,  at  the  breaking  out  of  our  war.  our  little 
regular  army  was  officered  by  better  technical 
.soldiers  than  any  army  in  the  world:  and  this 
I  believe  to  be  due  to  West  Point,"— See  II. 
Barnard,  Military  Education ;  an  Accounlof 
Institutions  for  Military  Education  in  France, 
Prussia,  Austria,  Russia.  Sardinia,  S,rr,/r„. 
Switzerland,  England,  and  the  United  States 
(2  vols.).— A  list  of  the  military  schools  of  all 
European  States  is  given  by  Brachelli,  Die 
Staaten  Eurapa'y.  (1875).— Sec  (Jeii.AV.  P..  II  a- 
zen,  U.  S.  A..  The  School  and  the  Army  in  Ger- 
many and  France. 

MILTON,  John,  a  celebrated  English  poet, 
born  in  London,  Dec.9.,1608;  died  there  tfov.8., 
ll>7l  1  lis  father,  being  disinherited  Oil  chang- 
ing his  religion —  which   had   been    the    Human 


■ssion  of  a  scrivener, 
t  a  plentiful  estate." 
educated.    A  private 


in  ( !reek,  and 
poetry,  and   tl 


poetry.  The  must  beautiful  of  his  shorter  poems 
were  written  at  this  period  of  his  life.  In  1037, 
he  set  out  upon  his  travels,  visiting  France  and 
Italy,  in  both  of  which  countries  he  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  men  eminent  in  science  and 
literature.  Paris,  Florence  and  Rome  were 
among  the  places  visited  bvhimat  this  time:  and 


is  t, 


the  long,  he  a 

blithe 

ened  home. 

'or  seven 

1  years 

devoted  to  tin 

1  isgrei 

the  i. 
pamph 

English    pros, 
to  incompatib 

in  it ; 
h.  a  sept 
ln\  of  tl 

1,  he  i 

tempt  on  his 

iait    to    1 

marriage,  in  t 

of  V 

some  of  the  t 

en  ous 

phlets.     In    1 

14,  he  ] 

III   ii-Im 

Education  ai 

1   bis   .1 

the  Liberty  of 

I  , n 

erf  Pr 

reconciliation 

took    lib 

ec  beta 

wife  :  and,  for  several 

years, 

don,  devoting 

limself  t 

)  litem 

His  wife  dying  in  1652,  or  1653,  he  married 
again  in  1656,  and  again  in  1663.  About  1665, 
he  completed  Paradise  Lost  and  began  Paradise 
Regained.  The  last  years  of  his  life  were  passed 


principally  upon  his  Tra  tate  on 
tressed  in  the  form  of  a  letter  to 
In  this  tractate    is    pre- 


■llted  Mi 
lueatiun 
dlv,   an. 


(q.  v.). 


private  and  public,  of  peace  and  war.  ills  first 
injunction  is  "to  find  out  a  spacious  house  and 
ground   about   it   fit  for  an  academy,  and  big 


MH.W.U'KKK 


enough  to  lodge 
thereabouts  may 
government  of  our 

suthcicnt.  anil  abil 
to  direct  and  oven 
is  to  be  both  "schi 
place  of  instruetit 


ie.'  Such  an  academy 
university  '  —  the  sole 
ie  youth  it  contains, 
[mission  to  the  time 
when  they  enter  upon  the  duties  of  mature  life. 
Their  studies,  their  exercise,  and  their  diet  arc 
separately  considered.  For  the  first,  grammar  is 
tq  be  used  as  an  introduction,  giving  special  at- 
tention to  the  practical  use  of  it,  as  in  correct 
pronunciation  and  a  knowledge  of  the  rules 
most  commonly  used.  Advantage,  also,  should 
be  taken  to  cultivate  indirectly  the  moral  sense 
by  the  use.  as  text-books,  of  such  works  as  have 
become  classics.  For  this  he  recommends  several 
in  the  Greek  language.  He  attaches  great  im- 
portance, also,  to  the  personal  magnetism  of  the 
teacher,  as  a  means  for  inciting  his  pupils  to  an 
"ingenuous  and  noble  ardor."  Arithmetic  is  to 
be  taught  at  this  period;  and.  shortly  after, 
geometry.  In  the  evening,  the  instruction  is  to  be 
moral  only.  The  next  step  is  the  study  of  agri- 
culture, as  found  in  the  writings  of  <  lato,  Varro. 
ami  Columella.  These  authors  are  chosen  for  the 
double  pin  pose  of  ae<|iiii  ni-  .1  mastery  of  " any 
ordinary  prose,"  and  for  inciting  in  the  pupils  a 
desire  in  after  life  to  "improve  the  tillage  of  their 
country."  It  will  then  he  proper  to  go  on  to 
the  study  of  maps,  globes,  and  natural  philoso- 
phy. Greek  should  then  be  taken  up.  ami  in  a 
short  time,  trigonometry,  fortification,  architect- 
ure, enginery  or  navigation,  and  anatomy.  Medi- 
cine, both  theoretical  and  practical,  should  next 
be  pursued.  These  studies  should  all  be  supple- 
mented, as  far  as  possible,  by  an  observatii.n  of 
their  application  in  practical  pursuits.  Moral 
instruction  should  now  predominate.  Tin'  les- 
sons inculcated  should  be  enforced  by  reading 
the  moral  works  of  Plato,  Xenophon,  Cicero, 
Plutarch,  etc.,  ending  at  evening  with  the  Bible. 
The  next  study  should  be  that  of  political  econo- 
my, followed  by  polities  and  law.  Sundays  and 
evenings  should  be  devoted  to  theology,  church 
history,  and  the  study  of  Hebrew — the  latter  in 
order  that  the  Scriptures  may  be  read  in  the 
original.  Then  follow  "  choice  histories,  heroic 
poems,  and  attic  tragedies,"  with  "  political  ora- 
tions," some  of  which  should  be  committed  to 
memory,  and  declaimed.  Rhetoric,  the  art  of 
composition,  logic,  and  poetry  next  succeed;  after 
which,  he  says,  "whether  they  [the  students]  be 
to  speak  in  parliament  or  council,  honor  and  at- 
tention would  be  waiting  on  their  lips."  He  next 
speaks  of  physical  exercise.  Wrestling  and  the 
use  of  the  sword  are  specially  commended,  the 
breathing  spells  to  be  tilled  with  music.  About 
two houre before  -upper,  the  students  are  to  be 

on  horseback,  in  fair  weather  or  foul.  These  "ill 
give  personal  prowess  and  hardihood,  and  ac- 
custom the  youths  to  habits  of  discipline, 
and  the  practical  conduct  of  armies.  Visits  to 
the  country,  also,  at  favorable  seasons,  and  for- 


eign travel,  are  recommended  to  supplement  the 
stinlies  and  exercises  ,,t  the  academy.  Lastly,  the 
students   food  should  be  -plain,  healthful,  and 

moderate."  and  served  in  the  same  house.  The 
proper  age  in  which  to  puisne  this  curriculum  is 
from  the  12th  to  the  'J  1st  year.  It  will  be  seen 
from  this  synopsis,  that  Milton's  view  of  a  liberal 
education  differed  w  idely  from  that  of  the  school- 
men of  his  day,  in  its  estimate  of  the  classics  and 
natural  science  ; 
ceeds  the  liberal 
educatorsof  the  present  time.  The  period  of  child- 
hood, which  is  now  claiming  so  much  of  the  at- 
tention of  the  educators  thioughuiit  the  civilized 
world,  is  not,  indeed,  considered  by  him  :  not, 
however,  because  it  was  overlooked,  nor  because 
he  undervalued  its  importance;  but.  because 
"brevity"  was  his  "scope."  On  nearly  all  of  the 
great  subjects  thai  now  agitate  the  educational 
world,  this  tractate  is  silent.  Compulsory  educa- 
tion, sectarianism,  the  relation  of  schools  to  the 
state,  the  education  of  women,  the  co-education 
of  the  sexes — none  of  these  are  mentioned.  Yet, 
if  the  reader  of  to-day.  wondering  at  its  fame,  and 
doubting  its  claim  to  special  consideration,  will 
transport  himself  to  Milton's  time,  and  note  the 
influences  by  which  he  was  surrounded  —  the 
almost  universal  disregard  of  the  practical  in 
education,  and  the  blind  worship  of  book  knowl- 
edge— this  "Letter  to  Master  Samuel  llartlib" 
will  appear  almost  a  daring  innovation;  and  the 
moral  courage,  as  well  as  the  sagacity,  of  its 
author  will  be  unquestioned. 

MILTON  COLLEGE,  at  Milton,  Wis., 
founded  as  an  academy  in  1844  and  as  a  college 
in  1867,is  under  the  control  of  the  Seventh-Day 
Baptists.  It  is  supported  chiefly  by  tuition 
fees.  Its  endowment  amounts  to  $6,000.  The 
libraries  contain  about  2,100  volumes.  It  has 
philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus  and  cab- 
inets of  botany,  mineralogy,  etc.  The  academic 
department  has  a  teachers'  course,  an  English 
and  business  course,  and  a  preparatory  course; 
the  collegiate  department  has  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course.  In  1875 — 0,  there  were  260 
students  in  all  courses.  Both  sexes  are  admitted. 
The  principals  and  presidents  have  been  as  fol- 
lows :  the  Rev.  Bethnel  C.  Church,  1  year ;  the 
Rev.  S.S.  Bicknell,  3  years  ;  the  Rev.  Amos  W. 
( loon,  2  years  ;  Prof.  A.  C.  Spicer,  7  years  ;  and 
the  Rev.  \Y.  C.  Whit  ford,  the  present  incumbent 

MILWAUKEE,  the  chief  city  and  port  of 
entry  of  the  state  of  Wisconsin,  was  settled  in 
1835,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1846.  Its 
population,  according  to  the  census  of  1870,  was 
89,930;  and  its  school  population  (between  the 
ages  of  4  and  20  years)  27.359,  which,  in  August 
1875,  had  increased  to  33,919.  The  total  popu- 
lation of  the  city,  at  present  (1876),  is  about 
120.11011.  Of  the  school  population,  in  1875,  the 
number  attending  the  public  schools  was  30.7 
per  cent:  attending  private  schools,  21.3  per  cent. 
Of  the  children  between  the  ages  of  4  and  15 
years,  more  than  75  per  cent  attended  either 
public  or  private  schools. 


Educational    Hislon 
public  schools  of  Milw. 


.•IC'tlT. 


dill, 


MILWAUKEE 


during  the  last  thirt 
has  been  from  the 
early  settlers,  in  wh 
common  English  e  I 
highly-organized  sys 
its  several  gra  les  - 
high  or  normal  sch 


chools,  may  be 
il  department 


in  East  Water  .- 
first  public  schi 
laws  of  tlic  terril 
Since  the  incorp 
progress  of  the  s 
Two  steps  of  sti 
are  the  intro  hi' 


only  adjuncts  of  district  schools,  ami  are  opened 
whenever  any  of  the  latter  are  not  adequate  to 
the   public    needs.     The  work   in    the   branch 


■In.  .1 


music,  in  LB7A  1  Ue  ] 
organized  in  1846.  The  first  school  superintend- 
ent was  Rufus  King.  1859—60.  His  successors 
were.  Jonathan  Ford,  L860— 62 ;  A.  ( '.  May, 
8  days  in  18(52;  J.  R.  Sharpstein,  1862— :i ; 
'°fl3— 5;    P.   C.  Pomeroy, 


Edwin    De    \V. 


1865—70;  (. 
1871^;    Ja 
cumbent  (181 
School  System. 


F.  C.  Law, 

iter,   the   present   in- 
L874. 
-The  supervision  and  control 


of  the  public  schools  are  vested  in  a  ln>.iril  ,i/' 
education,  consisting  of  26  members,  2  from  each 
ward,  who  are  appointed  biennially  by  the  alder- 
men, subject  to  confirmation  by  the  common 
council.  The  board  elect  annually  from  their 
number  a  president,  who  is  required  to  preside 
at  all  meetings,  and  to  deliver  an  annual  ad- 
dress. The  school  board  is  required,  subject  to 
the  approval  of  the  common  council,  to  establish 
and  organize  a  sufficient  number  of  schools  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  children  of  the  city. 
for  which  the  common  council  must  purchase,  or 
lease,  lots  and  buildings,  erect  school-houses,  and 
provide  the  necessary  furniture.  The  board,  is,  al- 
so, authorized  to  define  the  boundaries  of  school- 
districts,  to  adopt  suitable  text-books,  which  must 
be  uniform,  and  must  continue  in  use  without 
frequent  change,  and  to  enforce  uniformity  in  the 

system  of  instruction  employed  in  these] Is. 

They  also  elect  biennially  a  superintendent  of 
schools,  whose  duties  are  to  exercise  a  general 
supervision  over  the  public  schools,  to  examine 
into  their  organization  and  condition,  to  suggesf 
to  the  teachers  such  changes,  consistent  with  the 
school  law,  as  he  may  deem  expedient,  and,  in 
connection  with  a  committee  of  the  board,  to  ex- 
amine teachers,  to  employ  and  classify  them,  and 
to  dismiss  them  when  necessary.  The  school  law 
requires  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
a  high  school,  in  which  must  be  organized  an 
academic  department  and  a  normal  course  for 
the  special  training  of  teachers  for  the  public 
schools  of   the  city.     The   course  ^  of   study   in 


chool  is; 


ele 


an  English  education,  together  with  German 
(graded  like  the  other  studies,  and  taught  by  a 
special  teacher),  and  music,  free-hand  drawing. 
and  calisthenics,  graded  and  systematically 
taught  by  the  class  teachers.  There  are  special 
superintendents,  however,  for  each  of  these 
branches,  who  regularly  inspect  and  supervise 
the  work.  and.  in  the  case  of  drawing  and  music. 
hold  all  the  examinations  for  promotion.  In 
the  liiuli  M-l I,  there  are  two  courses — the  clas- 
sical and  the  English-  each  occupying  four 
vcars.  Throe  grades  of  certificates  are  granted 
to  teachers,  examinations  for  which  are  held  in 
March,   June,    August,    and    December.     The 


schools,  13  ;  branch  schools,  (>. — The  following 
are  the  principal  items  of  srliool  stutistirs  for 
the  same  year; 

Number  of  pupils  of  school  age 34,031 

"       "       enrolled  in  public  schools. .  .    13,8*1 

Average  daily  attendance 8,453 

Number  of  teachers 107 

Total  receipts $168,949.22 

"      expenditures $164,210.15 

valuation  of  school  property $486,500.00 

Connected  with  the  public  schools,  is  a  teach- 
ers'library,  the  privileges  of  which  are  free  to 
all  teachers  employed  in  the  public  schools,  and 
to  the  pupils  of  the  normal  department  of  the 
high  school.  In  addition  to  the  means  of  in- 
struction afforded  by  the  public  schools,  there 
are  many  private  and  denominational  schools. 
The  number  of  the  former,  in  1873,  was  47,  in 
which  instruction  was  given  to  i  .011(1  pupils,  the 
number  of  whom,  in  1875,  was  increased,  to 
9,269. 


MINERALOGY 


MINERALOGY.     Under  the  head  of 
■al  substances,  or  those   which  constitute 


stai 


that 


the 


.i),  all  sub- 
ife.  By  a 
>  say  that, 
if  nature, 
1  from  it. 
ed  by  our 


the  mineral  kingdom  being &i 
artificial  products  should  be 
Nature,  however,  is  not  to 
verbal  definitions;  organisms  appropriate  and 
use  mineral  substances  without  altering  their 
composition,  or  they  may.  in  the  complex 
chemical  reactions  of  vitality,  give  rise  to  a  min- 
eral substance,  especially  as  a  result  of  organic 
decomposition.     Thus  we  have  in  hones  mineral 


much  to  the  mineral  kingdom  as  that  evolved 
from  the  Hour  of  the  cave.  Again,  nature  right- 
fully claims  as  true  mineral  substances  many 
which  owe  their  existence  to  the  art  of  man.  be- 
ing altogether  identical  in  form,  composition. 
and  character  with  those  of  her  own  production. 
We  can  make  no  distinction  between  the  crystal 
of  salt  formed  by  the  artificial  evaporation  of 
brine,  and  a  similar  crystal  produced  by  the 
natural  evaporation  of  sea-water:  or  between 
the  crystals  of  augite  formed  as  furnace  products 
and  those  of  volcanic  origin.  I  Iciiee  we  see  that, 
in  reality,  the  mineral  kingdom  embraces  all  sub- 
stances, in  their  constitution  essentially  inorganic, 
which  cecur  in  nature,  even  though  they  may 
have  been  formed  under  organic  or  under  artiti- 


i.t  liquid  or  gaseous,  within,  upon. 
■   earth.      Among   these,   we    are    at 

pon  to  recognize  the  distinction  be- 
ifferent  kinds  of  molecules  that  are 


language,  we  recognize  111  rteri  Us  and  structures. 
To  the  materials  we  apply  the  term  minerals. 
A  material  must  be  homogeneous;  hence  the 
definition  of  a  mineral  is  "a  natural  homogene- 
ous substance  of  inorganic  origin."  To  mineral 
aggregates  we  apply  the  term  nicks;  but  as  fluid 
minerals,  whether  gaseous  or  liquid,  can  hardly 
be  said  to  have  structure  in  the  sense  in  which 
the  geologist  uses  the  term,  he  defines  a  rock  as 
•'  tun  aggregation  of  solid  mineral  particles  which 
constitutes  an  essential  part  of  the  earth's  crust." 
Imbedded  within  rocks,  we  meet  with  certain 
mineral  bo  lies  that  present  forms  and  structures 
undoubtedly  of  organic  origin  ;  to  these,  provided 
they  are  of  a  certain  geological  antiquity,  is  ap- 
plied the  term  fossil.  (See  PALEONTOLOGY.) — 
Each  mineral  is  theoretically  assumed  to  be  ca- 
pable el  taking,  under  favorable  circumstances, 
the  form  of  a  geometrical  solid.  This  capability 
is  due  to  forces  inherent  in  inorganic  matter, 
which  causes  its  molecules  to  arrange  themselves 
according  to  fixed  laws  about  certain  mathemat- 
ically   related    axes.      A    perfect    crystal   is  thus 

the  outward  expression  of  symmetrical  internal 


structure,  and  is  defined  as  "an  inorganic  solif! 
bounded  by  plane  surfaces  symmetrically  ar- 
ranged, and'  resulting  from  the  'forces  of  the  con- 
stituent molecules.  (See  Dana,  System  of  Min- 
ei-alogy,Yol.i.)  As  the  molecules  of  different  kinds 
are  variously  affected  by  the  molecular  forces, the 
crystalline  forms  of  different  minerals  vary  ac- 
cordingly. The  form  of  the  same  mineral  is 
always  constant  :  not  that  it  always  occurs  in 
crystals  of  identical  form,  but  that  all  its  forms 
are  referable,  under  mathematical  conditions,  to 
one  fundamental  type.  Its  crystalline  form  is, 
therefore,  regarded  as  an  essential  characteristic 

of  a  mineral    specie.-,    which   will    embrace    yari- 

and,  in  this  light,  anj  particular  crystal  maybe 
regarded  as  a  mineral  individual.  '1  he  existence 
of  such  mineral  structures  is  not  incompatible 
with  the  definition  of  a  TOCk  given  above,  since 
crystals  are  not  structures  essential  in  the  earth's 
crust.  The  formation  of  a  crystal  is  interfered 
with  by  so  many  external  and  varying  influences, 
that  forms  of  exact  symmetry  are  almost  im- 
probabilities; or,  to  quote  Dana,  "this  sym- 
metrical harmony  is  so  uncommon  that  it  can 
hardly  be  considered  other  thai,  an  ideal  perfec- 
tion.'—The  law  that  the  same  mineral  is  always 
limited  to  its  own  crystalline  form  is  apparently 

have  minerals  of  similar  composition,  as  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  or  even  elements,  as  carbon 
and  sulphur,  crystallizing  under  two  or  more 
different  fundamental  forms  [dimorphism, poly- 
morphism); or.  we  may  have  minerals  of  differ- 
ent but  related  chemical  composition  assuming 
identical  or  similar  forms  [isomorphism,  homceo- 
morphism);  or.  finally,  we  may  have  a  mineral 
assuming  the  form  of  another  mineral  of  essen- 
tially different  chemical  composition  [pseudo- 
morphism).  As  the  molecular  arrangement 
known  as  crystalline  structure  is  thus  intimately 
controlled  by  the  laws  that  govern  chemical 
combination,  the  explanation  of  the  above  men- 
tioned apparent  exceptions  to  law  lies  within 
the  province  of  the  chemical  physicist.  Thus, 
whilst  the  mathematician  deals  with  the  forms 
of  crystals  and  their  properties  as  geometrical 
solids,  to  the  chemist  and  physicist  must  be  as- 
signed that  part  of  crystallology,  or  the  science 
of  crystals,  which  treats  of  the  laws  and  condi- 
tions' that  give  rise  to  such  forms.  To  the 
mathematical  branch,  is  assigned  the  name  crys- 
tallography, to  the  physical,  crystallogeny.  As 
crystalline  form  and  chemical  composition  are 
the  essential  characteristics  of  mineral  species, 
chemistry,  physics,  and  solid  geometry  are  the 
sciences  upon  which  mineralogy  is  based.  In 
turn,  it  is  an  essential  subordinate  of  geology, 
necessarily  throwing  light  upon  the  character 
and  history  of  rocks.  From  a  more  general 
educational  stand-point,  mineralogy  is  important 
as  making  us  acquainted  with  the  results  of  the 
forces  that  are  restricted  in  their  action  to  in- 
organic matter,  and  enabling  us  to  contrast 
them  with  the  results  of  that  combination  of 
forces  which  we  call  vitality.      The  properties 


of  minerals  also 

throw  lighl  on 

by  affording  da 

t.i  for  the  disc 

affecting  light, 

electricity,   mi 

its  applications 

to  the  arts,  thi 

ogy  rests  upon 

a   chemical  bi 

be  regarded,    . 

iducatioually, 

chemistry,  as  i 

omplementarj 

great  technical 

importance  to  I 

ist  and  as  a  nee 

and  miningengi 

ueer.     Itwilll 

that  thestu  lv  . 

,i  .;:.,:    1    1    . 

vanced  educatio 

n.     At  the  sai 

noted  that   mil 

terals,   regarde 

materials  of  wh 

ich  the  earths 

offer  examples 

nt  so  many  p 

that  come  undi 

•i-  ill. izai 

either  unaided  i 

MINERALOGY 

il  problems 


MINNESOTA  581 

Dana,  .1  System  of  Mineralogy : 


MINEo,    SCHOOL    OF.      See   Scientific 

SC U.S. 

MINISTRY     OF    PUBLIC     INSTRUC- 
TION,    [low  fur  it  is  viuht  ..I-  expedient   for 


dary    ami  si 


all. 


the  cultivation  of  the  powers  of  observation 
the  lowerstages  oi  education.     Minerals  presei 

complicated,  as  in  vegetable  or  animal  materia 
by  the  effects  of  vitality;  and  theyare  superior 
artificial  objects  for  objective  teaching,  becaue 

if  rightly  used,  they  may  be  de  to  elucida 

all  that  can  be  elucidated  by  the  former,  whil 

they  In me,  in  a  Idition,  foundation  Btones  up 

which  a  more  a  Ivanced  and  scientific  study  mi 
be  satisfactorily  base  I.  In  this  manner.they  mi 
be  use  I  to  inculcate,  in  its  must  elementary  fori 
a  scientific  method  of  research.  Thus,  by  raeai 
of  the  physical  charactersof  minerals,  observ 
ti.ui,  accurate  as  far  as  our  unaided  senses  ca 
make  it,  and  exactness  of  thought,  and  eons 
quentlyof  speech,  may  be  cultivated  in  re-ai 


le  .it    Ministi 
hit-,  in  Prusi 


to. 


elementary  notions  of  crystalline  structure  anil 
cleavage),  cuhr,  diaphaneilu,  luster,  luxrdness 
tenacity,fra  tun    etc    Observations,  elementarj 

it  is  true,  but  still  oi  a   fun  I. ntal  character 

regarding  specific  gravity,  solubility,  sadfusibil 
ity,  may  be  induced  by  simple  experiments  with 
the  balance,  the    test  tube,  and  the   blowpipe. 

Such    knowledge,   acquired    from    the  coi 

minerals  around  us,  will  undoubtedly  be  a  val- 
uable stepping-stone  to  further  acquisitions.    A1 

insight  into  simple  chemical  phenomena,  and,  if 
carried  far  enough,  might  be  made  an  excellent 
starting-point  for  systematic  scientific  : 
tion  by  analysis. 

In  connection  with  mineralogy, 
should  be  given  to  lithology,  or  the  b 
mineral  aggregates,  or  rocks.  This 
presents  many  points  of  interest  botl 
scientific  and  an  educational  point  of  v 
in  its  connections,  on  the  one  hand,  wit! 


iy.  Wurtemberg,  Den 
olivia,  Chili,  and  Cost 
lucation  was.  in    1875, 


i-'.-.]\ 


education,  were  assigned  to  one  bei  of  thi 

ministry.     In  n f  the  oilier  stati  a  oi  t  uropi 

or  America,   do  any   of   the   members   oi    thi 

ministry  bear  the  special  title  of isterofedu 

cation,  either  .  xclusivelj    or  jointlywith  that  ..1 
■ the,-  min .-te.ial  .1.  i.'.ii t.   In  Belgium  and 


educational  affairs  in  the  ministry 
rior;  and.  in  the  .same  way,  in  the  I 
a  bureau  of  education,  with  a  com 


work 


ill.  i- 


topics  of  mineralogy  and   lithology  are  few;  a 

those  only  are  here   Darned  that  are  perfectly 


MINNESOTA,  one  of  the  north-western 
states  of  the  American  Union,  formed  a  part  of 
the  territory  of  the  same  name,  which  was  or- 
ganized by  Congress  in  1849.  Thestate  of  Min- 
nesota was  admitted  into  the    Union   in   1858, 


MINNESOTA 


taking  rank  as  the  19th,  in  the  order  of  ; 
Its  area  is  83,531   sq.  in.;  and  its  popi 


Clilmvil 

Edu 

general 
at  tin: 


?e  a  year,  and  issues  to  teachers, 
ation  liy  himself,  or  by  a  committee 
tppointed  by  him,  state  certificates, 
the  secretary  of  state,  and  the  pres- 
university.  constitute  a  board  for 
mdation  of  text-books  to  be  used 
m  ,-.  1 Is  of  the  state.     He  is  also 


free  publico 
Every  towns 
families    was 

which  scl I 

the  majority 
a  tax  not  I 
county  tax  \ 
po3es.  The 
the  school  sy 
intendent. 
schools,  havi 
having  366  s 
school  fund  > 
Bed 


mi|,|, 


mon  schools.'  In  1 858,  the  first  normal  school  was 
established,  by  an  act  of  the  legislature;  and.  in 
1860,  it  was  organized  and  opened  at  Winona. 
This  school  was  suspended  from  March,  1862,  to 
November,  1864,  when  it  was  re-opened  in  pur- 
suance of  a  law  passed  in  February  of  that  year. 
A  second  state  normal  school  was  opened  at 
Mankato,  in  1868 ;  and,  the  following  year. 
$30,000  was  appropriated  by  the  legislature  for 
a  permanent  building  for  its  accomodation.  A 
third  normal  school  was  opened  at  St  Cloud  in 
1869.     A  state  normal  board  was  constituted  by 


than  $10,  1ur  each  organized  district  'I  he  duties 
of  the  latter  are  to  examine  teachers  and  grant 
certificates,  to  visit  the  schools  in  their  respective 
counties  once  during  each  session,  and  each  to 
make  an  annual  report  to  the  state  superintend- 
ent. No  one  is  eligible  to  the  position  of  county 
superintendent  who  cannot  obtain  from  the  state 
superintendent  a  first-grade  certificate.  In  each 
district,  there  is  a  director,  a  treasurer,  and  a 
clerk  elected  for  three  years.     'I  heir  duties  are 


ils 


clu 


districts  may  also  be  organized  in  any  city.  town, 
township,  or  village.  In  such  cases,  the  govern- 
ment of  these  districts  is  intrusted  to  a  board  of 
six  directors,  who   perform   the  duties  usually 


audition.  —  The  number  of 
L875,  was  3,362  ;  the  number 
1  !>7."i  •  the  number  of  winter 
summer  schools,  2,643.     The 

scl Is  reported  in  that  year 

«ipts  for  the  support  of  the 
nl  from  the  following  sources: 


the 


now  exists.  During  the  scssioi 
in  that  year,  a  bill  was  prop 
universal  compulsory  educatio 
volition  of  truancy;  but  it  was 
state  school  fund,  at  that  ti 
nearly  '■>  millions  of  dollars. 


.1  ah. 


prese 


chool  System. — The  supervision  of  the  edu- 
>nal  interests  of  the  stale  is  committed  to  a 
trintendent  of  public  instruction,  who  is  ap- 
ited  by  the  governor  for  two  years.  Hi.*- 
esare8imilar  to  those  ol  state  superintendents 
•rally  ;  while  his  powers  are  greater  from  the 
that  he  is  called  upon  to  perform  the  func- 
s  usually  intrusted  in  other  Mates  to  state 

ning  schools,  convenes  teachers'  institutes, 
i, Hi., lis   the   school    funds  among   the  several 


Siilrnll .Is  "      ' 4S.S70..-.1 

I  Ither  sources ■■     84,856.34 

Total...."  $1,576,081.60 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 
F,,r  teachers'  wages     .      .       $702,662.66 

|,vj,Tinn"    i '■"■'.'-■  -"'i'.''. i.ls      a  I'.'joii.'is 

"houses      ~'        '  "     ' 187,667.74 

Rent   ol  siteaand  i is  3,158.64 

|.„ „|  „l    ,lj-tMcI  I U.  l.-.l..-.li7.7!> 

For  oilier  purposes.  132.796.30 

Total $1289,629.03 

The   other    important    items   of     the   school 
statistics,  for  1875,  arc  the  following: 
Pupils  enrolled  ■■■   M!™4.4. 

\\,\  .CO      H    I      li. I. III.   r    111    -II irl  i;"''.'!,'!,' 

'<•  "  mean?  for  'the  year!  35',646 

Number  ol  teachers  in  ungraded  schools: 


2,:tH9 
2,301 


M1WKSOTA 


ichers  in  graded  schools: 
males. 


K;;W, /„r>l    r„sfn 


■  of  high 
.     'I  hey 


Norm 
the  state 
Mankato 
the  cour 
guage.mi 
political 


mail's.  T.">:    females.   220.      '1'lie   number  enrolled 

total  enrollment,  499;  the  number  in  actual 
attendance  in  the  normal  department,  220.  The 
faculty  consists  of  a  principal  and  ten  assistants. 
The  class  of  graduates  of  May,  1875,  numbered 
18  j  the  whole  number  of  graduates,  since  its 

organization,  was  227.     The  Bi id  state  normal 

school  is  at  Mankato.  [tig  divided  into  a  nor- 
mal and  a  model  department,  and  has  a  faculty 
of  one  principal  and  five  professors  or  assistants. 
Both  sexes  are  admitted,  lis  cuius,'  of  study  is 
similar  to  that  pursued  in  the  normal  school  at 
Winona.  The  number  of  pupils  enrolled,  in  1875, 
was,  in  the  normal  department,  males.  63;  fe- 
males, L50;  in  the  model  department,  males.  30; 
females,  16.  The  average  at  ten. lance  in  the  nor- 
mal department  was  59;  in  the  model  depart- 
ment, 20.  There  were  11  graduates  during  the 
year. — The  normal  school  at  St.  <  loud  is  the 
youngest  of  the  three  state  institutions,  having 
been  established  in  186!).  Its  organization  and 
course  of  study  arc  the  same  as  those  of  the  two 
older  schools  at  Mankato  ami  Winona,  [tisopen 
to  both  sexes,  and  has  a  faculty  consisting  of  a 
principal  and  six  instructors.  The  enrollment  was 
as  follows:  in  the  normal  department,  males,  50; 
females,  124;  in  the  model  department,  males.  1 6; 
females,  32  ;  average  number  in  the  normal  de- 
partment, males,  28;  females,  64;  average  in 
model  department,  males,  10;  females,  L5.  In 
addition  to  the  privileges  afforded  by  these  three 
institutions,  special  instruction,  to  those  desiring 
to  teach  in  the  public  Bchools,  is  given  in  several 
of  the  high  schools  of  the  Mate.    A  Ian..'  number 


<>f  teachers  of  both  s 
from  this  source. —  Tf 
vein- 1  by  the  superinti 


annually 
are  con- 
instruc- 


that  of  I'hill: 
St.  Croix  V; 
its  charter  in 

regularly  inc. 
institution  hi 

schools.    Am 


kind  in  this  part  of  the  North- 
mlicr  of  t.a.  hers,  in  1875,  was  6  ; 


established  to  provide  a  Christi 

nhoni 

■for  young 
est  menial 

ladies,  with  opportunities  fort 

ie  higl 

V  Coll. 

ge  is  con- 

necte.l  with  this  group  of  in 

titutic 

ns  :  also   a 

cathedral,  which  cost  ¥50,000. 

n  whi 

h  the'stu- 

dents   meet   for  public  worshii 

Bes 

there  is  Wesleyan  Seminary,  a 

Was 

>ja,  under 

the  control  of 'the  .Minnesota   i 

onfen 

tee  of  the 

Wesleyan  Methodists,  which 

n    1ST 

"),  had  98 

students;   and  St.  Johns  Sei 

linary 

near   St. 

Joseph,  Stearns  ( !o.,  w  hi.  h  is  i 

induct 

■.I  by  the 

I'eneilictine  fathers,  anil  provi. 

cs  fivi 

courses  of 

study:  an  elementary,  a  si  ientifi 

,a  coi 

unci,  lal.a 

aclassical  and  an  ecclesiastical  a 

U-e.  i." 

ee  below.) 

Superior    Instruction.  —  Th 

■    Uni 

Clsitv      of 

brinirii... 
Of  the  nc 
promise. 


Cali.t.'ll  I  vll.n,- Nnrtl.ti.  M 

Hamlin,.  University Red  Wing 

Ma.alist.T  Uollejjo Minn,  uji.ihs 

St.  .lohn'sN.-iiiiiiary St.  Joseph 

University  oi  Miiiui  s.ita ,     Mniu.-ai.nlis 


Presb 

i    fO    Won    eel 


:.*■!     miwf.sota  rxi\-Ki;sri'v 


MISSISSIPPI 


Pro/essi ,1  , 

Sealnu  v  I  ii\  init\ 
.liilm's  Seminan 
ferred  to  as  insti 
have  full  courses 
there  is    A.ugsbu 

UlnliT  Kvalie..  lie.i 

instruction,  in  -•' 

afforded  by  tfa  •  ■- 

Specia     I      ■ 


and  the  Blind,  located  at  Fariba 

in  1  -I',.'!.  lui  residents  of  the  sta 
ages  of  in  an  1  25  years  The 
embraces  all    il i  iinary  bran 


special 
the  yea 


II,. 


pursuits.     During 
leaf-muti  s  and  'Jl 


ilished 


ings.  rhere  is  also  an  e 
library  contains  nearly 
The  general  museum  coj 


Bhn.,1 u  1,1,1,.  II,  .1  nil,-.  I  ST.',.  »>  consolidated 

with  Thi  Chi  ago  Teacher  and  published  at  Chi- 
cago, mi  I,  r  the  title  of  Tfo  Western  Journal  of 
Education. 

MINNESOTA,  University  of,  at  Min- 
neapolis, Minn.,  was  established  upon  grants 
of  land  by  Congress  for  the  endowment  oi  a 
university  and  of  a   college  ,,t  agriculture  and 

the  mechanic  arts,  ai inting,  in  all   to  202,000 

acres.  The  first  act  for  its  organization  was 
passed  by  the  territorial  legislature  in  l-.'l. 
The  present  charter  was  granted  in  1m;-.  ami 
amended  in  1872.  A  preparatory  school  was 
opened  in  1867;  and,  in   L869,  the  first  college 

class  was  organized.   Under  tl rganic  law,  the 

board  of  regents  are  authorized  to  establish  any 
desired  number  of  departments  or  colleges,  the 
following,  however,  being  specified  :  "A  depart- 
in,  ut  of  elementary  instruction  ;  a  college  of 
science,  literature,  and  the  arts;  a  college  of 
agriculture;  a  college  of  mechanic  arts;  i  col- 
lege or  department  oi  medicine;  a  college  or 
department  of  law.'  The  colleges  of  I  .-.  an, 
medicine  have  not    Vet  1, n,  orejnii/.cl.    'I  he  ,1  - 


The  chemical  and  physical  a] 
Both  Bexes  are  admitted.  In  I 
16  instructors  and  267  stude 

71    females:,    of    «  holli    1  I  -    v 

Tv!\\,|well!^V.A.'.'lia'sl,e','n  I 

MISCHIEV0U3NESS. 


ry  course,  coincid- 
.\ itli  the  scientific 

advanced  or  ina- 
ppropriate bacca- 
civil  i  ngineei  ing  ; 
,1 1 1 .  _  a  course  in 
an-  based  on  the 
giate  department. 
,  being  supported 
|,,u  lii.-i it .  amount- 
an  annual  appro- 
laie.   The  univer- 

aeles.well  woo, led 

i,  two  fine  build- 
nental  farm.  The 
i  bound  volumes, 
s  the  collections  of 
ory  survey  of  the 
ssors  of  the  uni- 
s,-s  and  donations. 
iaratus  is  valuable. 

ts  I  96  males,  ami 
re  "I  tin-  college 
I,  special.  W  illiara 
e  president  oi  the 


tO     the 


i'j.-i,„,.il  Uan.-Lir, -»i t   an  oMal>li.-hed  rule  n,  a 

playful  spirit,  bu1  without  a  malicious  intention. 
Iljis  disposition  is  usually  the  resultof  the  union 
of  humor,  or  love  of  fun,  with  sound  bodily 
health.    The  exuberance  of  spirits  thus  produced 

generally  finds  rent  in  actions  which  are  de ,,- 

inated  mischievous.  This  spirit  is  so  widely 
lifferenl  from  the  willful  breaking  oi  rules  with 


teacher  ;  the  g 1  nature 

chievous  act  isai  companii 
perpetrator  to  desist   on 


eh     thl     II 

causing 


versity. 
the  fresh 
dinary  c 
tneiit.  'I 
senior  ye; 
first  prep 
ml,-  has 
maining 
obtain  il 

scl Is. 

cours  is  ,, 
modern. 
the  aits  | 
a  course  i 


in 


two  cot 
based  i 
depart) 


with   the  work  of 

classes    of     llle    ,,r- 


that.  t,,  the  discipline  of 
•  other  hand,  the  good 
sor  is  in, -i  by  a  similar 
the  tea,  her.  the  task  of 
\ .  an, I  causes  no  offense  ; 
>s  a  respectful  obedience 


ndermine,  or  permanently  deprave  the  moral 
laracter. 

MISSISSIPPI,   one  of  the  southern   stales 
'the  American  Union  formed  at  first  a  partof 


■  oi     the  states  ,,i  Mississippi 


\la 


Mississirri 


enlarged  by  successive  additions,  in  1802  and 
L812;  and,  in  1-1 7.  AJabama  Territory  was 
formed  from  the  eastern  portion  of  it.  ami  in 
the  same  year  Mississippi  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  a  state.  Its  area  is  l7.loli  sq.  in.; 
and  its  population,  in  1870,  was  827,922,  of 
whom   382,896   were   whites:    444,201,  colored 


or  properly  organized  system  o  puonc  scnoois 
was  established  in  the  state  In  1840,  the  census 
returns  showed  that  there  were  382  common 
and  primary  scli. mis,  with  8,263  pupils,  an  I  ".  I 
academies,  with  2,553  Btudents.  diere  were 
also  several  colleges  in  the  Btate,  having,  in  the 
aggregate,  250  students.  In  L850,  the  number 
(if  public  schools  had  increased  to  762  ;  ami  the 
number  of  academi  s,  to   [89.     In    L860,  there 


report  to  the  legislature  The 
vision  ami  control  of  the  sclu 
to  the  superintendent  of  pubi 


hose  ot  county  Bupi 

■m  h  comity  eoiistitu 
governed  by  a  boa 


Each  .mi 
school-dis 
counties, 


pupils,  and  an 

,''.  'I'he  number 

of  academies  ai 

d     o 

h  t 

was    L69,   with 

7,974  pupils; 

ind 

here 

3  colleges,  with 

856  students. 

The 

stat. 

const 

tun  ni  of  1868 

recognized  the 

leed 

.f    ). 

■ovi  lin 

:  the  means  of 

popular  educat 

mi. a 

.1  h 

nee  in; 

Ic  n  the  duty  of 

the  legislature 

ablis 

i  "a  ui 

iloi'in  system  of 

free  public  sch, 

ols  1 

v  tax 

ition,  i 

r  otherwise,  for 

all  children  bet 

yeen 

'the. 

ges  of 

5  and  21  years,  " 

and  also,  as  so 

8  1"' 

cticabl 

>,    "to   establish 

schools  of  a  hig 

radi 

Th 

sai 'oustitu- 

tion  also  rerpiit 

■Itl 

•  e]e, 

tion  of 

a  •  superintend- 

ent  of  public  . 

years,  and  also 
education."  con 

luca 

to  ho 

hat 

bea"boardof 

attorney-genem 

.  an 

1  th 

superintendent; 

ami  that  there 

1  hi 

up  rinten  lent 

in  cad.  countj 

thai 

I '!''", 

should  I..-  kept 

year.      It  also 

l    l 

:  ira  - 

h'!.7'fim'uVo,u 

the   proceeds  i 

i   ;..   the  state, 

ESS-'Si 

1  i 

'!.',' 

anTa 

and    the     lands 

ithorized  a  poll- 

tax  not  rxrrr  1 

■''■'J-il 

';.i,'','c,li'  of  "."n 

fund.     It    pres 

agricultural  co 

and 

that  " 

io  religiou    -  ii  i 

IS  ever  to  < ti 

.1   a 

y  pa 

■t    of     t 

c  school  or  uni- 

versity    funds 

if    t 

e  st 

ite". 

u   pursuance  of 

these  constitut 

jnal 

•eqn 

ivincut 

s,  the  legislature, 

at  its  session  ,, 

Jui 

e.  L8 

To.  pas 

ed  a  school  law. 

organizing  the 

pres 

lit    s 

ihool  s 

vsteni.  except  as 

amended  in  so 

lara  b\ 

the  revised  code 

of  1871.-  'ih. 

firsl 

stat 

•  supei 

iiitcmleiit  under 

this  law  was  1 

.  K. 

served  till  1874: 

his  success,  .rs  1 

■iii' 

r.  w 

.  Cardozo,  from  1  8'U  to 

1876;  T.  S.  Gathrig 

it.  from  Jai 

.  to  Sept..  1876; 

and  Rev.  Jos. 

tardwell, 

tow  in 

..Mice  (1876). 

School  SysU 

n. 

I'he 

general 

supervision  and 

control  of  the 

pub 

ic  sc 

IIOOIS      , 

f   the   state   arc 

committed  to  a 

boa 

■d  of  e, 

ucalion,  consist- 

ing  of  the  secretar 

■    of 

state,  t 

ie  attorney-gen- 

eral,  and  the  su 

peril 

dell. 

elll   of 

lublic  education. 

This  board  has 

charge  of  all  property  and  funds 

lower  house  of  the  legislature.  It  is  provided  by 
law  that  "  the  Bible  shall  not  be  excluded  from 
the  schools  of  the  state".  The  school  age  is  from 
5  to  '-'I  years. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
schools,  in  1875,  was  3,434,— first  grade.  764; 
second  grade,  2,670;  high  schools.  8;  private 
schools,  606.  'I  he  support  of  the  schools  was 
derived  from  the  following  sources: 


Expenditures : 

Knr  teachers'  salaries ?-.u  ,950.44 

t  alaries  of  county  superintendents   .  48,650.00 

Miscellaneous   expenditures 80,000.00 

Total    ■-''  6,600,  I  I 

The  other  items  of   school  statistics  are  the 
following: 

Number  ol  children  of  sel 1  age: 

Whites, 141,514 

Colored 17(i,945 

Total 318,459 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled L68.217 

u.  iieje  iiM.nthiv  ciiri.lliiicnt i:;:;,:;:;o 

Average  daily  alien. Ian.  <■ l(IC.s:i-l 

X i i , i i  1 , . ■  i    nt    teaelicrs 4, tir.s 

Average  monthly  wages  of  teachers $55.47 

Normal  Instruction. — There  are  two  normal 

sel Is  in  the  state.  at   Holly  Springs,  the 

other  at  Tougaloo.  The  first  was  opened  in 
1870,  and  three  years  after,  graduated  3  pupils. 
The  limited  appropriation  made  for  its  support, 
has  impaired  its  efficiency  by  rendering  it  diffi- 
cult to  secure  the  services  of  competent  persons 
as  instructors.     'I'he  normal  school  at  Tougaloo 

the  American  Missionary  Association  contributed 

SI. -.,0(1(1.  and  the  state  $10,000.  'I'he  facultj  of 
the   school  consists   of  a  principal,   preceptress. 


586      MISSISSIPPI   UNIVERSITY 

and  five  teachers.  Manual  labor  is  a  feature  of 
the  curriculum,  each  student  being  required  to 
occupy  himself  one  hour  daily  in  this  way  In- 
struction is  given  principally  in  the  English 
branches  and  mathematics.  Facilities  are  also 
afforded  for  the  stu.lv  of  vocal  and  instrumental 
music.     There  is  a  reference    library  oi    L,000 

Secondary  Instruction.  -'J  he  reports  received 
from  high  schools  and  academies  have  been  so 
few  in  number  as  to  give  very  little  ground  on 
which  to  base  an  estimate  of  the  work  that  is 
being  done  in  this  grade  of  instruction. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  The  chief  institu- 
tions of  this  grade  are  enumerated  in  the  follow- 
ing table: 


NAME 

u~* 

U     i     : 
Counci- 

Religious 
denomina- 

Mississippi  College. . . 

Puss»'lmstian  Cnlleyi 
Shaw   University 

Tnu^alnu  rniviTsity. 
Univ.  uf  Mississippi.  . 

Clinton 
Pass  Christian 
Bolly  Springs 
rougaloo 

Oxford 

ls.  ;n 
18G6 
1868 
1869 

is  a 

Bap. 
K.  C. 
Meth. 

Non-sf-ct. 

The  report,  for  1*74,  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education  mentions  7  colleges  for  the  superior 
instruction  of  w n.  of  which  6  were  author- 
ized to  confer  degrees.  Thes  ■  colleges  are  located 
at  Brookhaven  (Whitworth),  Clinton  (Central 
Institute),  Columbus  (Female  [nstitute),  Holly 
Springs  Franklin),  Meridian.  Oxford  (Union), 
and  Pontotoc  (Chickasaw). 

Professional    and    Scientific    Instruction.— 


act  ot  the  1,-idatuiv  in  1-71 .  and  occupies  the 
site  of  the  institution  formerij  known  as  Oak- 
land College,  the  oldest  academic  institution  in 
the  state.  To  the  university  was  granted  three- 
fifths  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  the  agricult- 
ural college  land-scrip,  amounting  to  $113,400, 
besides  a  legislative  appropriation  of  $50,000 
for  ten  years.  It  is  ..pen  to  students  of  either 
race.  It  has  an  agricultural  department,  with 
a  farm  of  27:7  acres.  Its  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus  is  very  elaborate  and  com- 
plete. Means  for  scientific  instruction  is  also 
afforded  by  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 
chanic Arts,  a  department  of  the  University  of 
Mississippi.  This  institution  has  also  a  law  de- 
partment; and  there  is  a  theological  class  in 
Tougaloo  University. 

S/in-iii/  hislrti'-iimi.  —The  Mississippi  Institute 
for  the  Blind,  at  Jackson,  is  the  only  institution 
of  thischarac  er  in  t li  ■  state.  It  was  founded  in 
1852,  and  is  support  id  by  stab'  appropriations. 

MISSISSIPPI,   University  of,  at  Oxford,    sc 
Miss., was  chartered  in  1844and  opened  inl848,     E 


sils,  soils,  and  other  geological  apparatus;  be- 
sides instruments  to  illustrate  mathematics 
and  engineering,  and  a  large  farm,  The  library 
contains  more'  than  6,000  volumes.  The  in- 
vested resources  of  the  university  do  not  ex- 
ceed $200,000.  The  income,  in  1876,  from  en- 
dowment and  state  appropriations  was  $30,000. 
The  plan  of  instruction  embraces  three  general 
departments;  namely.  (1)  preparatory  educa- 
tion (includmg  a  com) rial  course)  ;  (2)  sci- 
ence, literature,  and  the  arts;  (3)  professional 
education.  The  second  department  includes 
five  distinct  courses  of  study,  three  of  which 
are  undergraduate  parallel  courses,  two  being 
post  -  graduate  courses.  The  undergraduate 
courses  are  known  as  (1)  The  Course  for 
Bachelor  of  Arts  (-1  yrs.)  ;  (2)  The  Course 
for  Bachelor  of  Science  (4  yrs.);  (3)  The 
Course  for  Bachelor  of  Philosophy  (3  yrs.).  A 
student  has  free  choice  of  these  courses,  but  the 
studies  prescribed  for  each  course  are  all  com- 
pulsory for  that  course.  The  post-graduate 
courses  are  for  the  degrees  i 
Doctor  of  Philosophy.  t*i 
department  are  embracei 
schools;  namely.  (1)  law 
Burgery  (not  yet  organized);  (3)  agriculture 
and  tin-  mechanic  arts,  in  which  the  regular 
course  is  for  four  years,  leading  to  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Scientific  Agriculture  (B.  S.  A.). 
The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  first  general  depart- 
ments is  $25a  year;  in  the  law  school,  $50  a 
year.  In  1875—  li,  there  were  13  instructors 
and  l.'il  students.  The  presiding  othcers  have 
been  as  follows:  George  P.  Holmes,  LL.  D. 
(president),    1848-^9;    the    Bev.  Augustus   B. 


Master  of  Arts  and 
r  the  third  general 
three  professional 
(2)    medicine   and 


eellor;  the  Bev.  John  N.  Waddel, D. D.,  LL.D., 
(chancellor)  1865 — 71  ;  and  Gen.  Alexander  P. 
Stewart,  the  present  chancellor  I L876),  appointed 
in  1874. 

MISSISSIPPI  COLLEGE,  at  Clinton, 
Miss.,  under  Baptist  control,  was  chartered  in 
1830.  It  has  libraries  containing  3,0110  volumes, 
and  extensive  apparatus  and  cabinets.  Its  pro- 
ductive funds  amount  to  $50,000.  The  regular 
tuition  fee  is  S'2.7  a  year.  The  college  consists 
of  a  preparatory  department,  and  the  following 
six  schools:  (1)  mental  and  moral  science. 
(2)  Greek,  (3)  Latin,  (4)  mathematics,  (5)  natural 
sciences,  and  (6)  English.  Any  student  complet- 
ing the  six  scl Is  isentitled  to  the  degree  of 

A.  B.;  those   completing,  the  schools  of  moral 


the  legislature   two-fifths  of  the  congressional  Bev.  \V 
land  grant  for  the  establishment  of  a  college  of        MISi 

agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts     The  msti-  Americ 

and  astronomical  apparatus;  a  cabinet  ot  shells  sion  of 

and  mineralogies!  specimens;  collections  of  fos-  part  of 


1  163  students.  The 
he  president  (1876). 
western  slates  of  the 
nally  a  part  of  the 
!.  and  on  the  admis- 
na.  in  L812,  formed 
it.    It  was  admitted 


into  the  Union  as  a  state,  with  its  present  limits, 
in  L821.  Its  area  is  65,350  sq.  m. ;  and  its  popu- 
lation,in  1870, was  1,721,295,  of  whom  1,603,1  16 
were  whites,  1  18,071  colored  persons.  7">  Indians. 
and  3  i  Ihinese. 

Educational  History.      This  subject   will  be 


history  of  St.  I>ouis  and  the  state.  They  were 
authorized  to  take  and  hold  all  real  and  personal 
property  given  to  the  schools  by  individuals  or 


tl.ei 


the  act  of  incorporation  requiring. 'that  an  insti- 
tution for  the  education  of  females  shall  be  estab- 
lished by  the  trustees  as  soon  as  the  funds  of  the 
academy  will  admit  of  it :  and  that  the  trustees 
shall  cause,  at  all  times,  the  French  and  English 
languages  to  be  taught  in  the  said  academy.  In 
L812,  Congress,  in  erecting  the  territory  of  Mis- 
souri, made  general  provision  for  the  cause  of 
education,  which  took  practical  shape  shortly 
after  in  special  grants  of  town  lots  and  other 
lands  to  specially  named  communities,  or  school 
corporations;  but  the  territorial  government 
made  no  effort  to  establish  a  general  system  of 
public  schools.  It  contented  itself  with  extend- 
ing aid,  encouragement,  and  protection  to  all 
communities  showing  enterprise  in  this  respect  : 
but  further  than  this  it  could  not  prudently  go, 
owing  to  the  numerical  weakness  of  the  Dopula- 

tionaiid  its  widely  scattered  character.  An  act 
was  approved  January  22.  HI  7.  establishing  "a 
lottery  for  the  benefit  ot  Potosi  Academy,"  which 
institution  consisted  of  two  houses  built  and  in 
part  furnished  by  the  inhabitants  of  Washington 
county  at  Mine  a  Burton.  On  the  30th  of  Janu- 
ary, in  the  same  year,  an  act  to  incorporate 
trustees  of  this  academy  was  approved.  The 
board  was  to  consist  of  seven  members.  Two 
classes — junior  and  senior  -were  established, 
the  instruction  given  in  the  former  being  prepar- 
atory, that  in  the  latter,  -the  English  language, 
with  such  other  languages  and  sciences  as  were 
usually  taught  in  seminaries  of  learning.  Tin- 
name  of  the  school  had  previously  been  Mine  a 
Burton  Academy.  This  is  the  first  school  men- 
tioned in  the  public  records  between  1812  and 
1820.  (  hi  the  same  day  (January  30.,  1  si  7).  an 
act  was  approved  author 
of  public  buildings,  in  th 
Girardeau  Co.,  to  convey  to  five 
named  in  the  act.  four  acres  of  land  on 
erect  a  school-house.  They  were  per: 
dispose  of  a  portion  of  this  land,  for  th 
of  creating  a  building  fund.  On  the  san 
act  to  incorporate  a  board  of  trustei 
superintendence  of  school,-,  in  the  town 


■w  ones  were  estab- 
period  of  the  state's 

hereafter,  the  leiris- 


authorizing  the 
form  a  constitut 
ositions  were  off 


the  commissioner 

i  of  -laekson.  ( 'a pi 


of  e.l 
state 
ures  • 
as  ha 


measures  for  the  improvement  of  such  land  as 
had  been  already,  or  might  be  thereafter,  granted 
by  the  United  States,  the  funds  accruing  from 
the  rent   or  lease  of  which,  together  with  all 

other  funds  given  for  the  same  purpose,  were  to 
constitute  a  permanent  fund  for  the  support  of 
"a  university  for  the  promotion  of  literature  aud 
the  arts  ami  sciences.'  The  state  was  ad- 
mitted  into   the  Union  upon  the  terms  of  this 


ited  to  thirteen  members,  anil  when  incrp  .Kited, 
consisted  of  William  Clark.  William  • '.  fair. 
Thomas  H.  Benton.  Bernard  Pratte,  Auguste 
Chouteau.  Alexander  MeXair.  and  John  I'. 
Cabanne — names  ever  after  prominent  in  and 
intimately  associated  with,  the   development   and 


two  commissioners  in  each  township,  whose  duty 
it  should  be  toereet  "a  sufficient  school-house  for 
the  benefit  of  education.''  whenever   the   funds 


derived  from  tl 
lands  were  suffi 
act  was  passed 
stituted  a  schi 
trustees  was  ai 
powered  to  "bu 
repair  the  saint 

ors  of  scl Is,  ; 

incut  of  tin'  scl 
in  regard  to  the 
fications  of  the 


a  system  of  common  pr 
nearly  uniform  as  possi' 
By  this,  each  congressh 
a  school-district,  in  wl 
elected  annually,  who  \\ 

scl 1  houses,    employ 

schools  six  months  in 
the  year,  if  a  majority  i 
therefor.    The  constitut 


■),..!.  IclS. 


y  and  collet 
the  Bchools 


of  free  S  ihools  for  all  pes,,,,-,  in  the  state  b  'tween 
the  ages  of  5  and  21,  and  permits  the  establish- 
ment of  separate  schools  for  children  of  African 
descent,  requiring  the  distribution  of  all  public- 
school  moneys  (not  funds)  in  proportion  to  the 


lose  sending  pupils  to  them, 
when  the  public  funds  were  insulin  i.  nt.  In  ls:il. 
an  act  was  passed  authorizing  the  sale  of  the 
saline  lands  given  by  Congress  to  the  state.     In 

the  sa year,  the  Eale  of  the   16th  section  was 

directed  l>\  law,  by  an  agent  appointed  by  the 
county  court  of  each  county,  wfii  n  three-fourths 
of  the  inhabitants  of  any  township  petitioned  for 
such  sale.  The  interest  of  the  money  thus  de- 
rive! was  to  be  used  for  school  purposes.  The 
Bale  of  the  "seminary  lands" —  two  entire  town- 
Bhips  was,  in  1832,  directed  by  the  legislature 
for  not  less  than  $2  per  acre,  it  is  estimated 
that  $400,000  was  lost  by  this  sale  alone;  and 
that  the  losses  by  injudicious  sales  of  other  lands 
belonging  to  the  state,  and  by  inset  lire  investments 
of  the  proceeds,  have  amounted  to  a  sum  suffi- 
cient to  have  supported  the  public  schools  of  the 


1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 » -■ 

tiou  4.  - 
lature  t 


fund  will  permit.  The  Bchool  law  was  still  furthur 
amended,  but  not  materially,  in  1870,  and  again 
by  the  new  constitution,  adopted  in  convention, 
in   is;;,. 

II.  The  earliest  record  of  measures  taken  for 
the  maintenance  of  schools  in  Missouri  extends 
back  to  the  school  incorporated  in  St.  Genevieve 


aspeciai  tax  tor  tne  purpose 
Is  open  as  lout;' as  a  majority 
ed.  whenever  two-thirds  of 
chool-districts  demanded  it. 


'I  he 


md,  and  provided  forth, 
he  income  of  the  same. 


a  seni 
alreai 
Mine 
electa 
quire 
for  tl 
by  ea 
the  p 
niissi. 
of  pr 
snbni 
gectio 
when 
posed 


il   funds 
schools 


wit  I 


Preside 


purpose,  shall  be  reserved  for  the    use 

nary  of  learning,  and  vested  in  the  lej 

Said  stall',  to  be  appropriated  solely  tc 

such  seminary  by  tin' said  legislature." 


ind  the 

rs.   and 


the  new  constitution  limits  taxation 
urposes  to  H)  cents  on  the  $100,  un- 


less  increased  by  a  majority  vote  of  the  tax-payers. 
Ify  such  vote,  it  may  be  increased,  in  cities  and 
towns,  to  si .  and.  in  country  districts,  to  65  rents. 
For  building  purposes,  it  can  be  still  further  in- 

The  permanent  public-school  funds  of  the  state 
arc  the  following  : 


ness  ($! ,000) 12,634,354.00 

Seminary  Fund  (University),   i sist  ng 

of  U.  S.  Reg'd,  and  coupon  6  per  cent 

bonds $108,700.00 

Tbumskip  Funds  $2,079,182.90 

County  Funds  (including  swamp  land).     $2,257,716.83 

Township  and  county  funds  under  the  control 
of  the  county  courts,  may  be  invested  in  state  or 
d.  S.  bonds,  or  loaned  upon  personal  and  real 
estate.  It  is  an  almost  invariable  custom  to  loan 
them.  The  proceeds,  like  the  proceeds  of  the  state 
fund,  and  25  percent  of  the  revenue,  are  annually 
distributed  to  the  districts  in  which  schools  were 
taught  the  previous  year  for  not  less  than  three 
months,  in  the  ratio  of  school  population. 

III.  For  many  years,  the  method  of  super- 
vising the  few  schools  and  academies  in  the  ter- 
ritory was  by  local  trustees,  specifically  named 


for  the  purpose, or  el 
power,  also,  was  v 
most  all  that  is 
era  les  of  officers, 
in  isi  7.  to  super 
was  authorized  no 
to  take  and  hold  a 
given  to  the  schoi 
gross,  and  to  di>po 
lease  or  sale.  In  1 ' 
appeal's,  county  c 
pointed  to  manag 
tli  i  boards  of  fcrusl 
sume  control  of  t 
their  other  duti  s, 
of  appointing  visil 


months 


■ted 


Their 

l  sell, 
ni.ll    ] 

ils,  but 
roperty 

ine  teachers,  and  to  issue  certifi- 
cates of  qualification,  without  which  no  one  was 
allowed  to  teach,  and  to  exercise  a  general  super- 
visory power.     In   1835,  the  revised  school  law 
placed  the  supervision  of  the  schools  in  the  hands 
,   of  three  trustees  annually  elected  for  thepurpos' 
I  in   each   school-district,     who    reported   to    the 
1  county  courts,  the  latter  reporting  biennially  to 
I  the  secretary  of  state.   The  first  system  of  gener-  ! 
al   supervision   of    the     schools"   was    inaugu- 
rated at    this   time,  the    law   constituting  the 
governor,  the  auditor,  the  treasurer,  and  the  at- 
torney-general, a  state  board  of  education.     In 
1853,  an  act  was  passed,  requiring  the  election 
of    a   state    superintendent.      The    constitution 
adopted  in  L865,  created  a  state  board  of  educa- 
tion, to  consist  of  the  secretary  of  state,  the  at- 
torney-general, anil  the  superintendent  of  public 
schools,  the  latter  being  chairman  of  the  board 
and  eligible  for  four  years.     In  1874,  the  school 


)URI  589 

law  was  again  changed,  the  general  supervision 
of  the  schools  remaining  with  the  state  board, 
and  the  immediate  supervision  with  district 
directors.     The  state  superintendents  have  been 

as  follows  :  (1  i   Peter  &.  Glover    oi    I ' roon 

(Schools"),  elected  by  the  legislature  in  I-..:1  for 
two  years.  After  his  term  the  office  was  abol- 
ished, and  its  duties  devolved  on  thi  secretary 
of  state.  In  1853,  the  office  was  re-established, 
and  (2)  John  W.  Henry  (of  "Public  Instruction'  i 
was  appointed  by  the  governor  to  serve  until 
after  the  election,  in  1854,  when  (3)  E.  C.  Da- 
vis  was  elected,  lie  was  BUCCeded  by  [4  Wil- 
liam B.  Starke,  elected  in  1856,  and  re-elected  in 


ecame,  by  law,  superintendent,  ex  officio.  In 
865,  the  office  was  restored,  and  (5)  .lames 
;.  Robinson  was  appointed  by  the  governor 
iiperiiitendent  of  public  schools.    The  succeed- 


lointcd  to  fill  the 
Shannon,  elected 


office  (1876). 

I  control  of  the 


led    \M 


v>h 


vacancy  ;  and  \\>l 
in  November.  187' 
School  Sysh  iii.- 
educational  interee 
a  state  hoard  of  et 
secretary  of  state,  the  attorney-general,  and  tb 
state  superintendent.  In  addition  to  a  supei 
visory  power,  it  is  charged  with  the  duty  o 
investing  all  moneys  received  by  the  state  fo 
educational  purposes.  The  state  superintenden 
is  elected  for  four  years,  and  is  chairman   of   th, 


has 


the  whole  school  system,  with  power  to  compel 
all  scl 1  officers  to  furnish  him  with  any  statis- 
tics or  information  respecting  their  trusts  he  may 
deem  proper.  In  addition  to  the  duties  usually 
performed  by  this  officer,  he  is  required  to  estab- 
lish needed  schools  whenever  the  proper  officers 
fail  to  do  so.  He  makes  an  annual  report  to  the 
legislature,  or  to  the  governor  when  the  legislature 


in  each  county-  are  elei  ted  biennially,  in  April. 
Their  duties  are  to  examine  teai  hers,gran1  certif- 
icates (graded,  limited  to  one  county,  and  valid 
for  one  or  two  years),  and  exercise  a  general 
supervision  over  the  schools  of  the  county.  Dis- 
trict directors,  three  in  number,  are  elected  for 
three  years,  one  being  chosen  annually.  They 
arc  required  to  examine  into,  and  report  upon. 
the  condition  of  the  schools,  to  purchase  the  i  ec 
essary  apparatus  and  furniture,  to  employ  teai  h- 
ers,  and  to  make  all  regulations  requisite  forthe 
proper  organization  and  management  of  the 
schools.  They  may  borrow  money  when  neces- 
sary for  the  maintenance  of  the  schools,  at  a  rate 
not  exceeding  one  per  cent  of  the  taxable  proper- 
ty of  the  district,  for  teachers'  salaries  ;  and  not 
exceeding  the  same  rate,  for  buildings  and  inci- 
dental purposes;  but  no  tax  can  be  levied  for 
the  continuance  of  the  schools  for  more  than  four 
months  in  the  year,  except  by  a  majority  vote  of 


the  district  at  the  annua 

meeting.     The  school 

system  is  divided  into  <1 

ipartments  as  follows : 

(1)  the  university,  suppo 

■ted  by  a  distinct   fund 

and  legislative appropriat 

< »ns:  ('_')  normal  schools, 

support,.!  by   permanen 

legislative   appropria- 

tiuiisot  SI  (1.011(1  cadi:  i.'.i 

Bchools  in  "cities,  towns, 

and  villages,"  under  the 

general  law  of  1870  for 

their  organization.    Thesi 

schools  have  boards  of 

education,  with  special  p 

ivil es,  each  consisting 

of  six  members,  two  of  w 

torn  are  elected  annual- 

ly  in  September.  The  sch 

mlsmust  be  taught  nut 

less  than  .'in.  nui-  more  (li 

iii  tO,  weeks  each  year; 

'II  "1 la  "cities  bavi 

ters,  which   charters  cot 

fer    al si     unlimited 

powers  in  all  matters  pel 

aining  to  their  school 

interests  ;  (5)  general  dist 

■id  public  schools :  and 

(6)  colored  schools,  specii 

ly  provided  for;  those 

1  it ■]< >i i-_;i ' i'_C   to  tin-   classes 

marked  above  (3),  |  h. 

Ch.  and  (^beingsuppo, 

ted  by  the  state  public- 

srliiiul  tun  1  anil  local  ta\; 

tiuii.  -( lentraJ  schools" 

may  be  established  by  thi 

union  of  two  or  more 

districts   for   that   purp 

se.    These  are  graded 

schools  kept  for  six  mont 

ts,  or  longer,  if  the  d is- 

Normal  Instruction. — There  are  four  normal 
schools  under  the  control  of  the  state,  and  one 
at  St.  Louis,  the  latter  intended  principally 
for  supplying  teachers  to  the  schools  of  the  city. 
This  school' has  recently  been  made  more  useful 


these  sc 


t rii-ts  interested  so  vote.  They 
boards — composed  of  the  p 
boards  of  these  districts  — and 
themselves,  to  about  the  same 
district  schools  are  managed  by 
tax  for  the  maintenance  of  tli 
is  levied  on  the  taxable  property 
in  \\  liich  the  schools  arc  located 
pel-sons  over  21  years  of  age  are  admitted.  The 
legal  school  year  is  4  months ;  the  school  month, 
4  weeks  of  5  days  each  ;  and  the  school  day.  6 
hours.  The  legal  school  age  is  from  5  to  21  years. 
Ameetingof  the  presidents  of  the  various  boards 
of  directors,  with  the  county  commissioners,  is 
held  at  every  county  scat  mice  in  I  years,  to  se- 
cure uniformity  in  text-books.  Sectarian  instruc- 
tion is  prohibited. 


for  the 

tiolis   fl 

a  teach 


il  are  admitted  to  the  nor- 
t  examination.  In  1874—5, 
,it  was  254.  The  Fruitland 
it  Jackson,  was  organized  in 
1 874,  3  resident  and  2  non-res- 
i  male,  and  24  female  students, 
tute  the  school  course  The 
formal  School,  at  Kirksville, 
the  purpose  of  fitting  tt  achers 
(rii  t  schools.  'I  he  ipialirica- 
arc  those  necessary  to  secure 
te  of  the  lowest   made.     I„ 


ml  a  professional.  Two  terms,  or 
are  necessary  to  complete  the 
.  Some  embarrassment  has  been 
he  institution  from  lack  of  funds. 


Mo.  St 


.a  I   S,  In 


.students.  In 
students.  Eai 
der  the  care  i 
Institute  at 


sup 


s.    It  is 
■ition  of 

divided 


schools,  661,  in  which  there  were  enrolled 
33,525  pupils.  The  support  of  the  schools  was 
derived  from  the  following  sources : 

From    pulilir    In, ii Is    (state,    '■niiiitv,    and 

township)    $857,785 

From  taxation <2,15.r,,K10 

Total $3,013,595 

Expenditures. 

For  salaries,  buildings,  rent,  etc $1,638,353 

School  Satisfies. 
Number  of  persons  of  school  ace  ( 5— 21): 

Whites 678,270 

Colored 41.916 


Total 

720,1s 

Number  enrolled  in  public  schools: 

Whites 379,948 

Colored 14,832 

Total 

394,78 

iverage   aaily  attendance   .. 

192,904 

Number  of  teachers,  males 5,904 

"                 "           females 3.747 

superintendent,  for  Ih,:).  are  teaching  colored 
schools  in  a  large  number  of  counties,  and  are 
giving  general  satisfaction. 

Teachers'  Institutes. — The  practice  of  holding 


,n  counties  which  employ  the  whole  time  of  the 
commissioner,  and  there  being  only  one  (Jasper) 
in  which  this  is  the  case.  Probably  not  over  '20 
institutes  were  held  during  the  year.  Efforts, 
however,  are  to  be  made  to  increase  the  number 
and  efficiency  of  the  institutes. 

Si-rmiiliirii  fiistrui-tiioi. — The  question  of  the 

support  of  high  sol Is  by  the  state  has  been 

raised   in  Missouri,  as   it   was   in   Michioan.  and 


M< 


MISSOURI 

leges,  situated  in  various  parts  of  the  state,  but 
chiefly  in  St.  Louis,8of  which.in  L874,  reported 
to  the  U.  s.  Bureau  of  Education,    I-  teachers 

from  three  months  to  4  years 

Superior  Instruction. — The  universities,  col- 
leges, and  institutions  for  higher  education  arc 
enumerated  in  the  follow  ing  table  : 


MODERN    I.AXOI/AOES 


591 


Educational  Journals.  —  There  arc  several 
journals  cither  wholly  or  partly  educational 
published    in    the    state,    aniens    which    may    he 

specially  menti I    Tlu     Western    a     monthly 

published  at  St.  Louis,  and  now    in   its  i  leventh 
year  ;  ami  the   American,  Journal  of   /'        Uion, 


(Vntrul  clt-    

Chi'istuui  Uiiiviisitv 
Ccllc-cof  the  I 
Brothers. 


M.  ■(>.•(', 
St.  JOBep 
St.  Louis 

St.   I'iiu]'- 


Col)    Mound 
sr.  Joseph 
St.  Louis 
Palmyra 
('.Girardeau 


Cumli    IT. 
B.  C. 
Prot.  Ep. 


1837 

1852  Pr.  so 

1853  Bap 


lici- 


.  and  colleges 


1869 

s.   there   are   11  acad- 
the    higher   education 
of  women,  9  of  which,  in  1874,  reported  97  in- 
structors and  1,136  students. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. 
Many  of  the  colleges  and  universities  furnish 
opportunities  for  professional  and  scientific  in- 
struction.but  special  schools  have  hecn  established 
for  the  same  purpose  in  many  places.  Of  thet-e. 
the  principal  arc  the  Vardeman  School  of  Theol- 
ogy, at  Liberty;  the  Kansas  City  College  of 
physicians  and  surgeons ;  the  Missouri  Medical 
College,  the  St.  Louis  Medical  College,  the 
Honi.copathic  Medical  ( 'ollege  of  Missouri,  the 
Missouri  Dental  College,  arid  the  College  of 
Pharmacy     the  last  five,  at  St.  Louis. 

Special  Instruction.  The  Missouri  Asylum 
for  the  Education  of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was 
organized  at  Fulton,  in  1851.  It  is  supported  by 
state  appropriations,  which  have  not  been  large 
enough,  thus  far.  toailinit  of  giving  instruction  in 
the  trades — a  prominent  feature  in  several  other 
institutions  of  the  kind.  Board  and  tuition  for 
all  deaf  and  dumb  persons  between  the  ages  of 
7  and  30  years  arc  furnished  free  of  cost,  but  it  is 
estimated  that  only  about  one  half  the  persons  so 
afflicted  in  the  state  can  be  accommodated.  There 
were  8  instructors,  in  1874,  and  153  pupils — 75 
males,  and  78  females.  Besides  this,  there  is  an- 
other institution  iSt.  Bridget's  Institute), founded 
in  St.  Louis,  in  I860,  for  the  same  purpose.  The 
Missouri  Institution  for  the  Education  of  the 
Blind  was  opened  in  St.  Louis,  in  1851.  It  receives 
from  the  state  an  annual  appropriation  of  about 
S21,000.  In  addition  to  the  branches  of  au 
ordinary  education,  instruction  is given  in  music. 
and  the  pupils  are  taught  some  kind  of  industrial 
or  mechanical  occupation.  A  normal  class  has 
also  been  formed,  for  the  purpose  of  fitting  some 
of  the  more  advanced  pupils  to  teach  in  the  pub- 
He  schools.  There  were,  in  1874,27  instructors 
and  employe's  of  all  kinds,  and  93  pupils. 


wdl  conducted,  and  have  exerted  an  important 
influence  in  advancing  the  cause  of  edui  ation  in 
the  state. 

MISSOURI,  University  of  the  State 
of,  at  Columbia.  Mo.,  was  chartered  in  1839, 
and  organized  in  1840,  receiving  the  proceeds  of 
the  lands  granted  by  Congress  to  the  state  for 


(I)th, 


protest- 
Of     111- 

(111,  T 


i  arts,  sci- 
following 


VII 


■v.  1 873.  Doth  sexes'  are  admitted'  to  all  the 
lartments.  The  university  has  appropriate 
Mings,  all  necessary  apparatus,  and  an  ex- 
sive  farm.     The  libraries  contain  about  8,500 


The  school  of  mines  and  metallurgy  has  exten- 
sive and  valuable  hinds  in  the  mining  district 
in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  state.  In  1875 
— 6,  there  were,  in  all  the  departments  of  the 
university,  29  instructors  and  391  students.  The 
presidents  have  been  as  follows:  John  EL  La- 
throp,  LL.  D..  184(1—50  ;  James  Shannon,  LL. 
D..  1850—56  :  W.  W.  Hudson.  A.  M.,  1856—7  ; 
B.  B.  Minor  1858-  60;  and  Daniel  Read,  LL. 
D.,  the  present  incumbent,  appointed  in  1866. 
MNEMONICS.  See  Memory. 
MODEL  SCHOOLS.  See  Normal  Schools. 
MODERN  LANGUAGES,  in  the  literal 
and  widest  sense  i  if  the  term. are  the  languages  now 
in  use,  in  contradistinction  to  those  which  were 
formerly  spoken,  but  are  now  extinct.  Taken  in 
this  sense,  the  term  embraces  the  mother-tongue, 
in  which  the  home  education  of  the  child  is  con- 
ducted, the  national  or  ruling  language  of  the 
country,  which  is  the  medium  of  instruction  in 
the  schools,  and  the  living  languages  of  foreign 
nations.  It  is  the  general  tendency  oi  the  age, 
to  make  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  national 
language   the  center  and  the   chief  aim   of  all 

school  instruction  :  though  it  has  1 n  demanded, 

from  an  educational    point   of   view,   that    wher- 
ever the  mother-tongue  of  a  large  portion  of  the 


592 


MODERN   LANGUAGES 


inhabitants  of  a  country  is  different  from  that  of 
the  national  language,  the  claims  of  the  mother- 
tongue  should  not  he  ignored.  When  the  modern 
languages  are  spoken  of  as  a  branch  of  school  in- 
struction, they  are,  however,  generally  understood 
in  the  sense  of  the  languages  of  foreign  nations. 
The  admission  of  modern  foreign  languages  into 
a  regular  course  of  instruction  isof  comparative- 


la! 


language  (q.  v.).  Until  very  recently,  French 
has  enjoyed,  in  this  respect,  an  acknowledged 
superiority  over  any  other  language  of  the  globe; 
and  it  is  but  recently  that  English  and  German 
have  to  any  considerable  extent  begun  to  com- 
pete with  it.  At  present,  French,  English,  and 
German  are  studied  all  over  the  world,  as  the 
chief  representatives  of  modern  culture.  The 
Italian  language  (q.  v.)  is  learned  by  many  of  the 
students  of  tine  arts  and  of  music  in  preference 
to  any  of  the  three  principal  modem  languages; 
but  more  in  courses  of  private  instruction  than 
in  schools.  It  is,  however,  chiefly  in  the  second- 
ary schools,  that  the  stu  ly  of  modern  languages 
has  now  been  generally  admitted.  There  are  but 
few  colleges,  gymnasia,  lyceums,  Latin  schools, 
real  schools,  academies,  seminaries,  or  boarding- 
schools  which  do  not  provide  for  instruction  in 
one  or  two  of  the  modern  languages.  The  adop- 
tion of  more  than  two  modern  languages,  in  a 
regular  course  of  studies,  is  met  with  in  only  a  few 
cases,  and  finds  but  few  advocates.  Scientific  and 
real  schools  (or  departments), especially  the  latter, 
cultivate  the  modern  languages,  frequently  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  classical ;  "but  even  classical 
schools  have  now  quite  generally  opened  their 
gates  to  the  at  first  unwelcome  rival. — In  the 
highest  institutions  of  learning,  such  as  the  Euro- 
pean universities,  the  modern  languages  are  still 
far  from  occupying  a  position  of  equality  with 
the  classical,  or  even  some  of  the  oriental  lan- 
guages. In  England,  Oxford  and  Cambridge  had. 
in  1875,  professorships  of  Latin,  Greek,  I  Febrew, 
Arabic,  and  Sanskrit;  Oxford,  also  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  comparative  philology,  but  not  of 
either  French  or  German.  In  the  21  universities 
of  Germany  (including  the  academy  of  Minister). 
classical    philologists  had,   in  1874,   the  oppor- 

tmiin  i  i  ■ nd    134   courses  of  lectures,  which 

occupied  an  aggregate  of  400  hours  weekly. 
Besides, th  : exercises  in  die  philological  seminaries 
occupied  I '2-  hours,  making  a  total  of  528  hours. 
( if  the  professors  teaching  the  classical  languages, 
64  wereordinary,  1 6  extraordinary, besides  1 1  pri- 

vat-docenten  (lecturers);  total  91.    Tot! Rental 

languages.  .Till  hours  were  devoted:  but  to  French 
and  English, only  172  hours.  The  <iei n  govern- 
ments show,  however,  a  readiness  to  reconsider 
the  claim  of  modern  languages  to  a  better  repre- 
sentation; and  a  number  of  new  chairs  were, 
therefore,  created  during  the  years  1875  and 
1876. —  In  regard  to  the  lowest  classes  and  schools 
in  which  the  study  of  modem  languages  may 
advantageously  be  admitted,  there  is  a  variety 
of  opinion  at  present  in  school  legislation,  and 
among  educational  writers.   It  is  evident  that,  in 


this  respect,  a  marked  difference  exists  between 
those  localities  where  only  one  language  is  spoken, 
and  those  where  two  or  more  languages  are  in 
the  daily  use  of  large  portions  of  the  people.  In 
the  latter  case,  the  language  which  is  spoken 
by  a  large  portion  of  the  children  who  attend 
school,  is  by  many  not  regarded  in  the  light  of  a 
foreign  language;  and  school  regulations  for 
giving  instruction  in  it  are  often  different 
from  those  for  the  teaching  of  languages  to- 
tally   foreign.      The    latter,"  according    to    the 

opini f  most  educators,  should  not  be  begun 

too  early.  It  is,  however,  on  the  other  hand, 
urged  that  the  pronunciation  of  a  foreign  lan- 
guage is  best  learned  at  a  time  when  the  organs  of 
speech  are  still  flexible,  and  that  a  good  pro- 
nunciation of  a  foreign  tongue  is  rarely  acquired 
except  by  those  who  learn  it  in  childhood. — 
The  French  language  had  been  long  and  exten- 
sively studied  in  other  European  countries  before 
it  was.  in  the  17th  century,  introduced  in  some 
of  the  German  schools  as  a  part  of  the  regular 
course  of  studies.  Toward  the  close  of  the  18th 
century,  the  German  real  schools  made  the 
superior  advantages  of  the  study  of  French,  in 
comparison  with  the  classical  languages,  a  main 
issue  of  their  war  against  the  classical  schools; 
and,  from  that  time,  the  admission  of  French  into 
the  schools  of  other  countries  has  been  rapid  and 
extensive.  In  Prussia,  the  efforts  made  to  secure 
to  the  French  language  a  prominent  place  in  the 
course  of  instruction  were  so  successful,  that  the 
Prussian  government  became  alarmed,  and,  in 
I  si  tl.  excluded  it  altogether  from  public  instruc- 
tion. A  rescript  of  \>:>~  readmitted  it.  how- 
ever, "out  of  regard  for  it.-  usefulness  forpractical 
life.-  That,  from  the  stand-point  of  practical 
usefulness,  modern  languages,  as  a  branch  of 
instruction,  have  an  advantage  over  the  classical, 
is  now  scarcely  disputed.  French.  English,  and 
German  bring  the  student  into  living  contact 
with  the  great  standard-bearers  of  modern  civ- 
ilization, and  thus  afford,  in  many  cases,  mental 
enjoyments,  material  and  business  advantages, 
and 'impulses  to  esthetic  culture  which  classical 
studies  obviously  cannot  afford.  Being  the  keys 
to  the  three  great  literatures  of  the  world,  the  En- 
glish, German,  and  French  languages,  as  branches 
of  instruction,  have  challenged  a  comparison 
with  the  Latin  and  the  Greek.  Here  also  it 
will  be  readily  and  generally  admitted,  that 
modern  literatures  contain  a  vast  amount  of 
information  unknown  to  the  ancients;  and 
that,  viewing  their  contents  as  a  whole,  they  are, 
in  nian\  respects,  vastly  superior  to  the  liter- 
atures of  the  ancient  world.  Classical  scholars, 
in  fact,  are  among  the  first  to  recognize  the 
great  value  of  modem  literatures:  and  there 
are  few  among  them  who  cannot  read  the  three 
great  modern  languages,  at  least,  as  fluently  as 
the  tWO  classical.  The  contest  has  been  narrowed 
down  to  the  question  whether  latin  and  Greek 
classics,  as  literary  master -works,  ami  in  view  of 
the  superior  advantages  claimed  for  the  languages 
themselves,  still  afford  such  advantages  forda- 
vclonin"  the  mental   faculties  as  to  recommend 


MODERN    LANGUAGES 


:.«i3 


their  retention  in  every 
Classical  Studies.) 

Upon  the  field  of  comparative  linguistics,  (lie 
superior  value  of  the  richly  inflected  Latin  ami 
Greek  by  the  side  of  the  less  inflected  German 
and  the  mutilated  English  and  French,  is  not 
likelv  to  be  ever  disputed.  But  since  the  labors 
of  Bopp,  Grimm,  and  their  numerous  followers, 
have  opened  an  insight  into  the  degree  of  kin- 
ship existing  between  the  prominent  languages 
of  the  present  and  former  times,  the  question 
has  been  forced  upon  the  attention  of  gram- 
marians, how  far  a  comparison  of  kindred  lan- 
guages  may.  even  at  an  early  stage  of  instruc- 
tion, elucidate  the  structure  of  the  native  tongue, 
and  thus  be  made  serviceable  in  giving  to  the 
youthful  scholar  a  better  command  even  of  his 
'i  than  otherwise  would  be  attain- 
nci  lative  power  which  belongs  to 

n    -laminar   no   less    than    in    other 


of  studies.     (See    everj  possible  method  has  beentried:  the  strictly 

I  synthetical,  which  startsfrom  the  parts  ol  |  .,  ,  I 
ve  linguistics,  the  and  teaches  them  singly,  before  proceeding  to  a 
fleeted  Latin  and  regular  system  of  translations;  the  strictly 
inflected  German    analytical,   which   begins    with   the   analysis  of 


natt 
able.     ' 
compai 

branch- 

though 
mantiei 


practice  in  using  the  foreign  language.    Of  these, 

the  former  may  be  said  to  have  been  almost 
entirely  abandoned,  the  latter  being  the  one 
generally  preferred  in  .schools.  In  regard  to  the 
arrangement  of  the  grammatical  rules,  an  in- 
finite variety  may  lie  observed  in  the  numerous 
grammars  of  modern  languages.  It  was  espe- 
cially Mager  (q   \    .  one  of  the  most  ingenious 


the  tri- 


ne pi 


win. 


-nil 


tions.  It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  the  degree 
of  usefulness  which  may  be  attributed,  from  this 
point  of  view,  to  one  particular  language,  is  by 
no  means  commensurate  with  the  advantages 
which  the  same  language  may  afford  as  the  key 
to  the  superior  civilization  or  the  rich  literature 
■of  one  of  the  great  nations  of  the  globe.  It  will, 
on  the  contrary,  be  chiefly  dependent  on  the 
relationship  existing  between  the  language  to 
be  studied  and  the  Language  of  the  student.  In  a 
French  school,  the  Latin,  Italian,  and  Spanish 
languages  will,  in  this  respect,  be  of  more  use 
than  English  or  German;  in  German  schools,  the 
English  will  be  more  important  than  French  or 
Latin:  and  in  English  schools,  the  German  more 
than  Latin  or  French. 

Since  modern  languages  have  come  to  be 
■studied  on  a  much  more  extended  scale  than  the 
classical,  a  great  variety  of  methods  have  been 
proposed.  The  authors  of  some  of  these  methods 
are  by  no  means  distinguished  for  modesty,  and 
do  not  hesitate  to  declare  all  former  modes  of  in- 
struction absolut  ly  useless,  as  having  been  wholly 
superseded  by  their  own.  In  most  cases,  they 
have  wholly  forgotten  that  the  method  of  teach- 
ing and  learning  a  modern  language  must,  to  a 
very  great  extent,  be  dependent  upon  the  pur- 
pose for  which  it  is  learned.  If  the  student  chiefly 
aims  to  acquire  the  ability  to  express  his  thoughts 
in  the  language  of  another  person  belonging  to 
a  foreign  nation,  the  metlio  Is  w  Inch  make  con- 
versation the  basis  of  instruction  will  justly  com- 
mend themselves  to  the  attention  of  the  in- 
structor. When  a  foreign  language  is  learned 
as  a  means  of  understanding  the  literature  of  it 
particular  nation,  an  early  knowledge  of  the 
inflectional  part  of  the  language,  of  all  its  pecu- 
liarities in  etymology  and  syntax,  and  of  its 
vocabulary,  will  be  felt  as  an  urgent  want  ;  and 
grammar  lessons  connected  with  translating  exer- 
cises, will  form  the  chief  means  of  instruction. 
In  the  combination  of  grammar  and  translation, 


with  whole  S( 
thought.  In 
structors  gen 
students  as  sc 
of  standard  w 


:ii  e  in  introducing  their 
irai  ti.  able  to  the  reading 
the  foreign  language.  The 
,cd  torthe  stuiU  of  foreign 

languages   will  recommend   the  use  oi   a  g I 

reading-book  in  order  to  familiarize  the  student 
with  the  peculiar  style  of  several  writers. 

It  t-  not  possible  in  this  article  to  attempt  an 
enumeration  or  a  criticism  of  the  different  meth- 
ods whit  h  have  been  s-pei  ially  pioposcd  for  teach- 
ing modem  languages.  Among  those  whose  sys- 
tems have  obtained  any  general  reputation  or 
acceptance,  may  be  mentioned  Aim,  Jacotot, 
Hamilton.  Mager.  Ollendorff,  and  Robertson. 
Alms  and  Ollendorff's  methods  have  had 
numerous  imitations,  of  very  unequal  value,  and 
have  been  applied  to  nearly  all  the  living  languages 
of  Europe,  and  even  to  latin  and  Greek.  Of  the 
elementary  books  based  on  Alms  method.  P. 
I  Kim's  Rudiments  of  the  German  Language 
(4  parts.  New  York),  written  with  a  special 
view  to  the  requirements  of  the  public  schools  in 
the  United  States,  and,  in  ]  artii  ular,  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  has  deservedly  gained  very  great 
popularity.  Among  recent  attempts  to  teach 
living  languages  "without  grammar  or  dictionary. 
solely  by  means  of  conversation,  that  by  lioness 
[Introduction  to  the  Leitfaden;  a  Guide  for  In- 


scholars.  I'lvndeiga-t.s  77-  .1/-V  -  ,  -/  / 
guages  (London.  1  872  i  is  a  new  effort  to  introduce 
the  pupil  to  a  practical  knowledge  of  language  in 
iin  analytical  way,  by  proceeding  from  sentences 
j  committed  to  memory  and  learning  the  inflec- 
tional  forms  from  their  position    in    sentences. 


(New  York.  1869),  to  a  higher  degree  than  any 
former  English  grammar  of  a  foreign  language, 
embodies  the  results  of  comparative  grammar, 
and  directs  special  attention   to  the   points  of 


594 


MONITORIAL   SYSTEM 


correspondence  between  English  and  German.  It 
need  hardly  be  added  that  the  study  of  modern 
languages,  and  especially  that  of  their  pronun- 
ciation, should  be  pursued,  whenever  it  is  pos- 
sible, under  the  guidance  of  an  intelligent  pro- 
fessional teacher.  Anion";  the  attempts  to  teach 
these  languages  without  the  aid  of  a  teacher, 
the  method  proposed  by  Toussaint  and  Langen- 

scheidt  has  received  the  best   r.-. imendation. 

(See  the  special  articles  on  French,  German, 
Italian, Spanish.)  See  also  Whitni  y,  /.  mguage 
and  the  Study  of  Language  (1861);  and  Ufeand 
Growth  of  Language  (NewYork,  L875)  ;  Quick, 
First  Steps  in  Teaching  a  Foreign    Languagt 

(\.-u   Fork,  1874    ;  Schhitz,  Ency  lopddie  des 

Philo  !  ••     i     a '   -en  Sprachen 

CM  ,,1. 1.,  p-.l  875;  I  parte  and  3  supplements); 
Pflanz,  Ueberden  BUdungswerth  der  fremden 
Sprachen  im  Schulunterricht  (Lips.,  1875); 
Mager,  Ueberden  Unterncht  in  fremden  Spra- 
chen (Essen,  L838).  A  periodical  specially  de- 
voted to  the  study  of  modern  languages  is  the 
Archivf&r  das  Sin, limn  der  neueren  Sprachen 
by  Herrig  (2  vols.,  in  4  parts  annually,  55th 
and  56th  vols.,  1876.). 

MONITORIAL  SYSTEM,  sometimes  called 
the  Madras  system,  because  it  was  introduced 
into  England  'from  Madras,  by  Andrew  Bell; 
also  the  Lancasterian  system,  after  one  of  its 
most  enthusiastic  advocates,  .lo-rph  Lancaster. 
It  is,  moreover,  often  designated  the  system  of 


be. 


to  England  for  education  by  the  Pacha  of  Egypt. 
The  rivalry  that  had  existed  for  years  between 
this  society  and  the  National  School  Society, 
which  favored  Bell's  system,  increased  the  efforts 
of  both.  In  the  American  Annals  of  Edu  ition 
(1831),  it  was  stated  that,  in  Denmark,  2,000 
monitorial  schools  wen-  established  iii  the  course 
of  four  years;  in  Sweden,  there  were  1,800  of 
such  schools,  in  many  of  which  music,  linear 
drawing,  and  gymnastics  were  taught.  The 
system  had  also  been  introduced  into  France, 
Spain,  and  Sardinia.  The  French  Society  for 
the  Promotion  of  Education  sent  books  and 
tables  of  the  system  to  the  principal  countries  of 
South  America  and  to  BTayti,  and  opened  schools 
at  St.  Louis  and  Senegal,  in  Africa,  which  were 
attended  by  the  native  chiefs.  There  were,  also, 
numerous  schools  in  t 'ape  Colony.  Madagascar, 
and  the  Easl  Indie-,  both  continental  and  insular. 
The  system  was  also  said  to  have  been  adopted  in 
oneot  the  first  classical  schools  of  Paris,  and  in 
the  High  School  of  Edinburgh. — The  opinions 
entertained  of  the  advantages  of  (his  system  were 
at  first  very  extravagant.  Dr.»Bell  said,  "The 
system  has  no  parallel  in  scholastic  history.  In  a 
Bchool,  it  gives  to  the  master  the  hundred' eves  of 
Argus,  the  hundred  hands  of  Briareus,  and  the 
wines  of    Mercury.    I'.v  multiph  inn  Ids  ministers 


aster. 

■IS 


pupil  teachers  employ. 

1  t,.  carry  on  the  gj 

were  called  monitors 

This  plan  oi  teachi 

very  old  ;  but  whether 

Bell  or  Lancaster  des 

the  merit  of  first  intro 

[ui  ing  1'  ii. io  l,iiio|„ 

been   warmly  dispute. 

1'  i  .     and 

CASTER.)    By  means  of  1 

i  •   Eforts  .nid  publics 

of  these  anient    philan 

with  a   rapid  and   ex 

ensive 'adoption   bo1 

Europe  and  America. 

Intheeitvof  New! 

free  schools  were  orgai 

izc.l  upon  this  plan,  w 

Continued  to  be  the  pr 

vailing   method  ..t  .. 

ization  and  instruction 

in   the  public   scl 

that  city  for  nearly  lifi 

wears.     In  Philade 

and  oi  her  large  cities  i 

f  the  rnion.   it    was 

employed :  in  Boston, 

t  was  soon  pronoun 

fulur.     -:i:l    :lanl   i:    1 

The  25th  Report  .1 

casterian)  stated  thai 

neasures  had   been  t 

by  the  governments  of] 

Norway,  and    Russia, 

eleiuin.Dcnmark.Sw 

to  introduce  the  svs 

that  more  than  30  mo 

litorial    schools  had 

for  some  time  in  ..pea 

ion  in  Tuscany;  and 

the  duke  of   Lucca  1. 

■  I  also  caused  seven 

such  schools  to   be   es 

ablished;  thai    even 

government   of  Naples 

had    ..p.  Ii,-.  1     20  of 

schools  in  Sicily,  and 

in  each  parish.     The  r 
society   had  constantly 

•port    also  stated    tha 

a   number   of  perso 

training  as  teachers,  i 

n.l  at    the   previous 

versary,  had  under  its 

care  20  Arab  youths. 

Witt 


lest  ion  of  educa- 
York.  expressed 


as  an  instrument   for  educating  large  masses  of 

children,      lint    not  only  as   ,• a  lis  of  teaching 

large  numbers  was  it  commended.  The  system 
of  mutual  instruction  was  thoroughly  discussed 
at  a  meeting  of  the  American  Lyceum  held  in 
New  York,' in  1836  ;  and.  while  the  New  England 
members  seemed  to  condemn  it  as  unsatisfactory 
and  defective,  others  cave  it  their  unqualified  ap- 
proval. "If",said  S.'W.  Seton.the  public-school 
agenl  of  New  York  city,  "  I  had  a  school  of 
twenty,  nay  of  ten,  1  would  make  one  teach 
another.  If  I  had  but  three,  I  would  make  two 
of  them  monitors.  "-This  system,  when  carried 
into  operation  by  a  master  of  energy  and  tact, 
was  showy  and  attractive;  and.  doubtless,  was 
an  effective  instrument  in  giving  an  elementary 
education  to  many  thousands  of  children  ;  that 
is,  in  teaching  them  to  read,  write,  and  cipher; 
but,  as  remarked  by  Donaldson,  it  "ignored  alto- 
gether the  fact  that  the  work  of  the  teacher  is  to 
evolve  the  powers  of  the  mind,  and  that  for  this 
work  a  wise  and  cultivated  mind  is  required." 
The  arguments  advanced  in  its  favor  were 
ili  that  it  provided  for  the  tuition  of  a  far 
greater  number  of  pupils  than  could  be  taught 
by  the  ordinary  method  of  managing  an  ungraded 
school,  in  which  only  one  teacher  was  employed;. 


MONMOUTH   COLLEGE 

(2)  that  this  was  accomplished  by  an aomy  of 

the  time  and  labor  of  the  teacher;  (.'!)  that  it  kept 
every  pupil  of  the  seliool  eoiistantlv  employed  ; 
(4)  that  the  monitors,  or  pupil  teachers,  were 
benefited  by  giving  instruction  to  their  fellow 
pupils;  (5)  that,  as  children  learn,  by   a  kind  of 

maderapid  progress.  These  principles,  without 
doubt,  are  sound  to  a  certain  limited  extent.and 
under  circumstances  which  prevented  a  thor- 
oughly organized  system  of  instruction  by  compe- 
tent teachers.  The  monitorial  system  required 
very  remarkable  ability  in  the  master— such  an 
ability  as  few  could  be  found  to  possess.  The 
monitors  required   a   special   training;   and    the 

peculiarly  efficient  discipline,  and  an  adroit  man- 
agement, to  prevent  it  from  degenerating  into  the 


MONTAIGNE  595 

Bordeaux,  and  studied  law;  but.  being  possessed 

of  ample  means,  and  having  no  inclination  for 
public  life,  he  retired  to  Ins  castle  al  Montaigne, 
where  he  wrote  his  famous  essays.  The  subject 
of  education  is  touched  upon  incidentally  all 
through     the    works    of    this    writer;     but    his 

conehi  ions  arc  Dearly  all  condensed  into  one 
remarkable  essaj  adds  ed  to  the  Countess  of 
ton.-,.,,,  and  entitled  Of  the  Education  of  Chil- 


■re  afterwards  amplified  by  John  Locke, 
is  essay,  a  scheme  of  education  is  laid  dc 
r a  young  gentleman  of  quality,   which  is 

rmost  advanced  modern  idea.-.     The  sub, 

tellcctual,   and    moral.      The   dominant   i 
roughout,  is  the  modern  one,  derived  from 

g  out  or  development  of  the  mind  accordin) 
i  individual   bent,  rather  than  a  moulding 

ve  the  pupil  educated  away  from  home. 
give  him  due  correction  for  the  faults  he  o 

means  for  such  an  organization,  led  to  the 
adoption  of  the  monitorial  system;  but,  wherever, 

at  the  present  time,  as  m  the  large  cities  of  the 
United  States,  such  means  are  afforded,  mutual 
instruction  is  found  not  to  have  even  a  modified 
existence  ;  indeed,  the  reaction  against  it  has 
been  so  st rone-,  that,  foryears.it  has  not  only 
made  no  progress  anywhere,  but  has  been  very 
generally  abandoned. 

MONMOUTH  COLLEGE,  at  Monmouth, 
Dl.,  chartered  in  is:,;,  is  under  United  Presby- 
terian control.  It  has  a  fine  college  building,  a 
library  of  about  2,111)11   volumes,  a  cabinet,  and 


lerstandii.es    without    exer   setting    them    to 
rk.ctc."     'f'hv,ical    education,  also,  was  fully 


tors 


Theadvantas 


up  to  the 
s  of  sound 
sly  insisted 
ny  weighty 

iv    f;:ll  :.X 


meut.  Both  sexes  arc  admitted.  The  tuition 
fee  in  the  collegiate  department  is  $30  a  year. 
In  187a— (i.  there  were  Hi  instructors,  and  397 
students,  of  whom  200  (128  classical  and  72 
scientific)  were  in  the  collegiate  department. 
The  Kev.  David  A.  Wallace,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  is 
(ls7(i)  the  president. 

MONTAIGNE,  Michel,  Seigneur  de,  a 
celebrated  French  essayist,  born  at  the  chateau  of 
Montaigne,  in  IVrigord,  in  la.';:;  ;  and  died  there 
September  L3.,  1592.  His  father,  having  ideas 
on  the  subject  of  education  far  in  advance  of  his 
age.  pun  hied  for  his  son  a  German  tutor,  who, 
knowing  nothing  of  French,  conversed  with  him 
entirely  in  Latin,  so  that  the  young  .Montaigne 
spoke  that  language  with  ease  at  the  age  of  six. 
He  graduated   at   the   College  of   Guienne,  in 


peculiarly  modern,  perhaps,  than  any  other,  that 
education  should  not  end  with  school  or  college, 
but  should  be  continued  through  life,  is  every- 
where  enforced.     This    entire    essay,  indeed,  'is 


maki allowance  for  the  difference  in  condition 

of  the  civilized  world  in  Montaigne's  days  and 
ours,   it  maybe  considered,  general!)  speaking, 

an  admirable  resiumi  of  all  that  has  been  -,  n!ed 

tinie.-'-In  1  .'..-0—  Si .  Montaigne  vi.-ited  I  h-rmanv. 
Switzerland,  and  Italy  for  his  health,  and  wrote 
a  journal  of  his  tour,'  which  remained  hidden  in 
tlie  family  chest  at  Montaigne  till  17,1,  when  it 
was  published  at  Paris.  The  principal  English 
translation  of  his  works  is  that  ot  t  harles  Cotton 


5!»G 


MONTANA 


(published  about  168(1).  revised  in  1S42,  by  the 
younger  llazlett  (Phila.,  1849).  An  edition  in 
5  volumes,  by  De  Coste,  was  published  at  the 
Hague,  in  1772:  and  one  by  Victor  I.e  '  'lcrc.  at 
Paris,  in  L826.  Bayle  St.John  published  a  biog- 
raphy of  Montaigne  (London,  1857). 

MONTANA;  one  of  the  territories  of  the 
United  (States,  net  off  from  [daho,  and  organized 
with  an  independent  territorial  government  in 
1864  Its  area  is  145,776  sq.  m.,  and  its  popu- 
lation, in  1870,  was  20,595,  of  whom  L83  were 
colored,  1,94!)  Chinese,  and  157  civilized  Indians. 

Educational  History. — The  legislature  of  the 
territory,  at  its  first  session,  passed  a  law  for  the 
establishment  of  schools,  but  the  sparseness  of 
the  population  and  its  migratory  character,  de- 
prived the  law  of  its  practical  value.  In  1872. 
the  subject  was  again  taken  up.  anil  a  new  law 
was  passed,  under  which  about  mi  school-districts 
were  organized.  In  1874,  the  law  was  again 
amended,  resulting  in  the  present  system.  The 
first  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was 
Cornelius  Hedges,  appointed  in  1>72.  re-ap- 
pointed in  1874,  and  still  in  office  (1876). 

Still  lolSyslem. — He  supervision  of  the  schools 
is  entrusted  to  a  superintendent  of  instruction, 
who  i,  nominated  by  tile  governor  tor  two  years, 
and  confirmed  by  the  council,  lie  prescribes 
all  needful  regulations,  designates  the  course  of 
study  and  the  text-books  to  be  used  in  the 
schools,  and  makes  a  biennial  report  of  their  con- 
dition to  the  governor.  Cnnnhi  superintendents 
are  elected  each  for  two  years.  They  are  eight  in 
number,  and  perform  the  usual  duties  of  such 
officers.  They  make  annual  visits  to  the  schools 
in  their  counties,  and  receive  not  more  than  $10 
for  each  district  under  their  supervision.  They 
are  also  allowed  to  charge  §2  for  each  teacher's 
certificate  granted,  drier  the  present  law.  these 
certificates  are  of  one  grade  only,  and  are  given 
for  oidy  two  years  ;  but  the  character  of  the  ex- 
amination, depending.as  it  does,  upon  the  caprice 
of  the  county  superintendent,  leads  to  a  want  of 
uniformity  in  the  value  of  the  certificates, which 
has  been  a  cause  of  complaint.  District  trustees 
are  also  chosen  for  three  years,  three  in  each 
district  constituting  a  board.  Their  duties  are  to 
employ  teachers,  furnish  books,  take  charge  of 
school-houses,  furniture,  etc.,  and  exercise  an  im- 
mediate supervision  over  the  schools,  subject  to 
the  direction  of  the  territorial  superintendent. 
With  these  boards,  also,  rests  the  power  of  sub- 
mitting to  the  voters  of  the  district  the  question, 
whether  money  shall  be  raised  by  taxation,  when- 
ever additional  school  facilities  are  needed.  They 
may.also,  establish  a  high  school  in  each  district, 
grade  it,  and  employ  teachers  to  conduct  it, 
whenever  such  school  is  needed.  Resident  voters 
may  decide,  at  the  annual  election,  what  amount 
they  shall  raise  by  taxation  for  the  building  of 
school-houses:  but  they  are  not  authorized  to 
issue  bonds,  nor  incur  any  indebtedness  for  the 
purpose.  Provision  is  made  for  the  separate  edu-  | 
cation  of  colored  children  in  each  county,  by  the 
establishment  of  special  schools,  on  application  of 
the  parents  or  guardians  of  not  less  than  ten 


MOORE'S  HILL  COLLEGE 

colored  children,  to  the  board  of  trustees.  Less 
than  ten  may  be  provided  for  in  any  maimer 
deemed  advisable.  The  school  age  is  between  4  and 
21  years  :  the  legal  schoi  >1  year.  3  months  :  and  the 
school  day,  ti  hours.  The  school  revenue  is  derived 
from  the  school  fund,  which  is  the  interest  on  all 
moneys  derived  from  land  grants,  and  from  the 
school  tax.  which  is  levied  by  the  county  com- 
missioners  annually,  at  a  rate  of  from  three  to 
five  mills  on  every  dollar  of  taxable  property. 
The  school  fund  is  apportioned  according  to  the 
number  of  children  of  school  age. 

Educational  Condition. — The  number  of  or- 
ganized school-districts,  in  1875,  was  96;  the 
I  number  of  school-houses,  76  ;  the  average  dura- 
tion of  schools.  92  days.  The  school 
derived  from  the  following  sources  : 

County  tax $30,011.01 

Local  tax  for  school-houses     17,059.63 
Other  sources 4,043.62 

Total ~ 

Expenditures  for  the  year 

School  population .;s,;( 

Number  enrollcil  in  M'hunls  2337 

Number  of  teachers,  males 56 

females 43 

Total 99 

Normal  Instruction. — No  provision   has   yet 
been  made  for  the  special  instruction  of  persons 


$51,114.26 
$31,821,68 


school-teachera  in  theterritory  was  held  in  1874. 
This  was  composed  of  the  teachers  of  Deer  Lodge 
Co.,  and  the  territorial  superintendent  was  the 
president  during  its  temporary  organization. 
.Measures  were  taken  for  the  establishment  of  a 
permanent  teachers'  institute,  and  several  edu- 
cational subjects  were  dis  ussed. 

Secondary  Instruction.— In  1875.  the  number 
of  private  schools  was  14,  with  292  pupils.  There 
are,  besides,  a  small  number  of  high  schools,  and 
denominational  schools  and  academies. 

Superior,  Professional  and  Scientific,  and 
Sj,rri,,l  [i/strtii-tiiui. —  Ni>  opportunities  for  this 
kind  of  education  are,  as  yet.  afforded,  the  ener- 
gies of  the  people  being  almost  entirely  devoted 
to  the  development  of  the  mines  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil.  In  the  report  for  1873,  the 
superintendent.  Cornelius  Hedges,  said:  "Our 
people  are  generally  poor  and  very  scattered. 
Many  of  our  Bchool-distril  ts  are  of  greater  area 
than  whole  counties  in  the  Kastern  states."  Again, 
in  L875,  he  said:  •  Only  6  slates,  and  none  of  the 
territories,  unless  the  District  of  Columbia  be 
so  reckoned,  surpass  Montana  in  the  amount  of 
money  raised  per  capita  of  its  school  population, 
and  this  without  any  aid  derived  from  perma- 
nent  funds,  such  as   most   of  the  older  states 

MOORE'S  HILL  COLLEGE,  at  Moore's 
Hill.  lnd..  founded  hi  1856,  is  under  Methodist 
Episcopal  control.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees,  and  an  endowment  of  §18.000.  It  has  ap- 
paratus, a  cabinet,  and  a  small  library.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted.  There  is  a  preparatory  and 
a  collegiate  department,  with  a  classical  and  a 


MORAL   EDUCATION  597 

scientific  course,  and  also  a  musical,  a  normal,  among  the  latter,  the  opposites  of  these,  as  lying 
and  a  commercial  department.  The  cost  of  tui-  and  deceit,  a  disposition  to  steal,  cruelty  to  ani- 
tion  in  the  collegiate  department  is  $30  per  an-    mals,   unkindness   and    injustice   to    playmates, 


the  Rev.  Samuel  R.  Adams,  A.  M..  8  years;  the  leading  to  arrogance  an 

Rev.  Thomas  Harrison,  A.  \l..ii  years':   the  Rev.  are  specific  .pi.ditic  ot 

John  II.  Martin.  A.  M..  2  years;  the  Kev.  V.  A.  particular  ivcoeiiiti..n  •■ 

Hester.  D.  D.,   I  years;  and   the    Kev..!.  P.  D.  of  the  educator ;  but  w 

John,  A.  M..  the  present  incumbent  '  1 876).  been  thoroughly  develc 

MORAL,    EDUCATION   has   for  its  sphere  principle,    to   do    unto 

of  operation  the  culture  of  those  principles  which  they  should  do  unto  us 

influence  or  control  the  voluntary  action  of  hu  probation  or  condemnat 


propensities  and  desires,  when  the   latter  are  in  the  part  of  the  pupil,  and  thus  lead  to  the  for- 

conflict  with  it.     The  means  employed  in  moral  mation  of  eood  hahit.s.     ( 'aution  should  lc  exer- 

education  are  the    following:    (1)  precepts,  ad-  cised,  however,  in  employing  such  incentives;  and 

dre3sedboth  to  the   understanding  and    to   thi  the  educator  should  always  keep  in  view  the  just 

conscience,  the  0bj  icl  being  t lighten  the   l.,t  limits  of  their  use,  the  injurious  sequi  nces  of 

ter,  which  of  itself  does  not  r, gnize  specific  depending  too  exclusively  upon  them,  and  the  im- 

right  and  wrong ;  (2)  example,  appealing  to  imi  portance  of  so  employing  them  thai  they  may 

the  love  and  respect  felt  by  the  child  toward  its  right  for  its  own  sake.  (See  Emui  m  ii  \  llheprac- 

educator,  leading  the  former  to  feel  that  whatever  tical  application  of  the  system  here  briefly  out- 

isdone  by  th  ■  latter  is   right,  an  1  hence  should  line  I.  is  atten  lei  with  very  great  diffii  uhv.  and 

by  means  of  repetition,  an  inclination   to  act   in  part  of  the  educator ;  and    not    alone  this,  hut 

the  same  way  under  the  s circumstances   see  moral    culture    involving   self-control,  patience, 

strengthening  the   al    feeing,    l,r..Me.ht   into  ,-,s  well  as  a  fulU\  tnpaihv  with  the  ecu.  ral  pn-u- 

play,  an  1  of  forming  habits.     Exercise,  in  moral  liarities  and  wants  of  i  hildl d.  To  this  may  be 

education,  is  just  as  important  as  in   physical  or  added,  with  emphasis,  the   ability  to  discern  the 

intellectual  education;  indeed,  there  can  be  no  peculiarities  ot   individual  character,  as  depend- 

training  or  culture  without  it:  and,  in  carrying  ent  on  both   mental   and   physical  constitution; 


with 


ated  truthfulness,   ho:ie>tv,   justice,   candor  and  works:  Spencer,  Education;  In\        >ual,  Moral, 

modesty,  kindness  or  benevolence,  diligence,  obe-  and,  Physical  (X.  V..  I860)  :   Ot  Ran  ,  Common- 

dience  to  proper  authority,  gratitude,  fidelity  to  School   Education   (Edin.  and  London);    Aber- 

every  promise   or   trust,  and   patriotism;   and  crombie,  The  Philosophy  of the  Moral  Feelings, 


:')98  MORALIZING 

edited  by  Jacob  Abbott  (Boston,  1836) ;  Dt- 
mond,  Principles  if  Morality  Pf."5  ,1851  ;  Gow, 
Good  Morals  and  Gen&  Manners  (Cincinnati, 
1873);  Rosenkranz,  Pedagogics  as  a  System, 
trans,  by  Anna  C.  Bracket!  (St.  Louis,  1872). 
(See  also  Moral.zinu.) 

MORALIZING,  the  formal  inculcation  of 
moral  truth  by  means  of  precept,  or  of  stories 
related  for  the  sake  of  the  moral,  with  the 
view  of  influencing  conduct.  'I  his  practice, 
common  in  the  home  circle  and  in  the  school,  is 
the  result  of  a  consciousness  mi  the  part  of  the 
parent  or  teacher  of  a  duty  unperformed,  thedis- 
charge  of  which  is  attempted  in  this  perfunctory 
way.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  it  almost 
always  fails;  since  it  is  either  an  attempt  to 
reason  with  the  young — a  process  for  which 
their  minds  are  not  yet  sufficiently  mature— or 
an  effort  to  impose  mechanically  on  their  minds 
generalizations  which  can  only  be  reached  natu- 
rally after  the  observation  of  many  individual  in- 
stances. In  cither  case,  the  abstract  nature  of 
the  appeal  is  so  far  beyond  their  powers,  thai 
the  attention  which  is  given,  if  indeed  it  is  given, 
is  only  the  amiable  toleration  of  a  discourse 
which  arouses  no  interest.  Of  course,  moral 
lessons  received  in  such  a  spirit  accomplish  no 
useful  purpose,  if  indeed  they  are  not  positively 
hurtful;  since  they  tend  to  produce  disgust  for 
an  important  branch  of  education,  which  in 
maturer  years,  would  be  interesting.  The  con- 
ceptions existing  in  the  minds  of  children  and 
youth  being  in  large  measure  concrete,  the  true 
method  of  approaching  their  intelligence  is 
through  courier  images.  In  intellectual  train- 
ing, this  is  usually  done,  and  is  always  the  most 
successful  method.  In  one  of  the  methods  of 
moral  training  above  referred  to — that  of  moral 
stories — this  is  attempted,  and  doiibilos.it  is 
supposed,  with  success;  but  it  is  safe  to  say 
that  the  interest  aroused  is  not  extended  to  the 
moral  deductions  drawn  from  the  acts  of  the 
persons  introduced,  but  ends  with  the  acts  or 
actors  themselves.  Thus  the  fables  of  Jfeop  are 
interesting  to  the  young  only  as  long  as  the 
men  and  animals  arc,  so  to  speak,  in  motion. 
When  the  moral  is  reached — which  is  not  till 
after  the  narrative  has  been  brought  to  a  climax, 
and  the  actors  have  been  dismissed — their  inter- 
est is  at  an  ebb;  ami  not  till  many  years  later  is 
that  moral  brought  home  to  them  by  the  mani- 
fold experie s  of  life.  This,  therefore,  is  the  pe- 
culiar valu  !,an  1  the  only  proper  use  of,  the  fables 
of  ,Esop,  namely,  that  they  present  in  a  striking 


MORAVIAN    BRETHREN 

crease  the  difficulty  ;  but  it  should  never  be  for- 
gotten that  the  object  to  be  attained  is  not  a 
present,  but  a  future,  and  a  far  more  important, 
om — the  determination  of  the  pupil's  conduct- 
through  life  :  and  any  course  which  shall  hazard 
this  is  not  only  valueless,  but  evil.  The  mind  of 
youth,  in  fact,  is  not  riven  to  that  sober,  con- 
templative process  which  we  call  moralizing.  Its 
natural  disposition  is  one  of  gaiety,  ceaseless 
activity,  and  even  boisterousness.  'the  exuber- 
ance of  spirits  natural  to  this  period  of  lifi  there- 
fore, makes  the  child  indisposed  to  give  patient 
attention  to  any  purely  speculative  process  of 
thought.  That  this  is  a  wise  provision  of  nature 
for  the  development  of  the  physical  powers,  has 
long  been  recognized  by  observant  educators; 
and  any  attempt  to  (tub  this  spirit,  with  the 
view  of  inculcating  moral  truth,  only  inverts  the 
natural  order  of  development,  and.  in  healthy 
children  is  apt  to  result  disastrously.  The  only 
met  hoi  I  of  moral  training  effective  with  youth 
is   that    which   discards  formal   ] accepts,  and  by 


The  habit  of  righl  acting  is  thus  unconsciously 
acquired,  but  not  till  a  much  later  period  is  the 
mind  disposed  to  survey  critically  this  action, 
and  pass  judgment  upon  its  propriety.  The 
maturity  of  the  mind  is  an  indication  of  the 
prop  ir  season  for  moralizing. 

MORAL  SUASION.  See  Corporal  Pun- 
ishment. 

MORAVIAN  BRETHREN,  or  Moravi- 
ans, a  common  designation  of  the  Uni/us  Frti- 
')  "i  I  rotestant  t  Ihristians,  distin- 
guished for  activity  in  missionary  work  among 
the  heathen,  and  also  in  the  education  of  the 
young.  The  church  was  founded  in  l-!fi7  A.  I).,  by 
followers  of  John  Huss.  the  Bohemian  reformer 
and  martyr  (died  tit  I  'onstanee.  duly  li..  1415)  ; 
and  Uourishcd  in  Bohemia.  .Moravia,  and  Poland 
until  the  anti-reformation  under  Ferdinand  II., 
1621  — 7.  A  "  hidden  seed,"  however,  remained  : 
and.  in  1 722 — 7,  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Church  of  the  Brethren,  to  the  number  of  about 
300,  settled  at  Herrnhut.  in  Saxony,  on  an  estate 
belonging  to  Count  Zinzendorf,  forming  the 
nucleus  of  the  Renewed  Brethren's  Church,  to 
which  other  emigrants  from  Bohemia  and  Mo- 
ravia, with  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  other 
countries  of  Europe,  joined  themselves.     Since 


that  time,  the  churcn 
numbers,  has  spread  ov 
a  vast   mission  work  ;   : 


diately    influential,  b 

the  feeling  w  nich  al  '■ 
i.  e.,  the  certainty  of 
difficult,  of  course,  for 
has  the  well-being  of 
to  leave  him  in  that  si 
bearance  from  moral 
tenance;  and  the  pseu 
ing  is  better   than    nc 


^  1,1.  li 


languag 


till   small  in 

1.  cat  iving  on 

present  time, 

rational  institutions.  There 

rypi     .  ices:  <  iontinental 

i    tie  United  States. 

i       L627).  —  Very 

ung  of    the    church,  the 

vote  themsi  Ives  to  educa- 

ils  were  held  in  the  parson- 

the  si  holars  being  chiefly 

ministry.     Soon,   however, 

c  established    for  thorough 

its  of  knowledge,  including 

many  of  the  pupils  were 


not  members  of  the  church.  Classical  schools 
■ur  colleges  were  founded  at  Eibenschutz  (under 
Esrom  Riidinger,  of  Wittenberg),  Meserritsch, 
and  Fulneck,  in  Moravia;  Lissa,  in  Poland; 
ami  other  places;  these  colleges  were  well  at- 
tended,  many   of   the   students  1 a    Roman 

Catholics.  In'  L585,  there  w,  re.in  addition, three 
theological  seminaries,  at  Jungbunzlau,  Bohe- 
mia: ami  1'rerau  ami  Libenschutz.  in  Moravia; 
to  these  was  afterwards  added  one  at  Lissa.  in 
Poland.  The  must  distinguished  educators  in  the 
ancient  Church  of  the  Brethren  were  Blahoslav, 
the  author  of  a  Bohemian  grammar,  still  in  use; 
Riidinger;  and  John  Amos  Comenius.  The 
1 . 1 1  r . •  i  w.i<  a  skillful  educator,  and  his  new  meth- 
ods of  teaching  gained  him  great  celebrity.  He 
is  one  of  the  forerunners  of  the  so-called  "mod- 
ern "system  of  object-teaching  and  of  the  kin- 


MORAVIAN    BRETHREN 


■iconic  man 


lie  finally  settled  at  Amsterdam,  ill  Holland, 
where  he  died  Nov.  22.,  L670.  dp  to  the  day 
of  his  death,  he  was  unwearied  as  a  writer  in  be- 
half of  education  and  of  his  beloved  church,  of 
which  he  had  become  the  senior  bishop.  (See 
Comenius.)  Though  thai  church  was  nowseem- 
ingly  stamped  out  of  existence,  he  hoped  against 
hope  that  it  would  be  restored.  And  this  hope 
was  fulfilled.  Emigrants,  for  conscience'  sake, 
from  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  were  the  Inst  settlers 
of  Herrnhut,  in  Saxonv.  The  first  little  band 
arrived  in  June,  L722  ;  an  l,,on  May  12.,  1724,  the 
corner-stone  of  the  first  school-house  was  laid. 
This  building  was  erected  in  pursuance  of  a  plan 
formed  by  /iuzendoif  to  establish  institutions 
similar  to  those  at  Halle,  where  he  had  studied 
under  Francke.  Though  the  project  was  soon 
abandoned,  particularly  as  tins  first  school  in 
Herrnhut  proved  a  failure  ;  .-till,  from  thai  day, 
.May  12.,  L724,  dates  the  educational  activity  of 
the  Renewed  Bn  three  s  I  lunch. 

II.  Renewed  Breth  •<  i  \Ch  trek. (1727— 1876). 

'The  school,  therefore  pn led  the  organization 

■of  the  church.  As  a  I  litiona]  congregations  were 
founded,  parochial  schools  were  introduced; 
with  the!  spread  of  missions,  schools  for  the  in- 
struction of  the  converts  were  begun  ;  theological 
schools  were  needed  for  the  education  of  minis- 
ters ;  and  friends  of  the  church  urged  the  estab- 
lishment of  boarding  schools.  The  most  promi- 
nent educators  within  the  church,  am  I  especially  in 
the  Herman  province,  have  been  .lohann  Nitsch- 
maiin.  Sr.;  Polycarp  Miillcr.  the  founder  of  the 
.scientific  internal  development;  Paul  Eugen 
Layritz  (author  of  a  Latin  dictionary  long  in 
use),  who.  with  his  son-in-law,  <  Ihristian  Theodor 
Zembsch,  the  latter  for  55  years  teacher  and 
president  of  the  Pcedagogium,  may  be  con- 
sidered the  real  founder  oi  the  Moravian  school 
system.  Bishop  Johann  Friedrich  Reichel, 
though  not  directly  employed  as  an  instructor, 
deserves  special  mention,  as  he  wasven  active 
in  the  establishment  oi  boarding  schools,  the 
Pcedagogium,  and  the  theological  seminary.  Ry 
his  wise  counsel  he  assisted  those  more  actively 


lliet  with   < 
place  of  the 


III! 


,,1,1 


g  six  heads: 
( I )    Primary  Schools. — •  ireat  stress  is  laid  by 
the  Brethren  on  the  importance  of  home  train- 
ing;   and  it   is  officially  recognized  that  "the 


if  the 


luct  of 


1 1, 1  is  la 


fan]  Is 


llell 


(a)  Infant  schools  up  to 
In  many  of  the  congregatio 
rope,  infant  schools  are  kept. 
which  is  "  to  employ  the  lit 
and  easy  lessons,  and  to  awa 
—not  to  burden  the  mind  at 


site  is  held  to  be  "a 

hen,  who  can  enter 
stand  how  to  man- 


—  from  the  7th  to  f 
■rally,  and.  in  Ami 


to   chil 
others. 


of 


L,  ligious  instiii 
taut  part  of  the  edueatii 
care  for  the  heart  and  sol 
tellect.  In  thesi  school 
bran,  lies  are  taught;  toot 
principle,  avoided.     Whi 


(e)  Sunday  schools,  w  hn  h  are  more  common  in 
America  than  in  England  or  Germany.  In  these 
latter  countries,  they  arc  more  confined  to  their 
original  purpose. — to  impart  instruction,  secular 
or  religious,  to  those  who  are  unable  to  obtain  it 
during  the  week. 

(2 1  llnun/inn-Schonls-  from  the  Till  to  the  18th 
year,  and  upward.  The  first  boarding  s.  hool 
was  o] iciicd  at  Neuwied  on  the  Rhine.  Prussia, 
in  1756.  The  number  of  church  boarding- 
schools  had  increased  to  51  at  the  close  of  the 
year  1875.  The  number  of  scholars,  each  year, 
ranges  from  2,5011  to  3,000.  In  the  German 
province,  there  arc  30  schools.  11  for  boys  (600 
pupils),  10  for  girls  (759),  including  the  two 
boarding-schools  and  the  primary  department 
for  the  children  of  missionaries,  in  the  British 
province,  there  are   15  schools;  6  for  boys  (281 


MORAVIAN    BBETHRBN 


pupils),  and  9  for  girls  (302),  one  of  those  for 
boys  being  a  primary  boarding-school.  In  the 
American  province,  there  are  6  schools  ;  2  fur 
boys  (180  pupils), namely,  Nazareth  Hall,  Naza- 
reth, Northampton  Co..  Pa.  (125  to  150  pupils)  ; 
Salem  Hoys'  School,  Salem.  Forsyth  Co.,  X.  0. 
l.'iO  pupils);  and  4  for  girls  (7511  pupils);  namely, 
Seminary  for  Young  Ladies,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 
(250  pupils)  ;  Linden  Hall,  Litiz,  Lancaster 
Co.,  Pa.  (80  to  100);  Salem  Female  Academy 
(about  225  pupils):  and  Hope  Seminary,  Hope, 
Bartholomew  Co..  Ind.  (HO  to  80  pupils).  The 
course  of  study,  in  all  these  schools,  embraces, 
first,  the  fundamental  branches,  and  after  that. 
whatever  accomplishments  are  deemed  necessary 
by  the  parents,  and  by  the  demands  of  the  times. 
Special  attention  is  paid  to  music,  mathematics, 
and  the  classical  and  modern  languages.  As  far 
as  is  known,  the  Seminary  at  Bethlehem,  which 
was  opened  as  a  school  for  girls  in  1749,  and  as 
a  boarding-school  in  1785,  is  the  pioneer  school 
in  America  in  the  education  of  women.  At 
Nazareth  Hall,  there  are  special  classes  to  prepare 
boys  to  enter  either  a  college  or  a  polytechnic  or 
scientific  school ;  the  former  with  a  special  view 
to  the  theological  .seminary.  One  peculiarity  of 
the  method  of  training  is  the  constant  super- 
vision of  all  the  scholars  by  the  teachers,  the 
ideal  being  th-  watchful  care  of  parents  over  tin 
family.  Though  irksome  to  boys  and  girls,  this 
principle  of  Moravian  education  still  commends 
itself  to  those  who  have  the  responsible  charge 
of  the  pupils.  The  aim  of  all  the  boarding- 
si'liools  is  not  brilliancy  of  attainments,  but  a 
solid  foundation:  and.  at  the  same  time,  to  be 
equal  to  the  standard  of  modern  requirements. 
Due  and  careful  attention  is  paid  to  moral  and 
religious  training.  Besides  the  church  schools, 
there  are  other  private  boarding  schools  con- 
duete  1  by  members  of  the  church,  notably  those 
for  boys  at  litiz.  The  same  principles  of  edu- 
cation prevail  in  all. 

(3)  <  7  issic  il  Schools  and  Coll  ges.— The  prin- 
cipal college  is  that  at  Xisky.  in  Prussia,  official- 
ly styled  the  •pcedagogium,  with  60  students. 
The  course   of   study  is  equal  to   that    of  the 

attention  is  paid  to  the  Hebivw  language  In  the 
schools  at  Fulneck.  England,  and  .\  azareth.  Pa., 
classical  studies  are  pursued  bythe  higher  classes 
of  boys  who  prepare  forcollegeor  the  university. 


i-li  Tin  ilogi  d  S  nt  .-/ 
of  the  German  provim  i, 
now  located  at  <  Ina  lenfeid 
ber  of  students  averages  ' 
professors.  Th-  theological 
is  very  thorough.  The  sei 
pro\  imv  is  1 1  ii -  Trainini;  li 
I  m;ii,  at  Fairfield,  near  Mi 
a  seminary  proper  and  a 
seminary  of  the  American 


■thlehem,  Pa.  The 
itinues  two  years. 

.  —  The  seminary 
inded  in  1 735,  is 
atssia.  The  num. 
ii  :;  classes,  with  I 


1*07. at  Nazareth. since  1  858  permanently  located 
at  Bethlehem,  incorporated  in  1864  as  The 
Moravian  College  and  Theological  Seminary, 
though  familiarly  known  by  the  latter  half  of 
its  title,  averages  30  students,  with  4  profess- 
ors. The  course  of  study,  after  two  years'  prepar- 
atory training  at  Nazareth,  is  for  6  years ;  three 
and  a  half  devoted  to  the  classics,  mathematics, 
natural  science,  Hebrew,  and  philosophy,  and  two 
and  a  half  years  to  theological  studies.  Special 
attention  is  paid,  throughout  theeourse,  to  the 
study  of  German.  1  he  full  course  of  training 
for  a  minister,  therefore,  occupies  8  years,  or  its. 
equivalent  in  work.  Classes  are  formed  bien- 
nially. 'I  he  endowment  fund  is  very  small ;  but 
the  charge  for  students  preparing  for  the  Mo- 
ravian ministry  is  nominal,  the  expenses  being 
defrayed  by  tlie  church. 

(5)  Special  Schools.— In  Germany,  there  are 
two  normal  schools  for  training  young  men  and 
women  as  teachers ;  a  missionary  institute  for 
training  missionaries  ;  and  a  technical  school  at 
Cnadenberg.  Prussia.  In  connection  with  the 
mission  work,  there  are  normal  and  industrial 
schools  :  in  the  latter,  instruction  is  given  in  agri- 
culture, mechanics,  printing,  book-binding,  etc. 

(6)  Schools  in  the  Missionary  Provinces. — The 
instruction  of  old  and  young  in  religion,  general 
knowledge,  and  industrial  art,  is  a  chief  part  of 
the  duty  of  the  missionaries  of  the  church. Their 
labors  in  education  cover  the  following  field  : 
Greenland,  Labrador,  the  North  American  In- 
dians. Mos.piitia,  the  Knidish  and  Danish  West 
Indies.  Dutch  Guiana  or  Surinam, South  Africa, 
Australia,  and  West  Himalaya.  In  these  mission 
provinces,  there  are  the  following  schools:  (1)  a 
theological  seminary,  in  Jamaica,  W.  I.;  (5)  nor- 
mal school-  2  in  .lamaiea.  1  each  in  Antigua, 
in  Surinam,  and  in  South  Africa;  in  Greenland, 
4  normal  classes:  and  in  Labrador,  3,  at  dif- 
ferent stations,  as  the  isolation  prevents  com- 
plete union  in  a  normal  school.  The  pupils  num- 
ber, in  all.  about  100  :  but  the  number  increases 
each  year.  There  are  maintained  217  day  schools, 
at  ornearthe  92  mission  stations,  with  756  teach- 
ers and  15,173  scholars;  besides  sunday-schools. 
With  the  most,  infant  schools  are  also  connected; 
many  adults  attend  sp  ■,  ial  classes.  Many  of  the 
scholars  are  not  connected  with  the  church.  The 
instruction  ranges  from  a  primary  to  a  grammar- 
school  grade.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  "among 
1.200  colonial  schools  in  Gippsland,  Australia,  the 
school  for  natives  at  Ramahyuk,  consisting  of 
perhaps  the  lowest  and  most  degraded  of  heathen 
tribes,  the  aborigines  of  Australia  gained,  in  1*73, 
ihe  lii._liest  prize  offered  by  the  government." 

Principles  of  Education. — 1  he  schools  of  the 
Brethren  are  eon  lueted  on  religious,  though  not 
sectarian,  principles.  In  regard  to  the  method 
oft  u  tiii  j  the  General  Synod  of  1869  reiterates: 
■While  ue  would  earnestly  endeavor  to  keep 
pace  with  other  schools  in  imparting  a  store  of 
solid  useful  knowledge,  we  would  not  aim  at 
that  extent  or  display  of  learning  which  tends 
to  foster  vanity,  to  lead  to  the  necjeet  of  proper 
regard  for  health,  and  to  destroy  that  simplicity 


d  to  tl 


duced  no  educator  with  a  wor 
( lomenius  :  tin-  energies  of  1 

I n  directed  td  the  improvi 

schools,  [ndirectly,  however. 

by  impressi] i  all  their  a 

points  of  the  German  met 


MOTHER-TONGUE  601 

rabs  from  all  parts  of   Africa.     It 


i\v.  c. 


etk  Hi//  and  its  Reunions.)     In 
the  schools,  there  is  instruction 


common-school  system.  On 
co-education  of  the  sexes  the 
cussion  or  action,  as  no  neces 


he  1st  of  danuary, 
ipof  L7,993  com- 
inchiding  children, 
care  of  the  Mo- 
.  with  *.'!  students: 


ravians  4  theological  semin; 
4  coUeges  and  classical  schools,  with!  10  students; 
9  normal  schools  and  7  normal  classes,  with  150 
students:  51  boarding-schools,  with  about  2,700 
pupils;  '.'17  common  schools  in  the  mission 
provinces,  with  15,173  pupils;  also  about  200 
pupils  in  the  technical  and  industrial  schools: 
and  about  3,000  pupils  in  parochial  and  infant 
schools — a  total  of  persons  under  instruction  of 
21,446.  Adding  the  sunday-school  pupils,  the 
grand  total   swells  to  13,500.     The   number  of 


tw. 


held.  750;  of  sunday-school  teachers,  about  1 ,500. 
Further  information  in  regard  to  the  Moravian 
schools  and  school  system  may  be  found  in 
CoMENins,  Ihhool  of  Infancy  (London,    1858); 


//,, 


;>;■>„■ 


l/c* 


hatever  primary  instruction  is  afforded  is  given 
i  schools  connected  with  the  mosques;  but, 
lore  are  no  statistics  to  show  to  what  extent 
lis  exists. 

MOTHER.     See  Home  Education. 

MOTHER-TONGUE,  the  laneua-e  in  v,  hid, 


tion,    and    pronunciation    that     arc   ci 
the    child,  and    that    constitute    the    ge 

which  the  child's  own  language  gradually 

itself.      That  this  prerogative  of   the 


It  is.  however,  no  interference  with  this  that 
children,  by  associating  with  companions  who 
speak  a  different  language,  should  learn,  at  an 
early  period,  to  converse  in  a  second  tongue: 
since.,  when  the  mothei  exerts  her  legitimate  in- 
fluence, the  language  in  which  she  communes 
with  the  child  will  continue  to  be  the  first 
moulder  of  the  youthful  mind.  'I  he  privileged 
position  of  the  mother-tongue  during  the  first 
years  of  a  <  hild  s  lite,  i v;w  s  u  ith    the    beginning 


l,-ii„ 


d  I, 


MOROCCO,  or  Marocco,  an  empire  in  the 
north-western  part  of  Africa;  area..  259,000 
sq.  m.:  population,  about  6,000,000,  In  ancient 
times,  it  formed  part  of  the  territory  known  as 
Mauritania,  and  subsequently  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, with  which  it  remained  up  to  429  A.  D., 
when  it  was  overrun  l>v  the  Vandals.      After  its 


rerinnen  ;  and  the      <-l I  dioiild  find  thi  re  the  lai  guage  with  win 


■st  l.v  tin 


nd  their  little  stock  of  knowledge  has 
•d.      h  is  thus  easv  for  the  intelligent 


thousand  .lews,  belongs.  Education,  in  Morocco, 
is  in  a  very  low  state.  All  that  remains  of  the 
ancient  universities,  at  the  present  day,  is  the 
university  of  Dar-elibn,  which,  in  the  middle 

ages,  had  an  extensive   reputation,  and   was  at-  | 


them;    and  it  is  evident    that   all  that   is  pos- 
sible,  in    such    cases,  is    some  special   attention 


<J02     MOUNT  ST.  MARY'S  COLLEGE 

on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  the  educational 
wants  and  to  the  progress  of  the  little  strangers. 
15ut  as  few  countries,  at  the  present  time,  are 
inhabited  by  people  of  only  one  nationality,  it  is 
also  very  common  to  find  localities,  or  even 
large  districts,  where  a  large  portion  of  the  chil- 
dren— indeed,  sometimes  the  majority — speak  at 
home  a  language  different  from  that  in  which 
they  are  instructed  at  school  Thus  the  Celtic 
and  the  German  mother-tongues  are  extensively 
met  with  in  Engli.-h  schools  :  the  Polish, Wendish, 
and  French,  in  German  schools ;  the  German, 
Polish.  Finnish,  and  many  other  languages.in  Rus- 
sian schools:  and  the  Italian,  in  1  reuch  schools. 
In  such  cases,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  that 
nearly  all  the  young  pupils  understand  some  other 
language  better  than  thai  through  which  they 
receive  their  school  instruction,  and  in  which 
they  are  expected  to  retch  the  highesi  state  of 
perfection.     Wherever  this  state  of  things  exists, 


it  : 


m  behalf  of  (he  mother-tongu  '.either  as  a  means 

or  as, a  branch  of  public  instruction,  des  irve  con- 
sideration.  The  legislation  on  this  subject  has 
been  very  vacillating,  and  still  "ready  differs  in 
various  countries ;  but  the  general  tendency,  at 

present,  is  to  c\t  nd.  by  means  both  of  school  leg- 
islation and  sch  tol  c  lucation,  the  domain  of  the 
n.itio  i<ll  iii-ii  iu  ■    [See  National  Lynocao,-:.) 

MOUNT  SAINT  MARY'S  COLLEGE, 
a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  chartered  in  ls30, 
is  situated  about   2   mil -s  from    Faninott.-burc-. 


Ml 


Che 


I  I, 


.lin 


The  regular  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  is 
Sled  per  session  of  five  months.  The  system 
of  education  is  a  combined  classical  and  com- 
mercial one,  including  the  various  arts  and  sci- 
ences usually  taught  in  college-  of  the  tirM  class. 
In  lsTa — ti,  there  were  12  professors,  18  other 
instructors,  and  1  WO  students.  The  Rev.  John 
McCloskey,  D.D.,isthe  president  (1876). 

MOUNT  SAINT  MARY'S  SEMINARY 
OF  THE  WEST,  a  Roman  Catholic  institu- 
tion in  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  was  founded  in  1848. 
The  course  of  instruction  is  of  two  grades, 
preparatory  and  theological.  In  the  preparatory 
department,  all  branches  pertaining  to  a  regular 
collegiate  course  are  taught  in  seven  different 
classes,  embracing  as  many  years  of  study;  of 
thesj,  the  last  four  correspond  to  a  regular  col- 
lege course,  the  first  three  embodying'' the  pre- 
paratory studies.  The  theological  course  em- 
braces a  period  of  three  years.  The  library 
contains  about  15,000  volumes.  All  students 
are  required  to  pay  $160  a  year  toward  board 
and  tuition.     In  1875 — 6,  there  were  8  Lnstruc 

tors,  and   111    students,   all   prepari for  the 

priesthood.  The  Very  Hey.  F.J.  Pabisch, D. D., 
LL.  1).,  has  been  the  president  of  the  institution 
since  1863. 

MOUNT  UNION  COLLEGE,  at  Mount 
Union,  near  Alliance,  Ohio,  was  organized  as  a 


MURRAY 

seminary  in  1846,  asa  college  in  1 858.  Among  its 
distinguishing  features  are  entire  liberty  in  the 
choice  of  studies,  the  prominence  given  to  practical 
studio,  its  Christian,  but  not  sectarian  nor  par- 
tisan character,  the  admission  of  females  to  equal 
privileges  in   all   the  departments,  and   its  econ- 
omy for  students.     The  college   lias   productive 
funds  to  the  amount  of  over  S451  .llllti,  and  valu- 
able apparatus  and  extensive  cabinets.     There 
j  are   four  general   courses   of   four  years   each, 
j  namely,    science,  philosophy,   liberal    literature 
i  and  arts,  and  classics.     rl  be  special  courses  are 
|  music,  fine  arts,  normal,  and  commercial.    There 
is  a  preparatory  department.     The   degrees  of 
M.i.-tci  of  Arts.  .Master  of  Science,  and  Master 
or  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  are  not  honorary  de- 
grees, but  are  conferred  on  those  who  have  com- 
pleted,and  sustained  an  actual  examination  in,  a 
suitable  post  graduate  eour.se  of  one  year's  study. 
,  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  18  instructors  and  842 
students,  of  whom  344  were  in  the  collegiate  de- 
partment.    'I  lie  Rev.  O.  N.  Hartshorn,  LL.  D., 
is  (1876)  the  president. 

MUHLENBERG  COLLEGE,  at  Allen- 
town,  Pa.,  is  under  Evangelical  Lutheran  con- 
trol. It  was  opened  as  a  seminary  in  1848,  and 
as  a  college  under  its  present  name  in  1867.  It 
is  supported  by  tuition  fees,  synodical  aid.  and 
the  income  of  an  endowment  of  $50,000.  'Ihe 
buildings  are  surrounded  by  about  five  acres  of 
ground.  The  libraries  contain  about  3,600  vol- 
|  times.  The  institution  embraces  a  collegiate  de- 
partment, with  a  course  of  four  years,  and  an 
academic  department,  with  a  course  of  three 
years.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  collegiate  de- 
partment is  Sell  a  year.  In  Fs74 — 5.  there  were 
.-  instructors  and  1)1  students  (42  collegiate  and 
69  academic).  The  Rev.  Frederick  A.  Muhlen- 
berg. II.  II.,  has  been  the  president  of  the  college 
from  its  organization. 

MURRAY,  Lindley,  was  born  in  1745  at 
Swetara,  near  I  ancaster,  Pa.;  died  near  York. 
England,  in  1826.  He  at  first  devoted  himself 
to  the  law,  but  abandoned  it  for  commerce  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  disputes  with  the  mother 
country,  and  retired  with  a  competency,  on  the 
establishment  of  American  independence.  In 
1784,hewent  to  England  for  his  health;  and, 
after  some  months,  fixed  his  residence  at  Hold- 
gate,  near  York,  where  he  remained  until  his 
death.  Murray  never  was  a  professional  teacher. 
I  lis  Grammar  arose  out  ot  some  lessons  which 
he  gave  to  the  assistants  at  a  girls'  school  in 
York.  His  pupils  appreciated  his  efforts,  and 
urged  him  to  write  an  English  grammar.  This 
appeared  in  I7!ie.  was  followed  by  a  book  of 
exerciser  and  a  key.  and  has  passed  through  a 
greal  number  of  editions,  both  in  England 
and  America.  It  was  con, piled  from  Harris, 
Lowth,   Blair,   Campbell,  and  others;   and   the 


of  simplicityin  the  language,  together  with  de- 
ficiencies in  the  accidence,  which  were  perhaps 
inseparable  from  a  work  written  at  that  date. 
A  good  teacher  might  occasionally  gather  useful 


matter  from  Murray's  Grammar,  but  would  not 
use  it  as  a  class-book.  Mr.  Washington  Moon,  in 
Bad  English  (London,  L868),  has  drawn  atten- 


\1 


books  also,  besides  sunn'  works  of  a 
nature.  He  was  a  member  of  the  S 
Friends,  and  a  man  of  great  benevolei 
Autobiography  of  Murray,  down  to 
geared  after  his  death,  with  a  eontini 
Klizabetli  Frank.    This  autobiography 


<IC  603 

sackbut,  psaltery,  dulcimer,  and  all  kinds  of 
music."  Of  these  ancient  musical  instruments, 
the  barn, the  psaltery,  the  lute,  and  the  dulcimer 
were  stringed;  while  the  cornet,  the  trumpet,  the 
flute,andthe  sackbut    were   wind  instruments. 


Assyrian,  I 'In 


nit  character,  and 


had  criticise 

MUSIC, 

Cultivated   I 


Mil 


..desirable  ends,  which  all  sii 
•ecognize  as  more  thoroughly 
ense  oi  combining  all  depat 

;'ln!'l.  pi'e.'ededliu-iu.  'i'vtli.i 


rfeetion  of  detail 


li;.l 


measurably  acquainted  with  the  arts,  of  the 
Egyptians,  which  included  the  use  of  the  lyre 
and  other  musical   instruments,  rude  sculptured 


i.v  viDranons  |  roau 
divisions  of  a  string,  I 
for  the  who],,  model 
discords  than  his  simi 
ernment,aswell  asth. 


tot 


their  | 

,.y  and 

delive 

ranee  f 

in   wa 

r  and 

spiriti 

ng  po\ 

newed 

effort, 

gathei 

•ings,  t, 

Hi.-   inii.-i.al    s -s.-i lid  no|  pro- 

n  direction.  The  mantli  oi  Greek 
and  Ktruscan  art  fell  upon  Koine. 
k,-,l  with  Virgil,  Demosthenes  with 
bagoraswith  Seneca.  Subsequently, 
n  bishop  linked  the  logic  of  Aristotle 


all 


lax  id 


ihns.    Ant, phonal 

1  by  ,-hoirs  under 
,  director  of  them 
instrumental  ac- 

of  no  mean  order. 


,li,i, 


n  L 


AVe  find,  on  examination,  that  the  harp,  the  psal- 
tery, the  shawm,  the  cornet,  the  lute,  the  tabret, 
the  cymbals,  —  "every  thing  that  has  breath," 
that  is.  every  thing  that  had  a  resonant  body 
which  would'  vibrate  through  the  action  of  the 
air  upon  it,-all  were  to  be  used  in  carrying  out 
the  divine  injunction,  «  Praise  ye  the  Lord ! "    - 

1- our  hundred  years  later,  while  Kaniel  stood 
high  in  the  favor  of  Nebuchadnezzar  at  tin- 
court  of  Babylon,  we  read  of  the  setting  up  of 
agolden  image  by  the  king,  which  1  ';u .i,  1  was 
required  to  worship  at  the  moment  when  lie 
should  hear  the  sound  of  the  "  cornet,  flute,  harp. 


letters,  to, 1,-note  the  iisin-j  and  the  falling  inflec- 
tions. St.  Ambrose,  bishopoi  Milan  i  A.  1 1,  386) 
composed  many  hymns;  and  the  tradition  of  a 
majority  of  the  western  European  churches 
assigns  the  authorship  of  the    Te  Ilium  to  his 

St.  Augustine  chanted'  it  antiphonally  at  the 
baptism  of  the  latter.  This  statement  does  not 
assume  the  certainty  of  an  historic  fact  ;  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  St.  Ambrose  improved 
the  church  music  of  his  day  by  adopting  the 
four  authentic  modes  found,',l  upon  the  Ureek 
tctr.-ielior.ls.      The    Ambrosial!    chant    continued 

to  be  used  as  the  music  for  the  hymns  and  dox- 

ologiesof  the  church  for  more  than  two  hundred 
years,  until  St.  Gregory  added  four  more,  thus 
completing  what  have  since  been  known  as  the 
I-light  Gregorian  Tones.  Thirteen  hundred  years 
have  only  served  to  make  the  Gregorian  Tones 


IHI4 


::<  ; ti-i-< ■] tt ;■  1  >I< ■  iis  they  were  in  the  earlier 
the  church.  The  reason  is  obvious.  \ 
it  be  the  Greek,  the  Latin,  or  the  Angli 
vice,  intoning  can  be  more  distinctly  hea 

ordinary  speaking;  and,  therefore,  it  is  i 
fective  to  largj  auditories.   The  vehicle,  i 

able  musical  sounds,  employed    for   this' 


must 

•so  that  the  celebrant,  of  cither  bass  or  tenor  voice. 
can  render  the  service  acceptably.  The  Eight 
Gregorian  Tones  contain  all  the  variety  of  mel- 
ody and  pitch  suitable  for  this  purpose:  and  priest, 
choir,  and  people  can  all  participate  in  the  ser- 
vice, by  using  these  ancient  chants,  without  extra- 
ordinary effort,  if  only  the  gift  of  a  correct  ear 
be  vouchsafed  them.  The  Anglican  Church  has  a 
rich  and  beautiful  vari  'ty  of  >iii".lo  chants  founded 
directly  upon  the  (in-oi  i;ln  Tones,  and,  during 
the  past  thirty  years,  has  use!  them  more  gener- 
ally than  at  any  period  since  the  Reformation.— 
St.  Gregory's  pontificate  was  also  distinguished 
musically,  by  the  erection  of  the  organ,  as  the 
permanent  musical  instrument  of  the  church.  It 
origin,  according  to  some  writers,  was  the  syrinx. 
or  I 'andean  pipes;  although  others  mention  as 
a  fact  that  Otesiphon,  six  hundred  years  before 
Christ,  constructed  a  plain,  rude  "chest  oi 
whistles",  with  water  as  the  motive  power  for 
the  supply  of  win  1.  Not  until  St.  Gregory's  day, 
however,  did  it  assume  proportions  sufficiently 
dignified  to  take  its  place  as  the  combined 
orchestral  support  of  the  music  of  the  church,  s. 
far  as  wind  blown  through  pipes  could  make  it 
orchestral.  It  never  can  yield  th  ■  intense,  pen- 
etrating tone  of  the  violins  and  other  stringed 
instruments,  by  reason  of  the  difference  in  the 
application  of  the  motive  power.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  approaches  more  nearly  tic  tone  of  the 
human  voice  ;  and  organ-  builders  and  organists 
are  vying  with  each  other  in  developing  its  la- 
test achievement,  the  vox  humrtna,  to  a  degree  so 
near  top  irfectionin  the  beautiful,  that  some  have 
ventured  to  pronounce  it  angelic  and  heavenly. 
-The  history  of  concords  and  discords  as  em- 
ployed in  music. — in  other  words,  the  origin  of 
the  whole  system  of  modern  harmony,  may  lie 
said  to  date  from  the  use  of  the  organ  in  the 
church.     Not  until  the  pressing  of  .me  key  with 

or  sixths,  did  thc'ideaof  a  science  of  concords 
and  discords,  remotely  outlined  a  thousand  years 
before  present  itself  to  the  human  mind  through 
the  tympanum  of  the  human  car.  acted  upon  by 
the  living,  breathing  tones  that  came  from  the 
pipes  of  an  organ.     Thenceforth,  music  began  to 

language.  Hut  the  progress  was  slow.  Lfter 
St.  Gregory,  ten  parallel  lines  were  used  instead 
of  one,  to  denote  the  ascent   and  descent  of  the 


ited  also  with  the  establishment  of  the  gamut. c:- 
SCOle,    through    the    use   of   the   syllables     Vt,  Be, 

M,.  Fa  Sol,  La,  Si, selected  from  Latin  words 
in  honor  of  the  apostle  John.     A  period  of  two 

centuries  followed,  in  which,  according  to  Dr. 
liiinbault.  no  remnants  or  records  of  secular 
music  can  be  found,  except  those  of  the  Trouba- 
dours. These  Provenpal  minstrels  served  to  in- 
crease both  the  fancy  and  the  language  of  Dante. 
Petrarch,  and  other  Tuscan  poets,  in  the  13th 
and  14th  centuries.  Little  variety  of  notation 
appears,  and  no  time  is  marked  in  their  produc- 
tions, yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  discover  in  them 
germs  of  the  futuie  melodies,  as  well  as  the  poetry. 
of  France  and  Italy.     'J  he  stanza  and  the  rhyme 


nto   the   church   also;   and  the   trochaic 
erallv  prevailed,  by  reason   of   the 


aii  cut  at  the  commencement  of 
the  lines,  and  by  reason  also  of  the  inherent 
superiority  of  twofold  over  threefold  measure. 
'ihc  Latin  hymns,  Dies  Tree  and  Stabat  Maier, 
are  well-known  examples  of  this.  '1  he  harmonies 
of  the  church  music  and  of  the  set  ular.  thus  far. 
had  been  entirely  founded  upon  pure  concords, 
save  an  occasional  mild  discord  by  suspension. 
'I  he  union  of  this  sweet  harmony  with  quaint 
and  charming  rhythmical  devices  resulted  m  the 
construction    of    a    form    of    composition,   the 


luster  upon  the  reign  of  Queen 
it  declined  with  tin  m.  Althoug 
in  variety  of  harmonic   progr 


lent,  and 
the  most 


\h 


Handel.  Haydn,  Mo/art.  Beethov 
delssohn  have  left  immortal  works  which  can 
hardly  be  equaled,  and  can  never  be  excelled; 
although  1  iszt.  Wagner,  and  Rubinstein  have 
written  as  representative  composers  of  a  school 
of  music  founded  upon  sudden  and  strange 
transitions  and  ear-splitting  discords;  yet  the 
madrigal  of  the  L6th  and  17th  centuries  remains 
a  living,  breathing,  visible  proof  that  the  truest, 
sweetest,  most  permanent  progressions  m  vocal 
harmony  are  those  which  recognize  this  fun- 
damental axiom  as  a  necessity;  namely,  that  con- 
cords are  the  nil,;  and  discards  are  th,-  excep- 


posite  to  each  other,  were  used    to    represent    the     with  that  nt  tin 

the  term   counterpoint.    The  staff  was  afterward    ence  lies  not  so  i 

reduced  to  five  lines,  and  the  spaces  were  used  as  in  the  words  ; 
as  well,  through  the  teaching  of  Guido  d'Arezzo,  With  the  Befi 
a  monk  of  the  11th  century,  who    must  be  cred-  I  people's congreg 


e  progression, 
thmie  flow.— 
•  choral,  the 
jre  stands  out 


IK). i 


Martin  Luther,  who  as  singer  and  musician. as  well 
as  theologian  and  preacher,  exerted  an  influence 
second  to  none  in  his  day.   From  the  time  when, 

as  a  boy,  he  sa the  song  of  the  Virgin  and  the 

birth  of  i'lin-t  in  Madam  I  ottas   house,  to  the 


his  mus 
is  sliaivi 
the  stud 
of  Luth 


of  continuous  labor  for  the  pleasure  and  instruc- 
tion of  his  sons  and  the  circle  in  which  he  moved. 
Originally  of  a  musical  family,  he  commenced 
his  active  life  with  the  fullest  preparation  for  his 
work:  and  never  did  he  taller  tor  a  moment  in 
considering  his  efforts  as  little  less  than  a  divine 
duty.  Not  all  of  bis  manuscripts  have  yet  been 
published;  and  a  new  and  deep  interest  has,  of 
fate,  been  developed  in  every  thing  that  emanated 
from  his  prolific  brain  and  pen.-  This  new  and 
largei  liberty,  ushered  in  by  the  Reformation,  ap- 
peared in  the  masses  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  in  the  services  of  the  Anglican 
Church.  Composers  have  generally  been  willing 
toadapl  themselves  to  the  musical  exigencies  of 


Tli. 


testimony  ..f  a  Hebrew    who  has  composed  the 

most  elaborate  operas  of  modern  times.  German 
scholars  truthfully  refer  to  the  examples  of  l.uthcr 
and  Melanchthon  as  pioneers  in  the  cause  of  re- 
ligion, literature,  and  art.  in  modern  Germany; 
and  musicians  can  certainly  point  to  Luther's 
establishment  of  the  study  and  practice  of  music 
in  his  native  Ian  1  a-  tic  particular  cause  of  the 
nearly  general  and  complete  musical  intelligence 
of  that  people  in  modern  times. — Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  America  may  be  said  to  constitute  a 
triple  alliance  for  the  preservation  and  perpetua- 
tion of  the  choral.  It  was  the  sacred  song  that  came 
to  this  country  with  the  pilgrims  of  New  Eng- 
land, with  the  Hollanders  of  New  Amsterdam, 
and  with  the  loyalists  of  Maryland  ami  Virginia. 
Events  which  transpired  previous  to  and  during 
the  Revolutionary  warquickened  and  invigorated 
its  rhythmic  pace,  as  we  see  and  feel  when  we 
sing  Old  Coronation ;  but  it  is  so  strongly  in- 
trenched within  the  hearts  of  the  people,  thai 
wars  cannot  silence  its  perpetual  vibrations,  nor 
misfortune  and  disaster  impede  its  steady,  irre- 
sistible course.  Innovations,  in  the  shape  of 
rhythmic  irregularities  and  too  extended  melodic 
compass,  may  occasionally  mar  its  stately  pro- 
portions ;  but  it  finally  returns  to  its  original  ami 
permanent  form,  one  note  to  each  syllable  of 
words,  supported  by  a  pure,  chaste  harmony  of 
concords.  He  who  softened  and  elaborated  the 
choral  until  it  became  to  the  ear  what  a  picture 
of  ever  varying  tints  is  to  the  eye,  was  Johann 
Sebastian  Bach,  a  tower  of  musical  strength  to 
his  own  and  to  every  other  civilized  lamb  ( >f 
all  who  have  striven  to  preserve  a  lofty  and  en- 
during style,  in  the  musical  treatment  of  sacred 
subjects,  none  occupies  higher  ground  than  does 
this  modern  king  of  harmony  and  the  organ. 
It  is  impossible  to  review  the  state  of  music 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  18th  century,  without  recognizing  in 
almost  superlative  terms  his  claims  to  the  most 
genuine  ami  unbounded  admiration.  From  single 
air  and  accompaniment,  through  movements  of 
two,  three,  four.  live.  six.  eight,  and  even  twenty- 
two  parts,  this  tireless  musician  spent  fifty  years 


anil    the    people    wi 

course  "I  tune,  the  i 
less  rigid  :  when  eon 

itrapuntal    effect 

female  voice  was  pe 

separate  musical  ser 


i.  in  the 
became 
to  strict 

illy,   the 


indeed,  the  chun 

beautiful  masses 

cessors  give  e\  ii 

iinl    all  other  kinds  of 

new  influence.    The 

Mozart,  and  their  sue- 
leo.  Hogarth  remarks, 
lnnic    changes   which 


Cregonan 

directness. 

After    t: 

fugue,  and 


Tones    in    siiuplicitv.    strength,  and 
or  in  permanency  of  effect, 

tie  Gregorian  Tones,  the  canon,  the 
the  choral,  associated  with  the  ser- 
vices, liturgical,  psalmodic,  and  hymnic,  of  the 
Church,  arose  a  new  combination,  dating  from 
the  mysteries,  or  portions  of  biblical  narrations 
in  dramatic  and  musical  form.  These  were 
!  presented  for  the  contemplation  of  the  faithful, 
with  the  brilliant  accessories  of  costume,  scenery, 

and  instrumentation.     This  seems  to  have  1 n 

the  thought  which  moved  the  religious  teacher.-, 
of  the  17th  and  L8th  centuries:  since  those  who 
were  to  be  instructed  in  religious  knowledge 
could  not  see  Moses,  and  Joshua,  and  Samuel 
and  the  prophets,  and  David,  and  Solomon,  and 
the  apostles,  in  their  living  visible  forms,  what 
more  proper  than  that  their  young  imaginations 
and  memories  should  be  assisted  with  the  next 
most  obvious  and  most  effective  instrumentality  .' 
Poesy  lent  her-  inexhaustible  attraction  to  the 
scene;  and  music,  that  is.  poetry  sung,  tired  the 
emotions  with  an  ardor  and  an  inspiration  that 
reached  to  heaven.  Costume  and  scenery,  in 
the  secular  musical  drama,  the  opera,  were  ad- 
ded to  make  this  new  development  in  music 
more  natural  and  picturesque  :  while  the  relig- 
ious drama,  the  oratorio,  was  ( tent  to  appear 

in  a  certain  lofty  and  spiritual  attitude  without 
these  adjuncts.  The  opera  indulged  in  melodic 
flights  which  dazzled  and  bewildered  —  a  con- 


606  MU 

sisteut  musical  reflection  of  the  wild  license  of 
most  of  its  libretti;  but  the  oratorio  could  not 
depart  from  the  truth  of  sacred  history,  nor 
could  it  allow  those  fantastic  flights  of  melody 
and  rhythm,  which  characterized  the  opera.  Now 
appeared  the  man  who  succeeded  in  reconciling 
these  apparently  antagonistic  elements  of  the  two 
styles.  George  Frederick  Handel  was  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  operatic  school  of  his  day.  He 
was  violinist,  pianist,  organist,  and  operatic  com- 
poser, when  he  attempted  this  bold  experiment. 
Depressed  by  the  competition  of  his  contemporary 
Italian  enemies,  and  even  neglected  by  his  former 
royal  and  noble  friends,  this  great  musician. 
whom  Beethoven  called  "the  musical  father  of 
us  all,"  deliberately  proposed  and  carried  out  th  • 


of 


combined  with  it  tin 
solidity  and  characte 
in  no  other  way.  Nc 
and  indifferent  reeei 


Mo/art.  Beethi 
delssohn  have 
ten  musical  to 
him;  and  succe 
to  swell  the  i 


er  of  his 
id  Mende 


Haydn,  M. 

ably  be  placed  next  in  the  order  of  composers  of 
the  first  rank.  In  the  United  States,  during  the 
first  fifty  years  after  the  establishment  of  the 
national  independence  of  the  country,  attention 
was  chiefly  given  to  the  study  of  the  simpler 
forms  of  psalmody,  and  to  the  appropriation 
of  whatsoever  of  European  melody  could  be 
nci'le    to    subserve   a   local    or    temporary    pur- 


by  tl 

exere 


nth  that  ot  litty  years  ago, 
than  it  was  at  that  time. 
lianos.melodeons,  and  other 
led  to  produce  this  result, 
c  greater  necessity  for  sys- 
schoolsand  families,  where- 
tion  may  be  so  drilled  in 
in  a  knowledge  of  the  key- 


notes, the  relationship  of  the  keys,  the  various 
signs  of  notation,  and  the  fundamental  rules  of 
harmony,  that  they  may  be  able  to  sing,  that  is, 
to  read  music,  with  or  without  an  instrument. 
Musical    Education.— From    the   preceding 


school  or  conservatory  of  music,  is  natural  and 
easy.  This  institution  had  an  earlier  foundation 
than  is  generally  supposed.  ( Iriginally  designed 
as  a  high  learning  hall  for  music,  in  wdiich 
young  and  inexperienced  persons  were  built  up 
in  musical  knowledge,  the  name  shows  the  object 
of  such  an  institution  to  cultivate,  and  to  pre- 
serve in  their  purity,  the  science  a,„l  the  art  of 

music     The  enti mtrivance  of  this  sort  of 

■nusicscl I  sprung  from  Italy.where  the  greater 

time  were  located  ;  and  the  Italian  nation,  before 
all  others,  had,  in  that  respect,  the  formation  of 
an  almost  infinite  number  of  artists  anil  art  in- 
'  very  gener- 


indeed,  rejoicing 

i  of  g I  music. 

frequently  asso- 
isvlums.  through 


iartly 


pose.        Musi',    dlllill-    the    seeon  1     lilty     Years    ot 

the  century,  has  signally  advanced  as  an  art;  but 

becai 

made  little  progress.     Musical  instruments  of  all 

exclu 

kinds  have  been  improved,    from   a  piccolo    Bute 

Porpt 

to  a  hundred  thousand  .lobar  organ;  but  this 

instrt 

improvement  by  no  mem-  implies  thataknowl- 

mi,  A 

edge  of  the  harmony  which  lies  at   the  founda- 

ers. 

tion  of  both   vocal  and  instrumental  music  has 

of  To 

correspondingly    advanced.      How    many    can 

Const 

write  m  strict  two-part,  three-part,  and  four-part 

vator 

harmony?    Mow- many  can   write   the  four-part 

Const 

harmony  for  the  quartet  of  strings  lying  at  the 

whicl 

base  of  orchestral  work  ?  How  many  can  write 

about 

in  chaste,   pure,   and   simple   harmony  for  four 

withii 

mixed  voices?    Rather,  it  is  suspected  and  even 

11, sin 

time,  the  pattern  of  all  others,  was  that  founded 
in  Naples,  by  a  Spanish  clergyman  named  Gio- 
vanni di  tappia,  in  1537,  called  Conservalorio 
,  di    Loreiio.      'I  his  conservatory 


I  eo.  Durante,  Scarlatti, 
re  In  re,  in  i  onrse  of  time, 
echini,  Cimarosa,  Gugliel- 
and   others,  fellow-teach- 

■  more  advanced  scholars 
.•stablislicd  gradually  the 
wfrio,  later,  the  Conser- 
n'd  lastly,  in  1589,  the 
nri   di   Gesii  Crista,  in 

■ante  was   chapel  master. 

d  whicl,    continued  until 

inc.  Iluriiey  [General 
■j  i\  i    a  detailed  account 

.  showing  that  the  first 
had  90,  the  second.  120,  and  the  third,  300 
scholars:  and  the  fourth  was  extinct.  Eachof 
these  three  establishments  bail  thirty  laws,  and 
stood  under  the  direction  of  two  guardians,  who 
severally  bore  the  title  of  High  Uhapel  Master; 
and  of  the  two,  one  examined  and  corrected  the 
compositions  of  the  scholars,  and  the  other  gave 
lessons  and  superintended  the  singing.  From 
ihosen  teachers,  with  the 


these  scholars, 


title  of  maestri  sco/m-i.  to  assist   in   instruct]'. 
upon   instruments.     The  general   call   was  on 
age;   ai 


for  | 
the  ti 
self.  > 
eight 
while 
kind 


one,  w in.  i 
di  Music, 
former  mi 
ofthisinsi 


»    from    S   to  20  v. mis 
thai   eacl for  himself  < 


607 

■  of  old  or  modern  time,  is  tin.'  Oonserv- 
aris,  which,  in  regular  order,  secured 
ice  of  artists  of  the   first   rank.    The 

ndiStoi  %■'  ,1', .'"'."".'  "■",.'■  "■"";;;  !| 


der 


,ryof  Milan, 
ce,  are  found 
tpon    a    basis 


four  conse 
similar  to  tl 
have  been  v 
girls,  who, 
dinary  us  \s 
wedded  to 
four  conser 


relate  the  toll, .win-  ,!.•(, tils  in  iv.jard  to  tl,,-,' 
institutions.      [mmediately   upon    being   placed 

in  playing  upon  all  kin, Is  of  instruments,  by 
the  best  masters.  A  chapel-master  controlled 
the  higher  conduct  of  the  institute;  ami.  on 
each  Sun  lay,  was  prepared  a  public  music  offer- 
ing. These  gatherings  for  song  were  heightened 
and  enriche  I  liy  accompaniments  upon  instru- 
ments, iu  which  the  pupils  all  joined,  lu  con- 
nection with  ill,'  vai -i,'  I  an, I  1  i.-.i lit iful  effects  thus 
produced,  many  voices,  not  decayed  and  worn 
out  1  n it  fresh  an  1  pure,  were  constantly  devel- 
oped and  firmly  built   up.     The  result  was  the 

,- I  binding  togeth  r  of  a  lai  g  •  company  of 

brilliant  amateurs  and  connoisseurs.  All  other 
conservatories  in   Italy  are  of  a  comparatively 

rec  hi  'lo  !.     The    most    important    ai g  the 

latter  is  that  of  1809,  founded  by  the  viceroy 
Eugene,  in  Milan,  of  which  the  first  director 
was  Bonifazio  Asioli ;   and    which,  in    L872,  re- 

cato.  Against  th  •  decay  which  has  come  upon 
more  or  less  of  th"  Italian  •  ■  ,-  n  a  lories  ,,f  mu- 
sic, there  lias  recently  been  inaugurated  an 
effective  check.  A  commission  ,,t  experienced 
musicians  was    recognized    by    the    minister  of 

instruction,  in  May.  1.871.    'I  Ins  ,• mission  was 

organized  under  the  presidency  of  <■.  Verdi,  and 


pledged.and  the 
at  L15.  Pupils 
if  ten   to  twenty 


in,  of 
,1  the 


ited  the 
nd  these 


,N,I„, 


in  w  hi, 


tly,  the 


parted.     Subsequ 
ih"  greater  part   of  their 

fate  of  the  i on.-ei \.ii,iiv  was  inextricably  inter- 
woven with  all  of  the  old  disn  al  f orebod  _■  of 
those  eventful  days  ;  but  ih,  se  h  n.|  orary  obstruc- 
tions could  not  impede  the  stead]  advancement 
of  this  noble  school  of  music;  and  il  remains,  to 
this  day,  what  it  ever  has  been,  the  mosl  brill 
iantly  artistic  preparatory  musical  establish- 
ment in  the  world.   Its  first  director  was  Sarette, 


With  him  were  associated,  for  the  formatii 
execution  of  the  new  plan,  five  other  mi 
of  the  administration  ;  namely,  ih,  .-, ,  r,  i,-i 


ibers 
■,the 


siili  ,,|  their  consultations  a  lnci 
iroposals  for  reform.  This  refor 


offerei 
oral 

isiblc  effect 

The  conservatory  o?  Vl  iI.it,  bestowed  upon  this 
movement  toward  reform  the  character  of  an 
international  influence,  while  that  of  Naples 
supported  il  rather  as  a  strictly  national  effort. 
The  most  brilliant  and  artistic  musical  institu- 


ol,s     \\,  |e 

until  his 

i.  and   I.e 


Catel,  Caraffa,  Hal  vy,  I  horon,    Planl  Bot 

dogni,  and  others.  The  successor  oi  '  herubiniwas 
Auber;  and,  iu  L 871,  director  Ambroise  'I  homas 
followed,  who,  through  a  special  leadership  in 
musical  history,  esthetics.  acoustics. an, 1  prepara 
tory  studies,  had  justly  acquired  merit.    Forty- 


€08  MU 

four  classes  of  male  pupils  were  generally  instruct- 
ed in  every  style  of  composition,  upon  subjects 
appertaining  to  all  kinds  of  practical  music,  in 
singing,  in  playing  upon  instruments,  in  declama- 
tion, tin'  lYcnch  language,  and  stage  manner,  or 
carriage;  twenty-two  classes  of  female  pupils  re- 
ceived instruction  in  enunciation,  harmony. 
piano-playing,   accompaniment,    stage   carriage, 


yearly  examinations  are  appointed,  -in  January, 
April,. I  uly.  and  the  middle  of  October,  at  which 
the  minister  of  instruction  and  female  artists 
are  present.  By  the  middle  of  July,  a  concourse 
stand  for  the  first  prize  in  composition,  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  prize  following  in  November, 
at  the  Opera  Eouse.  Whoever  obtains  the  first 
prize,  next  publicly  directs  his  work  with  a  grand 
orchestra,  ami  is  called  the  laurel-winner,  being 
solemnly  crowned,  [n  almost  all  the  departments 
of  music,  this  conservatory  achieves  careful  and 
diligent  developments,  the  most  trustworthy 
text-books  and  appropriate  methods  being  thor- 
oughly used,  as  the  whole  continent  of  Europe 
is  made  constantly  to  contribute  to  its  bucc  ss  in 
these  respects.  The  institution  is.  at  the  same 
time,  the  chief  point  of  union  for  till  Kurop.Mii 
lovers  of  magnificent  musical  effects;  while  the 
yearly  puldicexoreisrsnf  its  pupils.  1  t  and  some- 
times 20  in  number,' beginning  in  October  and 
continuing  through  the  entire  winter,  in. -In  ling 


the  I erate  performances  of  Sunday  evening. 

altogether  confer  upon  these  dazzling  concerts  of 
Paris  the  praise  and  the  fame  which  are  ^ex- 
ceptionally conceded  to  them.  Seven  of  tin-  al- 
ready named  children's  schools  of  the  Parisian 
Conservatory  are  established  in  Dijon,  Lille, 
Lyons.  Marseilles,  Nantes,  Rouen,  and  Toulouse. 
Strasbourg  had,  up  to  the  time  of  the  Franco- 
German  war,  an  independent  town-like  con- 
servatory, conducted  till  IsTii  by  Hasselmans ; 
the  same  was,  in  1871,  resuscitated,  and  carried 
on  by  director  Franz  Stockhausen.  Alter  the 
example  of  the  Parisian  CwiSfi-rnt  n'tv.  was  ren- 
ovated the  conservatory  in  Madrid,  in  1831; 
but  in  circumscribed  compass,  though  with  ju- 
dicious powers.  Music  and  declamation  were 
taught  under  its  first  director,  an  Italian  singing- 
master  by  the  name  of  Francesco  Piermarini; 
but  the  present  director  is  Emilio  Arrieta.  This 
school  has  suffered  through  the  political  fluctu- 
ations of  late  years,  and  by  continued  disadvan- 
tageous animadversions ;  but  it  now  appears  in 
its  own  proper  strength,  having  received  the  favor 
of  the  late  king  Amadeus,  offering  an  important 
barrier  against  decline.  Likewise,  after  the  ex- 
ample oi  the  French,  four  Belgian  conservatories, 
those  of  Brussels,  Liege.  Antwerp,  and  Ghent,  are 
established,  of  which  the  first  two  are  entirely 
sustained  by  state  means  and  are  royal  institu- 

whilethat  of  Client  is  simply  a  tovi stitute. 

In  connection  with  the  <  kmservatory  of  Brussels, 

reference  should  lie  made  to  the  labors  of  Director 


Fetis,  wdiose  earnest  and  useful  service  was 
continued  from  1838  until  his  death,  in  1(S71. 
The  conservatory  in  Liege,  although  limited  in 
its  materiel,  is  yet  constantly  advancing  to  a 
higher  rank  through  additional  musicians,  in- 
struments, and  musical  mean.-,  together  with  the 
aspiring  ideals  and  activities  of  the  directors 
Daussoigne-Mehul  and  Soubre;  and  it  rejoices  in 
having  for  its  foundation-plan  of  study  the 
works  ot  the  grand  masters  in  harmony,  Bach 
and  Handel,  who  in  Brussels  arc  sufficiently 
ignored:  the  instructing  power  in  Liege  also 
throws  the  Brussels  conservatory  quite  into  the 
shade.  The  attendance  of  scholars  is  fully  1000. 
A  highly  honorable  reputation,  long  known  in 


and 


in  Belgium  but  throughout  the  entire  art-world, 
attaches  to  the  conservatory  of  Antwerp.  Here 
Director  Pierre  Benoit  nourished.  '1  his  hold. 
out-spoken  man,  alike  teacher,  composer,  and 
director,  assumed  a  position  so  impregnable  in 
right,  and  showed  a  faith  so  dauntless,  that  he 
is  entitled  to  the  sinccrcst  admiration.  Said  he, 
"Music  is  the  most  perfect  national  speech;  in  it. 
all  civilized  races  find  their  fullest  and  most  en- 
joval.le  iiiipiv>M.ni.-;  and  a  music-school  should  be 
like  unto  a  temple  in  the  father-land?'. These  prin- 
ciples have  been  realized  with  energy,  and  have 

fication' so  general  and  bo  important,  that  they 
constitute  a  central  influence  in  the  political  and 
intellectual  regeneration  of  the  country.  The 
nameofBenoil  has  a  familiar,  Donulai 
the  ears  of  at  least  t\ 
Kelgians,  conveying  to  his  disciples  a  certain 
lofty  inspiration,  which  is  self-supporting,  and 
by  association  is  communicated  to  the  towns  and 
cities  of  the  Flemish  lands. — The  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands  possesses  many  excellent  music- 
scl Is  of  their  kind  :  but  the  name  of  its  con- 
servatory only  can  be  mentioned— the  institu- 
tion in  Rotterdam,  conducted  by  W.  Bargiel, 
since  1865.  There  is  also  a  conservatory  in 
Luxemburg,  founded  in  18(>4,  and  since  then 
directed  by  E.  Ziimeii.  Doth  of  these  establish- 
ments have  raised  themselves  toa  high  and  note- 
worthy position. 

The  most  celebrated  Austrian  conservatory  is 
that  in  Prague;  the  most  munificent  in  organiza- 
tion, and  the  best  in  other  respects,  is  that  of 
Vienna.  In  the  year  1808.  it  occurred  to  some 
high-minded  patron  of  music,  formerly  flourish- 
ing in  Bohemia,  to  develop  the  depressed  art  of 
music,  and  to  supply  the  want  of  intelligent  or- 
chestral players;  the  resolution  required  that  an 
academy  shott Id  he  founded  in  Prague,  of  which 
the  essential  features  should  be  elaborate  instru- 
mental effects,  combined  with  a  universal,  artis- 
tic, and  humanitary  knowledge.  The  Prague  con- 

MT\alor\  wa-  celeb ra I ed  throughout  Kurope:  the 
singing-school,  too,  in  this  institution,  both  for 
concert  and  for  opera,  begins  to  show  satisfacto- 
ry results.  In  the  year  1871, the  school  had  137 
pupils,  129  of  whom  were  Bohemians;  of  this 
number  II  were  singing  scholars,  and  l'J.'i  in- 
strumentalists,   the    latter    divided    into   61,   in 


609 


the  lower,  and  62,  in  the  upper  division.  The 
Austrian  minister  of  instruction  included  in  the 
finance  budget  a  yearly  appropriati  in  of  three 
thousand  florins  for  the  conservatory  in  Vienna; 
and  this  sum  was  raised  to  ten  thousand  florins 

inTienna  is  a  .-ivati.-n  of  the  S.-.-i.  in  of  \lusi',- 
Friends,  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy, 
ji I--  > w i 1 1 li  "Ht  ^t  th.-  simple  beginnings  ut  a  singing 
school,  in  the  year  L816  j  but,  since  L8  >9,  i1  has 
developed  into  very  comprehensive  and  brilliant 

surroundings  through  the  noble  principles  U] 

win,  1.  it   was  u^aiii/.i-d.      Th,.  artistic  diicctor  of 

the  institution  in  1876,  Jos.  Hellmesberger)  is 
assisted  I.n  35  instructors  in  the  musical  depart 


history  of  music,  on  oral  discourse    di    I ion 

esthetics,   the  history  of  literature,  the    Italian 

language,  mimics,  and  the  dance.    The     ta 

ment  possesses  a  theater  for  drilling  purposes, 
and  was  attended,  in  the  year  1871,  by  145 
scholars,  of  whom  925  were  males,  and  220  fe- 
males. Willi  a  lofty  and  stirring  splendor,  made 
familiar  and  exercised  at  a  memorial  to  the 
king  of  Bavaria,  Richard  Wagner  presented  his 
course  of  teaching,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
royal  conservatory,  in  Munich.  October,  1865, 
upon  the  ground  of  a  previous  re-organization  of 
bis  own.  "This  institution  is  the  only  German 
establishment  fur  teaching  the  s,  i.-nce  and  art  of 
music  not  endowed  by  state  appropriations;  but 
it  is  placed  under  the  direction  of  a  court  musical 
superintendent.  The  conservatory  in  Munich  is 
divided  into  three  chief  departments,  with  rela- 
tive individual  subdivisions,  eai  h  hav  ing  its  Ofl  D 
assigned  work.  These  chief  departments  are. 
the  singing,  the  instrumental,  and  the  thi  on  tic. 
At  the  head  of  the  singings,  h.iol  stand*  th 
professor  of  solo-singing;  at  the  head  of  the  in- 
strumental school,  likewise  a  professor,  who  is 
•also  the  chief  of  the  piano  or  the  violin.  The 
particular  csv,;/',/.-  drilling  of  the  sii.g.Ts.  on 
the  one  side,  or  of  the  instrumentalists  ,,u  th 
other,  was  conducted  by  both  of  these  profess 
ors;  while  the  control  of  the  ensembl  .1  illing 
of  all  the  pupils  became  the  duty  of  the  chief 
director.  In  those  general  studi.--.as  well  a<  in  th 
previously  mentioned  particular,  „-■  .«','.  ■  ■.-:  u  li.-s. 
the  scholars  were  enable  I  at  the  same  time,  to 
obtain  a  methodical,  practical  guidanc  i  i  the 
technique  of  the  directors,  in  the  th  iretic  de- 
partment, a  professor  of  counterpoint,  and  a 
professor  of  music-history  \\.u-|,.-l  ml. -..a. I  in- 
ly. Near  these  four  professors,  are  also  the  fol- 
lowing exponents  of  the  tea,  Inn-  force:  in  the 
singing-school,  a  teacher  of  solo-singing,  an  as- 
sistant teacher  of  chorus-singing,  and  a  t.-a,  h,-i  ... 
rhetoric  and  mimics;  in  the  instrumental  school. 
a  teacher  and  an  assistant  teacher  for  the  four 
instruments  of  percussion,  and  a  teacher  of  organ- 
playing;  in  the  theoretic  school,  a  teacher  ,.f  har- 
mony. So  excellent  and  complete  in  all  respects 
was  this  organization,  and  so  did  it  continue  to  be. 
as  long  as  Hans  von  Bulow,  from  1866  to  L868, 
retained  the  position  of  its  guide  and  director. 


After  his  departure,  the  institution  fell,  more 
and  more  behind  its  former  aekn.  ,\\  lodged  devel- 
opment, the  attendance  having  considerably  di- 
minished. In  Wurtzburg,  then  is  also  a  royal 
conservatory,  founded  bj  Frohlich,  and  led  by 
la  i,-.  h.      i  I, -,  n is    a1    Stuttearl    is  mi- 


ni artists'  and  an  amateurs'  school.  The  de- 
partments of  instruction  are  confined  to  ele- 
mentary, choral,  and  solo  singing;  piano,  organ, 
violin,  and  violoncello  playing;  composition, 
esthetics,   mu.-ieal    lu.-t,.N    .-,',, I  'ih.    Italian  lan- 


tection  and  contributions  of  the  king  of  Saxony, 
and  under  the  co-operation  of  Felix  Mclidelssohn- 
Bartholdy.  It  m 1  at  the  .summit  of  its  splen- 
dor, with  Men,!,1-  ■  In i.  \ ',..-,  hi-1,  s.  1  latiptmaiin, 
Richter,   Ferd.    1  avid,   Klengel,  Plaidy,  etc.,  as 

instructors  ;   and    iti     i  bolars     I y  streamed 

out  upon  all  European  and  American  lands. 
The  instruct  ion  ,  xteiids  thcon  tically  and  practi- 
cally  over  all  the  branches  of  music,  scientific  and 
artistic.     The  theoretic  instruction  en, braces  har- 


and  the  art  of 
male  scholars 


stands  a  conservatory  founded  and 
directed  by  Pudor,  which,  for  nearly  t  w  <  nty  years, 

has  exhibited  good  results,  and  which,  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  instruction  upon  orchestral  in- 
struments, imparted  by  the  able  members  of  the 
royal  Saxon  court  chapel,  is  even  highly  distin- 
guished.— The  Prussian  kingdom  possesses  only 
two  local  conservatoii.  s.  those  ...  <  ..'...-.is  aid 
Berlin.  The  conservatory  in  Cologne 
onEaster-day.  in  1  Sat),  and  remains,  up  to  the  pres- 
ent time,  under  the  direction  of  the  city  chapel 
master.  Dr.  Ferdinand  Hiller.  Someof  the  mos( 
prominent  among  young  Cerman  composers,  up 
i,,  ih.-  pi,-,  ut  nine,  have  gone  forth  from  the 
halls  of  this  institution.   The  instructo: 

■  at  musical  association.  I  kin  ing  lor  its 
main  object  the  development  of  a  powerful 
music  life  on  the  Rhine;  and.  for  this  purpose, 
an  equal  regard  for  other  districts  than  their 
own,  inspired  thein  in  the  production  of  their  sub- 


610 


sequent  compositions.  In  Berlin,  exists  another 
conservatory,  founded  by  •!.  Stern,  A.  B.  Marx, 
and 'I'll.  Kullak,  at  present  directed  by  the  first- 
named;  out  of  its  branches,  was  formed  the  new 
academy  of  music,  of  which  Th.  Kullak  is  the 
director.  In  18(19,  by  means  of  the  minister  of 
instruction,  and  in  close  connection  with  the 
royal  academy  of  arts,  a  royal  high  school  was 
founded,  for  exercise  in  the  art  of  music,  in  Ber- 
lin. Beside  the  director,  stands  the  celebrated 
violin  virtuoso,  professor  Joachim.  In  this  insti- 
tution, still  in  tne  introductory  phases  of  devel- 
opment, the  violin  school  is  quoted  as  among 
the  best;  while  care  is  taken  in  all  the  other 
branches  of  high  musical  inst  ruction,  except,  per- 
haps piano  playing,  preparation  for  which  is 
quite  insufficient.  —  Switzerland  possesses  high 
music  schools,  in  Berne  and  Geneva.— England 
has  a  royal  institution  in  London,  formerly  di- 
rected by  Cipriani  Potter,  but  more  recently  by 
Sterndale  Bennett,  of  which  MacFarren  is'  the 
most  distinguished  graduate.  There  are  also 
conservatories  in  Edinburgh  ami  Dublin. — 
Copenhagen  also  has  a  conservatory  ;  and.  since 
lSli.").  there  is  one  even  in  Christiania,  while  the 
royal  musical  academy  in  Stockholm  is  already 
anew  development.  In  the  remaining  parts  of 
Europe  are  still  to  be  named  the  conservatory 
in  Warsaw,  founded,  in  L821,  by  Klssner,  and 
further  directed  by  A.  Kontski,  and  then  by 
Moniusczko  with  imperial  assistance;  and  also 
conservatories  in  Klausenburg,  Pesth,  and  Lis- 
bon.—In  the  Russian  empire,  both  in  St.  Peters- 
burg ami  in  Moscow,  are  conservatories,  founded 
by  the  Grand-] hichess  Helen.  These  have  an 
excellent  foundation,  and  are  liberally  supported. 
The  elder,  in  St.  Petersburg,  was  successively 
directed  by  Anton  Rubinstein,  by  Xaremba.  ami 
by  Assantschewsky ;  and  that  in  Moscow,  by 
Nicholas  Rubinstein. 

In  the  United  Stales,  conservatories  are,  al- 
most without  exception,  private  speculations, 
and,  as  compared  with  similar  efforts  in  Europe, 

neither  in  management  nor  in  perfort :es,  can 

venture  to  compete  with  the  elder  institutions. 
New  York  possesses  many  of  these;  also  Bal- 
timore, Huston,  Buffalo.  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  St. 
Louis.  Philadelphia,  ami  other  cities.  In  justice 
to  these  American  efforts,  however,  it  must  be 
stated  that,  as  government,  in  the  United  States, 
whether  national,  state,  or  municipal,  makes  no 
appropriation  for  conservatories  of  music,  these 
enterprises,  at  present,  must  necessarily  be  pri- 


.1  the 


ruction  in  music,  chiefly 
lentary  piano  playing, 
mally  found,  who  have 
i  in  both  of  these  de- 
letter  day  is  dawning 
igher  styles  of  music, 
i  mail.'  t..  establish  and 
al  college  for  young 


women  in  the  city  of  New  York,  wh 

eh  would  be. 

from  many  points  of  \ieu.a  highly 

sefnl.  benev- 

olent,  and  art-elevating  institution. 

n  succeeding 

days,  the  state  may  possiblystep  in  t 

■  secure  a  sys- 

tematic  course  of  musical  instructio 

i  for  hcrchil- 

dren,  and  thus  rescue  this  noble  science  and  art 
from  many  of  the  prolific  causes  of  superficiality, 
perverted  tastes,and  degrading  associations,  ulti- 
mately producing  a  complete  indifference  to  the 
higher  claims  of  music. 

Of  the  methods  employed  in  the  European 
music  schools,  it  can  confidently  be  said  that 
they  differ  as  much  from  each  other,  in  their 
working  details,  as  the  literary,  scientific,  and 
higher  professional  and  special  institutions  do  in 
the  presentation  ot  the  important  subjects  brought 
under  their  notice.  Differences  arising  from 
climate,  age,  precocity,  natural  aptitude,  early 
opportunities,  physical  organization,  and  associ- 
ation with  intelligent  persons  of  artistic,  genial, 
and  mobile  tendencies,  display  themselves  in  no 
department  of  human  labor  more  frequently,  or 
with  more  prominent  demonstrations  of  enthu- 
siasm, than  among  the  lo\ers  ami  students  of 
music.  But.  whatever  may  be  the  difference 
of  details  in  the  methods  employed,  or.  however 
great  may  be  the  disparity  arising  from  the  other 
causes  named,  these  music  schools,  without  ex- 
ception, agree  in  selecting  the  plastic  and  im- 
pressible age  of  youth,  and  often  very  early 
and  tender  youth,  as  the  heaven-appointed  time 
when  eye,  ear,  hand,  and  voice  must  simultane- 
ously begin  their  never-ending  work  of  cultiva- 
tion. 'I  he  early  lives  of  celebrated  musicians, 
the  moderate  success  of  those  inclined  to  me- 
diocrity,  and  even  the  more  feeble  attempts  of 
those  who  have  learned  to  play  and  sing  but 
little,  are  a  Btanding  proof  that,  to  achieve  any 
audible  or  distinguishable   result   in  music,  the 

child  must  commence  at    its    flier's  knee  to 

lisp  the  melody  that  shall  perpetually  link  the 
memory  of  these  child-like  efforts  to  the  maturer 
accomplishmi  m-  ot  a  later  season.  The  Christian 
Church  has  neyi  rbeen  unfaithful  to  herself  or  to 

linistrations.  has  sprung  not 
especially  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  divine  worship,  but  the  very 
hist  an.l  highly  successful  plan  of  a  systematic 
music  school  worthy  of  a  name  and  of  historical 
mil  di  Tappia  should  be  gratefully 
iy  every  musician,  as  well  as  by 
rested  in  musical  progress,  for  it 
took  the  girl  with  her  naturally 
and  the  boy  with  his  inflexible 
them  by  degrees  to  pass  from  the 
unisonant  rendering  of  the  Cregorian  Tones  to: 
part-singing  in  the  lofty  counterpoint  of  Pales- 
trina.  Although  a  hundred  years  had  elapsed 
before  the  lovely  and  more  emotional  voice  of 
the  mature  woman  was  permitted  to  be  heard  in 
public,  and  in  the  services  of  the  sanctuary;  and 
although  its  use  is  still  denied  by  many  eccle- 
siastics in  the  <  rreek,  Roman,  and  Anglican  com- 
munions, yet  it  must  he  conceded  that  it  should 
be  trained,  at  first,  in  the  parish  schools  and 
sunday-schools,  which  arc  the  musical  nurseries 
of  the  church,  and  from  which  pupils  pass  into 
the  choir  by  a  very  natural  and  easy  way.  No  music 
teachers  are  so  successful  as  they  who  have  the 
religious  sympathy  and  co-operation  of  the  par- 


the  results  of  hi 
only     the     mus 


remembered 
every  one  in 

flexible  voic 
voice,  and  le 


til] 


cuts;  and  no  pupils  render  more  effective  music 
than    they  who,   to   intelligent    reading   and  a 

certain  degre f  cultivation,  unite  the  higher 

merit  of  believing  in  the  truth  of  the  words  they 

utter.     But  even  where  the  religious  idea  is  not 


schools,  in  win.  h   gratuitous    1 1 1 1 1  -  i .  .  •  I  ni-i  ru   t  i.  hi 

was  given  as  a  preparation  for  entri e  into  the 

grand  conservatory  at  Paris,  or  in  the  common 
schools  of  the  I  nited  States,  where  music,  in 
cities  of  considerable  size,  is  taught  gratuitously. 
there  exists  the  imperative  necessity  that  it  be 
commenced  in  the  primary  departments,  where 

make  the  study  and  practice  of  vocal  music  a 
delight  instead 'of  a  task.  A  limited  and  stipulated 
portion  of  the  ordinary  semi-annual  term,  of 
about  five  months,  can  be  spent  in  tri-weekly 
exercises  upon  the  scale,  including  melodies  of 
limited  compass,  which  is  simply  oral  and  imi- 
tative work  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  and 
scholar,  preparatory  to  the  introduction  of  tli- 
musical  sign-language  during  the  second  five 
mouths  of  the  vear.    Two  grades  are  thus  created 


Hiivlv 


oral- 


al  w 
aJ  sign-language 


eye-knowledge  w  U 

vocal  compass,  these  exercises  must  be  limite 
either  ascending  or  .1-  ''u.  ling,  and  in  expression 
without  force  I  or  blatanl  effect,  to  modify  which 
at  least  four  vowel  sounds,  ah,  ee,  oh,  and  oo 
may  be  used;  but,  in  rhythmical  variety  and  in 
change  of  key.  they  may  be  quite  extended, 
depending  upon  the  knovs  le  Ig  ■  skill,  and  tact  of 
the  teacher.  Care  must  betaken  thai  the  young 
voice  be  not  fatigued,  and  thai  boys  especially 
be  early  taught  to  avoid  carrying  the  chest  tones 
too  high.  Three  lessons  of  half  an  hour  each 
during  the  week  are  more  effective  than  two 
lessons  of  an  hour  each,  to  pupils  under  twelve 
years  of  age;  and  five  lessons  of  twenty  minutes 
each,  during  the  week,  arc  b  tter  than  either. 
Beating  time  should  accompany  the  written 
exercises  in  the  second  term  of  the  primary  de- 
partments; and.  m  the  higher  departments,  the 
written  exercises  shotdd  be  copied  by  the  pupils 
for  two  years  consecutively,  with  more  extended 
practice  in  rhythm  and  melo  ly.aud  plain  singing 
in  two  and  three  parts.  Drilling  like  this  has 
been  practiced  in  many  of  the  schools  of  the 
United  States  during  the  past  ten  years;  and 
the  plan,  if  earnestly  encouraged  and  carried  out. 
will  enable  every  pupil,  of  sufficient  ear  and  age. 
to  become  a  reader  of  plain  music— The  place  of 
music  as  a  branch  of  superior  instruction  must 
also  be  referred  to.  The  ureal  universities  of 
England— Oxford  and  Cambridge,  do  not  teach 
music  systematically;  nor  do  they  care  where 
the  musical  student  acquires  his  information; 
but  they  always  have  superior  musicians  to  ex- 
amine the  musical  aspirant,  and  these  examina- 
tions are  thorough  and  severe.  In  the  United 
States,  considerable  progress  has  been  made  in 
^this  direction.     Harvard  University  has  always 


shown   a   commendable   love  of    music   in  the 

amateur    orchestral   line,    and   in    sundry    vocal 
organizations;  but  not  until  1871—2,  was  music 


course  in  JlOTT, 
cc  lurse  was  a 
when  there  wei 
counterpoint, 


cceeding  this, an  elective 
eh  year,  until  L875— 6, 
■  in  •>  -  :  namely,  harmony, 
nd  tin-  thematic  music, 
f  of  music.  The  number 
of  students  has  steadily  increased  year  by  year, 
until,  in  1875  6,  there  were  32.  The  fad  thai 
this  instruction  is  purely  m  the  science  and  art 
of  musical  composition,  and  in  musical  history, 
and  that  the  students  ill  music  who  pursue  this 
elective  course  are  required  to  possess  consider- 
able preliminary  knowledge  and  familiarity  with 
the  pianoororgan.  will  account  for  the  sinallness 
of  the  number  of  students.  Music  is  now.  at 
Harvard,  included  among  those  studies  for 
which  honors  arc  given  at  graduation.  The  de- 
gree of  A.  M.  and  Ph.  D.  are  also  open  to  bache- 
lors of  arts  who  pursue  the  required  course,  and 
pass  the  examination  in  music.  For  the  degree 
of  A.  M.,  one  year's  exclusive  study  is  required 
after  graduation:  for  the  degree  of  Ph.D., sever- 
al years.  Thus  far,  2  graduates  have  taken  the 
degn I'  A.  M„  in  music,  and  will  probably  ap- 
ply for  the  highest  degree,  that  of  Ph.  D.  'The 
instruction  in  this  department  is  given  by  J.  K. 
Payne,  author  of  the  Oratorio  of  St.  Peter.  \t 
Yale  College,  music  is  restricted  to  instruction 
in  singing,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  good 
vocal  music  for  morning  and  Sabbath-day  devo- 
tions. For  this  object,  Joseph  Battell, in  1854,gave 

$5,000,  the  interest  of  which  was  to  be  devoted  to 

Stocckcl.  was  then  appointed,  and  services  for 
malevoiceswereintroduced.rnl861,Mrs.Wm.A. 
Lamed  a  sister  of  Mr.  BatteU,  gave  the  college 
$1,000,  the  interest  oi  which  was  to  be  expended 
in  the  purchase  of  musical  works.  By  this 
means,  and  by  the  donations  of  friends  of  the 
institution,  a  musical  library  has  been  formed. 
In  L862,  Mrs.  lamed  donated  to  the  college 
$5,000  for  the  support  of  a  teacher  of  music,  in 
1ST  1 . after  tin'  death  of  Lowell  .Mason,  his  family 
gave  the  library  of  that  well-known  composer  — 
comprising  8,000  titles  —  to  the  Yale  Theological 
Seminary.  In  1876,  when  the  new  Battell 
( 'hapel  was  supplied,  through  the  munificence  of 
Mrs.  Larned,  with  a  new  organ,  the  old  organ, 
after  being  repaired  and  enlarged,  was  trans- 
ferred to  Calliope  Hall,  which  has  been  placed 
at  the  disposal  of  musical  studentsof  the  college. 
A  musical  professorship  has  not  vet.  however, 
been  established.-    The  College  of  Music  of  thi 


of  music.  It  admits  only  students  having  the 
average  proficiency  of  graduates  ol  Vui'iicaii 
conservatories,  and  includes  four  regular  courses. 
.Many  other  American  colleges  contain  musical 
departments  as  a  part  of  the  full  curriculum. 
—  For  authorities  on  the  history  of  music,  and 


612       NASHVILLE  UNIVERSITY 

on  musical  science  and  composition,  sec  Burney, 
General  History  of  Music  (1789);  Hawkins, 
.1  <!,, irriil  llistiir,/  i if  Hi'-  Srtnir,-  mill  /'rmiin- 
of  Music  (new  edit.,  Loudon,  1853) :  I  Ihafpej  l, 

The  History  of  M  sic    I Ion,  1-7  1  ;  George 

Hogahth, Musi  ■  r  ■■  ■-!. ■  .  i  36  .  il.  Men- 
del, Musik Co  i  ■  Ber- 
lin, 1871);  Callcott,  Musical  Grammar  (1805); 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION 

STSBERGER  AND  AVeBER.   Course   of  Hnr- 

iSouth  trds  Digest   Boston,  1854);  A.B. 

'      /       ■■   '■  ■  ■-■  hen  Compo- 

eipsii  ,1834  t5  .  I  ng.  trans,  by  Saro.ni 
852);and  AUgt  meine  MusiMehre  (1839). 
)  SiNoixo-Sriioor.s.  ami  Voice  Cit-tube.) 
UAL    SYSTEM.      See    Monitorial 


NASHVILLE,    UNIVERSITY    OF,    at 


Nashville.   ' 

elill. 

was 

founded 

by 

thi 

state  of 

North    far 

ilina, 

Dec 

29.,    17 

IS 

Academy. 

It  1« 

Cumber] 

Mid 

Co 

the  Univers 

1  -    ■- 

eleemosynai 

1- 

ituating 

1,1 1 

.In  IS 


the 


y  Bell  bequeathed  to  the 
{20,000.  This  now  amounts 
1  endows  a  grammar  school, 
college,  then  and  now  the 
only  one  in  Tennessee,  was  organized.  It  is  sup- 
ported bj  tuition  fees  alone.  In  1875,  the  col- 
legiate department  was  suspended:  and  its 
grounds,  buildings,  and  funds,  appropriated  to  a 
normal  college,  under  state  countenance,  and 
mainly  supported  by  the  Peabody  education 
fund.  Tuition  is  tree  for  young  women  and 
young  men  alike.  Twenty  three  acres  and  four 
large  buildings,  all  within  the  city  limits,  con- 
stitute the  property  of  the  university,  and  are  val- 
u  l..i  a!.. hi  sI.Mmiiio.  The  college  fund  is  within 
a  fraction  of  $50,000.  The  normal  college  clo  ed 
its  first  session  with  51  students.  The  medical 
college  averages  from  175  to  IMMI  students,  and 
has  nearly  2,000  alumni.  The  normal  college  is 
the  only  first -class  school  of  its  description  in  a 
region  occupying  at  least  soii.iino  square  miles. 
Tii.'  Ii.'.  1-  of  the  university  have  been  as  follows: 
James  Priestly,  LL.  D.,  president,  1809 — 15; 
and  again  1819—20;  Philip  Lindsley,  D.  D., 
president,  1824—50;  John  Berrien  Lindslev, 
M.  I  >.,  1  >.l ».,  chancellor,  1  ■<">.">  — TO  ;  <  ien.  Edmund 
Kirby  Smith,  1870 — 75;  Eben  Sperry  Stearns. 
1).  D.,  appointed  in  1  sT-"». 

NATIONAL  EDUCATION,  or  State 
Education,  a  system  of  education  or  schools, 
established  by  the  state,  for  the  benefit  either  of 
the  whole  people,  or  of  a  particular  i 
ized  nations,  in  both  ancient  and  modern  times. 
i  ems  of  education  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  favored  few  ;  but  it  is  only  within 
the  last  three  centuries  that,  in  Europe  or 
America,  any  thing  like  a  properly  organized 
system  for  educating  the  masses  has  existed. 
(See     I'll. i  .mi..,  aland,    and 

some  of  the  staic,  .. i   ih.-    \ nan  Union,  may 

claim  precedence  for  putting  into  operation  gov- 
ernmental schemes  for  general  education,  both 
elementary  and  advai.c.  .1.  Many  other  nations 
followed  in  their  wake  ;  and. at  present,  national 
education,  to  a  greater  or  ],■■  s  extent,  prevails  in 
most  civilized  countries  in  the  world.  Among 
the  Asiatic  nations,  the  Chinese  may  claim  great 


antiquity  for  their  remarkable  system  of  national 
education  (see  China);  while  the  Japanese,  in 
quite   recent    times,  have    exhibited  a  wonderful 

intelligence  and  energy  in  the  establishment  of 
state  schools.  (See  Japan.)  In  England,  not- 
withstanding the  age  ot   her  great  universities 

and  public  and  endowed  schools,  there  was  no 
national  system  until  recently.  >.•■  I.v  i  wn.l 
I  'or  an  account  of  the  national  .-\  sb  ms  in  other 
countries  and  states,  see  the  respectivi  titles. 

The  importance  of  a  national  system  ot  edu- 
cation is  now  generally  conceded,  as  a  corollary 
to  the  demonstrated  benefit  to  a  community  of 
affording  to  each  of  its  members  at  least  an  ele- 
mentary school  education.  Herbert  Spencer, 
indeed,  has  assailed  these  first  principles,  by 
denying  the  right  of  the  state  "to  administer 
education,  inasmuch  as  the  taking  away,  by 
government,  of  more  of  a  man's  property  than 
is  needful  for  maintaining  his  rights,  is  an  in- 
fringement of  his  rights,  and,  therefore,  a  re- 
versal of  the  government's  function  toward  him; 
and.  inasmuch  as  the  taking  away  of  his  prop- 
erty to  educate  his  own  or  other  people's  chil- 
dren is  not  needful  for  the  maintaining  of  his 
rights,  the  taking  away  of  his  property  for  such 
a  purpose  is  wrong.''  Given  the  premises  of 
this  argument,  and  the  conclusion  is  inevitable  ; 
but  the  premises  are  denied.  School  education, 
widely  diffused,  is  held  to  be  not  only  a  benefit 
but  a  |  :  .icction  to  the  community  ;  and  just  as 
it  is  proper  for  the  state  to  enact  laws  to  pre- 
vent crimes  by  punishment,  taxing  the  citizens 
to  support  a  penal  system,  so  it  is  also  proper  to 
establish  educational  systems  the  general  tend- 
ency of  which,  by  cultivating  the  minds  and 
improving  the  morals  of  the  people,  is  to  pre- 
vent crime,  and  thus  erect  a  barrier  against  law- 
less violence,  imperiling  the  welfare  of  the  citi- 
zens in  the  enjoyment  of  their  rights  as  such. 
The  principle  of  national  education  has  been 
attacked  by  asserting  that  school  education  docs 
not  greatly  affect  the  character  of  those  who 
receive  it:  while  the  community  can  only  be 
benefited  by  improving  individual  character. 
The  extent  to  which  a  national  system  of  edu- 
cation  affects  character  will,  of  course,  vary  with 
the  kind  of  education  imparted  ;  but.  certainly, 
the  inefficiency  of  a  bad  system  is  no  argument 
in  favor  of  the  abolition  of  all  systems.  "Al- 
th0ugh,"saj  Mi  rlej  Ifective  int  ruction  does 
not  i  ox.r  nor  touch  the  "hoi.-  field  of  character 
and  conduct,  it  does  most  manifestly  touch 
•some  portions  of  it.     It  adds,  for  instance,  to 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION 

the  consciousness  of  power  and  faculty,! 
increases  the  invaluable  and  far-reaching 
of  self-respect.  Hence,  even  if  a  great  < 
provide  our  people  with  the  instrum 
knowledge  did  Dot  reduce  the  Dumber  o 
n.-ils.  it  would  still  improve  the  tone  i 
who  are  not  criminals." — 15ut .  as  has  bi 
Baid,  school  education,  however  excel! 
however  widely  diffused,  cannot  prove,  o 
a  panacea  for  all   the  ills  of  tne  Bocii 


-l,;i 


\\  I 


NATIONAL   LANGUAGE         618 

this  [  NATIONAL  LANGUAGE.  There  are 
ality  but  few  among  the  civilized  countries  of  the 
rtto    world  in  which  all  the  people  speak  the  same 


•ench; 
tnsch. 
speak 


wbat  be  is  not  —  is  part  ot 
Hence,  there  is  an  education 
family,  the  street,  the  workshc 
well  as  thai  of  the  school  :  am 
by  some,  that,  as  the  influenci 
from  these  are  more  potent  t 
school,  the  state  should  contro 
as  well,  or  its  system  of  educa 
or  less  nugatory.  "  Whatever 
tin'    in.  in    an. I  '.'Ili'i.'ii.'V  ..I    lii 


domof  Poland, 


in  .!  provinces,  do  language  is 
.solute  majority' of  the  people, 
languages  is.  in  some  instances, 
events  of  comparatively  recent 
ie  dismemberment  of  the  king- 
id  large  Polish-speak- 
tn  and   Russian  rule; 


ii  effective     cenl 

rerse  Ii e  '  of  <; 

1   most  <lis-     have 


the  ne 


as  much  as  poa  ible  ( 
street,  etc.,  is  still  ap] 
ability  to  read,  in  tlii. 
the  portal  to  knowle 
ennobling,  and  thus 
often, if  not  always.  1. 
(See  Ilutii:  lcy.) 
tional  edueati.ni  tn  tl 


stitutions  of  the  country  in  which  it  exists,  is 
very  generally  recognized.  Tims,  in  A  State- 
ment of  the  Tlieoryof  Education  in  the  U.S. 
(Wash..  1st  1 1.  it  is  said,"  In  order  to  compen- 
sateforlack  of   family   uurture,   the  school  is 


habits  o 
order  thi 
in  there 
the  cons 
have  ate 
tion.ort 


;ite  or  public   schi 

n. 's  worked  a  rem 


Whe 
id  and* 


•It 

* 

■eatly 

suii.ii 

T, 

mi 

uld 

'   sl 

miti- 

that 
look 
tould 

Wheth. 
..is  basis 


(2)  Whether  it  should  extend  to  higher  edu 
tion,  or  be  confined  to  elementary  instructio 
and  (3)  Whether  it  should  embrace  technical  a 
professional   instruction,  or  not.     In   regard 

these  points,  res] tivdy.  see    Denominatiok 

Schools,  1 1  igb  Si  i ls,  and  Ti  i  bnical  Edu. 

tion.— See  also  Spi  hi  i  b,  So  ia   Sl  ttics  ,\. 

1866);  Rio,;.  Nat dEducatitm (London,  187 

Morley,  The  Struggle  for  National  Educati 
(London,  1873). 


s.-lt  for,  at  least,  one  thousand  years,  has  at  last 
given  way  to  the  Italian.  In  Germany,  the 
linguistic  territory  of  the  Slavic  Wend;,  who 
still  comprise  a  population  of  about  I  10,000 
persons,  has   been  largely  reduced   within    the 


614        NATIONAL   LANGUAGE 

last  hundred  years.     The  increasing  str 
modern   times.  of  the   principle  of  na 

which  has  achieved   it.-,  ^n-atesr   ti-iimii • 


Italy,  has  caused  many  governments  to  look 
upon  the  universal  iscendency  of  the  national 
language,  and  the  suppiv.-sinii  of  all  others,  as  a 
means  of  strengthening  national  unity.  From 
this  point  of  view,  great  efforts  have  been  made 
in  many  countries,  to  force  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  language  of  the  government  upon  all  schools, 
as  the  sole  medium  of  instruction.  Where  these 
measures  were  directed  against  languages  spoken 
by  large  bodies  of  the  people,  or  even  against 
smaller  portions  of  the  population,  speaking  the 
language  of  another  large  country,  they  have  pro- 
voked resistance,  more  or  les-  violent,  and  have 
in  many  instance.  |e  1  to  controversies  which  arc 
not    yet   ended.     The   principles   according   to 

which    different    governments    have    proe led. 

are  very  different.  None  has  gone  so  far  in  the 
use  of  force  as  Russia,  which,  in  its  attempts  to 
crush  out  the  lan-uace  of  some  eight  million 
Poles,  has  manifested  a  disregard  of  the  first 
rights  of  families  in  the  education  of  their  chil- 
dren, that  has  deservedly  met  with  universal 
disapproval.  No  country  of  the  world  has  been 
so  greatly  embarrassed  in  its  legislation  by  the 
co-existence  of  a  number  of  languages,  as  the 
Austro-llungarian  Monarchy.  The  two  ruling 
languages,  German  in  Austria  proper,  and 
Magyar  in  the  lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown, 
are  L.oth  the  languages  of  only  a  minority  of  the 
population  in  their  several  sections;  and  while 
the  two  governments  have  been  anxious  to  extend 

the  do, run  ol  the  Hilin._'la>i-ii.^,~..  the  Czechs  in 


mans  in  Hungary,  have  insisted  that  for  the 
schools  in  those  districts  in  which  a  majoritv  of 
the  people  speak  their  language,  it  shall  he  made 

tic-  me  hum  of  instruction  of  all  grades.  The 
conflid  is  at  present  fiercer  than  ever.  The 
Hungarian  government  has  thus  far  successfully 
itinued  its  efforts  to  extend  the  ascendency 


NATURAL   SCIENCE 

in  the  provinces  of  Prandenliurg.  Silesia,  Posen, 
Prussia,  and  the  northern  part  of  Schleswig,  has 
devoted  to  the  principles  underlying  tiiis  question 
a  greater  attention  than  any  other  European  gov- 
ernment, ami  has  evidently  endeavored  to  evolve 
principles  which  will  admit  of  application  in 
more  than  one  country,  and  which  will  reconcile 
the  clashing  claims  of   the   mother-tongue  and 


language;  but  it  demands,  "for  the  purpose  of 
securing  in  these  parts  and  members  of  the 
monarchy  a  lively  appreciation   of   the    progress 


to  facilitate  a  busin, 
wjth  their  German-spi 


higher  classes,  the  German  gradually  takes  the 

] 'lace  of  the  mother-tongue.  Even  in  the  gym 
nasia.  a  similar  regard  for  the  mother-tongue  is 
shown:  for,  in  all  those  gymnasia  in  which  the 
majority  of  the  pupils  is  of  the  Polish  national- 
ity, the  Polish  language  is,  at  least  partly, 
used    .is    medium    of    instruction    in    the    lower 


the    Si 


nant   languages  an g   the   white 

rge  tracts  of  country;  hut  all  have 
en  way  to  the  English.  A  dialect 
commonly    called    Pennsylvania 

ill    extensively   spoken    among    the 

if  the  old  German  settlers  in  Penn- 
d.  in  the  new  acquisitions  of  terri- 
5outh  and  on  the  Pacific,  Spanish 

iii-un-c  chiefly  spoken  ill  many  sec- 
he  strong  ties  of  commercial  and 
Is.  and  th tucational   influence  of 


aso 


.scholarship. 
other  Hon  i ;, 

secured     the 

guages  as  m 
primary  scho 
has  been  don 
two  universit 
been  fully  si 
Prague,  the  i 
In  Germany, 
German,  is  a 
government. 


.  in  Austria 
mains  of  the 
ly  due  to  the 
erature  and 
;.  Poles,  and 
tve    not   onlv 


The    P, 

•rnian  i 


of   E: 

I  11   op] 


American 
imigrants; 


NATURAL  SCIENCE.     See  Scienck,  tiik 


NAUTICAL   SCHOOLS 

NAUTICAL  SCHOOLS,  or  Schools  of 
Navigation,  are  institutions  for  educating  and 
training  pupils  in  the  science  and  practice  of 
navigation.  Schools  of  this  kind  have  long  been 
in  existence  in  European  countries,  and  are 
of  various  grades.  I  In  i  of  the  chief  objects  of 
the  theoretical  instruction  given  in   them,  is  to 


NAVAL   SCHOOLS 


of  the  best 
they  desire  1 

m  such  oth, 
sary.  A  sch 
conducted  in 


r  their  first  voyage, 
iselves  for  the  posi- 
instruction  i-  given 
tical  navigation  and 


observation,  and  how  to  apply  the  results  for  the 

position  of  a  vessel  at  sea.  The  calculal >  nec- 
essary for  tliis  purpose  requin  a  knowledge 
of  various  brandies  of  mathematics,  especially 
trigonometry;  hence,  mathematics  musl  con- 
stitute the  chief  part  of  die  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  schools  of  navigation.  In  those  schools 
in  which  most  of  the  pupils  lack  the  amount  of 
knowledge  necessary  for  a  scientific  understand- 
ing of  these  nautical  calculations,  they  receive  a 
merely  mechanical  instruction,  which  is  found 
to  be  generally  sufficient  for  the  mercantile 
marine.  The  course  of  instruction  varies  con- 
siderably. In  Prussia,  where  prominence  is 
given  to  scientific  instruction,  it  lasts  eighteen 
months,  of  which  twelve  are  spent  in  thi  mal  - 
class,  and  -iv  in  the  navigators'  (captains')  class. 
Before  pupils  can  lie  admitted  to  the  latter 
class,  they  must  have  been  for  eighteen  months 
in  active  service  as  mate-.  In  other  schools 
less  attention  i-  given  to  tb    in  ti    il     tidies,  and 

the  course  of  instruct i      -  .   ,!>   i  , 

six  months.  In  1875,  the  German  I  mpire  bad 
'.'1  navigation  schools,  1  I  of  which  were  in 
Prussia,  I  in  the  Hanse  towns,  2  in  Mecklen- 
burg, and  1  in  Oldenburg.  In  the  Austro- 
Sungarian  Monarchy,  there  were  8  nautical 
schools,  in  France  4 l\  in  Italy  '.':;.  in  Ku-ii  -I 
in  Finland  t'..  in  Sweden  9,  in  Norway  6,  in 
Denmark  1.  in  Holland  '.'.in  Belgium  L'.m  .-pain 
9,  in  Portugal  l.in  Greece  5.     England  also  has 

a  large  number  of  navigation  scl Isoi   various 

grades.  In  some  of  the  countri  -  named,  thes 
schools   are  rail'  1    „.,■„,  .,,  /,„„..<  ■    m    other. 


the    u 


.f  N( 


tical  Bchool  iii  the  eitv.it  \,  w  "i  ork  tol 
the  charge  of  the  board  of  education  of  1 
The  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  New  \> 
was  authorized  to  appoint  a  committe 
members  to  serve  as  a  council  for  this  scl 
to  co-operate  with  the  hoard  of  edua 
its  management.     (See  \ ,  «   Yt ibk,      i 


m    an 


authorized  the 
for  this  purpose. as  well  as  the  di  tailing  of  naval 
officers  loaet  as  superintendents  and  instructors 
in  such  schools,  but  with  the  special  provision. 
"  that  no  person  shall  be  sentenced  to,  or  re- 
ceived at,  such  schools  as  a  punishment,  or  coiu- 

mutati f    punishment,    for    crime."      The 

■course  of  instruction  covers  a  period  of  from 
18  months  to  1>  years.  The  pupils  who  complete 
it  successfully,  receive  a  certificate  ;  and  efforts 
iire  made  to  obtain  positions  for  them  on  board 


NAVAL  SCHOOLS  arc  schools  for  the 
aining  of  midshipmen  in  all  the  theoretical  and 
actical  branches  requisite  to  fit  them  for  their 
ofession.  In  the  United  States,  there  isthe 
aval  Academy  at    Annapolis.  Md.,  which  was 


■tary  of  the  navy.  Originally  little  more 
i  a  school  of  practice  on  board  ship,  and 
aded  to  afford  comparatively  slight  nien- 
traiuing.  it  was.  in  1850,  reorganized  un- 
its present  name.  The  course  of  study  was 
■rially  enlarged,  and  the  institution  was 
sd  under  the  charge  of  the  Bureau  of  Ord- 


i  he  mainly  conducted  under  the 
if  the  Bureau  of  Navigation,  which 
nicd.  ami  put  ill  charge  of  it,  in  duly. 


law    w; 


course  Of  instruction  comprises  a  thorough  and 
exhaustive  drill,  not  only  in  mathematics  and 
the  natural  sciences,  but  in  the  English,  French, 
andSpanish  languages  in  history,  international 
law,  ,-e.i  .a,, -hip.  ,-hipdiuildine.  gunnery,  steam- 
eng 1-  a  id  drawing  both  mechanical  and  free- 
hand .especiallj  in  its  applications  to  naval  con- 
struction, machinery,  .and  map-making.  Three 
times  a  week,  exerci-  -  in  practical  seainandiip. 
onboard  ship  or  in   boats,  vary  the  courses  of 

die  lecture  and  recitation  r u;  while.from  the 

middle  .,f  dune  till  the  middle  of  September,  a 
cruise  alone;  the  coast,  in  a  United  States  sailing- 
ship  or  steamer,  gives  opportunity  for  putting 
into  practice  all  the  nautical  knowledge  that  has 
been  acquired.  The  number  of  cadet-midship- 
men, in  1874  5,  was  29'i  :  the  number  of  in- 
structors, 58. — Since  1864,  classes  of  naval  con- 
structors, of  civil  and  steam-engineers,  called 
cadet-engineers,  have  been  permitted  to  be  edu- 
cated e.  the  academy,  the  number  of  such  being 
limited  to  50,  and  the  course  for  them  being 
two  yea  it  the  school,  and  two  years  on  hoard 
ship.  During  the  civil  war,  the  ai  ademy  was  re 
moved  to  New  port,  R.  [.;  but,  soon  after  its  close, 
was  brought  hack  to  Annapolis.  In  England, 
the  lioyal  Naval  College  was  erected  in  1  71".),  at 
Portsmouth.  There,  formerly,  youths  intended 
for  the  navy  were  instructed  in  navigation  etc.; 
Inn.  in  1839,  the  eolleee  was  remodeled,  and  ap- 
propriated to  the  instruction  of  junior  naval  and 
marine  officers  in  the  higher  ln-am-hes  of  science, 
connected  with  their  profession,  and  especially 
in  the  principles  and  practice  of  naval  gunnery. 


In  1872,  the  college  was  transferred  to  <lreen- 
wich. — On  the  continent  of  Europe,  there  are 
naval  schools  at  Fiume  (Hungary),  Kiel  (Prus- 
sia), Brest  (Prance),  Naples  and  Spezia  (Italyl, 
St.  Petersburg  (Russia),  Stockholm  (Sweden), 
Christiania  (Norway),  Copenhagen  (Denmark), 
Willemsoord  (Netherlands).  Ferrol  (Spain).  Lis- 
bon (Portugal),  the  Piraeus  (Greece), and  on  the 
island  of  Khalki  (Turkey). 

NEBRASKA,  one  of  the  western  states  of 
the  American  Union,  to  which  it  was  admitted 
,n  1867,  as  the  24th.  lis  area  is  75,995  Bq.  m  ; 
its  population,  in  1870.  was  129,322,  of  whom 
789  were  colored,  and  6.416  were  Indians. 

Educational  History.  While  yet  a  territory 
(1854  -67),  Nebraska  adopted  a  liberal  school 
system  which,  as  early  as  1865,  when  the  popu- 
lation was  only  50,000,  furnished  free  tuition  6 
months  in  the' year.  In  1869,  a  general  school 
Ian  was  passed,  which  has  been  modified  from 
time  to  time  to  suit  the  wants  of  the  rapidly  in- 
creasing population  of  the  state;  and  on  this 
law,  substantially,  is  based  the  presenl  system. 

The  intention  of  the  scl 1  law  of   Nebraska  is 

to  afford  an  opportunity  for  a  finished  education 
to  every  child  in  the  state.  To  this  end.  tuition 
is  free  from  the  day  of  admission  to  the  primary 
school  to  the  completion  of  the  course  in  the 
university.  The  state  superintendents  have  been 
as  follows:  S.  I.).  Heals,  ls6!>— 71:  .1.  M.MeKen- 
zie,  1871 — 77;  and  S.  I!.  Thompson  from  1877. 

,9,7,,,,,/  ,%■■</">'>■—  There  is  no  state  board  of 
education.  The  constitution  provides,  that  there 
shall  be  elected  by  the  people  every  two  years,  a 
state  superintends  nt,  w  hose  principal  duf  ies  shall 


be,  to  apj 
December) 
counties,  t 
number  o 
21  years: 
schoolsa  i 


[oiniieiil  being  the 
the  ages  of  5  and 
thepublic 
to  examine  appli- 
hold  teachers'  insti- 
i  rl  ;  to  di  ignate  the  forms  of  all  blanks  for 
the  use  of  the  schools,  and  for  the  reports  of 
school  officers  :  and  to  make  a  full  annual  peporl 

to  the  governor,  of  the  educational  li  ion  oi 

Ea  :n  county  elects  a  count  /  sap  r- 
intendent  biennially,  whoseduty  il  is  to  divide  the 
county  into  school-districts^if  this  has  not  al- 
ready been  done.     He  has  no  power,  however. 


to  change  any  district  line,  unless  petitioned  so 
to  do  by  one-third  of  the  legal  voters  in  the 
districts  affected  a  legal  voter  being  any  male, 
or  unmarried  female  '21  years  of  age,  residing 
in  the  district,  and  subject  to  pay  a  district 
school-tax.  It  is  the  county  superintendent's 
duty,  also,  to  examini  teachers,  to  visit  each 
school  in  the  countj  al  leas!  once  each  term,  to 
hold  teachers'  institutes,  to  apportion  to  the 
several  district,-,  twice  each  year,  the  public 
school  money,  and  to  report   to  the     tat   super 

intendcnt  annually  the  C lition  of   the  schools. 

For  this  service,  he  receives  not  less  than  $3, 
nor  more  than  .*.">.  per  dayfor  every  day  actually 
employed  in  the  duties  of  his  office.  The  county 
superintendent  issues  three  grades  of  certificates 


to  teachers:  the  first  grade  valid  for  2  years, 
the  second,  for  one  year — both  entitling  the 
holder  to  teach  in  any  district  in  the  county; 
the  third  grade  being  valid  for  6  months,  and 
cnlitlnig  the  holder  to  teach  only  ill  a  specified 
district.  Three  third-grade  certificates,  however, 
may  be  issued  to  the  same  person.  Each  school- 
district  has  three  officers. — a  director,  a  modera- 
tor, and  a  treasurer.  One  of  these  is  elected  each 
year  at  the  April  meeting.  These  officers  have 
full  control  of  all  school  matters  pertaining  to 
the  district,  except  the  building  of  school-houses, 
and  the  issuing  of  school  bonds.  'I  hey  are  not 
permitted  to  pay,  out  of  the  public  funds,  any 
i,a.  her  not  holding  a  certificate  from  the  proper 
authority.  Relatives  of  these  officers  are  in- 
eligible as  teachers.  The  director  must,  within 
10  days  after  the  annual  meeting,  report  to  the 
county  superintendent  the  number  of  children 
oi  school  age  in  the  district,  the  appropriation 
of  the  state  fund  being  based  upon  this  return, 
and  not  payable  without,  it.  'I  he  permanent 
school  fund  consists  of  all  moneys  arising  from 
the  sale  of  the  16th  and"  36th  sections  in  each 
township,  the  five  per  cent  granted  ly  Congress 
on  the  sale  of  public  lands  within  the  state,  and 
all  escheats,  gifts,  grants,  i  to.,  not  otherwise  ap- 
propriated. This  fund  IS  at  present  invested 
principally  in  state  securities.  Some  of  it,  how- 
ever, is  in  school  distric 1  county  bonds,  and 

bond  and  mortgage,  but  all  draws  111  per  cent 
interest.     'I  he  items  are  as  follows  •■ 

School  fond  now  invested $497,037.34 

I'niiaid  principal  of  scl 1  land- . -old       i::;,,.--7.sii 

Value  of  school  lands  leased 272,169.16 

Total $1,407,994.30 

The  constitution  provides  that  the  fund  shall  be 
invested   hereafter   only   in   United  States  and 

-1,1 ,     i,i    i,  ■_■  i - 1 •  red    county    bonds. 

'I  he  numb  r  oi  acres  of  school  lands  amounts  to 

more  than  2,£ M  0,  none  of  which   can    be  sold 

at  less  than  $7  per  acre.  The  apportionable 
school  fund  arises  from  the  10  per  cent   interest 

on  all  i iys  forming  a  part  of  the  permanent 

chool  fund,  the  6  per  cent  rents  of  school  hinds 
!  ased,  together  with  the  proceeds  of  the  one- 
mill  tax.  The  other  sources  of  income  for  the 
suppori  of  school,  are  the  moneys  arising  from 
lines,  licenses, dog-tax, and  thespei  ial  district  tax. 

S,.| |  districts  are  prohibited  from  levying  for 

school  purpo-,  -  a  greater  tax  than  '2.7  mills  on 
the  dollar  in  anyone  year.  Three  months' school 
niu-1  he  maintained 'in  each  school-district  to 
entitle  it  to  any  portion  of  the  public  fund. 

Educational    Condition.  —  The    number    of 
school-districts  in  1876,  was  2,567  :  the  number 

of  scl 1-houses  of  all  kind-    1 ,980  :  the  number 

of  districts   in   which    graded   schools  exist,  55. 


prineipa 

In     tollov 


1  items  i 


for  IS 7,"> 


The 
are  tl 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 86,1 

enrolled 50,'. 

■'  teachers,  males l,4i;s 

females 1,893 

Total 3.3 


$32 


Amount  of  apportionable  school  iiwd. 


NEBRASKA 

Normal  Instruction.—  The  state  normal  school 
was  opened  at  Peru,  in  1867.  It  was  originally 
organized  with  three  departments,  the  time  re- 
quired to  complete  the  course  being  L3  years.  In 
1873 — 1.  this  was  modified  so  as  to  comprise 
2  departments,  the  preparatory  and  the  normal, 
5  years  being  necessary  to  e   ' 


add 


NEBRASKA    1  NIYKRSITY       017 

Superior    Instruction.— the    institutions   in- 
tended to  furnish  an  advanced  education  are  as 

follows : 


ege Crete  1872   Cong. 

i\,!l.-.'  Wln-nsUn.  City        lSi'.H    Pr.  Epis. 

ibraska....  Lincoln  1869   Non-sect. 

Ac  and  Professional  Instruction.— The 


Drawing  and  vocal  music  are  also  taught.     In 

The  normal  department,  the  branches  peculiar  to 
schools  of  this  description  are  pursued.  The  ; 
number  of  students  in  attendance  at  the  present  | 
time  (1876),  is  about  190. 

Teachers'  Institutes.-  -These  bodies  have  been 

convened.  IVom  time  to  time,  at  such  placesasthe 
state  and  comity  superintendents  have  deemed 


since  1863,  has    bei 

n    large,    and    the    interes 

aroused  has  extendei 

very  generally   among  the 
es  where  the  meetings  havi 

people  in  the  localil 

l.een  held.  The  State 

/    i  I  rs  Association  meets 

annually  about  the  1 

it  i     March 

An  educational  jon 

nal    /"     Vi  Waska  Teacher 

was  begun  in  1  8  i 1 .  ; 

ml  is  now  of  the  agen 

cies  for  the   instrui 

tion    and    training   of    tin 

teachers  of  the  state 

[ts  editor  is  the  presiden 

of  the  Stat-  Teachi 

3'    Lssoi  i. A  similai 

publication  i    i    ued 

hy  the  faculty  and  student 

A  years.  In  Is,. I, 


of  the  -i  ite  univi  rsity. 

Secondary  Instruction-  There  are  several 
high  .-eliouls  in  tin'  state,  principally  ill  the  cities 
and  large  towns,  where  the  great  interest  awak- 
ened in  the  subject  of  education  has  led.  in  some 
eases,  to  the  erection  of  costly  buildings,  the  most 
noted  of  which,  the  high  school  building  of 
Omaha  City,  with  a  seating  capacity  for  more 
than  TOO  pupils,  was  erected  at  an  expense  of 
mole  than  $200, >.     Similar  schools,   but  not 


and 


ation.  The  want  of  uniformity  in  the 
of  study  in  the  high  schools,  however, 
for  some  time  led  to  such  a  lowering  of  the 
standard  of  admission  as  seriously  to  threaten 
the  efficiency  of  the  university.  Measures  have 
already  been  taken  to  remcK    this. 

The  number  of  private  sc  ■  in  the  state  has 
very  much  decreased  since  1870.  The  number  at 
that  time  was  70.  but  increased  confidence  in 
the  efficiency  of  the  common  schools  had  dimin- 
ished the  number",  in  L874,  to  30.  There  are  but 
few  ih'itumiiiiiHtiiHtl  schools  in  the  state,— 
ISrownell  Hall  (Kpiseopalian),  a  ladies' seminary 
at  Omaha,  a  Roman  Catholic  school  in  the  same 
place,  and  another  in  Nebraska  <  Sty.  ( Ine 
business  college,  at  Omaha,  reported,  in  1874,  a 
total  of  135  pupils,  of  whom  17  were  females. 


Sjjecial  Instruction—  The  Nebraska  Institute 
for  tin  Di ,.:'  oid  I  'i  mb  is  sit  uated  near  I  Imaha. 
It  was  organized  in  1869,  for  the  free  education 
of  all  deaf  and  dumb  children  in  the  state,  be- 
tween the  ages  of  L0  and  25,  of  sound  mind,  of 

g 1   moral    habits,    and   free    from     contagious 

disease.  The  course  of  study  comprise  years 
of  10  weeks  each.  The  studies  pursued  are  those 
common   to  such   institutions.     The  instruction 

.  ■ 1  i  le-s.  lanciiaLte  and  aiithim  in  ..!■    iai"_ht ; 

in  the  third, language,  arithmetic,  and gei  graphy; 
in  the  fourth,   arithniel  ie.  ee ■o^iaphy.  the  science 

of  coi  in i  line,-    and  I  he  history  of  the  United 

States.  Daily  exercises  in  written  language  con- 
stitute a  part  of  the  instruction  in  all  the  grades 


stitute  has  at  present  3  instructors,  and  about 
-in  pupils  in  all  the  classes.  The  Asylum  for  the 
Blind  was  opened  near  Nebraska  City, in  Decem- 
ber, 1875.  It  has  a  fine  building  and  ^rounds, 
but  its  organization  is  so  recent  that  but  little  is 
generally  known  in  regard  to  it. 

NEBRASKA,  UNIVERSITY  OF,  at  Li 


Nt 


op, 


ed  in 


1S71.  It  was  established  upon  grants  of  land, 
amounting  to  134,800  aires,  made  by  Congress 
to  the  state  for  the  support  of  a  university  and 
a  college  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts. 
The  charter  provides  for  six  departments,  or 
colleges,  namely:  (1)  a  college  of  ancient  and 
modern  languages,  mathematics,  and  natural 
science  ;  (2)  a  college  of  agriculture  :  (3)  a  col- 
lege of  law;  (4)  a  college  of  medicine;  (5)  a 
college  of  practical  science,  mechanics,  and 
civil  engineering;  (6)  a  college  of  fine  arts. 
Only  the  first  two  have  yet  (1876)  been  organ- 
ized. In  the  first  there  are  four  courses  of  study 
of  four  years  each  ;  and,  in  the  second,  there  are 


♦US 


NEBRASKA  COLLKCK 


two  courses,  one  of  three  years,  and  a  course  of 
one  year.  In  the  College  of  Literature,  Science, 
and  Art,  the  courses  are  the  classical,  the  scien- 
tific, the  Latin  scientific,  and  the  Greek  scien- 
tific. There  is  a  Latin  or  preparatory  school 
connected  with  the  university.  It  has  a  farm 
of  320  acres,  and  extensive  chemical  and  phys- 
ical apparatus.  Tuition  is  free.  In  1874 — 5, 
there  were  8  instructors  and  Li'2  students,  of 
whom  117  (48  collegiate  and  69  preparatory) 
were  in  the  department  of  literature,  science, 
and  arts,  and  15  in  the  department  of  agricult- 
ure. Both  sexes  are  admitted.  Allen  K.  Benton, 
A.  M.,  LL.  1).,  is  (1870)  the  chancellor. 

NEBRASKA  COLLEGE,  at  Nebraska 
City.  Xeb.,  under  Protestant  Episcopal  control, 
was  organized  in  1865,  and  chartered  in  1868. 
It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of  students.  The 
institution  has  a  valuable  mineral  cabinet,  and 
libraries  containing  about  li .<»(>( ►  volumes.  It 
comprises  a  collegiate  course  and  a  grammar 
school,  with  a  preparatory  and  a  business  course. 
Facilities  are  afforded  for  instruction  in  theology. 
In  1875 — 6,  there  were  8  instructors  and  70 
students  (3  collegiate.  13  preparatory,  and  54 
business).  P.  L.  Woodbury.  M.A.,  is  (1870)  the 
head-master  in  charge. 

NEEDLE-WORK.  See  Female  Education, 
and  Industrial  Schools. 

NETHERLANDS,  the  name  of  a  kingdom 
in  western  Europe,  which  has  an  area  of  12,080 
square  miles,  and  the  population  of  which,  in 
1874.  was   3,767,263,  exclusive  of    its   colonial 


people  revolted  against  the  rale  of  Spain,  ami 
proclaimed  the  republic  of  the  United  Nether- 
lands. Napoleon,  in  1*00.  elveted  the  kingdom 
of  Holland;  but  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815, 
united  Belgium  and  Holland  under  the  title  of 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  In  1830,  the 
Southern  provinces  seceded,  and  ton 1  the  king- 
dom of  Belgium;  and,  since  that  time,  the  name 
Netherlands  has  been  applied  exclusively  to  the 
kingdom  formed  of  the  northern  provinces. 
About  61  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the 
kingdom  are  Protestants;  and  nearly  37  per 
cent.  Roman  <  latholics. 

History  of  Education.— The  earliest  school  of 
which  there  is  any  record  was  that  of  St.  Martin 
at    Utrecht,   said   to   have    been    founded    in    the 

time  of  I  hades   Mattel.    This   Bchool   enjoyed 


begi 


sessed  no  less  tl 

nc 

a  rector 

hing  schools 

of  which    had   , 

in  additioi 

priests,  who  hai 

tl 

e  general 

•ontrol  of  tl 

that  time,  sevei 

al 

tonvent    schools  gain 

reputation,  the 

at  promin 

•nt  of  whiel 

Egmond,  NTime 

TUI 

li,  Midde 

burg,  and  A 

near  •  troningen 

Schools  v, 

ere  also  est 

at  this  time  by 

he 

inotv    II. 

urishing  t. 

the   instruction 

of 

the  citi/ 

ens.      Auth 

NETHERLANDS 

open  these  schools  was  always  derived  from  the 
courts,  and  the  supervision  and  instruction  were 
entirely  secular.  The  best-known  school  of  this 
class  was  at  Zwolle,  which,  in  the  1  1th  century, 
is  reported  to  have  had  over  1,000  pupils.  In 
Holland,  as  well  as  in  Belgium,  the  Brethren  of 
the  Common  Life  did  much  to  promote  educa- 
tion. (See  Hieronymians.)  During  the  15th 
century,  this  country  was  rich  in  eminent 
scholars,  among  whom  may  be  mentioned  John 
Wessel,  Rudolf  Agricola.  Alexander  Hegius.  and 
Erasmus.  A  new  era  was  inaugurated  with  the 
opening  of  the  Leyden  University,  in  1575,  which 
awakened  a  new  zeal  for  all  departments  of 
learning.  Other  universities  were  established. 
at  Franeker  (1575),  at  Groningen  (1614),  at 
Utrecht  (1638  .  and  at    Harderwick   (1048),  all 


rendered  their  people  one  of  the 

best  educated 

nations  of  the  globe.     During  tht 

18th  century, 

there  was,  however,  a  visible  decli 

le;  and,  at  the 

beginning  of   the   19th   century 

181  L),  Cuvicr 

made  ti  rather  unfavorable  repor 

of  the  condi- 

tion  of  the  universities  and  Latin 

schoolsof  IIol- 

land.  The  French  government  wh 

Ic  Napoleon  1, 

established  in  Holland,  introduce! 

some  reforms. 

which  were  subsequently  sanctioi 

•d  and  further 

developed  by  Kin-  William  1.    S 

nee  that  time. 

the  Netherlands   have  regained,  t 

i  some  depart- 

ments  of  superior  instrui  ti  n,  i  ■ 

c, daily  in  that 

of  the  ancient  languages,  their  for 

ter  reputation. 

The  Dutch   legislation  in   regard 

to  primary  in- 

struction  has  attracted  the  attention  of  educa- 
tional writers  and  the  governments  of  various 
countries,  chiefly  by  its  outspoken  opposition  to 
the  principle  of  denominational  schools.  The 
basis  of  the  Dutch  system  was  laid  in  the  cel- 
ebrated law  of  1800.  drawn  up  by  M.  Van  der 
Ende.  who  was.  for  nearly  thirty  years  (until 
1833),  at  the  l.ea.l  of  the  common-school  depart- 
ment of  the  Hutch  ministry.  Articles  22  and  23 
of  this  law  provide  that  pupils  shall  be  trained 
'■in  the  practice  ot  all  the  social  and  Christian 
virtues.'  and  that  they  shall  "  not  remain  with- 
out instruction  in  the  doctrines  of  that  religious 
faith  to  which  they  belong:"  but  that  tic  teacher 
of  the  school  -shall  not  have  charge  of  this 
branch  of  instruction.''  The  principle  of  secular 
and  mixed  schools  had.  at  first,  the  co-operation 
of  ministers  of  every  creed,  even  of  the  Roman 


professor   and    writ 

I; an   (  atholics,  wl 

nee,  wire  strictly  c; 


As 


NETHERLANDS  019 

schools,  denouncing  them  as  breeding-places  of    23  years  of  age.  [f  a  teacher  has  over  70  scholars, 
atheism  and  immorality,  and  demanding  in  their    he  receives  an  aspirant,  thai    is.  a  young  man 

|i|;nv  <l<  'in  ii  ni  national  s.  In  mis.  which  n.iidil  atlnril     who  has  not  reached   the    requisite   age    In  In-  an 


I  holies  who  ditional  100  pupils  an  assistant, 
tion entirely  ;  an  aspirant.  Instruction  in  th 
it  a  more  ni-     is  of  two  kinds.  —  eoninion   ai 


oew  educational 

composed,  in   th 

preferred  to  exclu 

fr theschools, 

buildings  may.hi 
pose,  to  accomm 
these,  at  hours m 
The  Catholics, 
and  at  present 
Protestants  and 
divide  the  school 


that,   while  ,  a    c se    n 

at.'   all  nee-  :  elementary 


J 

l-tirs 

ilr  aw  in 

ork.    The 

111.1 

wl 

iv*  • 

chools, 

llblic  seho, 

Is 

6,538  i 

iale  tea 

laleteache 
upils  in  h 

here  were 

? 

m.l' 

I"1 
ml 

-  sell..,, 

eachen 

pnvat 

1  priva 
girls. 

II,  ,1 


fund,  a  scheme  which   is  op-  Sec 

als  only.    Thisquestion  of  de-  of    16 

■Is  has  since  formed  the  chief  publii 

I  election.     In  the  elect  ton  of  seconi 

9  of  the  second  chamber,  the  (corre 

a   majority  of  two  over  the  burgh 


■schools,  2,332 
The  number  of 

ate  scl Is.  was 

In  L873,  there 


a-s  state.l  above,  ts  regi 
Theimmediate  supen 
the  ham  Is  <>t  local  sc 
each  committee,  there 
intendent,  above  him  i 
finally,  as  the  highest 
^reeducation.  Everj  comi 
lee ;  communities,  h.e 
to  establish  ami  sustaii 
tee  in  common.     In  ci 


by  the 


course  ,»t  study  is  arranged  by  the 
the  tea. ■hers.  an. I  must  be  approved 
ter.  The  yearly  tuition  fee  is.  at  the 
'ins.  Burgher  schools  are  established 
eflyfor  the  children  of  trades-people  and  farm- 


are  of  two  classes:   assistants,  who   must    lie  Is     ers.  and  consist  of  day  and  evening  schools.  Every 
years  of  age,  and  principal  teachers,  who  must  be     community  of  more  than  10.1  Mil  I  inhabitants,  must 


(i'.'O 


NETHERLANDS 


have  at  least  one  burgher  school,  both  day  and 
evening.  The  course,  in  the  day  school,  com- 
prises two  years.  If  the  attendance  does  not  war- 
rant the  establishment  of  a  day  school,  a  com- 
munity may  be  excused  from  having  such  a 
school;  but.  in  such  a  case,  the  evening  school 
must  comprise  a  two  years"  course.  The  teachers, 
in  these  schools,  are  appointed  by  the  common 
councils,  and  are  paid  l>v  the  communities.  They 
are  also  entitled  to  a  pension  from  the  state, 
under  the  same  conditions  as  other  officers  of 
the  government.  The  cost  of  the  burgher  schools 
is  borne  by  the  communities,  who  may  charge  a 
fee  not  to  exceed  12  florins  per  year.  In  1871, 
the  number  of  burgher  schools  was  43,  and  of 
higher  burgher  schools  and  commercial  schools. 
47.  The  number  of  teachers  was  338,  in  the 
burgher  schools,  and  542,  in  the  higher  burgher 
schools;  of  pupils.  :;,s(il.  iii  the  burgher  schools, 
and  3.2*5.  in  the  higher  burgher  schools.  The 
polytechnic  school  at  Delft  is  intended  for  those 
who  wish  to  follow  the  business  of  engineering 
in  any  of  its  various  branches.  This  school. 
in  1875—6,  had  26  professors  and  260 
students.  The  following  schools  are  also  classed 
a 1 1 long  :-ee lary  institutions:  4  schools  of  agri- 
Culture,  with  18  professors  and  53  students;  9 
schools  of  navigation,  with  20  professors  and 
200  students;  Ml)  drawing  schools,  with  10s  pro- 
fessors and  2,500  students:  seven  secondary 
schools  for  girls,  with  71  teachers  and  472  stu- 
dents ;  and  78  secondary  schools  for  mechanics. 
The  sum  total  expended  on  secondary  instruction 
amounted  to  .<Vi7.i>i>2.  of   which   £278.1112   was 

flid  by   the    state:    $4,845,  by  the  provinces; 
l!MI.!)-i:>.by  the  municipalities:' and  S<:u  Is  was 
derived  from  tuition  fees. 

Superior  Instruction. — According  to  the  law 
of  l~l  5,  the  institutions  for  superior  instruction 
are  classed  as  Latin  schools  and  gymnasia,  athe- 
nieums.  and  hii/h  xchnnk.  The  Initio  schools  and 
the  gymnasia  correspond  to  the  German  gynina- 
athenaeums  and  high  schools,  to  the 
universities,  of  which,  however,  only  the  high 
schools  axe  entitled  to  confer  academic  degrei 

Kach  1  .a  tinsel 1  and  gymnasium  has  a  rector  and 

conreetor  and  one  or  more  preceptors  and  docents, 
according  to  the  means  of  the  institution.  The 
studies  comprise  Latin  and  Greek,  mathematics, 
history,  and  mythology.  The  following  studies 
are  taught  in  only  a  [part  of  the  schools:  the 
modern  languages.  Hebrew,  and  natural  hi-torv. 
The  gymnasia  have  pretty  much  the  same  course 
of  ml',  as  the  Latin  schools.  In  L873,  the  num- 
ber of  Latin  scl Is  and  gymnasia  was  54,  with 

227  professor-  and  1,185  students.  There  arc 
three  universiti  s,  at  Levi  m,  Utrecht,  and  ( fro- 
ningen,  which,  in  1871,  had  732,  488,  and  146 
students,  respectively,  making  a  total  of  1.3GG 
students.  Of  these,  5s5  studied  law  :   3d2.  th,,.!,,- 


NEVADA 

Utrecht,  34  professors  and  527  students ;  Gro- 
ningen,  30  professors  and  lss  students  ;  and  the 
athenasum  of  Amsterdam,  40  professors  and  399 
students. 

Special  Tnsirm  Hon. — Besides  the  special  schools 

classed  among  tl ondary  schools,  there  are 

the  following:  five  Catholic  theological  semi- 
naries; an  old  Catholic  (Jansenist)  seminary,  in 
Amersfoort:  a  Lutheran  seminary,  and  seminaries 
for  Remonstrants  and  Mennonites,  in  Amster- 
dam; a  seminary  of  Separatists,  in  Kampen;  two 
Jewish  seminaries,  in  Amsterdam;  a  school  of 
veterinary  surgery,  and  a  school  of  Last  Indian 
languages,  in  Delft;  a  school  for  army  surgeons,, 
at  Utrecht;  schools  of  art.  in  Amsterdam,  Bois- 
le-llne.  the  Hague.  Iiotterdam.  and  Groningen; 
and  a  school  of  music,  at  the  Hague.  In  L874, 
there  were  three  institutions  for  deaf-mutes,  with 
391  inmates;  three  asylums  for  the  blind ;  and 
an  asylum  for  idiots,  having  111  girls  and  23  boys, 
and.  in  connection  with  it,  there  is  a  day  school 
for  idiots. 

Luxemburg. — This  country  is  governed  by  the 
king  of  Holland  as  grand-duke  of  Luxemburg. 
It  had.  in  1-7  1.  644  primary  schools,  with  28,437 
pupils;  one  teachers  seminary:  an  athenaeum, 
composed  of  a  gymnasium  and  a  trade  school,  of 
6  classes  each:  and  2  progymnasia,  having  to- 
gether-12  professors  and  911  pupils;  a  Catholic 
seminary  and  an  agricultural  school,  in  Echter- 
nach.  —  For  further  information  in  regard  to 
education  in  the  Netherlands,  see  Barnard,  Na- 
tional Education,vo\.  it.:  I  'orsix,  Bel'instruction 
publique  en  HoUande,  1836—7;  Biddingh, 
Geschiedenis  run  Opvoeding  en  Onderwijs  in 
de  Nederlanden  (Hague.  1847);  Laveleve, 
Debats  sur  Venseignement  dans  les  chambres 
hollandaises,  session  of  L857  (Geneva,  1858  . 

NEVADA,  one  of  the  extreme  west  ra  states 
of  the  American  Union,  originally  a  part  of  the 
territory  of  Utah,  from  which  it  was  set  off  as 
a  separate  territory.  March  2..  DSG]  .and  enlarged 
by  a  further  portion  of  Utah,  in  1862.  It  was 
admitted  as  a  state  in  1864.  It  was  further  en- 
lamed  by  add.  d  territory  from  Utah  and  Ari- 
zona,^ 1866.  In  L859,the  population  was  about 
1,000;  but,  in  August,  1861, H  was  estimated  at 
16,000.  In  1870,  it  was  42,491,  of  whom  38,959 
were  whites;  357,  colored  persons;  3,152,  Chi- 
nese; and  23,  civilized  Indians. 

Educational  History. —  Notwithstanding  the 
almost    exclusive  absorption  of  the  energies  ol 

the  ] pie  in  mining  and  kindred  operations,  the 

interests  of  education  have  uot  been  overlooked. 


gy  .  2  12.  medicine  ;  1  57, 
117,  literature.  The  two 
ter  and  Amsterdam, had  t 

1876,  it  was  resolved  to 
Amsterdam  to  a  full  u 
Leyden    had  45    professo 


iences  ;  and 

IS,    at    I  level, - 

1  pupils.     In 

.thcr.eu.n  of 

,2    students';' 


normal  schools,  and  to  promote  by  all  appropri- 
ate means  the  cause  of  education.  To  this  end. 
the  state  was  to  be  divided  into  school-districts, 
and  schools  were  to  he  established  therein.  For 
the  maintenance  of  ih.  .  -eh.,. .!-.  there  were  to 
be  set  apart  the  50,1 acres  granted  by  Con- 
gress to  all  the  n.  »  states,  30,000  acres  for  each 
senator  and  representative,  the  16th  and  36th 
section  in  each  township,  a  half-mill  tax  on  all 


NEVADA 

pieperty  subject  to  taxation,  and  all  escheats,  and 
fines  for  personal  offenses.  The  int. -rest  of  all  the 
monej  derived  from  the  above  soun  i  exi  ep1 
the  half-mill  tax, of  whirl,  five  percent  is  taken), 
together  with  two  per  cent  of  the  receipts  from 
all  toll-r.ia.ls  and   bri.lee,.   i,  .lev. .ted  to  school 


school  fund,  in  18' 
The  method  of  supi 

(In1  sain.1  as  now  en 
visions  of  law  iu  th 
somewhat  by  succe: 
1*73,  when  a  com 
passed.  From  1866  t 
ent  was  A.  W.  Pishi 
succeeded  bv  8.  P. 


the  state  superintend- 
at  the  latter  date,  was 

eleete.  1  for  four  years. 

in. 'lit  of  the  educational  syst<  m  ol    the  state  are 

confided  to  a  slat    : -dqf »,  consisting 

of  the  govt  rnor,  surveyorgeneral,  and  the  super- 
intendent o(  public  instruction,  ttsdutiesare  to 
organize  schools,  pi  scribe  a  uniform  list  of  text- 
books, an  l.l. 'vise  all  needful  measures  for  the  con- 
duct and  improvement  of  the  srhools.    The  state 

S'l/icrin/c,, </,,</  1.^  t  lie  i'X.'CUli\  colli.  .  1   of  tile  board. 

He  performs  all  the  duties  generally  appertain- 
ing to  the  office,  and  makes  a  biennial  report  to 
the  governor,  ( 'ounty  superintendents  are  elected 
throughout  the  state,each  for  two  years.  Boar.ds 
of  trust  es  are  elected  in  the  several  school-dis- 
tricts, and  are  so  constituted  as  always  t n- 

tain  at  least  one  experienced   member.     Each  ' 
board  consists  of  three  trustees  in  districts  hav-  I 
ing  less  than  1,500  voters,  and  of  five  in  all  others.  | 
In  addition   to  the  usual   duties  pertaining  to 
such  officers,  they  are  intrusted  with  th<    power 
of  levying  taxes  in  order  to  supply  deficiencies 
in  the  school   moneys  received   from  the  state. 
They  are  required  not  onlj  to  keep  a  public  rec- 
ord of  their  proceedings,  but  to  publish,  in  some  I 
newspaper,  full   minutes   of   those   proceedings. 
The  .■ounty    superintendent    appoints  two  com- 
petent persons,  who,  with  himself,  constitute  a 
board  of  examiners  of  which  he  is  chairman.    A 
certificate,  either  from  this  county  board  or  from 
the  state  board,  is  necessary  before  a  teacher  I 
can  receive  any  compensation   for   services  ren-  I 
der.  d.   A  life  certilicate  of  any  state,  or  a  diplo-  ' 
ma  from  a  « lalifornia  stale  normal  school,  entitles 
the  holder  to  a  county  certificate  without  exami- 
nation, if  presented  within    live  years   from    the 
date  of  its  issuance.    The  compulsory  school  law- 
requires  parents  or  guardians  to  semi  all  >  lnldivn 
between  the  ages  of  8  and  14  years,  unless  other- 
wise educated,  to  the  common  school.-,  ].,r  not  less 
than  sixteen  weeks  each  year,   eight   weeks  of 
which  must  be  consecutive.    A   penalty  of  not 
less  than  $50,  nor  more  than  8100  for  the  first 
offense,  and  of  not.  less  than  $100  nor  more  than 
$200  for  each  subsequent  offense,  is  imposed  for 
a  violation  of  this  law.  The  schools  are  required 
to  be  kept  open  at  least  six  months  each  year  in 
every  school-district. 

A'/' /,■■//,,,/,,/'  i  'miiliiiini.    Thenumberof school- 
districts,  iu  1«74,  was  71  ;  the  number  of  schools 


NEWARK  621 

dispensing  with  rate-bills,  f'.s  ;  the  total  number 
of  schools,  108.  Of  these  schools,  21  arc  primary; 

I.  iiiin  in. '.Ii. Mr  :    I  2,  gri n.ii'  ;  2,  high  ;  and  69, 

unclassified.  The  support  of  the  schools  was  de- 
rived from  the  follow  ing  soun  i 

From  taxes $93,431.23 

'•      rate-bills 317.80 

state  apportionments 

and  other  sources 52,432.40 

Total $14G,181.32 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows: 

For  teachers'  aalaries  $  13,54  3.88 

"     sites,  buildings,  etc 22,241.05 

"     other  purposes 18,511.71 

Total $124,301.64 

The  average  wages  ofteachersper  month  v.  o    -  L00.00 
The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  for  the 
year  were  the  following  : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled  (0— IS) 4,811 

Average  attendance 2,881 

Number  of  ten.  hers,  male- ?,;, 

females .so 

Total 115 

Normal  Instruction. — No  schools  for  the  in- 
struction ,.f  teachers  are  yet  reported.  The  legis- 
lature, however,  in  1875,  passed  an  act  authoriz- 
ing the  establishment  oi  a  normal  ;i  1 1. 

Secondary  Instructi \  preparatory  school 

iu  connection  with  the  university,  provided  for 
by  an  act  of  the  legislature,  in  1873,  has  been 
..pen. .Lit  Elko;  and  an  appropriation  of  $20,000 
was.  in  1875,  made  for  its  support.  This,  and 
two  high  schools,  are  the  only  means  for  free 
secondary  instruction  now  known  to  be  in 
existence  in  the  state. 

Supi  rior  Instruction. — By  an  act  of  the  legis- 
lature, in  1873,  the  state  university  was  estab- 
lished ;  but  h  til.  has  as  yet  been  done.exci  |  t  the 
organization  of  the  preparatory  department. 
above  refei  red  to. 

Pr<;i  -  ■  oil  mnl  Scientific  Instruction. —  In 
I  375,  an  act  was  passed  for  the  establishment  of 
an  agricultural  college,  and  for  ...lieges  of  arts 
and  mines,  endowed  with  the  COE 
land  grant  of  90,000  acres  ;  but  this  action  was 
..  recent,  that  no  report  has  been  made  of  their 
organization. 

Special  Instruction. —  The  settlement  of  the 
state  is  so  new. and  the  population  so  small,  that 
no  .ITuits  have  yet  been  made  to  establish  special 
institutions,  for  the  blind,  or  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb.  Those  afflicted  in  this  way  have  thus  far 
been  cared  for,  at  the  expense  of  the  state,  in 
institutions  provided  for  the  purpose  by  the 
neighboring  state,  t  'alifornia.  Several  deaf-mutes 
tire  under  instruction  in  the  Institution  for  the 
Deaf,  Ihinib.  and  Blind,  near  Oakland. 

NEWARK,  the  chief  city  of  New  Jersey, 
first  settled  in  1666,by  Puritan  families  from 
Connecticut,  who  were  joined  the  next  year  b\ 
other  settlers  from  the  same  colony.  1.  d  l.\  their 
minister,  the  Rev.  Abraham  Picrson.who  named 
the  settlement  .after  Newark,  in  Kngland,  where 
he  had  formerly  preached.  Newark  was  incorpo- 
rated as  a  city  in  1836.  Its  population,  in  1840, 
was  17,200;   but.  in   1870,  it  was  105,059,   of 


whom  G9 ,175  were  natives,  and  35,884  foreigners, 
including  15,873  Germans,  the  largest  foreign 
element.  The  population,  according  to  the  state 
census  of  1875,  was  L23,310. 

Educational  History.  -  In  1676, ten  years  after 
its  settlement,  the  selectmen  of  the  town  -agreed 
with  Mr.  John  Catlin  that  he  should  do  his 
faithful,  honest,  and  true  endeavor  to  teach  the 
children  of  those  as  have  subscribed,  the  leading 
and  writing  of  English,  and  also  of  arithmetic, 
if  they  desire  it.  as  much  as  they  are  capable  to 
learn,  and  he  capable  to  teach  them."     About 

17110.  a  small  sel l-house  was  built  in  Market 

Street.whieh.it  is  thought,  was  the  only  school 
building  in  the  city  for  many  years.  From  174  7 
to  1756  the  College  of  New  .Jersey  was  located 
in  Newark,  but,  ill  the  latter  year,  was  removed 
to  Princeton.  In  L769,  it  is  recorded  that  the 
children  of  the  poor  should  be  '-constantly  sent 
to  school  at  the  expense  of  the  person  that  takes 
them."  it  being  the  custom,  at  that  time,  to 
award  annually  the  keeping  of  the  poor,  by  pub- 
lie  auction,  to  the  lowest  responsible  bidder.  In 
1792, the  Newark  Academy  wasopenedin  Broad 
Street,  and  three  years  after,  wasincorporated. 
It  remained  in  its  original  location  till  1856, 
when  it  was  removed  to  the  present  site  in  High 
Street.  The  next  school-house  was  built  in  1797, 
near  the  South  Park.  This  was  followed  by 
another,  in  1804,  in  Market  Street  ;  another,  in 
1807,  in  Fair  Street;  one  in  New  Street,  in 
180!) :  and  one  in  <  Irange  Street,  in  1 820.  These 
were  all  built  by  private  enterprise,  and  the 
schools  held  in  them  were  consequently  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees.  In  1813,  the  sum  of  $500, 
for  the  schooling  of  the  children  of  the  poor,  was 
voted  by  the  people,  the  practice  of  requiring 
the  person  who  supported  the  poor  to  provide 
for  the  schooling  of  their  children,  being  at  that 
time  discontinued,  and  never  revived.  'I  his  sum. 
or  a  larger  one,  was  voted,  fur  the  same  purpose, 
annually  thereafter  till  1836,  when  Newark  was 
incorporated  as  a  city.  This  method  of  provid- 
ing for  the  education  of  a  special  class  of  children 
proved  to  be  the  entering  wedge  which  opened 
the  way  for  a  system  of  public  schools  free  to  all 
the  children  of  the  city.  The  first  public-school 
house  was  built  in  1843  or  1844,  and  was  located 
in  the  third  war. '.between  Mill  and  ( 'ourt  streets. 
It  was  a  building  of  two  stories,  the  first  being 
occupied  as  a  girls'  school,  the  second  as  a  boys'. 
From  that  time  till  1848,  six  similar  school- 
houses  were  built.  In  1  850,  the  legislature  pa.ssed 
an  act.  to  establish  public  schools  in  the  city,  the 
population  of  which,  at  that  time,  was  38,894. 
This  was  supplemented,  in  1853,  by  an  act  in- 
corporating the  board  of  education,  with  ample 
powers  for  tin-  establishment  and  maintenance 
of  public  schools.  In  1855,  there  were  7  public- 
school  houses,  and    16   public  sel Is,  including 

one  primary  school  for  white  children,  and  one 
of  the  same'  grade  for  colored  children,  the  aver- 
agedaily  attendance  being  2,461  pupils.  The 
publ  i  high  school,  which  was  opened  in  1855, 
gave  i  new  impulse  to  the  cause  of  the  schools, 
restating  in  the  establishment  of  a  graded  system 


of  primary,  grammar,  and  high  schools.  In 
1865,  with  a  population  of  87,428,  the  city  had 
16  school-houses,  and  the  estimated  value  of  its 
school  property  was  $200,000.  The  first  city 
superintendent  was  Stephen  Congar,  who  held 
the  office  from  ls53  till  1859.  lie  was  succeeded 
in  the  latter  year  by  George  B.  Sears,  who  has 
held  the  office  without  interruption  to  the  pres- 

School  System.  -The  general  management  of 
the  public  schools  of  the  city  is  committed  to 
a  board  </  education,  composed  of  two  commis- 
sioners from  each  ward,  who  are  elected  by  the 
people  biennially.  They  elect  annually  a  citi/ 
sii/ifi-iii/i'iii/rii/.  whose  principal  duties  are  to 
enforce  the  regulations  of  the  board,  to  visit  the 
schools,  and  to  report  to  the  board,  from  time  to 
time,  concerning  their  condition.  The  school 
money  is  derived  chiefly  from  a  special  city  tax, 
which  varies  annually  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
good  the  deficiency  of  the  state  tax.  The  course 
of  study  in  the  primary  schools  comprises  read- 
ing, spilling,  writing,  arithmetic,  geography, 
drawing,  and  vocal  music.  The  additional  stud- 
ies in  the  grammar  schools  are  grammar,  histo- 
ry, composition,  and  declamation;  in  the  high 
school,  the  studies  pursued,  in  addition  to  those 
of  the  grammar  schools,  are  chemistry,  physiol- 
ogy, astronomy,  algebra,  book-keeping,  geometry, 
geology,  drawing,  gymnastics,  and  certain  other 
branches,  chiefly  languages,  which  are  prescribed 
by  the  board  of  education.  The  school  age  is 
from  6  to  18  :  the  school  year  is  10  months,  ex- 
cept in  the  evening  schools,  in  which  the  term  is 

3  aths.  The  day  schools  are  opened,  ami  the 

evening  schools  closed,  by  the  reading  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  without  comment,  and  the 
saying  of  the  Lord's  Prayer.  In  1  -75,  the  number 
of  schools  was  44  :  1  normal  and  1  high  school, 
12  grammar  schools.  22  primary  schools  (includ- 
ing 1  colored  school),  2  industrial  schools,  and 
6  evening  schools. — The  principal  items  of  school 
statistics  for  the  year  1875  are  as  follows: 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 3.5,125 

"        "        "        enrolled  in  public  schools, 

including  evening  schools Is.osT 

Average  number  of  pupils  en  the  roll..  I^,>a 

Average  daily  attendant.-.  ..  10,s,",2 

Numb,  r  of  teachers,  males 54 

«         "         "  females 21s 

Total 272 

Total  receipts 8209,707.05 

"     expenditures $209,700.9.:> 

Total  value  of  school  property $900,000.9(1 

Besides  the  public  schools,  there  are  many  acad- 
emies, and  private  and  denominational  schools, 
the  Roman  Catholics  alone  having  several  of  the 
latter.  There  are.  also,  two  libraries,  that  of  the 
New  Jersey  Bistorical  Society,  which  contains 
6,000  volumes,  10,000  pamphlets,  and  some  man- 
uscripts of  cr..n  age  and  value;  and  that  of  the 
Newark  Library  Association,  which  contains 
20.11110  volumes.'  Courses  of  instruction,  chiefly 
in  elementary  branches,  are,  also,  provided  at 
nearly  till  of  the  orphan  asylums,  of  which  there 
are  several. 


nk\vi:ki;i;y   coi.i.kck 


NEW   BRUNSWICK 


NEWBERRY  COLLEGE,  at  Walhalla, 
Oconee  Co.,  S.  C,  founded  in  1858,  is  under 
Evangelical  Lutheran  control.  It  was  removed! 
from  Newberry  in  L868.  The  college  library 
contains  about  4,000  volumes.  The  cost  of  tui- 
tion in  the  collegiate  department  is  $45  per  year. 


Mile 


incumbent  (1876),  was  chosen. 

NEW  BRUNSWICK,  a  province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  having  an  area  of  27,322 
sq.m.,  and  a  population,  in  L870,  of  285,594. 
It  was  first  settled  by  the  French,  in  1639,  and 


Acadia. 

The  fir 


was  separated  from  Nova  Scotia,  to  form  a  sepi 
rate  province.  In  L867,  it  joined  the  Dominio 
of  Canada. — The  present  school  law  (1876)  wi 
passed  in  L871,  and  amended  in  1st.'!.  Accon 
ing  to  this  law,  the  Bchools  are  governed  by 


be   compelled  to  1 
against  the  written  i 

ian.    Kvening  schoi 


nt.    At 

from  the 
partly  by 


.  so  as  in  se 

•lire  a  pro 

ier 

system  ol  su 

lis 

id,  in  which 
i  school  may 

scl 1.     Tea 

1.  and    the   d 
am. .nut  pail 

he  course 

he    -rami 

leestablisl 

hers'  salai 
:ial  treasu 

of 

cd 

ry. 
er 

thepresii 
and  the 
pointed  1 


the  province  into  school-districts,  and 
districts  as  may  be  necessary,  make  re 
for  schools  and  the  examination  of  teac 


'tcxt-ln  n>ks  and  lit  nary  books,  and  sc 
•use  plans.   The  superintendent  hasthege 


presenile 
luuise  nla 


tioned  to  tiie  trust- 
e  following  manner: 

lis  assistants,  to  re- 
liance to  be  distrib- 
ne  and  attendance. 
t.  John  and  Freder- 
overnment.  Each  of 
et   with  a  board  of 


trustees  in  a  district,  elected  at  the  animal  dis- 
trict meeting,  one  each  year.  When  a  district 
fails  to  elect,  or  a  trustee  fails  to  act, one  or  more 
trustees  may  be  appointed  by  the  inspector,  mi 


ii-p. 


of  the  schools,  may  empl 

and  must  furnish  the  clerk  of  the  peace  nt  tl 
county  with  a  list  of  the  persons  liable  to  be 
rated.  Male  candidates  for  the  position  of  teacher 
must  be  at  least  1 8,  and  females  1 6,  years  of  age, 
and  must  have  attended  a  term  at  some  normal 
school,  or  else  be  graduates  of  some  university. 
Licenses  are  provincial,  valid  during  good  beha- 
vior, and  are  issued  by  the  board  of  education. 
Examinations  are  held  at  Fredericton,  in  March 
and  September,  and  at  St.  John  and  Chatham, 
in  September,  on  the  third  Tuesday  <>t'  the 
month;  and-  are  presided  over  by  the  super- 
intendent or  his  deputy.  The  teacher  opens  and 
closes  the  school  daily  by  reading  from  either 
version  of  the  Scriptures,  and  by  the  saying  of 
the  Lord's  Prayer.  Any  other  prayer  permitted 
by  the  trustees  may  be  used,  but  no  pupil  can 


.with  1.1  If,  teach 

boys  and  20,393 
id.  r  five  years  of 
fifteen;  and  6,693, 


schools   in    the   winter;  and   III  districts   with 

schools  in  the  vs  inter,  and  wit  In  an  scl Is  in  the 

summer.  The  number  of  teachers  employed  dur- 
ing the  winter  term,  ending  April  30.,  1875,  was 
4(i(>  males  and  626  females,  making  a  total  of 
L,092.  In  addition.  I  male  and  20  female  a  si  I 
ants  were  employed.    The  number  of  grammar 

was  It. with  37  teachers  in  the  summer  term, 
and  39  in  the  winter  term.  '1  lie  whole  number 
of  pupils  registered  in  the  summer  term  was 
1 ,776,  and  2,027  in  the  winter  term.  The  num- 
ber of  pupils  on  register  was  716  in  the  summer 
term,  and  80!)  in  the  w  inter  term;  and  the  average 
daily  attendance  was  434  in  the  summer,  and  531 
in  the  winter.  The  number  of  superior  schools. 
April  30.,  1875,  was  50,  with  3,053  pupils.    The 


(124 


NEW  CASTLE  COLLEGE 


provincial  normal  srlmn]  in  Eredcricton  had  4 
teachers  and  130  students  during  the  year,  of 
whom  108  received  licenses  to  teach.  <  Jonneeted 
with  the  normal  school  is  a  model  school. — The 
University  of  New  Brunswick,  at  Fredericton,  is 
composed  of  three  classes, — freshman,  junior,  and 
senior.  The  university  confers  the  degrees  of 
Bachelor  of  Aits.  Master  of  Aits,  Bachelor  of 
Science,  Doctor  of  Philosophy,  Bachelor  of  <  am- 
nion Law.  and  Doctor  of  Common  Ijiw.  The  de- 
gree of  I  toe-tor  »f  U«s  (LED.)  is  strictly  honor- 
ary. The  .Mount  Allison  Wesleyan  College  and 
Academies  in  Sackville.  In-long  to  the  Methodist 
Church,  but  are  also  extensively  patronized  by 
students  from  other  denominations.  They  are 
the  result  of  the  benevolence  of  Mr.  Chas.  F. 
Allison,  and  comprise  a  male  academy,  founded 
in  J  s  12,  a  female  academy,  founded  in  1*54, and 
the  college,  founded  in  L862.  They  are  under  a 
board  of  governors,  appointed  by  the  general 
conference  of  the  Methodist  Church  of  Canada. 
The  college  has,b  sides  its  regular  course.a  liter- 
ary or  scientific  course,  from  which  Latin  and 

Creek  are  omitted.     A    faculty  of    tl logy  is 

also  connected  with  the  college,  which  confer.-,  tin- 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity.  Connected  with 
the  male  academy,  is  a  commercial  college,  which 
is  designed  to  insure  thorough  preparation  for 
coll,- -  1,  or  for  entrance  upon  a  course  of  special 
training  for  agricultural,  mechanical,  or  commer- 
cial pursuits,  or  of  sp  i  fii  '  -i  Ij  for  professional 
life.  In  the  female  acadi  mj  there  are  two 
courses  of  study.  The  firs!  is  the  regular  course 
for  the  baccalaun  ate  -1  gn  -.  while  the  other 
course  is  designed  Eor  those  who  prefer  to  sub- 
stitute for  the  classics,  the  modern  languages 
and  natural  science. —  See  Marling,  Canada 
Educational  Directory  and  Yearbook  for  L876, 
Lovell,  Directory  <>f  British  North  America 
(1873). 

NEW  CASTLE  COLLEGE,  at  New  Castle, 
Pa.,  was  established  in  1872,  and  chartered  in 
1875.  It  is  non-sectarian,  and  admits  both  sexes. 
It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees.  The  college  has 
a  preparatory,  a  classical,  a  scientific,  a  com- 
mercial,  a  telegraphic,  a  musical,  an  art,  and  a 
normal  department.  In  1875 — ti.  there  were  15  in- 
structor,; ami  32  J  students,  of  whom  121  were  in 
■  dory  and  collegiate  departments.  John 
R.  Steeves,  A    !'..,  is  1 1  876)  the  presid  int, 

NEWFOUNDLAND,  an  island  of  North 
America,  belonging  to  Greai  Bri  ain;are  10,200 
square  miles;  ;■■■.>..;  ■  r i  .ti.  in  1874,161,381.  New- 
foundland is  supp  «  I  to  li  ive  hi  en  discover!  d 
by  the  North  i  i,  ah  ..•  the  year  1,000.  It  was 
rediscovered  by  tin   I  abots,  in  1  L97,  and  has  re 

mained  with  the  Bi    i wn   ever  since.    The 

first  governor  was  appointed  in  1728,  and  the 
ii,  i  I  l.nive  assembly  met  in  I  733.  It  is  the 
i > 1 1 1  \  pa 1 1  of  British  Norili  America  not  yet  in- 
corporated in  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The 
public  school  system  is  based  on  the  denomina 
tional   principle  an.!  i  d    by    the 

Education  Act  of  L876.  According  to  this  law, 
each  denomination  lepie-ei.tiil    iai    1 1 1.    i.-laud    is 

entitled  to  a  share  of  the  school  money.  In  those 


NEWFOUNDLAND 

districts  in  which  a  particular  denomination 
forms  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants,  the  governor 
appoints  a  board  of  education  of  from  5  to  7 
members  of  that  denomination.  These  boards  may 
establish  schools  in  their  respective  dist  i  ids.  make 
rules  for  their  government,  and  appropriate  all 
moneys  granted  to  such  districts.  A  proportionate 
amount  of  the  government  grant  must  be  at  the 
disposal  of  the  denomination  forming  a  minority 
in  any  district.  A  certain  fee  must  be  paid  by 
each  child  to  the  teacher.  The  governor  appoints 
three  superintendents  of  education, — one  for  the 

Church  of  England  sel Is,  one   for  the  Roman 

Catholic  schools,  and  one  for  the  Methodist 
schools,  who  supervise  and  inspect  the  si  hools  of 
their  respective  denominations.  The  Church  of 
England  and  Methodist  superintendents  also, 
every  year,  alternately,  inspect  the  other  Prot- 
estant board  m  hool.-.  belonging  to  the  Presby- 
terians and  Congregationalists.  The  superintend- 
ents arc  required  to  visit  annually,  if  possible,  all 
the  schools  and  training  institutions  of  their 
respective  denominations,  and  carefully  examine 
into  their  condition.  'I  hey  must  present  an  an- 
nual report  on  the  schools  under  their  charge, 
with  the  statistics  of  such  schools,  and  detailed 
accounts  of  income  and  expenditure.  They  are 
also  required  to  give  such  advice  as  they  may 
deem  proper  to  teachers  and  boards  of  education, 
to  do  all  in  their  power  to  carry  out  a  uniform 
system  of  education,  and,  by  public  addresses  or 
othervt  tse,  to  improve  the  character  and  effii  iency 
of  the  public  schools,  as  well  as  to  promote  tho 
establishment  of  other  public  schools  in  destitute 
localities.  'I  here  are  two  higher  grammar  schools, 
in  Harbor  Grace  and  Carbonear,  governed 
by  their  own  boards  of  education.  There  are  also 
four  academies  in  St.  John's,  belonging  respect- 
ively to  the  Roman  ( latholics,  and  to  the  Church 
of  England,  the  Methodists,  and  other  Protestant 
denominations.  The  governor  appoints  for  each  of 
these  a  board  of  directors  of  seven  or  nine  mem- 
bers. The  Roman  ( 'atholic  and  Church  of  England 
academies  are  connected  with  collegiate  institu- 
tions belonging  to  those  denominations — the  for- 
mer, with  Bonaventure  College,  the  latter,  with 
the  Episcopal  Theological  Institute.  Pupil  teach- 
ers-are trained  in  these  acadi  mies,  who,  upon  com- 
pleting their  studies,  are  bound  to  teach  a  speci- 
fied time  in  the  public  schools.  Candidates  for 
the  position  of  teacher  must  be  at  least  16  years 
old.  and.  must  have  either  been  pupil  teachers. 
or  must  have  been  trained  in  some  normal  or 
training  school  abroad,  or  must  have  served  as 
teachers  for  at  least  two  years.  In  1874,  there 
were  157  Protestant  schools,  with  7.805  pupils, 
and  136  Roman  Catholic  schools,  with  5,792 
pupils.  Besides  these,  there  were  7  commercial 
schools,  with  502  pupils,  and  13  convent  schools, 
i,  eh  l.'c>  pupils.  The  inspectors  of  the  Church 
of  laie  la  i  id  a  ml  Methodist  schools,  in  their  joint  re- 
port of  Dec.,  1875,  deplore  that,  "notwithstanding 
mounts  which  have  been  granted  by 
the  legislature  for  educational  purposes,  many 
large  communities,  especially  in  Notre  Dame  Bay 
and  Trinity  Bay,  have  been   hitherto  without 


NEW    HAMPSHIRE 


schools,  and  the  youth  growing  up  to  manhood 
and  womanhood,  are  unable  to  read  and  write." 
In  most  of  the  schools  which  they  visited,  "read- 
ing, writing,  and  arithmetic  have  been  the  only 
subjects  taught,  even  in  some  of  the  largest  settle- 
ments; and,  in  most  cases,  the  attainments  of  the 
scholars  have  not   been   verj    satisfactory." — See 

The  Education  Act,  L876;   Loveu f 

British  North  America  (Montreal,  L873  ;  and 
the  official  Rep  rrtx  "f  ''•    A<V"  '  "'"  ,,r  •s'-"'",",'s. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the  American  Onion,  was  the 
third  in  the  order  of  settlement.  It  ranks  among 
the  smallest  states  in  regard  to  area,  containing 
only  9,392  sq.  m.  Its  population,  in  L870,  was 
318.800,  of  whom  580  were  colored  persons,  and 
23,  Indians. 

Educational  History.  —  It  was  the  prevailing 
custom  among  the  earliest  settlers  of  Xew  Hamp- 
shire, like  those  of  Massachusetts,  to  make  im- 
mediate provision  for  the  erection  of  a  meeting- 
house, and  of  a  school  house  beside  it.  'Many  of 
the  immigrants,  especially  the  Scotch-Irish  set- 
tlers of  Londonderry  and  vicinity,  had  received 
a  good  elementary  education.  I  laving  been  united 
with  Massachusetts,  in  1641,  it  became  subject  to 
the  law  passed  by  the  legislature  <;■'  that  province 
in  1642.  (See  Massachusetts.)  The  first  aot 
of  the  government  of  Xew  Hampshire,  in  regard 
to  schools,  after  it  became  a  separate  province. 
in  1680,  was  passed  in  1693.  This  law  required 
the  selectmen,  in  the  respective  towns,  to  raise 
money,  "  by  equal  rate  and  assessment,  upon 
the  inhabitants. "  for  the  support  of  schools.  In 
1719,  a  law  was  passed,  which  was  almost  an 
exact  copy  of  the  Massachusetts  law  of  1647, 
with  an  amendment  increasing  the  penalty  to 
£20.  The  original  constitution  of  the  state  made 
it  the  special  duty  of  "the  legislators  and  magis- 
trates to  cherish  the  interests  of  literature  and 
the  sciences,  and  all  seminaries  and  public 
schools."  An  act  of  the  state  legislature,  in 
1789,  established  the  rate  of  assessment  for 
School  purposes,  and  provided  for  the  examination 
of  teachers.  In  1805,  towns  were  authorized  to 
form  school-districts  ;  and,  three  years  later,  the 
system  of  town  superintendence  was  established 
by  law,  every  town  being  required  to  appoint,  a 
superintending  school  committee,  whose  duty  was 
to  visit  and  inspect  the  public  schools.  In  1 807, 
the  rate  of  school  assessment  was  increased;  and, 
in  1818,  was  fixed  at  $90;  in  1840,  it  was 
raised  to  8100  ;  and  by  further  change,  in  1870, 
to  $350.  for  each  dollar  of  the  apportionment  for 
state  taxes.  Provision  was  made  for  a  state  lit- 
erary fund  in  1821,  which  was  created  from  the 
iucome  arising  from  a  tax  of  one  half  of  one  per 
cent  upon  the  capital  of  all  banking  corporations 
in  the  state.  In  1827,  the  school  law  was  re- 
vised, and  fitted  to  the  wants  of  the  people.  It 
recognized  the  office  of  a  superintending  school 
committee  in  each  of  the  several  towns,  who 
were  required  to  examine  and  license  teachers, 
visit  and  inspect  schools,  select  school  books,  etc. 
District  or  prudential  committees  were  chosen, 
who  constituted  the  legal  agency  to  hire  teach- 


ers, and  to  hav3  the  care  of  the  school  property. 
In  1846,  a  law  was  passed  providing  for  the  es- 
tablishment and  support  of  teachers'  institutes 
in  each  county,  which  continued  in  force,  with 
little  interruption,  until  1*74.  when  the  law  was 
repealed.  A  stringent  law.  made  more  effective 
by  further  legislation,  was  enacted  in  1848,  for 
the  purpose  of  securing  public  instruction  to 
children  engaged  as  factory  operatives.  Another 
important  act  of  that  year  established  the  office 
of  state  commissioner  of  common  schools,  'lhis 
office  was  modified  four  years  later,  and  a  state 
board  of  education  was  established,  to  consist  of 

a  commissioner  of  scl Is  for  each  county  ;  and. 

in  1K67,  a  further  change  took  place,  creating 
the  office  of  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
the  governor  and  the  eounc  il  with  the  superintend- 
ent to  constitute  the  board  of  education.  In 
1874,  the  state  board  was  abolished,  and  the  duties 
of  the  superintendent  were  somewhat  enlarged. 
In  1870,  a  law  was  enacted,  establishing  a  state 
normal  school  ;  and  another  act,  in  the  same 
year,  required  that  all  children  between  the  ages 
of  5  and  15  years,  unless  excused  by  reason  of 
ill  health,  should  attend  a  publicsehool  or  receive 
private  instruction,  at  least  12  weeks  annually. 
An  act  of  1*72  ordained  that  'female  citizens  of 
adult  age  may  hold  the  office,  and  discharge  the 
duties  of  prudential  committee  in  any  district,  or 
of  superintending  school  committee."  The  state 
school  officers  haw  been  as  follows:  1 1 )  ( 'ommis- 
sioners  of  common  schools. — (  harks  I',.  I  laddock. 
D.D.,  1846—7;  and  KichardS.  Rust,  1847—50. 
(2)  Secri  tariesqf  board  of  county  commission!  rs: 
the  office  of  state  commissioner  was  succeeded, 
in  1850.  by  the  board  of  county  commissioners 
of  common  schools,  who  organized  annually, 
electing  a  chairman  and  a  secretary,  of  whom  the 
latter  was  the  chief  officer  of  the  board,  and  pre- 
pared the  report  to  the  state.  The  successive 
secretaries  were.  John  S.  Woodman,  A.  M., 
1850—51 ;  Hall  Roberts.  A.M.,  1851 — 4;  Rev. 
King  S.  Hall,  1854— 5  ;  Jonathan  Jenney.  A.  M., 
1855—7;  James  W.  Patterson,  A.M.,  1857—61; 
William  D.  Knapp,  1S61 — 2;  John  Wingate, 
Jr.,  A.  M„  1862—3 ;  Rev.  Roger  M.  Sargent, 
A.M.,  1863—4;  Rev.  ( 'harles  A.  Downs,  1 864—5; 
George  W.  Cate,  1865—6;  Rev.  R.  M.  Sargent 
[second  term).  1866 — 7.  During  the  first  two 
years  of  the  existence  of  this  office,  the  cause  of 
education  made  considerable  progress,  in  effecting 
which  the  teachers'  institutes,  conducted  with 
great  ability  and  efficiency,  were  an  important 
auxiliary.  The  annual  reports  of  the  first  five 
secretaries  are  especially  referred  to  as  documents 
of  permanent  value.  (3)  State  superintendents: 
in  lsOT.the  office  of  commissioner  was  abolished, 
and  that  of  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction was  instituted,  which  has  been  filled  by 
the  following  persons:  Amos  Hadlev.  A.M.,  1867 
—9;  Rev.  Anthony  C.  Hardy,  1869—71;  John 
W.  Simonds.  A.  M.,  1871— 3;  Daniel  G.  Beede, 
who  held  office  for  only  six  months,  when  Mr. 
Simonds  was  re-appointed,  and  is  still  in  office 
(1876).  —  The  teachers'  institutes,  suspended  for 
a  few  years,  were  revived  during  Mr.  Hadley's 


626 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE 


terra,  and  were  continued  under  Supt.  Hardy 
and  during  the  first  term  of  Supt.  Simonds  ;  but 
during  Supt.  Beede's  term  (July,  1874)  they 
were  abolished. — Many  interesting  changes  have 
occurred  in  regard  to  the  character  of  the  teachers 
employed  in  the  state.  For  the  first  century  and 
a  half,  the  teachers  were  almost  exclusively  males; 
and  the  school-masters  employed  were  well  edu- 
cated. They  were  characterized  by  inflexible 
severity  in  the  maintenance  of  discipline  ;  and 
flogging  was  a  common  practice.  The  methods 
of  instruction  employed  were  mechanical,  and 
the  text-books  crude;  among  the  latter,  the  most 
noted  were  the  Columbian  Orator,  the  American 
Preceptor,  the  English  Reader,  Dillworth's 
Speller,  and  Webster's  SpeUing-Book,  with  Da- 
boll's  or  Pike's  Arithmetic.  In  1758,  the  town  of 
Newton  made  provision  for  employing  "school- 
dames" ;  but  the  school-mistress  was  not  recog- 
nized by  the  laws  of  the  state  till  1808.  In  their 
infancy,  and  on  account  of  poverty,  many  towns 
were  compelled  to  hire  female  teachers,  but  the 
prevailing  ideas  were  against  that  practice.  The 
legal  qualification  of  the  mistress  was  limited, 
by  an  act  passed  in  1808,  "to  teaching  the  various 
sounds  and  powers  of  the  letters  of  the  English 
language,  reading,  writing,  and  English  gram- 
mar." Masters  were  further  required,  by  the  same 
law,  to  teach  "arithmetic,  geography,  and  such 
other  branches  as  may  be  necessary  to  teach  in 
an  English  school."  After  the  Revolution,  many 
foreign  emigrants  became  school-masters,  and  so 
continued  for  several  years,  often  performing 
excellent  service.  The  wages  of  masters,  previ- 
ous to  the  present  century,  varied  from  $-1  to  $10 
per  month,  with  board,  which  was  usually  "given" 
by  the  families  who  patronized  the  school.  The 
mistress  received  from  fifty  cents  to  one  dollar 
and  a  half  per  week,  with  board.  For  about  two 
hundred  years,  the  division  of  towns  into  school- 
districts  was  unknown,  the  situation  of  the  school 
depending  upon  the  location  of  the  population, 
not  upon  any  territorial  limit.  The  teacher  went 
from  one  section  of  the  town  to  another,  holding 
a  school  wherever  pupils  could  be  found  ;  and 
when  the  people  required  the  services  of  more 
than  one  teacher,  they  were  divided  into  classes, 
or  "squadrons."  Although,  in  1805,  the  towns 
were  empowered  to  form  school-districts,  the 
work  of  subdivision  was  not  completed  until 
1843,  when  an  act  peremptorily  ordered  it.  For 
a  time  the  district  system  worked  well ;  but,  in 
1870,  the  legislature  passed  a  permissory  act, 
authorizing  any  town  to  abolish  the  division 
into  school-districts,  and  to  organize  the  whole 
town  as  a  single  district.  This  act  has  been 
adopted  in  several  of  the  towns.  A  compulsory 
attendance  law,  passed  in  June,  1871,  went  into 
operation  July  14.,  the  same  year. 

School  System.  —  The  state  superintendent  is 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  public-school  system. 
With  limited  powers  and  means,  he  is  expected 
to  "guide  and  direct  the  interests  of  popular 
education."  He  prepares  and  distributes  the 
school  registers  and  blanks  for  statistical  reports; 
and  is  required  to  make  a  report  to  the  general 


court,  containing  an  "abstract  of  the  returns  of 
school  committees,"  a  "detailed  report  of  his  own 
doings,  and  the  condition  and  progress  of  popu- 
lar education  in  the  state."  Each  town  has  a 
superintending  school  committee,  chosen  by  the 
people  "  in  such  manner,  for  such  terms,  with 
such  title,  and  such  powers  relating  to  schools, 
as  they  may  think  proper."  These  committees 
are  required  to  examine  and  license  teachers, 
visit  and  inspect  schools,  select  school  books,  and 
report  in  writing  upon  the  condition  of  the 
schools,  at  the  annual  town  meeting.  They  may 
also,  when  necessary,  withdraw  teachers'  certifi- 
cates, and  dismiss  teachers  and  scholars.  No 
teacher  can  receive  pay  from  the  treasurer  who 
cannot  produce  a  certificate  of  license  from  the 
committee.  Teachers  of  common  schools  must 
be  examined  in  reading,  spelling,  writing,  English 
grammar,  arithmetic,  and  the  elements  of  geog- 
raphy and  history,  and  in  other  branches  usual- 
ly taught  in  these  schools.  The  school  committee 
may  prescribe  for  any  school,  when,  in  their  judg- 
ment, it  may  be  proper,  the  study  of  surveying, 
geometry,  algebra,  book-keeping,  philosophy, 
chemistry,  natural  history,  and  physiology,  or  any 
of  them,  and  other  suitable  studies;  and  teach- 
ers, proposing  to  teach  in  such  schools,  must  be 
examined  in  those  branches.  Applicants  hold- 
ing certificates  of  graduation  from  the  state  nor- 
mal school,  may  teach  in  the  public  schools, 
without  further  examination,  in  those  blanches 
which  are  covered  by  such  certificates.  The 
cities  of  Concord.  Dover,  Manchester,  Nashua, 
Keene,  and  Portsmouth  have  each  a  city  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction.  In  each  district, 
there  is  a  prudential  committee,  chosen  at  the- 
annual  meeting,  whose  duties  are  to  employ  and 
pay  teachers,  and  have  the  care  and  safe-keeping 
of  the  school  property  of  the  district.  A  number 
of  the  members  of  both  superintending  and  pru- 
dential committees  are  women.  The  selectmen 
in  each  town,  and  the  assessors  of  each  city  are 
required,  in  April  of  each  year,  to  make  an  enu- 
meration of  the  children  of  each  sex  between  the 
ages  of  5  and  15  years,  in  their  respective  towns 
and  cities,  and  to  report  the  result  to  the  school 
committee  of  the  town  or  city. 

School  Revenue. — The  public  schools,  free  to 
all  attending  them,  draw  their  support  from  three 
sources ;  namely,  taxation,  the  state  literary  fund, 
and  the  income  from  local  funds.  Towns  are  re- 
quired to  raise  by  taxation  at  least  $350  for  each 
dollar  of  the  apportionment  to  the  town  for 
the  state  tax.  Towns  and  districts  are  author- 
ized to  raise  by  vote  larger  sums  for  the  support 
of  schools;  and  towns  are  authorized  to  appro- 
priate money  from  the  tax  on  railroads.  The  un- 
expended balance  of  the  tax  upon  dogs  is  devoted 
to  the  support  of  schools,  at  the  expiration  of 
every  two  years.  The  state  literary  fund  is  dis- 
bursed to  the  towns  in  proportion  to  the  number 
of  scholars  attending  the  schools.  The  income 
from  local  funds  arises  from  the  interest  on  the 
donations  of  individuals  to  towns  and  school- 
districts,  the  original  gifts  of  "school  lots,"  and 
the  contributions  of  individuals  in  order  to  pro- 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


627 


long  the  schools.  The  moneys  received  from  town 
taxes  and  the  literary  fund  are  disbursed  to  the 
several  districts  in  proportion  to  their  valuation, 
or  in  such  other  manner  as  the  town  may  deter- 
mine. The  revenue  from  the  tax  on  dogs  is  di- 
vided equally  among  the  districts.  The  various 
amounts  derived  from  local  funds  are  expended 
agreeably  to  the  conditions  of  the  gift. 

Educational  Condition. — The  whole  number 
of  organized  school-districts  in  the  state,  in  1876, 
was  2,102;  of  districts  formed  under  a  special  act, 
31.  The  total  number  of  schools  was  2,498  ;  the 
number  of  graded  schools.  -ISM,  of  which  18  were 
town  high  schools,  and  2 1  district  high  schools. 
The  number  of  school-houses  was  2,223.  The 
amount  of  school  revenue  for  the  year  1875  was 
as  follows : 

Raised  by  town  taxes $465,186 

liaise. 1  liv  district  taxes 71,600 

Literary  fund 24.600 

Local  hinds 32,316 

Railroad  tax 5,781 

Dog  tax  and  contributions 15.460 

Other  sources 37.741 

Total $652,714 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 

For  teachers'  salaries $450,440 

"     new  buildings 110,709 

"    permanent  repairs 31,880 

"     miscellaneous  expenses 75.017 

Total $668,046 

The   following   are   the   principal    additional 
items   of  school  statistics   for  the   year   ending 
March  14.,  1876: 
Number  of  children  between  the  ages 

of  6  and  15  (April,  1875),  males,       37,314 
females,    34.008 

Total 71,322 

Number  enrolled  in  the  public  schools  (1876). .  .66,690 

"     of  those  enrolled  pursuing  higher  branches    4,082 

Average  daily  attendance 48,857 

Number  of  pupils  attending  academies  and 

select  schools 4,982 

Average  length  of  the  public-school  year.  18.75  weeks 
Number  of  teachers  employed,  males 555 

"  "  "  females. . . .  3.107 

Total 3,662 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers,  males $41.03 

"  "  "  "        females $25.72 

Normal  Instruction. — The  state  normal  school, 
established  by  a  legislative  enactment,  in  1871, 
is  located  at  Plymouth.  Two  courses  of  study 
are  provided,  extending  over  one  year  and  two 
years,  respectively.  Certificates  of  graduation 
from  these  courses  entitle'  the  holders  to  teach, 
the  former  for  a  term  of  three  years,  the  latter 
for  five  years.  The  school  is  managed  by  a  board 
of  trustees,  and  taught  by  a  principal  and  4  as- 
sistants. Teachers'  institutes  were  formerly  held 
in  the  different  towns  ;  but,  in  1874.  they  were 
abolished  by  state  law.  Supt.  Simonds,  in  his 
annual  report  for  1875,  strongly  recommends 
the  general  court  "to  appropriate  a  sum  for  the 
proper  expenses  of  teachers  institutes  to  be  held 
under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  at  times  and  places  approved 
by  the  governor  of  the  state." 

Secondary  Instruction. — This  grade  of  instruc- 
tion is  represented  chiefly  by  the  academies  and 


public  high  schools.  The  former  are  usually  in- 
corporated. The  necessary  buildings  and  appur- 
tenances have  been  furnished  by  individual  liber- 
ality ;  but  the  schools  are  sustained  by  the  tui- 
tion fees  received  from  students,  and  the  income 
from  endowments.  Phillips  Academy,  at  Ex- 
eter, chartered  1781,  was  the  first  established  in 
the  state ;  but  academies  were  chartered  and 
opened  at  Ipswich,  Chesterfield,  Atkinson,  and 
Gilmanton  before  the  close  of  the  last  century  ; 
and.  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century, 
academies  were  established  in  nearly  all  the  larger 
towns  of  the  state.  Many  of  these  have  been 
displaced  by  the  higher  grades  of  public  schools. 
During  the  year  1876,  the  number  of  academies 
in  active  operation  was  47,  several  of  which  are 
permanently  endowed  with  commodious  build- 
ings, and  supplied  with  excellent  instructors  and 
all  the  necessary  appliances  for  efficient  work. 
Phillips  Academy,  at  Exeter,  and  St.  Paul's 
School,  at  Concord,  for  males  exclusively,  are 
devoted  to  the  work  of  fitting  their  students  for 
college ;  the  other  academies  are  open  to  pupils 
of  cither  sex.  and  furnish  the  means  of  a  com- 
mon, higher  English,  classical,  and  ornamental 
education.  The  Adams  Female  Academy,  at 
East  Perry,  the  first  incorporated  school  of  its 
class  in  New  England.  Tilden  Seminary,  at 
West  Lebanon,  and  the  Robinson  Female  Semi- 
nary, at  Exeter,  are  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
education  of  females.  The  number  of  high 
schools  proper,  maintained  at  public  expense,  is 
3!1,  including  \\\  town  high  schools,  and  20  dis- 
trict high  schools.  The  report  of  the  state  super- 
intendent for  1876  enumerated  8 (i  high  schools, 
seminaries,  academies,  etc.,  affording  higher  in- 
struction to  5,418  pupils.  Several  of  these  insti- 
tutions are  classical  or  preparatory  schools  ;  and 
there  is  one  business  college,  at  Manchester,  hav- 
ing 286  male  students,  and  90  female  students. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools.— Sev- 
eral of  the  academies  are  fostered  by  distinctive 
religious  denominations,  prominent  among  which 
may  be  named,  Kimball  Union  Academy,  at 
Meriden,  Gilmanton  Academy,  and  Pinkerton 
Academy,  at  Deny,  which  are  under  the  control 
of  the  Congregationalists ;  the  New  Hampton 
Conference  Seminary  and  Female  ( 'ollege.  at  Til- 
ton,  under  the  Methodists ;  the  New  Hampton 
Literary  Institution,  under  the  Freewill  Baptists; 
the  New  London  Literary  and  Scientific  Institu- 
tion, under  the  Baptists  :  and,  St.  Paul's  School, 
at  Concord,  under  the  Episcopalians.  In  the  city 
of  Manchester,  the  Roman  Catholics  support 
parochial  schools  for  the  education  of  their  chil- 
dren. These  schools  are  graded.  Mt.  St.  Mary's 
Academy  is  designed  for  the  higher  education  of 
females. 

Superior  Instruction,  etc. — Dartmouth  College 
(q.  v.),  at  Hanover,  "the  pride  of  the  state,  is 
the  sole  representative  of  this  grade  of  instruc- 
tion. In  1796,  a  medical  department  was  organ- 
ized: and,  more  recently  (1852).  scientific  schools 
(Chandler  Scientific  Department),  besides  which 
there  is  the  Thayer  School  of  Civil  Engineering, 
organized  in  1870,  and  the  New  Hampshire  Col- 


til'S 


NEW   JERSEY 


lege  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts,  estab- 
lished by  the  legislature,  in  1866.  on  the  basis  of 
the  congressional  land  grant,  and  as  a  depart- 
ment of  Dartmouth  ( 'ollege. 

The  State  Teachers'  Association,  incorporated 


During  the  first  years  of  its  existence,  it  held 
two  meetings  annually,  in  the  spring  and  in  the 
fall,  in  different  sections  of  the  state ;  but,  later, 
only  one  annual  meeting  has  been  held.  Many 
of  the  most  important  measures  connected  with 
the  progress  of  education  in  the  state  have  ema- 
nated from  its  discussions  ;  sucli  as  the  creation 
of  the  olfiee  of  state  superintendent,  the  establish- 
ment of  the  state  normal  school,  etc.  For  a  few 
years,  the  association  maintained  a  state  journal 
of  education. 

NEW  JERSEY,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  the  first  settle- 
ment in  which  by  Europeans  is  supposed  to  have 
been  made,  about  1618,  at  Bergen,  by  a  detach- 
ment of  the  Dutch  settlers  of  New  Amsterdam. 
Its  area  is  8,320  sq.  m.;  and  its  population,  in 
1870,  was  906,096,  of  whom  30,658  were  colored, 
16  Indians,  and  15  Chinese. 

Etliirttlhmid  Hixtor//.  —  The  history  of  the 
school  system  in  New  Jersey  begins  just  one 
hundred  years  prior  to  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. The  Presbyterians  and  I  longregation- 
alists,  who  were  the  earliest  immigrants  under 
English  authority,  came  to  this  province  bring- 
ing preachers  and  school-teachers  with  them. 
By  the  side  of  the  log  church,  the  primitive 
school-house  was  erected;  and  schools,  supervised 
and  supported  by  the  church  authorities,  were 
established  in  the  early  settlements  of  Newark, 
Woodbridge,  Elizabeth,  Middletown,  Freehold, 
Shrewsbury,  Piscataway,  Perth  Amboy,  and 
other  places  in  East  New  Jersey.  The  pioneers 
in  West  New  Jersey  were  Quakers.  To  them 
the  school-house  was  scarcely  second  in  import- 
ance to  the  church  or  meeting-house,  and  both 
were  usually  under  the  same  roof.  The  earliest 
record  of  any  action  of  a  public  nature  for  the 
establishment  of  schools  is  dated  November  21., 
1676,  when  the  people  of  the  town  of  Newark 
resolved  at  town  meeting,  "  that  the  town's  men 
have  liberty  to  see  if  they  can  find  a  competent 
number  of  schollars,  and  accommodations  for  a 
school  master."  "The  town's  men"  found  the 
'•competent  number  of  schollars",  accordingly, 
and  made  partial  arrangements  for  the  employ- 
ment of  a  'school-master."  Further  instructions 
were  given  at  the  next  town  meeting,  in  the 
form  of  the  following  resolution:  "The  town  hath 
consented  that  the  town's  men  should  perfect  the 
bargain  with  the  school-master  for  this  year, 
upon  condition  that  he  will  come  for  this  year, 
and  do  his  faithful,  honest,  and  true  endeavor 
to  teach  the  children  or  servants  of  those  who 
have  subscribed,  the  reading  and  writing  of  En- 
glish, and  also  of  arithmetick  if  they  desire  it,  as 
much  ms  they  are  capable  to  learn,  and  lie  ca- 
pable to  teach  them,  within  the  compass  of  this 
year;  nowise  hindering  but  that  he  may  make 


what  bargain  he  please  with  those  as  have  not 
subscribed."  From  this  date,  the  people  of  the 
town  of  Newark  never  failed  to  provide  for  the 
schooling  of  their  children.  The  superior  claims 
of  the  church,  however,  were  recognized;  as  ap- 
pears from  the  following  order  given  in  town 
meeting,  September  2s. ,  1714  :  "Ordered  by  vote 
that  ye  old  floor  in  ye  meeting  house  should  be 
made  use  of  for  ye  making  a  floor  in  ye  school- 
house  in  the  middle  of  ye  town."  In  March. 
1689,  the  town  people  of  Woodbridge  resolved, 
"that  James  Fullertou  should  be  entertained  as 
school-master;"  and.  in  1694,  we  are  informed 
that  John  Brown  was  engaged  at  a  salary  of 
£24  steriing  to  keep  a  free  school  for  the  next 
year.  In  1701,the  people  of  Woodbridge  further 
resolved  that  a  piece  of  land,  "about  10  rods," 
be  allowed  for  a  school-house, "provided  it  did 
not  prejudice  the  highway."  As  early  as  1667, 
George  Fox  advised  his  brethren  in  Sew  Jersey 
to  establish  boarding-schools,  "that  young  men 
of  genius,  in  low  circumstances,  may  be  furnished 
with  means  to  procure  requisite  education,"  and 
the  Shackelwell  school  was  opened  about  this 
time,  "for  the  teaching  of  whatsoever  things 
were  civil  and  useful  in  creation."  In  16s.'!,  an 
island  in  the  Delaware,  opposite  the  settlement 
of  Burlington  was  set  apart  for  educational  pur- 
poses, the  revenue  derived  from  the  rent  or  sale 
of  which  was  reserved  for  the  education  of 
children  in  the  adjoining  settlements.  The  in- 
come of  the  fund  thus  derived  is  still  used  to  as- 
sist the  cause  of  education  by  the  school  officers 
of  the  present  city  of  Burlington.  This  was  the 
first  school  fund  established  in  the  province,  and, 
it  is  believed,  in  America.  The  first  school  law 
of  the  state  was  enacted  by  the  general  assembly 
of  East  New  Jersey,  at  Perth  Amboy,  on  the  12th 
of  October,  1693.  It  reads  as  follows  :  "Where- 
as the  cultivating  of  learning  and  good  manners 
tends  greatly  to  the  good  and  benefit  of  man- 
kind, which  hath  hitherto  been  much  neglected 
within  this  province,  Be  it,  therefore,  enacted  by 
the  governor,  council,  and  deputies  in  general 
assembly  now  met  and  assembled,  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  same,  that  the  inhabitants  of 
any  town  within  this  province  shall  and  may, 
by  warrant  from  a  justice  of  peace  of  that  county, 
when  they  think  fit  and  convenient,  meet  to- 
gether and  make  choice  of  three  more  men  of 
said  town,  to  make  a  rate  for  the  salary  and  main- 
tenance of  a  school-master  within  the  said  town, 
for  so  long  time  as  they  think  fit ;  and  the  con- 
sent and  agreement  of  the  major  part  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  said  town  shall  bind  and  oblige 
the  remaining  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  said 
town  to  satisfy  and  pay  their  shares  and  propor- 
tion of  the  said  rate;  and,  in  case  of  refusal  or 
non-payment,  distress  to  be  made  upon  the  goods 
and  chattels  of  such  person  or  persons  so  refus- 
ing or  not  paying,  by  the  constable  of  the  said 
town,  by  virtue  of  a  warrant  from  a  justice  of 
the  peace  of  that  county,  and  the  distress  so  to 
be  sold  at  public  vendue,  and  the  overplus,  if 
any  be  after  payment  of  the  said  rate  and  char- 
ges, to  be  returned  to  the  owner."    In  1695,  this 


NEW   ,1  HUSKY 


6  lii) 


act  was  amended,  providing  that  three  men 
should  be  chosen  yearly  in  each  separate  town 
to  have  "power  to  appoint  t  hi-  most  convenient 

place  or  places  where  the  school  shall  be  kept. 
that  as  near  as  may  be  the  whole  inhabitants 
may  have  the  benefit  thereof."  Under  the  opera- 
tion of  this  law.  schools  were  established  in  all 
parts  of  the  province,  whenever  a  majority  of 
the  inhabitants  desired  them.  The  first  step  to- 
ward the  establishment  of  a  state  school  fund 
was  the  passage  of  an  act,  on  the  ',*th  of  February, 

1816,  which  directed  the  treasurer  to  invest  in 
the  public  6  per  cent  stocks  of  the  United  States 
the  sum  of  Sla.OOII,  which  arose  from  the  pay- 
ment of  the  funded  debt,  and  from  the  dividends 
of  the  stocks  held  by  the  state  in  the  Trenton 
Bank.  and.  at  the  end  of  every  year  to  invest  the 
interest  on  the  capital  in  the  same  manner.  This 
sum  was  increased  by  an  act  of  the  legislature  in 

1817.  In  1818.  the  governor,  the  vice-presi  lent  of 
councils,  the  speaker  of  the  assembly,  the  attor- 
ney-general, and  the  secretary  of  the  common- 
wealth were  appointed  "  trustees  for  the  control 
and  management  of  the  fund  for  the  support  of 
free  schools."  The  whole  amount  of  th  i  fun  I 
was  then  increased  to  the  sum  of  $113,238.78. 
En  1820, a  law  was  passed  authorizing  the  inhab- 
itants of  any  township  to  raise  by  taxation 
money  for  the  education  of  paupers  and  the 
children  of  such  poor  parents  residing  in  the 
township  as  are,  in  the  judgment  of  the  township 
committee,  unable  to  pay  for  schooling  the  same. 
This  was  the  first  general  act  «  hich  authorized 
the  township  to  raise  money  for  the- support  of 
schools.  The  idea  that  the  money  raised  under  this 
law  was  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  educating 
paupers  and  poor  children  only,  became  general 
at  this  time,  and  remained  a  feature  of  all  school 

enacl nts  in  the  state  till  the  year   L838      In 

1824,  the  legislature  provided  that  one-tenth  of 
all  the  state  taxes  should  e\erv  vear  be  added  to 
the  school  fund:  and.  four  year,'  later,  the  people 
were  authorized  to  raise  funds  in  town  meetings, 
to  erect  or  repair  school-houses.  In  1828,  a 
"central  committee"  on  e  lucal  ion  was  appointed 
by  a  convention  held  at  Trenton,  to  canvass  the 
state  and  collect  statistics  from  every  county 
and  committees  were  appointed  in  the  ivi  r, 
counties,  and  in  the  majority  of  townships,  to 
aid  the  central  committee.  A.  summing  up  of 
the  reports  of  these  committees  revealed  the  fact 
that  more  than  one-third  of  the  children  in  the 
state  were  without  schooling  of  any  kind.  One 
of  the  county  reports  made  at  that  time  was  re- 
markable from  the  fact  that  in  it  was  embodied 
the  idea  of  a  normal  school.  Among  other  sug- 
gestions, the  chairman  of  the  Essex  county  com- 
mittee said  :  "I  very  much  wish  that  some  plan 
of  improvement  may  be  attempted  to  raise  the 
tone  of  feeling  respecting  our  common  schools. 
I  have  thought  of  no  plan  better  than  to  estab- 
lish a  high  school  for  the  sole  purpose  of  educat- 
ing young  men  tor  teachers."  The  result  of  the 
labors  of  this  "central  committee"  was  an  awak- 
ened public  interest,  which  led  to  the  passage  of 
the  school  law  of  182'J  —  the  first  comprehensh  e 


and  practical  school  enactment  of  the  state  legis- 
lature. This  provided  for  an  annual  appropri- 
ation of  S20.IMM1,  to  be  apportioned  for  school 
purposes  among  the  several  counties  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  taxes  paid  by  each.  It 
also  provided  for  the  election  of  school  commit- 
tees in  each  township,  who  were  required  to  di- 
vide the  township  into  convenient  school-districts, 
to  examine  and  license  teachers,  to  visit  and  in- 
spect the  schools  at  least  once  every  six  months, 
ami  to  make  a  report  of  their  condition,  which 
report  was  read  at  the  annual  town  meeting,  and 
was  then  sent  to  the  governor  to  be  laid  before 
the  legislature.  They  were  also  empowered  to 
call  annual  district  meetings,  at  which  three 
trustees  were  chosen,  whose  duty  it  was  to  pro- 
vide suitable  school-houses,  and  to  determine 
how  many  months  during  the  year  the  schools 
should  be  kept  open.  They  also  prepared  a  list 
of  children  in  the  district  between  the  ages  of  4 
and  16  years,  which  was  used  as  the  basis  for  the 
apportionment  of  the  public  money.  In  1831, the 
act  of  1829  was  repealed,  and  a  new  law  enacted, 
the  most  important  features  of  which  were  that 
the  state  appropriation  should  lie  applied,  to  the 
education  of  poor  children  exclusively,  and  that 
the  public  money,  which  had  before  been  paid  to 
the  trustees  of  the  school-districts,  should  now 
be  paid  to  the  several  schools  in  the  township, 
whether  they  were  public,  private,  or  parochial. 
This  latter  change  was  made  in  obedience  to  the 
demands  of  the  religious  denominations  of  the 
state,  under  whose  auspices  schools  had  been 
established  throughout  the  state.  By  this  law, 
also,  district  boundary  lines  were  abolished,  and 
teachers  were  not  required  to  be  examined.  In 
ls.'is,  the  dissatisfaction  with  the  school  system 
was  so  general  that  a  convention  was  called  to 
reorganize  it.  This  convention  assembled  at 
Trenton,  on  the  16th  of  January,  and  appointed 
a  committee  to  issue  an  address  to  the  people. 
The  result  of  this  spirited  action  was,  that,  the 
legislature,  thoroughly  informed  of  the  temper 
of  the  people,  repealed  the  pernicious  act  of 
1831,  and  re-enacted  a  law,  which  contained,  in 
an  improved  form,  all  the  characteristic  features 
of  the  act  of  1829.  The  slate  appropriation  was 
increased  to  $30,000;  district  boundaries  were 
restored;  money  was  appropriated  to  districts 
for  the  benefit  of  the  public  schools  exclusively  ; 
and  townships  were  recpiired  to  raise  by  taxation, 
for  school  purposes,  a  sum  equal  to  double  the 
amount  received  from  the  state.  The  minimum 
age  of  school  children  was  changed  from  4  years 
to  5;  and  a  board  of  examiners  for  each  county 
was  created,  with  authority  to  examine  teachers 
and  to  i<sue  county  certificates.  No  reference  u.i  < 
made  to  pauper  or  poor  children.  In  1845,  a 
supplementary  act  was  passed,  authorizing  the 
trustees  of  the  school  fund  to  appoint  a  state  "> 
superintendent  of  public  schools  for  the  counties 
of  Essex  and  Passaic;  but  other  counties  might, 
at  any  time,  come  under  the  provisions  of  the  law 
by  resolution  of  the  board  of  freeholders.  The 
jurisdiction  of  the  stale  superintendent  was  not 
extended  over  the  whole  state  til!  1  -  In.     In  thai 


NEW   JERSKY 


year,  all  previous  school  enactments  were  re- 
pealed  ;  and  a  comprehensive  law,  including  the 
must  important  features  of  the  repealed  acts, 
witli  several  new  provisions,  was  enacted.  This 
law  remained  in  force  till  1867.  Its  distinctive 
feature  was  the  creation  of  township  superintend- 
ents, who  were  required,  in  addition  to  other 
duties,  to  visit  the  schools  once  every  quarter, 
and  to  make  a  report  of  their  condition  to  the 
state  superintendent.  In  1851,  the  annual  appro- 
priation was  increased  to  $40,000.  The  act  of  that 
year  provided,  also,  that  the  public  money  should 
lie  apportioned  to  the  counties  in  the  ratio  of 
their  population,  and  to  the  townships  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  children  between  the  ages 
of  5  aud  18  years  ;  and  no  township  was  allowed 
to  raise  by  taxation,  for  school  purposes,  more 
than  $3  annually  for  each  child  of  school  age. 
In  1854,  teachers'  institutes  were  established  by 
law,  and  $100  was  annually  appropriated  to  each 
institute.  The  following  year,  the  legislature 
provided  for  the  purchase  of  a  copy  of  Webster's 
Dictionary  for  each  school  in  the  state;  and,  the 
next  year,  for  a  copy  of  Lippincott's  Gazetteer. 
In  1850,  the  normal  school  was  established.  In 
1858,  the  annual  appropriation  was  increased  to 
$80,000.  The  state  board  of  education  was  es- 
tablished in  1866.  It  consisted  of  the  governor, 
attorney-general,  comptroller,  secretary  of  state, 
president  of  the  senate,  speaker  of  the  house,  and 
the  treasurer  and  trustees  of  the  normal  school. 
In  1867  the  act  of  1846  and  its  amendments 
were  repealed,  and  the  law  now  in  force  was  en- 

acted.  In  1871,  all  the  public  schools  of  the  state 

£  were  made  free;  and.  in  1874,  a  compulsory 
school  law  was  enacted,  by  which  every  person 
having  charge  of  achild  between  the  ages  of  8  and 
13  years  is  required  to  see  that  such  child  has, 
at  least,  twelve  weeks'  schooling  in  each  year,  six 
weeks  of  which  must  be  consecutive.  The  state 
superintendents  have  been:  T.P.  King.  18  15  52; 
J.  H.  Phillips,  1852— 60;  F.W.Ricord,1860— 64; 
('.  M.  Harrison,  1864 — 6;  and  Ellis  A.  Apgar, 
from  1866  to  the  present  time  (1876). 

School  System. — The  state  hoard  of  education 
is  intrusted  with  the  educational  interests  of  the 
state.  It  is  composed  of  the  governor,  secretary 
of  state,  attorney -general,  comptroller,  president 
of  the  senate,  speaker  of  the  assembly,  treasurer 
of  the  state  normal  school,  and  the  trustees  of 
the  same,  at  present  14  in  number.  This  board 
exercises  a  general  supervision  over  the  schools, 
appoints  county  superintendents, prescribes  rules 
for  holding  teachers'  institutes,  and  makes  an 
annual  report  to  the  legislature.  It  appoints,  also, 
the  state  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
who  is.  ex  officio,  its  secretary.  His  term  of  office 
is  3  years.  He  is  required  to  have  his  office  in 
the  state  house,  to  exercise  a  general  supervision 
over  the  schools,  and  to  make  an  annual  report 
to  the  state  board.  County  superintendents  are 
required  to  examine  teachers  and  grant  certifi- 
cates, to  apportion  the  school  money,  and  to  per- 
form the  other  duties  usually  devolving  upon 
such  officers.  In  addition  to  the  certificates 
granted  by  county  superintendents,  a  state  board 


of  examiners,  consisting  of  the  state  superin- 
tendent and  the  principal  of  the  normal  school, 
is  authorized  to  grant  certificates  valid  in  any 
part  of  the  state.  County  hoards  of  examin- 
ers, composed  of  the  county  superintendent  and 
.'i  associates  chosen  by  him,  and  examiners  ap- 
pointed by  the  city  boards. of  education,  also 
grant  teachers'  certificates  valid,  respectively,  in 
the  counties  and  cities  where  issued.  Township 
boards  are  composed  of  the  district  trustees  of 
each  township,  and  meet  at  such  times  and 
places  as  the  county  superintendents  designate, 
for  the  purpose  of  consultation  with  the  latter 
in  regard  to  the  management  of  the  schools.  Each 
city  in  the  state  constitutes  one  school-district; 
but,  in  the  country,  a  district  usually  comprises 
only  the  territory  and  inhabitants  necessary  to 
support  one  school. — The  schools  are  supported 
mainly  by  a  direct  state  appropriation,  which 
amounts  to  about  $1. 300.000  annually.  This  sum 
is  raised  by  a  tax  of  2  mills  on  every  dollar  of 
the  property  of  the  state.  In  case  the  amount 
thus  derived  from  the  state,  however,  is  not  suf- 
ficient to  maintain  the  schools  nine  months  in 
the  year,  the  townships  are  still  authorized  to  vote 
school  money  ;  and  the  money  needed  for  build- 
ing and  repairing  school-houses  is  still  raised  by 
district  tax.  The  amount  of  the  permanent 
school  fund  was  largely  increased,  in  1871,  by  a 
gift  from  the  state  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sales  and 
rent  of  all  riparian  lands  between  high  and  low 
water  mark — a  sum  the  future  value  of  which 
has  been  variously  estimated  at  from  $5,000,000 
to  $10.(100,000.  'A  free  library  system  exists  in 
the  public  schools,  and  state  aid  is  extended  to 
such  districts  as  raise  money  for  the  purpose. 
Nearly  100  free-school  libraries  have  been  estab- 
lished in  this  way.  The  school  age  is  from  5  to 
18  years.  Corporal  punishment,  and  all  religious 
exercises,  except  the  reading  of  the  Bible  and  the 
saying  of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  are  forbidden. 

'Educational    Condition.  —  The    number    of 
school-districts,  in  1876,  was  1,368  ;  the  number 
of  school  buildings.  1,532  ;  of  school  departments 
under  the  charge  of  one  teacher  each,  3,046. 
The  school  revenue  for  the  year  1876  was : 
Two  mill  tax  from  the  state. $1,225,462.19 
Additional   state    appropria- 
tion, including  income  from 

permanent  fund 

Township  school  tax 

Interest  of  surplus  revenue. 
District     and     city    tax    for 

teachers'  salaries 

District    and    city    tax    for 
uildings  and  repairs. 


1(10,1100.  on 

2C.54s.50 
:io,52:i.54 


K'.T.TCT.TI) 


Total  appropriated  lor  school  purposes.  .{2, 115,290.27 

Total  value  of  school    property $(>,449,.>1G.00 

School  statistic*  for  the   year  ending  Aug.  31., 
1876  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age  in  the  state  314,82(1 
"         "         "         enrolled  in  public  schools  196,252 

Average  attendance  in  public  schools 111.1,52(1 

Number  attending  private  schools 41,964 

Number  of  teachers,  males 978 

females 2.306 

Total 3,284 


NEW   JKKSKI 


631 


Normal  Instruction.  —  Besides  the  state 
normal  school  at  Trenton,  normal  schools  or 
classes  have  been  established  at  Newark,  Jersey 
City,  Paterson,  and  in  some  other  cities  of  the 
state.  The  state  normal  school,  with  its  adjuncts, 
the  model  school,  and  the  Farnum  preparatory 
school,  at  Beverly,  constitutes  the  special  means 
employed  by  the  state  for  the  education  of 
teachers.  The  normal  school  is  supported  partly 
b>y  an  annual  appropriation  of  $20,000.  The 
course  of  instruction  occupies  3  years.  Graduates 
from  the  advanced  course  receive  Mate  certificates 
of  the  second  grade,  valid  for  7  years  ;  graduates 
from  the  elementary  course  receive  certificates 
of  the  third  grade,  valid  for  5  years.  These 
certificates  entitle  the  holders  to  teach  in  the 
public  schools  of  the  state,  without  further  ex- 
amination. The  number  of  the  former  class,  in 
1875,  was  28  ;  of  the  latter,  14.  The  Farnum 
preparatory  school  receives  aid  from  the  state, 
and  serves  as  a  stepping-stone  to  the  state 
normal  school.  The  students  from  its  normal 
department  receive  no  diplomas,  and  are  not 
authorized  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  without 
examination. 

Secondary  Instruction. — High  schools  in  con- 
nection with  the  public-school  system  have  been 
established  in  Newark,  Jersey  City,  Paterson, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Trenton.  Besides  the 
high  schools  and  academies,  secondary  instruction 
is  given  at  many  of  the  private  schools  and 
seminaries  in  the  state.  Three  business  colleges 
exist  in  the  state,  one  each  at  Trenton,  Newark, 
and  Elizabeth.  Two  of  them,  in  1874,  reported 
10  instructors  and  3:">3  students. 

Private,  Denominational,  an,/  Parochial 
Schools. — The  number  of  non-sectarian  private 
schools  is  240 ;  of  denominational  schools,  106. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  colleges  of  the 
state,  exclusive  of  those  for  females,  are  the 
following: 


NAME 

Location 

°"d 

Denomi- 

Burlington  College 

■College  of  New  Jersey 

Burlington 
Princeton 
N.  Brunswick 
So.  Orange 

1846 
174s 
1771 
1856 

P.  Epis. 

Seton  Hall  College 

ft.  C. 

There  are  five  colleges  for  the  superior  in- 
struction of  women:  St.  Mary's  Hall.  Burling- 
ton ;  Trinity  Hall.  Beverly;  Bordentown  Female 
College  ;  Ivy  Hall.  Bridgeton  ;  and  the  Pennmg- 
ton  Seminary  and  Female  Collegiate  Institute." 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — 
The  John  C.  Green  Schoi  >1  of  Science  is  a  depart- 
ment of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  at  Princeton. 
It  provides  two  courses  of  study,  and  confers 
degrees  expressive  of  proficiency  in  each.  Nearly 
$600,000  have  been  expended  on  this  school,  its 
name  indicating  the  principal  contributor.  The 
scientific  school  of  Rutgers  College,  endowed 
principally  by  the  sale  of  agricultural  land  scrip, 
to  the  amount  of  8116,000,  has  been  constituted 
by  an  act  of  the  legislature  the  college  for  agri- 
culture and  the  mechanic  arts.  It  has  a  course 
In  chemistry  and  agriculture,  and  one  in  civil 


engineering  and  mechanics.  Connected  with  the 
former,  is  a  model  farm,  on  which  the  claims  of 
different  systems  are  put  to  a  practical  test.  State 
Btudente,  t'o  the  number  of  to.  are  admitted  on 
the  recommendation  of  the  counts  superintend- 
ents, and  are  instructed  free  oi  charge.  The 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technology,  at  Uoboken,  was 
founded  by  Edwin  A.  Stevens,  by  a  gift  of  land, 
and  $650,000  for  buildings  and  endowment.  It 
was  opened  in  1871  as  a  school  for  special  scien- 
tific training,  but  provides  instruction  in  other 
branches  as  well.  Connected  with  it  is  a  high 
school,  which  is  designed  as  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment for  the  Institute.  The  latter  has  extensive 
collections,  and  a  library  of  5.000  volumes.  Its 
course  is  4  years,  on  the  completion  of  which  it 
confers  degrees.  'I  he  theological  seminary  of  the 
Reformed  Church  is  substantially  a  department 
of  Rutgers  College,  and  is  the  principal  training 
school  in  the  United  States  for  ministers  of  that 
denomination.  In  1  h74 — 5.  it  reported  4  pro- 
fessors and  3!)  students.  The  theological  semi- 
nary of  the  Presbyterian  (  hurch  at  Princeton 
organized  in  1812.  and  has  a  4  years'  course 


tin'  grad 
for 


of  New  Jersey,  or 
a  classical  educa- 
rs  and  97  students, 
jol  at  Bloonifield 
Presbyterians,  for 
man-speaking  in- 
■apidly  increasing 
ted  States.  It  has 
iepartment,  the 


The   German  Theological  Sc 

was  founded  in  1869,  by  the 
the  purpose  of  providing  G 
structors  for  the  large  and 
German  population  ol  the  I  i 

a  theological,  and  an  academ 
principal  study  in  the  latter  being  the  German 
language.  In  1 874 — 5,  it  had  5  instructors  and 
24  students.  The  Brew  Theological  Seminary, 
at  Madison,  -was  opened  in  1807"  by  a  fund  of 
§250,000,  given  by  Daniel  Drew  for  its  establish- 
ment, to  which  additions  have,  from  time  to 
time,  been  made,  making  a  total  of  nearly 
§1. 000,000.  It  is  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  bishops  of  which 
are.  ex  officio,  members  of  its  board  of  supervision. 
The  grounds  are  95  acres  in  extent.  There  are 
3  seminary  buildings,  besides  professors'  resi- 
dences, and  a  library  containing  12.000  volumes. 
The  introductory  course  is  2  years;  the  regular,  3. 
To  the  latter,  only  college  graduates  are  ad- 
mitted. In  JS74 — 5.  it  reported  9  instructors, 
i)  lecturers,  and  127  students. 

Sjieciit!  Instruction.  No  provision  has  thus 
far  (1876)  been  made  by  the  state  for  the  in- 
struction of  deaf-mutes,  blind,  or  feeble-minded 
persons;  but  about  S  10.00(1  is  annually  expended 
by  the  state  for  their  care  in  the  institutions  of 
other  states.  Their  number,  according  to  an  in- 
quiry instituted  by  the  legislature  in  1873.  was 
500  deaf-mutes,  GOO  blind,  and  more  than  1,000 
feel  ile-minded. 

The  State  Industrial  School  for  Girls  was 
established  at  Trenton  by  an  act  of  the  legislature, 
in  1871,  "for  the  reformation  of  girls  between 
the  ages  of  7  and  16  years."  In  1874,  there  were 
19  inmates.  The  State  Reform  School  was 
opened  at  Jamesburg.  in  1867.  The  institution 
is  rather  reformatory  than  penal,  and,  in  addi- 


i;:J2 


NEW  JERSEY  COLLEGE 


tion  to  moral  training,  provides  intellectual  in- 
struction in  elementary  branches.  In  1874,  the 
total  number  of  its  inmates  was  298;  the  average 
attendance,  184. 

NEW  JERSEY,  Colleg-e  of  (popularly 
called  Princeton  Colleg-e), at  Princeton,  N.  J., 
founded  under  the  auspices  of  the  Presbyterian 
Synod  of  New  York,  which  then  included  New 
Jersey  under  its  jurisdiction,  was  opened  in  .May, 
1747.  at  Elizabethtown  (now  Elizabeth)  and  the 
same  year  was  removed  to  Newark,  whence  it 
was  transferred  to  Princeton,  in  1757,  upon  the 
completion  of  a  college  edifice,  which  at  the 
suggestion  of  Gov.  Belcher  was  named  Nassau 
Hall,  "to  the  immortal  memory  of  the  glorious 
King  William  III.,  of  the  illustrious  house  of 
Nassau."  From  this  circumstance  the  college 
itself  is  often  called  Nassau  Hall.  It  obtained  a 
charter  in  1746.  and  a  more  liberal  one  in  1748. 
The  college  buildings,  including  a  library,  gym- 
nasium, observatory,  society  halls,  and  the  presi- 
dent's house,  besides  various  college  halls,  are 
mostly  of  stone,  and  occupy  a  well-shaded  cam- 
pus on  the  main  street  of  the  town.  The  con- 
tributions to  the  college  within  the  last  eight 
years  amount  to  $1,500,000.  The  college  and 
society  libraries  contain  about  55,000  volumes. 
The  institution  comprises  an  academic  depart- 
ment and  the  John  ( '.  < ! recti  School  of  Science 
(opened  in  1873),  and  has  a  preparatory  school 
connected  with  it.  In  the  academic  depart- 
ment, all  the  studies  of  the  freshman  and  the 
sophomore  year  are  required  ;  in  the  junior  and 
the  senior  year,  a  considerable  range  of  elective 
studies  is  provided.  The  School  of  Science  has 
two  regular  courses,  one  of  two  years,  for  grad- 
uates of  colleges,  on  the  completion  of  which  the 
degree  of  Master  of  Science  is  conferred,  and  the 
other  of  four  years,  for  others,  on  the  comple- 
tion of  which  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science 
is  conferred.  The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  academic 
department  is  $75  per  annum  ;  in  the  School  of 
Science,  $120.  There  are  several  prizes  and 
scholarships  obtainable  by  deserving  students. 
Six  fellowships  hav  •  be  n  established,  four  of 
which  yield  $600  each,  the  other  two  yielding 
$250  each.  These  are  open  for  competition  to 
members  of  the  graduating  class  who  intend  to 
pursue  a  post-graduate  course  of  one  year.  In 
1876,  there  were  18  professors,  6  other  instruct- 
ors, and  483  students  (438  in  the  academic  de- 
partment, and  45  in  the  School  of  Science). 
The  whole  number  of  graduates  is  about  4,850, 
of  whom  nearly  2,750  survive.  The  presidents 
of  the  college  have  been  as  follows  :  Rev.  Jon- 
athan Dickinson,  May  to  Oct..  1747  ;  Rev.  Aaron 
Burr.  I  748 — 57  ;  Rev.  Jonathan  Edwards,  Jan. 
to  March,  1758  ;  Rev.  Samuel  Davies,  1759—61; 
Rev.  Samuel  Finley,  1761  —6;  Rev.  Dr.  John 
W  ithers] n.  1768—94  ;  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Stan- 
hope Smith,  L795  L812 ;  Rev.  Dr.  Ashbel 
Green,  1812—22;  Rev.  Dr.  James  Carnahan, 
1823—54;  Rev.  Dr.  John  Maclean.  1854—68; 
Rev.  Dr.  James  McCosh,  from  L868. 

NEW  JERUSALEM,  Societies  of  the, 
the  name  assumed  by  the  ecclesiastical  organiza- 


NEW   MEXICO 

|  tions  of  the  followers  of  Swedenborg,  the  Swedish 
theosophist,  wdio  died  in  1772.  Swedenborg  him- 
self did  not  make  any  provisions  for  organizing 
his  followers  into  an  independent  religious  body, 
and  the  first  Society  of  the  New  Jerusalem  was 
not  formed  until  178S,  when  Robert  Hindniarsh 
and  otherscstablished  public  worship  in  London. 
At  present,  there  is  a  general  conference  of  the 
New  Church  in  England,  with  about  4,000  mem- 
bers, and  another  in  the  United  States,  which,  in 
1875,  had  about  5,000  members.  There  are,  be- 
sides, a  number  of  independent  societies  in  the 
United  States  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe, 
with  an  aggregate  of  about  1.(100  members.  The 
general  conference  in  the  United  States  founded, 
in  1866,  a  theological  school  at  Waltham,  Mas- 
sachusetts ;  but  no  term  was  held  hi  the  year 
1875 — 6,  as  no  students  applied  for  admission. 
A  college  under  the  control  of  the  Church  was 
chartered,  in  1850,  anil  organized,  in  1851,  at 
Urbana,  ( mio  ;  and,  in  1874,  it  had  14  students. 
There  is  also  a  school  under  the  control  of  the 
general  conference  of  England.  Sunday-schools 
are  connected  with  nearly  all  the  societies,  both 
in  the  United  States  and  in  England. 

NEW  MEXICO,  one  of  the  territories  of 
ihe  United  States,  first  made  known  to  Euro- 
peans, about  1537,by  the  visit  of  a  Spanish  expedi- 
diton  under  Alvar  Nunez.  It  was  ceded  to  the 
United  States  in  1 848,  at  the  close  of  the  Mexii  an 
war.  ami  was  organized  as  a  territory  in  1850. 
Its  area  is  121.201  sq.  m.;  its  population,  in  I  -To. 
was  91,874,  of  whom  90,393  were  whites;  172 
colored  persons:  and  1,309,  non-tribal  Indians. 

Eduction,,!  History.  —  Provision  was  first 
made  for  giving  elementary  instruction  to  the 
youth  of  the  province  of  New  Mexico  in  1822. 
Owing  to  the  sparsely  settled  condition  of  the 
country,  and  to  the  fact  that  the  peons,  or  serfs, 
not  included  within  the  privileges  of  the  act, 
constituted  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants  in  the 
country  districts,  the  operation  of  the  law  was 
confined  to  the  cities  and  towns.  The  salaries 
of  the  teachers  were  small,  those  in  the  capital 
being  paid  by  appropriations  from  the  public 
treasury;  while  those  in  the  country  wen  paid, 
by  the  district  officers,  from  money  taken  either 
from  the  general  treasury,  or  derived  from  local 
taxation.  Under  this  system,  no  permanent  in- 
stitution of  learning  was  founded.  In  1852.  bow- 
ever,  the  Academy  of  Our  Lady  of  Light  was 
established  at  Santa  Fe  by  the  Sisters  of  Loretto; 
and,  from  an  experimental  beginning,  with  7 
boarders  and  a  few  other  scholars,  it  has  now 
become  firmly  established  as  a  permanent  insti- 
tution, with  an  influence  which  has  not  only  led 
to  the  establishment  of  branch  schools  under  its 
own  direction,  but  to  the  foundation  of  other 
independent  schools  in  various  parts  of  the  ter- 
ritory. In  1855,  and  again  in  1861,  attempts 
were  made  by  the  legislature  to  organize  a  system 
of  public  schools  by  general  taxation;  but  the 
public  sentiment  of  thepeople  was  opposed  to 
the  measure,  and  the  laws  were  repealed.  No 
other  school  law  was  enacted  till  1871 — 2.  In 
that  year,  the  assembly  passed  an  act,  which  was 


NEW   MEXICO 


NEW   OKLEANS 


ratified  by  the  people  at  (In-  polls,  and.  which, 
with  slight  modifications,  iu  L873 — 1.  is  the  pres- 
ent public-school  law  of  the  territory.  In  accord- 
ance with  recommendations  made  by  the  gov- 
ernor, in  1875,  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  coun- 
cil, proposing  a  non-sectarian  system  of  public- 
school  education,  but  it  was  defeated  in  the 
house  by  a  vote  of  14  to  LO. 

School  System. — The  school  law  provides  thai 
the  educational  interests  of  the  state  shall  be  in 


A\it:i'_"'  ti-.ii'lu-r-    «  i:k  [leriiiiintli $1G.5S 

Numbei  ol  public  -  I Is  supported  out  of 

tin-  -i-ImiiiI  lun. I.  I. ut    i-oiitrulleil   liv    re- 
ligious societies  ' 10 

Private  and  Parochial  Schools.— Under  this 
head  must  be  classed  all  the  convent  and  mis- 
sion schools  and  academics,  and  many  private 
schools.  Of  these.  12  are  Roman  Catholic  6  for 
boys  and  (i  forgirls;  8  Protestant,  for  both  sexes; 
exclusive  of  13  non-sectarian  schools,  including 
7  Pueblo  Indian   schools,  in  which   there  were 


trusted  to  local  board.*  <f.*>i]>rrri*u-s  and  direct-  '  enrolled,  at  the  'lose  of  1675,  242  pupils;  and  of 
ors  of  the  public  schools,  to  be  elected  for  two    this  number,  180  were  in  daily  attendance  during 

years,  in  each  county,  respectively.  These  boards     the  winter  months,  and  about  one-half  that  num- 
consist  of  three  members  each,  with  the  probate     ber  during  the  summer  months.    The  number  of 

scholars  able  to  read  and  write  was  47,  and  15 


judge  of  the  county,  who  is  president,  cr  iifncm. 
They  have  the  entire  control  of  the  schools  and 
of  the  school  funds,  each  member  receiving  for 
his  services  S3  a  day.  The  want  of  uniform- 
ity, thus  engendered,  in  the  administration  of 
the  schools,  has  been  a  serious  cause  of  com- 
plaint. The  area,  however,  over  which  each  board 
exercises  supervision  being  limited,  the  existence 
of  any  other  officers  is  rendered  unnecessary.  The 
territorial  superintendent,  an  officer  created  in 
1873—4,  receives  the  annual  reports  from  the 
local  boards,  and  transmits  them  to  the  governor. 
He  is.  also.  t. 
school  fund  ( 


could  work  in  the  first  four  rules  of  arithmetic  ; 
while  spelling,  leading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and 
geography  were  all  successfully  taught  in  En- 
glish. But  few  of  the  children.' however,  under- 
stand English  to  any  extent.  Of  the  Protestant 
schools,4  are  Methodist  Episcopal  Mission  schools. 
Only  3,  in  all  this  number,  teach  the  higher 
branches.   The  average  attendance  of  pupils,  in  all 


these  schools,  in  1875,  was  1,259;  the"  number  of 

male  teachers.  41 ;  female  teachers.  40.  The  average 

number  of  months  the  schools  were  kept  was  '.1.4. 

officio.     The     .Many  of  these  schools  receive  a  yearly  donation 

nt  of  the  tax  on    from  the  public-school  fund. 

No  i       ■ 


property,  $1  poll  tax  forevery  male  citizen  above  No  special  provision  has  been  made  for  supe- 
the  age  of  21  years,  and  any  surplus,  of  more  rior  ii/slrnrtimi.  (If  the  schools  above  referred 
than  $500,  in  the  treasury  of  any  county,  after  to,  3  give  instruction  in  the  higher  branches,  in- 
paying  the  current  expenses  of  such  county,  chiding  latin.  'I  he  want  of  a  uniform  public- 
The  public  schools  are  almost  entirely  con-  school  system  in  the  territory  has  long  been  felt, 
fined  to  the  teaching  of  elementary  branches.  I  and  has  been  a  subject  of  consideration  by  its 
Owing  to  the  early  settlement  of  the  country  by  governors  and  many  of  its  leading  men.  The 
the  Spaniards  and  the  Mexicans,  and  its  almost  present  school  law,  though  faulty  in  many  re- 
exclusive  possession,  till  very  recently,  by  them  spects,  is  regarded  as  evidence  of  a  decided  step 
or  their  descendants,  Spanish  is  the  language  in  advance  of  the  position  taken  as  late  even 
spoken  by  the  great  majority  of  the  people.  The  as  lMd.  when  a  public-school  law  was  voted 
control  of  the  schools,  also,  being  entirely  local,  !  down  almost  unanimously.  "While  the  parochial 
that  language  has  been  introduced  into  them,  in  schools. "says  secretary  Rich,  'are.  without  doubt, 
some  cases  exclusively,  and  in  others  jointly  with  the  best  schools  we  have  had  in  New  .Mexico, 
the  English  language.  The  Catholic  religion,  there  is  rather  more  than  a  suspicion  that  the 
also,  is,  for  the  same  reason,  generally  taught  in  advocates  and  supporters  of  some  of  them  have 
them.  The  legal  school  age  is  between  7  and  a  special  interest  in  paralyzing  the  efficiency  of 
18  years.  The  secretary  of  the  territory  is  the  the  public  schools,  and  in  keeping  them  in  bad 
acting  superintendent  of  public  instruction.   W.  repute,   as   a.   means   of  maintaining  their   own 


O.  Hitch  has  I"  en  the  secretary  since  1873 

Educational  <  bndition. — The  number  of  pub- 
lic schools  in  the  territory,  reported  in  1875, 
was  138,  of  which  i)7  were  for  boys  ;  8,  for  girls; 
and  33,  mixed  Some,  however,  were  no!  re- 
ported. English  and  Spanish  were  taught  in  38 
schools:  Spanish  alone,  in  8<>;  and  English  alone. 
in  7.  The  revenue  for  the  support  of  the  schools 
derived  from  the  sources  above  mentioned, 
amounted,  in  1875,  to  825,473.46.  The  principal 
items  of  school  statistics  are  the  following: 

Number  of  pupils  in  attendance 5,151 

"    teachers,  males. .. .  ...    132 


15 


Total 

Average  number  of  months  schools  were  kept. 
Expenditures  for  teachers'  wanes.  .   $15, J .12 
"     rent  and  books. .       1,800 
"         "     other  purposes.  .       1.057 
Total 


superiority":  and  again, "make  the  public-school 
system  of  New  Mexico  all  it  is  practicable  to  be 
made  at  this  time,  and  the  result  will  be  pre- 
paratory schools,  not  only  for  the  state,  but  for 
higher  education.  The  present  denominational 
schools  would  then,  under  the  free  push  of  these 

preparatory  scl ls.be  forced,  like  the  sects  they 

represent,  to  stand  on  their  own  merits,  to  en- 
large and  liberalize  their  curriculum  of  .-tii.lv. 
and  biush  up  their  diction  and  scholarship." 

NEW  ORLEANS,  the  capital  and  metn.p 
olis  of  the  state  of  Louisiana,  nearly  co-exten- 
sive  with  the  parish  of  Orleans.  It  was  first 
permanently  Bettled  in  1723,  under  the  French, 
who  held  'po~i.»iou  of  it  till  17H9,  when  it 
passed undeT  Spanish  rule,  and  so  continued  till 
1  sol.  when  the  French  regained  possession  of  it, 
but  ceded  it,  as  a  part  of  Louisiana,  to  the  United 


$18,889  l  States,  in  1803. 


634 


NEW  ORLEANS 


Educational  History. —  As  might  be  expected 
from  the  manner  in  which  the  city  was  founded, 
the  first  instruction  given  was  in  connection 
with  the  religious  establishments  of  the  Roman 
Catholics.  The  earliest  school  appears  to  have 
been  that  of  the  Ursuline  nuns,  which  was 
founded  by  the  French  government  in  1733,  and 
carried  on  in  the  same  place  till  1824,  when  it 
was  removed  to  its  present  location,  about  two 
miles  from  the  center  of  the  city.  It  was  a  semi- 
nary for  young  ladies,  and,  in  1845,  had  120 
pupils.  The  city,  during  all  the  early  years  of 
its  existence,  had  no  public-school  system,  the 
instruction  of  children  and  youth  being  given 
in  private  or  denominational  schools,  or  in  chari- 
table institutions.  Of  schools  of  the  first  class, 
many  existed,  but  no  record  of  them  remains. 
In  1836,  the  Female  Orphan  Asylum  was 
opened  with  6  children.  In  1840,  more  extensive 
buildings  were  completed  for  it,  in  which  it  gave 
instruction  to  about  100  children.  Since  then, 
an  average  of  145  have  been  annually  instructed 
there,  and,  at  a  suitable  age,  apprenticed.  In 
1845,  the  Carmelite  Convent,  which  was  oc- 
cupied by  nuns  of  that  order,  supported  two 
schools,  one  white,  the  other  free  colored.  At 
the  same  time,  the  Poydras  Female  Orphan 
Asylum  gave  instruction  to  120  children  an- 
nually. Other  institutions  of  the  kind,  which 
have  taken  a  greater  or  less  part  in  the  work  of 
education,  are  the  Male,  the  Catholic  Male,  and 
the  Milne  Orphan  Asylums— the  last  endowed 
by  Alexander  Milne,  in  1839.  Two  reading- 
rooms,  also,  have  been  in  existence  for  many 
years. — The  first  decided  change  in  the  common- 
school  system  was  in  1841,  the  city  being  divid- 
ed into  3  municipalities  and  containing,  at  that 

time,  about  103. )  inhabitants.  On  the  14th  of 

February,  1841,  the  legislature  passed  an  act 
authorizing  each  municipality  ■  to  establish 
schools,  each  parish  being  controlled  by  a  board 
of  5  administrators,  who  reported  annually  to 
the  secretary  of  state.  The  2d  municipality 
selected  12  citizens  as  a  board  of  directors  of 
public  education,  granting  them  almost  unlimited 
powers.  They  employed  as  superintendent,  J. 
A.  Shaw,  who  was  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
the  New  England  system  of  public  schools,  ac- 
cording to  which  it  was  proposed  to  re-organize 
the  schools  of  New  Orleans.  Under  his  super- 
vision, the  schools  began  with  1 3  pupils,  and.  in 
2  years,  numbered  1,061  in  actual  attendance, 
with  an  enrollment  of  double  that  number.  These 
efforts  for  the  improvement  of  the  schools  en- 
countered strong  opposition,  at  first,  but  were 
attended  with  such  unqualified  success  as  ulti- 
mately to  secure  general  approbation.  The  in- 
fluence of  this  improvement,  also,  soon  extended 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  municipality  in  which 
the  movement  had  its  origin.  In  the  3d  munici- 
pality, the  old  method  was  pursued  for  a  long 
time,  instruction  being  given  in  English, French, 
and  Spanish;  but  here,  as  well  as  in  the  1st 
municipality,  the  improvement  in  school  organ- 
ization and  methods  gradually  made  progress, 
.and,  in  1844,  the  system  throughout  the  city  had 


become  uniform.  By  the  state  constitution, 
then  recently  adopted,  the  establishment,  in  New- 
Orleans,  of  a  college  to  be  called  the  University 
of  Louisiana  was  directed.  It  was  to  consist  of 
four  faculties;  and  one  of  them,  that  of  medicine, 
was  immediately  opened.  The  Public  School 
Lj'eeum  and  Society  Library  was  organized  in 
1844.  The  object  was  to  provide  a  library  for 
the  youth  of  the  2d  municipality  by  the  voluntary 
subscriptions  of  the  public  school  children  and 
others.  The  officers  were  those  of  the  public 
schools,  with  the  addition  of  the  mayor,  recorder, 
and  aldermen  as  members,  e.c  officio.  The  People's 
Lyceum  and  the  Young  Men  s  Literary  Associa- 
tion were  similar  institutions. 

School  System. —  The  public  schools  of  the 
city  are  governed  by  a  board  of  school  directors 
consisting  of  twenty  members,  one  from  each 
representative  district,  one  additional  from  each 
municipal  district ;  the  administrator  of  finance 
of  the  the  city,  ex  officio;  and  the  superintend- 
ent of  the  sixth  division,  ex  officio,  who  has  the 
right  to  speak,  but  not  to  vote,  in  the  board.  The 
district  members  are  appointed  by  the  state 
board  of  education,  each  for  a  term  of  three 
years,  one-third  of  the  number  retiring  annually. 
The  superintendent  of  the  sixth  division  is  the 
city  superintendent.  The  board  of  school  directors 
appoints  a  committee  on  teachers,  who,  with  the 
city  .superintendent,  examine  applicants  for  em- 
ployment as  teachers.  Thus  the  public-school 
system  of  the  city  is  under  state  control,  though 
supported  by  a  city  tax.  The  salaries  of  teach- 
ers vary  from  $2,400  a  year  for  the  principal 
and  $1,500  for  associate  teachers,  in  the  boys' 
high  school,  to  an  average  of  $814  for  teachers 
of  a  lower  grade. — The  number  of  public  schools 
is  76,  including  a  central  high  school  for  boys,  2 
high  schools  for  girls,  and  73  schools  of  an  in- 
ferior grade.  The  course  of  instruction  in  the 
central  high  school  for  boys  embraces  English 
studies,  mathematics,  natural  sciences,  the  clas- 
sics, French,  and  book-keeping ;  that  of  the 
girls'  high  schools  is  similar,  with  the  exception 
of  book-keeping  and  classics.  The  principal  items 
of  school  statistics  for  1875  are  as  follows : 

...  70,093 


Average  daily  attendance 18,719 

Number  of  teachers,  males 33 

"       "  "         females 


.417 


Whole  number  of  teachers 450 

Total  receipts  for  school  purposes $373,S47.!MI 

"    expenditures    "  "         $460,128.83 

Average  salary  of  teachers  per  month $67.82 

Total  value  of  the  school  property $775,000.00 

The  private  schools  exceed  in  number  the  public 
schools ;  and,  in  1875,  were  attended  by  14,235 
pupils,  giving  employment  to  471  teachers. 
Most  of  these  schools  are  attached  to  religious 
bodies,  and  the  great  majority  are  for  females. 
The  schools  for  colored  children,  both  public 
and  private,  are  separate  ;  though  a  few  colored 
pupils  attend  the  schools  for  white  children. 
There  is  great  opposition  to  mixed  schools.  (For 
an  account  of  the  higher  educational  institutions 
of  New  Orleans,  see  Louisiana.) 


NKWSI'Al-KRS 


NEWSPAPERS.  The  objection  is  fre- 
quently made  tn  the  character  of  the  instruction 
ordinarily  imparted  at  school,  that  it  has  little 
relation  to  the  concerns  of  daily  life.  This  want 
of  relation  sprung  originally  from  the  fact  that 
the  literal)'  class,  in  earlier  times,  was  a  class 
apart,  having  only  slight  connection  with  the 
mass  of  people  who,  possessing  few  political  rights, 
were  unworthy  of  consideration.  The  instruc- 
tion given,  therefore,  was  purposely  of  a  kind  to 
emphasize  theexclusivenessof  the  educated  class. 
Under  the  changed  political  conditions  of  our 
day,  however,  the  tendency  has  steadily  heen  to 
equalize  the  two  classes  in  intelligence —  to  lift 
up  the  masses  to  the  level  of  the  educated,  on  the 
one  hand,  and.  on  the  other,  to  bring  the  studies 
of  the  school  and  college  more  into  accordance 
with  the  daily  life  of  the  majority.  Traces  of 
the  original  exclusivene8S  still  remain,  however, 
in  the  antiquated  and  unpractical  character  of  the 
instruction,  as  mentioned  above.  Almost  every 
youth,  on  entering  upon  the  business  of  life,  be- 
comes conscious  of  this  with  chagrin.  The  arith- 
metic that  he  studied,  for  instance,  seems  to  have 
little  application  to  the  concerns  of  daily  life;  the 
book-keeping  which  he  mastered  with  so  much 
difficulty,  seems  now,  at  this  later  date,  to  have 
been  filled  with  theoretical  eases  which  have  no 
parallels  in  actual  experience ;  even  the  geog- 
raphy, in  which  he  attained  such  proficiency, 
has  little  place  in  his  daily  routine  ;  while  algebra, 
geometry,  and  many  other  studies,  have  none  al 
all.  The  result  is  a  feeling  of  inferiority  when 
he  is  brought  into  contact  with  others  of  his  age 
whose  training  has  been  entirely  that  of  practical 
life,  which  leads  him  to  suspect  thai  his  time 
has  been  wasted.  Not  till  long  afterwards, 
perhaps,  does  lie  recognize  the  fact  that  the  prin- 
ciples on  which  both  theoretical  and  practical 
knowledge  are  based,  are  the  same,  and  that  the 
ability  to  apply  these  principles  was  his  chief 
want.  The  feeling  of  df-appointmcnt  referred 
to  might  have  been  entirely  removed,  if.  in  his 
instruction,  the  teacher  had  kept  constantly 
in  mind,  not  the  mental  discipline  alone,  but 
the  mental  discipline  and  the  adaptab 
affairs  of  life  of  the  knowledge  used 
ing  that  discipline.  One  of  the  mosi 
struments  for  accomplishing  this  double  purpose 
is  the  newspaper.  The  arithmetic  which  is  now 
taught  by  the  use  of  unusual  and  improbable 
examples,  could  be  made  a  living  and  interest- 
ing thing,  by  the  use  of  problems  to  be  found 
in  its  pages,  which  introduce  the  actual  prices  of 
articles  in  daily  use.  Interest,  discount,  exchange. 
the  price  of  bonds  and  stocks,  coidd  be  made  so 
familiar  to  the  pupil  in  this  way.  that  the  change 
from  school  to  counting-house,  which  is  now  at- 
tended with  such  a  want  of  ease  and  so  much 
disappointment,  would  seem  but  the  continua- 
tion of  study  in  another  class. — Reading,  also,  if 
taught  from  the  newspaper,  would  familiarize 
the  pupil  with  the  terms  used  in  the  daily  con- 
versation of  professional  and  business  men;  and, 
through  the  reports  of  proceedings  in  every  field 
•of  human  activity,  fresh  interest  could  be  aroused 


in  studies  already  taken  up.  while  attention  could 
profitably  be  called  to  those  which  arc  ordinarily 
pursued  in  more  advanced  courses;  and  a  partial 
preparation  for  them  could  thus  unconsciously  be 
made.  Thus  the  study  of  geographj  wouldreceive 
increased  attention,  if  it  could  be  connected  with 
the  reports  of  the  interesting  events  from  all  parts 

quiring  into  the  position  on  the  map,  population, 
form  of  government,  etc,  of  the  different  coun- 
tries referred  to.  By  following,  in  this  way.  the 
records  of  campaigns  and  battles,  a  knowledge 
of  the  topography  of  the  country  could  Be 
obtained  almost  without  effort,  which  would  be 
easily  retained  in  the  memory  of  the  most  ap- 
athetic scholar;  while  opportunity  could,  at  the 
same  time,  betaken  for  digressions  into  its  history. 
Through  its  reports  of  strikes,  labor  troubles, 
and  co-operative  associations,  the  newspaper 
could  also  be  made  the  medium  for  inculcating, 
in  a  familiar  and  practical  way,  the  rudiments  of 
political  economy,  usually  so  dry  and  uninterest- 
ing ;  while  the  accounts  of  great  engineering 
feats,  astronomical  discoveries,  exploring  expedi- 
tions, and  voyages  of  discovery,  would  be  more 
eagerly  listened  to,  if  the  pupil  were  made  to  un- 
derstand that  the  algebra,  geometry,  or  geography 
which  he  daily  studies  has  an  intimate  and  funda- 
mental relation  to  them  all.  The  thought,  also, 
that  he  might  one  day  take  part  in  similar  work, 
would  act  as  a  spur  to  renewed  exertion.     Any 


ch   of 


tty  to  tne 
n  acquir- 

nseful  in- 


them  with  a  human  interest,  by  showing  that 
men  and  women  similar  to  those  with  whom  he 
daily  associates  are  the  actors  in  all  these  stir- 


that  the  hasty  manner  in  which  they  were  re- 
ported rendered  their  accounts  not  only  worth- 
less as  models  but  injurious,  are  no  longer  valid. 
To  the  first,  it  may  be  said  that  newspapers  are 
now  so  universally  read  thai  pupils  can  hardly 
fail  to  see  them  or  hear  their  contents  discussed; 
and  to  the  second,  that  active  competition  hav- 
ing brought  into  the  employ  of  the  newspaper 
so  large  a  share  of  the  best  talent,  specimens  of 
composition  may  now  be  found  iu  any  influen- 
tial paper,  not  only  unexceptionable  in  matter, 
but  worthy  of  imitation  for  lucid  statement  and 
grace  of  expression.  The  ability,  independence, 
and  rapidly-increasing  circulation  of  the  daily 
press  are  fast  constituting  it  a  powerful  educator; 
and,  in  countries  where  the  necessities  of  daily 
life  leave  little  time  for  that  higher  education 
which  demands  leisure  and  a  competency  for  its 
accomplishment,  a  double  purpose  would  be 
served  by  using  it  as  a  means  of  instruction,  as 
not  only  giving  to  the  minds  of  the  pupils 
practical  culture,  but  also  habituating  them  to 
the  constant  use  of  the  newspaper  as,  perhaps, 
their  chief  source  of  intelligence. 


G36  NEW 

NEW  TORK,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  having  an  area  of 
-17.00D  sip  in.,  and  a  population,  according  to  the 
census  of  1870,  of  4,330,210,  of  whom  52,081 
wne  colored  persons;  439,  Indians;  and  29, 
Chinese.  Of  the  total  population,  the  number. 
10  years  old  and  upward,  reported  as  unable  to 
read  was  16a,50I  ;  unable  to  write,  239,271.  Of 
the  latter,  168,569  were  foreign  born.  According 
to  the  state  census  of  1875,  the  population  was 
4,705,208. 

Educational  History. —  This  topic  will  be 
treated  under  the  billowing  heads:  (I)  The 
establishing  of  schools  ;  (II)  The  mode  of  main- 
taining them;  (III)  The  mode  of  supervising 
them;  (IV)   Special  provisions  of  legislation. 

I.  The  Dutch,  by  whom  the  first  settlements 
were  made  in  the  state,  brought  with  them  the 
ideas  and  institutions  of  the  father-land,  among 
which  those  of  the  church  and  the  school  were 
not  the  least  prominent.  As  early  as  1629,  the 
West  India  Company,  in  its  charter,  enacted 
that  the  patroons  and  /colonists  should,  "  in  the 
speediest  manner, endeavor  to  find  out  ways  and 
means  "  whereby  they  might  supply  a  minister 
and  a  school-master.  This  is  the  first  official  act 
relating  to  public  education  in  the  state.  The 
first  regular  school-master  in  New  Amsterdam 
was  Adam  Roelantsen,  who  commenced  his 
school  in  1633,  and  continued  it  till  1639,  when 
he  was  succeeded  by  Jan  Cornelissen,  and  he  by 
William  Vestius,  during  whose  administration 
of  this  school,  a  second  was  established,  in  1652. 
(See  New  York  City.)  The  Company  and  the 
church  united  in  paying  for  the  services  of 
these  early  masters.  The  first  school  in  Brook- 
lyn was  established  in  1661.  (Sec  Brooklyn.) 
The  first  school  at  Flatbush  was  established  in 
1659,  under  Adrian  liegeman  ;  and  one  was 
opened  in  Newtown,  in  1661,  under  Richard 
Mills.  The  first  school-master  in  Albany  was 
Andries  Jansz.  in  1650.  In  1659,  a  Latin  school 
was  established  in  New  Amsterdam,  and  Alex- 
ander Carolus  ( 'urtius  was  sent  out  by  the  I  lom- 
pauy  to  serve  as  rector,  with  permission  also  to 
practice  his  profession  as  physician.  His  services, 
particularly  in  regard  to  discipline,  were  not 
satisfactory,  and  he  was  supers,,  led,  the  Rev. 
.lEgidius  Luyck  being  appointed  in  his  place, 
under  whom  the  school  flourished,  children  be- 
ing sent  thither  from  Virginia,  Fort  Orange,  and 
the  Delaware,  to  receive  a  classical  education. — 
Up  to  the  time  of  the  English  occupation,  the 
fundamental  idea  was  that  of  the  free  school. 
The  proper  authorities  provided  a  certain  salary, 
and  the  school-master  was  bound  by  his  contract, 
to  the  limit  of  a  specified  number,  to  instruct 
his  pupils  free  of  tuition;  and  so  faithful  and 
earnest  were  the  authorities  and  clergy,  that,  at 
the  time  of  the  final  surrender  to  the  English 
(1674),  schools  existed  in  almost  every  town  and 


the    entire  period,  at    least   from  a  tin: 


to  1644;  but  no  one  was  allowed  to  teach  a 
school  without  permission  from  the  director-gen- 
eral and  council,  wdio  acted  in  conjunction  with 
the  church  authorities.  This  custom  was  after- 
ward followed  by  the  English,  who  substituted 
the  archbishop,  bishop,  or  ordinary,  in  place  of 
the  minister  and  consistory.  The  English,  on 
their  accession,  paid  no  great  attention  to  edu- 
cation, for  obvious  reasons.  The  settlements 
were  all  Dutch.  The  prevailing  religion  was  that 
of  the  Church  of  Holland.  The  charter  of  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  of  America  gave  to  the 
minister,  and  the  elders  and  deacons  the  right  to 
"  nominate  and  appoint  a  schoolmaster."  This 
charter  was  carefully  protected  in  the  articles  of 
surrender.  An  English  school-master  could  not 
be  placed  in  the  I  hitch  school  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  consistory.  The  English  knew  of  no 
public  schools  except  those  in  connection  with 
the  church.  They  did,  however,  all  that,  under 
the  circumstances,  was  practicable.  The  very  next 
year  afti  r  Stuyvesant's  capitulation  (1665),  Gov. 
Nicolls  licensed  John  Shute  to  open  an  English 
school  in  Albany;  anil  frequent  licenses  for 
private  schools,  at  various  places,  were  granted 
ty  the  succeeding  governors.  In  1687,  a  Latin 
school  wras  opened  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
under  the  sanction  of  the  English  government; 
and,  in  1702,  an  act  was  passed  for  the  "  en- 
couragement of  a  grammar  free  school  in  the 
city  of  New  York,"  and  for  the  raising  annually 
of  £50  for  its  support  for  seven  years.  This 
school  does  not  seem  to  have  been  established 
previous  to  April.  1704.  when  Mr.  George  Muir- 
sou  was  duly  licensed  by  Gov.  Cornbury  as  its 
master.  Cornbury  is  also  credited,  at  this  time, 
with  the  establishment  of  two  other  English 
schools  in  the  city.  Of  all  the  English  governors, 
he  was  the  most  zealous  and  aggressive  in  behalf 
of  the  English  Church  and  schools.  What 
Andros  and  Fletcher  would  fain  have  accom- 
plished legally,  or  by  persuasion,  he  boldly  at- 
tempted by  an  exercise  of  authority.  He  pro- 
hibited the  ministers  of  other  denominations, 
and  school-masters,  from  officiating  without  his 
special  license.  The  Dutch  schools  on  Long 
Island,  too  weak  or  too  timid  to  contest  the. 
matter,  were  broken  up  by  him  ;  but  the  Dutch 
church  in  New  York  stuod  up  for  its  chartered 
rights,  and  called  and  settled  its  own  school- 
masters. The  act  of  1702  expired  by  its  own 
limitation  in  1709,  and  was  not  renewed:  nor 
does  it  appear  that  legal  provision  for  schools 
of  any  kind  was  made  for  several  years.  Corn- 
bury was  gone,  and  he  transmitted  to  none  of 
his  immediate  successors  any  of  his  misguided 
zeal.  In  1704.  the  Society  for  the  Propagation 
of  the  Gospel  established 'a  school  at  Eye.  and 
employed  as  its  master,  Joseph  Cleator.  In  1710, 
the  society  established  Trinitv  School  in  Sew 
York,  and  employed  William'  Huddlestone  to 
teach  it.wdio  served  until  1721.  at  a  salary,  first 
of  £10,  and  afterwards  of  £15;  for  which  ' 
was  required  to  teach  10  pupils  free.  This  scho 
still  continues,  and  had  72  boys  on  its  founda 
tion  in  1875.     It  appears  from  a  table  in  Pratt's. 


XEW   YORK 


63^ 


Annals  of  Puqlic  Education  (1872),  that  at  the 
•close  of  the  colonial  period,  the  society  had  estab- 
lished, ;«.i n  1  supported,  in  whole  or  in  part,  21 
schools  iu  7  counties.  The  standard  studies  in 
all  these  schools  were  similar  to  those  in  the 
Dutch  schools, — reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and 
the  catechism  of  the  English  Church.  In  17.'!!'.  an 
aci  was  passed,  "to  encourage  a  public  school  in 
the  city  of  New  York  for  teaching  Latin,  Greek, 
and  mathematics."  This  school  was  tree  for  U « > 
pupils,  of  whom  Xew  York  City  and  County 
were  entitled  to  ten,  Albany  County  to  two,  and 
the  counties  of  Dutchess,  Kings.  ( (range,  Queens, 
Richmond,  Suffolk,  Ulster,  and  Westchester  each 
to  one.  The  act  expired,  by  a  provision  con- 
tained in  it,  Dec.  1.,  1737;  "but  was  extended, 
by  the  assembly  and  council  of  that  year,  to 
Dee.  L.  1838.  Hon.  B.  F.  Butler  of  New  York. 
in  an  address  before  the  Albany  Institute,  in  1 830, 
states  that  the  act  "was  not  afterwards  renewed: 
but  the  school  was  again  continued,  and  is  said 
to  have  proved  the  germ  of  Columbia  College." 
This  is  very  probable,  since  the  establishment  of 
a  college  began  to  be  agitated  soon  after;  and 
an  act  was  passe  1.  in  1  7  iii,  for  raising  by  lottery 
£2,250  ••  for  the  encouragement  of  learning  and 
toward  the  founding  of  a  college."  By  similar 
acts,  this  had  increased,  in  1751,  to  £3,443,  and 
trustees  were  appointed  to  guard  and  promote 
the  interests  of  the  embryo  institution.  The  trus- 
tees, in  1753,  invited  the  Rev.  Samuel  Johnson 
to  become  the  president  of  the  proposed  college, 
at  a  salary  of  £250,  with  the  assurance  that 
Trinity  Church  would  make  a  proper  addition 
thereto.  The  royal  chatter  establishing  King's 
College,  bears  date  Oct.  31.,  17.il.  Its  functions 
were  suspended  during  the  AYar  of  Independ- 
ence, and  its  building  was  used  for  a  hospital. 
Robert  R.  Livingston,  Gouverneur  Morris,  and 
John  Jay,  were  among  its  early  graduates  ;  and 
Alexander  Hamilton  was  one  of  its  students 
whose  studies  were  interrupted  by  the  opening 
scenes  of  the  Revolution.  From  the  founding 
of  the  college  to  the  close  of  the  colonial  period, 
little  was  done  in  behalf  of  public  education. 
Immediately  after  the  Revolution,  the  number 
of  the  governors  of  King's  College,  being  so 
lessened  by  death  and  absence  as  to  require  the 
interposition  of  the  legislature,  an  act  was  passed 
in  1784,  investing  a  new  corporation,  under  the 
title  of  the  Regents  of  the  University  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  with  all  the  rights,  fran- 
chises, privileges,  etc.,  vested  in  the  governors  of 
the  college  by  its  charter,  and  changing  its  name 
to  Columbia  College.  This  act  required  that  all 
the  estate  real  and  personal,  held  by  King's  Col- 
lege by  virtue  of  its  charter,  should  be  applied 
solely  to  the  use  of  Columbia  College,  and  em- 
powered the  regents  to  hold  additional  estate, 
for  the  use  of  said  college,  to  the  amount  of  an 
annual  income  of  £3,500  ;  and,  "  for  the  further 
promotion  of  learning,"  to  hold  estates  real  and 
personal  to  the  annual  amount  of  40.0(1(1  bushels 
of  wheat ;  "  to  found  schools  and  colleges  in  any 
part  of  the  state,"  which  colleges  properly 
founded  should  "  be  considered  as  composing  a 


part  of  the  said  university."  The  act  of  1784 
proving  unsatisfactory,  another  act  was  passed 
in  1787,  declaring  "'I  hat  an  university  be  and  is 
hereby  instituted  within  this  state,  to  be  called 
and  known  by  the  name  and  style  of  "The  Regents 
of  the  University  of  the  State  of  New  Fork 
This  act  reduced  the  number  of  regents,  re- 
manded Columbia  college  and  all  its  estates  to  a 
board  of  trustees,  continued  the  power  to  hold 
property  to  the  amount  of  the  annual  income  of 
in. iioo  bushels  of  wheat,  granted  authority  to  in- 
corporate colleges,  continued  the  power  to  confer 
degrees,  repeated  the  provision  making  such  col- 
leges a  part  of  the  university,  made  provision  for 
the  incorporation  of  academies,  and  placed  both 
academics  and  colleges  under  the  general  super- 
vision of  the  regents.  In  this  year,  and  subse- 
quent to  the  passage  of  the  act.  the  lir.~t  two 
academies  were  incorporated.  <  linton  Academy, 
at  East  Hampton,  and  Erasmus  Hall,  at  Flat- 
bush.  The  latter  is  still  in  existence.— In  1789, 
the  legislature  set  a]  art  certain  portions  of  the 
public  lands  for  gospel  and  school  purposes;  and, 
in  1793,  the  regents,  iu  their  report,  recom- 
mended the  establishment  of  a  general  system  of 
common  schools.  In  1795,  Governor  Clinton,  in 
his  message  to  the  legislature,  urged  the  establish- 
ment of  common  schools  throughout  the  state. 
On  the  9th  of  April,  the  same  year,  a  law  was 
passed  ''for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  and 
maintaining  schools  in  the  several  cities  and 
towns  in  the  state,  in  which  the  children  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  state  shall  be  instructed 
in  the  English  language,  or  be  taught 
English  grammar,  arithmetic,  mathematics,  and 
such  other  branches  of  knowledge  as  are  most 
useful  and  necessary  to  complete  a  good  English 
education;"  and  the  sum  of  $50,000  a  year,  for 
five  years,  was  appropriated  for  their  support. 
In  1798,  the  returns  showed  that  1,352  schools 
were  in  operation,  with  59,660  pupils.  In  1805, 
the  Free  School  Society,  afterwards  the  Fublic 
School  Society,  in  the  city  of  >>'ew  York,  was 
founded,  its  first  school  being  opened  in  1806. 
(See  New  York  City.)  The  first  act  contem- 
plating a  permanent  system  of  common  schools 
was  passed  in  1812.  The  following  table  exhibits, 
by  decades,  the  progress  made,  under  this  and 
subsequent  laws,  in  the  establishing  of  schools. 


Number  or 

No   ofchil 

No.  of 

Year 

Population 

dren  of 

children 

districts 

school  age 

taught 

1815... 

1.U3.VJ10 

2,031 

176.449 

140.106 

1825... 

1,614,458 

7.042 

395, 5KC 

402,940 

ISM... 

•2.174,517 

10,207 

538.398 

641.401 

1845... 

2.604.495 

11.018 

703.399 

742,433 

1S55... 

:u  fit'..  2 12 

11.798 

1.214.113 

945,087 

1805... 

3.831,777 

11,780 

1.39M.757 

916,617 

1875... 

4,705,208 

11,291 

1.583,004 

1,069,238 

It  will  be  observed  that,  for  several  years,  more 
children  were  reported  in  school  than  were 
enumerated.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that,  until 
1851,  the  legal  school  age  was  between  4  and  16 
years,  after  which  it  was  from  4  to  21  until 
1864,  when  it  was  declared  to  be  from   5  to  21. 

II.  The  acts  of  1789  and  1795,  as  before 
stated,  made  provision  for  the  support  of  schools. 


638  NEW 

The  former  set  apart  two  lots  in  each  township 
of  the  public  land  thereafter  to  be  surveyed,  for 
gospel  and  school  purposes.  According  to  the 
comptroller's  report,  it  appears  that,  in  pursuance 
of  the  law,  6100,000  was  appropriated  in  1799 
and  1800;  but  this  was  never  distributed.  The 
act  expired  in  1800.  and  an  attempt  to  revive  it 
failed.  But  though  these  appropriations  were 
not  paid,  some  effort  was  made  to  provide  means 
for  the  support  of  the  schools.  Lotteries  were 
authorized,  in  1799  and  L801,  to  raise  money 
"for  the  joint  benefit  of  academies  and  common 
schools,  but  chiefly  the  latter".  An  act,  passed 
April  8.,  1801,  "to  divert  certain  moneys  to  be 
applied  to  the  use  of  free  schools  in  the  city  of  j 
New  York",  directs  the  school  moneys  appor- 
tioned to  New  York,  to  be  paid  to  the  trustees  of 
the  several  churches  in  that  city,  eleven  being 
enumerated,  and  each  receiving  one-eleventh  part. 
The  law  of  1812  appropriated  $50,000  annually, 
to  hi  distributed  among  the  counties  of  the  state; 
and  authorized  the  towns  to  raise  by  tax  a 
sum  equal  to  their  distributive  share.  The 
law  passed  in  1814  made  it  the  duty  of  the 
boards  of  supervisors  to  levy  on  each  town  a 
sum  equal  to  its  distributive  share  of  the  money 
from  the  state,  and  made  the  forfeiture  of  the 
school  money  for  the  county,  the  penalty  for 
a  neglect  or  refusal  to  make  such  levy.  No 
provision  was  made  by  the  original  act  of  1812, 
for  raising  any  money  by  district  taxation,  or  by 
rate-bill  to  supply  deficiencies,  because  it  was 
believed  that  the  income  of  the  school  fund  and 
the  tax  for  the  same  amount  would  maintain  a 
school  in  each  district  for  three  months  in  the 
year.  But  the  amended  act  of  1811  required 
"the  trustees  to  cause  a  school  to  be  kept  three 
months  each  year,  to  apply  the  school  moneys 
to  the  payment  of  teachers'  wages,  and,  if  there 
should  be  a  deficiency,  to  collect  it  from  the  ; 
patrons  of  the  schools  in  proportion  to  the  at-  j 
tendance  of  their  children.  As  the  general  school 
law  of  1812  did  not  apply  to  New  1'ork  City,  a 
supplementary  act  was  passed  March  12.,  1813, 
permitting  the  city  to  share  in  the  revenue  of 
the  school  fund.  The  city  was  required  to  raise 
a  sum  equal  to  its  share  of  such  school  money, 
which  was  "to  be  apportioned  and  paid  to  the 
trustees  of  the  Free  School  Society  of  New  York,  ! 
the  trustees  or  treasurer  of  the  Orphan  Asylum 
Society,  the  Society  of  the  Economical  School, 
the  African  Free  School,  and  of  such  incorpo- 
rated religious  societies  in  said  city  as  now  sup- 
port, or  shall  hereafter  establish,  charity  schools 
within  the  said  city."  The  distribution  was  to  be 
in  proportion  to  the  average  number  of  children 
taught,  between  the  ages  of  4  and  15  years.  Nine 
months' schooling  during  the  previous  year  was 
required;  and  the  children  were  to  be  taught 
free  of  expense.  —  In  1805,  the  common-school 
fund  was  established  by  an  act  providing  that 
tin'  net  proceeds  of  ."iOO.oOO  acres  of  the  vacant 
and  unappropriated  lands  of  the  state  which 
should  be  first  thereafter  sold  by  the  surveyor- 
general  should  be  appropriated  as  a  permanent 
fund  for  the  support  of  common  schools.     This 


amounted,  at  the  end  of  that  year,  to  326,774. 
The  law  provided  that  none  of  the  income  should 
be  distributed  until  it  should  amount  to  §50,000 
annually ;  and.  accordingly,  no  distribution  was 
made  until  1815.  In  1849.  the  legislature  passed 
an  act  establishing  free  schools.  The  main  feature  v 
of  the  act  was  the  abolition  of  the  rate-bill,  and-"^ 
the  substitution  therefor  of  district  taxation.  On 
a  submission  of  this  act  to  popular  vote,  it  was 
approved  by  a  large  majority.  The  next  year, 
however,  it  was  repealed,  lint  the  repeal  was  not 
sustained  by  the  vote  of  the  people.  The  contro- 
versy was  temporarily  settled  in  1851,  by  an  act 
repealing  the  law,  and  levying  a  state  tax  of 
$800,000,  to  be  distributed  in  lieu  of  the  county 
tax  required  by  the  law  of  1814;  it  also  restored 
the  rate-bill  and  extended  the  school  year  to  six 
months.  In  1856,  a  tax  of  three-fourths  of  a 
mill  on  each  dollar  of  the  valuation  of  properly 
in  the  state  was  substituted  for  the  §800,000 
state  tax.  In  1867,  the  rate-bill  was  finally^ 
abolished,  and  the  state  tax  for  the  support  of  ■ 
common  schools  was  fixed  at  one  and  one-quarter 
mill  on  each  dollar  of  the  assessed  valuation  of 
property  in  the  state.  The  act  authorizing  the 
formation  of  union  free-school  districts  was 
passed  in  1853.  In  1804,  the  school  year  was  ex- 
tended so  as  to  include  28  weeks,  as  at  present. 
In  1838,  the  income  of  the  U.  S.  deposit  fund 
was  by  law  appropriated  as  follows:  §110,000, 
for  the  payment  of  teachers'  salaries;  §55,000, 
for  the  support  of  district  libraries ;  §28.000, 
to  the  literature  fund,  to  be  expended  for  the  edu- 
cation of  common-school  teachers;  and  §15,000, 
to  colleges.  The  balance,  which  it  was  estimated 
would  annually  amount  to  about  §50,000,  was 
to  be  applied  to  the  increase  of  the  common- 
school  fund.  The  constitutional  convention  of 
1846  ordained  that  §25,000  should  annually  be 
set  apart  from  the  revenues  of  the  U.  S.  deposit 
fund,  and  become  a  part  of  the  capital  of  the 
school  fund.  From  1840  to  1846,  the  amount  of 
the  fund  derived  from  this  source  had  increased 
iiwiii  si  .'.Ki'J.-r.'l'  to  S2.n9n.63:;  ;  hut.  from  1846 
to  1866,  it  increased  to  §2,799,630.  In  1834,  the 
regents  of  the  university  were  required  by  law 
to  apply  the  surplus  income  of  the  literature 
fund,  beyond  the  sum  of  §12.000,  to  the  education 
of  common-school  teachers,  by  the  distribution 
of  it  to  such  academies  as  should  undertake  their 
instruction.  In  1866,  a  law  was  passed  author- 
izing the  taking  of  land  for  school-house  sites  by 
right  of  eminent  domain. — The  following  table 
exhibits  by  decades  the  financial  progress  of  the 
common-school  system. 


Year 

Valuation  of 
real  and 
personal 

Capital  of 
school  fund 

School- 

rais°nd1y 
county 

$26,771 
934.015 
1,319,886 
1,875,192 
2,090,032 
2,457,521 
2,765,761 
3,OS0,108 

1815 

1825 

ums!!!!!! 
1865!!!."! 

1S76 

S292.38K.S27 
299.197,721 
5i~.7M.CM 
fill.-,.f,ln,09.-. 

1.402.-S49.304 

1,550,879,685 

2,307,780,102 



$('.0.1 

80,000 
100.000 
110.000 
156.000 
155,000 
170,000 

$.10,11(10 
100,000 
193,503 
soo.ooo 

1. MS. 422 
2,884,634 

NEW   YORK 


»;:;<,» 


III.  According  to  the  law  of  1705,  each  town 
was  to  elect  three  or  more  commissioners  to  have 
general  charge  of  the  schools,  to  license  teachers, 
and  to  apportion  the  public  moneys  to  the 
districts,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  days  of 
instruction  given  in  each.  The  people  in  each 
district  were  to  elect  trustees,  to  employ  teachers, 
and  to  provide  for  the  schools.     The  act  of  1  s  1  li 

also  required  each  town  to  elect  three mmia- 

Bioners  of  common  schools,  whose  lirst  duty  was 
to  form  the  town  into  school-districts.  They  re- 
ceived, and  distributed  to  the  districts, the  public 
moneys  ;  and  the  trustees  were  required  to  re- 
port to  them.  Each  town  was  also  required  to 
elect  from  one  to  six  inspectors,  who,  with  the 
commissioners,  had  the  supervision  of  the  schools. 
and  the  examination  of  teachers.  This  law  also 
created  the  office  of  state  superintendent  of  com- 
mon schools ;  and  the  first  annual  report  was 
made  in  1813.  In  1821,  the  legislature  abolished 
the  office,  and  made  the  secretary  of  state,  ex 
officio,  superintendent  ot  common  schools.  In 
1822,  an  important  amendment  to  the  school 
law  gave  the  right  of  appeal  to  the  superintend- 
ent on  all  questions  arising  under  any  of  its 
provisions.  In  1841,  an  act  was  passed  creating 
the  office  of  deputy  superintendent,  and  also 
that  of  county  superintendent,  to  whom  all  ap- 
peals were  first  to  be  made,  his  decisions  being 
subject  to  review  by  the  state  superintendent. 
In  1843,  the  offices  of  town  commissioner  of 
schools  and  inspector  of  schools  were  abolished, 
and  that  of  town  superintendent  created  in  their 
stead.  The  office  of  county  superintendent  was 
abolished  in  1817.  and  appeals  were  required  to 
be  brought  directly  to  the  state  superintendent; 
and  the  returns  of  the  town  superintendents  were 
to  be  made  to  the  county  clerks.  In  1854,  the 
legislature  created  a  department  of  public  in- 
struction, and  placed  at  its  head  a  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  to  be  elected  by  joint 
ballot  of  the  senate  and  assembly.  In  1856,  the 
office  of  school  commissioner  was  created,  that 
of  town  superintendent  being  abolished  :  and  the 
supen  isors  of  the  towns  were  made  the  financial 
agents,  to  hold  and  pay  out  the  moneys  appor- 
tioned by  the  school  commissioners  to  the  towns 
and  districts.  The  school-commissioner  districts 
were  originally,  and  are  now  nearly,  the  same 
as  the  assembly  districts  ;  but  they  are  not,  like 
the  latter,   required   to   be   reconstructed  after 

■  State  Sii],<-riiit'ii<l,-itt*.—'\'\\v  following  is  a  list 
of  those  who  have  served  as  superintendents  of 
common  schools  :  Gideon  Haw-ley,  from  Jan.  14., 
1813  until  Feb.  22.,  1821  :  William  Esleeck, 
until  April  3.,  1821,  when  the  office  was  abol- 
ished, its  duties  being  performed  by  the  follow- 
ing persons,  holding  the  office  of  secretary  of 
state:  John  Van  Ness  Yates,  from  April,  1821 
until  Feb.,  1826  ;  Azariah  C.  Flagg.  until  Feb., 
1833;  John  A.  Dix,  until  Feb..  1839;  John  C. 
Spencer,  until  Oct.,  1841;  when  Mr.  Spencer 
being  called  to  take  a  place  in  the  cabinet  at 
Washington,  the  position  of  superintendent  was 
filled  by  the  deputy,  Samuel   S.  Randall,  until 


Feb.,  1842;  Samuel  Young,  until  Feb..  1845; 
Nathaniel  S.  Benton,  until  Dec.  31.,  1847;  Chris- 
topher Morgan,  until   Dec.  31.,  L851;   Henry  S. 


ted,  Victor  M.  Rice  was  elected,  and  served 
ntil  April,  18:">7,  and  was  succeeded  by  the  fol- 
jwiug  persons:  Henry  H.  Van  Dyck,  until  April 
9.,  1861;  Emerson  W.  Keyes  (acting),  until  Feb. 
.,1862;  Victor M. Rice  (again),until  April,  1868; 
Vbram  B.  Weaver,  until  April,  1874;  and  Neil 


IV.     In  1830,  A.  c.  Flagg-  in  Ins  report,  sug- 
gested the  establishment   of   district  libraries; 

and,  in  1838,  a  law  was  passed,  providing  for 
this,  and  authorizing  each  district  to  rai.-cbv  tax 
§2(1  for  the  first  year,  and  $10  for  each  sue',  ced- 
ing year,  for  the  purchase  of  books.  This  was 
increased,  in  1875,  to  $50  a  year.  The  act  of 
1838.  appropriating  the  income  of  the  U.  S. 
deposit  fund,  set  apart  §55,000  a  year  for  district 
libraries,  and  required  each  county  to  raise  for 
the  same  purpose  a  sum  equal  to  its  distributive 
share  thereof.  By  an  amendment  passed  in  1875, 
this  is  reduced  to  $50,000.  The  total  number 
of  volumes  in  these  libraries  was  reported  in 
1845  as  1.203,139;  in  1855,  as  1,418,100;  in 
1865,  as  1,181,811  ;  and  in  1875,  as  809,141.— 
Ample  means  have  been  provided  for  the  edu- 
cation of  teachers.  <  lasses  tor  the  instruction 
of  common  school  tea.  hers  were  established  by 
the  regents  in  certain  academies,  in  1834.  in 
pursuance  of  the  provisions  of  the  act  of  that 
year  already  referred  to.  'Hie  sum  now  annually 
appropriated  by  the  regents  for  these  classes  is 
$18,000.  In  1844,  the  first  state  normal  school 
was  established,  at  Albany,  and  opened  on  the 
18th  of  December,  in  that  year.    In  1863,  the 

Oswego  Training  School  was  taken  under  the 
patronage  ot  the  state,  and,  by  the  acts  of  1866 
and  1867,  was  constituted  a  state  normal  school. 
By  Chap.  466  of  the  laws  of  1866,  normal  schools 
Were  established,  respectively,  at  Brockport, 
Cortland,  Fredonia,  and  Potsdam ;  and,  by 
special  acts,  in  1867,  a  normal  school  was 
established  at  Buffalo,  and  another  at  Oencsco, 
the  latter  under  the  title  of  the  Wadsworth 
Normal  and  Training  School.-—  Teachers' in- 
stitutes have  been  an  important  agency  for  the 
improvement  of  common-school  teachers.  The 
first  teachers' institute  in  the  state  was  held  a1 
Ithaca,  Tompkins  Co.,  April  4.,  1843;  other 
counties  soon  followed,  and.  in  1817.  teachers' 
institutes  were  re-organized  by  the  legislature,  an 
appropriation  of  $60  to  each  county  being  made 
for  their  encouragement. — A  compulsory  edu- 
cation Ion-  was  passed  May  11.,  1874.  entitled 
"an  act  to  secure  to  children  the  benefits  of  ele- 
mentary education."  This  law  requires  that  every 
child  between  8  and  14  years  of  age  shall  be  in- 
structed in  spelling,  reading,  writing,  English 
grammar,  and  arithmetic,  at  least  14  weeks  each 
year,  at  a  day  school,  or  at  home,  or  28  weeks  in 
an  evening  school.  All  persons  are  prohibited, 
under  a  penalty   of  S5U    fine,   from   employing 


640 


children  of  the  age  mentioned  without  being 
certified  that  such  instruction  was  given  the 
previous  year.  This  law  was  amended  in  some 
respects  in  187G;  but  it  is  to  a  great  extent  in- 
operative.— In  1875,  a  law  was  passed  providing 
that  "industrial  or  free-hand  drawing  shall 
be  included  in  the  course  of  study  in  each  of  the 
normal  schools  ;  shall  be  taught  in,  at  least,  one 
department  of  the  schools  under  the  charge  of 
the  board  of  education  in  each  city,  in  each  union 
free  school,  and  in  each  free-school  district  in- 
corporated by  special  act  of  the  legislature." — 
The  general  school  law  was  alsn  amended  so  that 
state  certificates  should  be  granted  by  the  super- 
intendent only  on  examination,  either  by  him- 
self or  by  proper  persons  appointed  by  him.  The 
first  examination  under  this  law  was  held  at 
Albany,  Dec.  16.,  1875;  nine  candidates  were  ex- 
amined, and  four  certificates  awarded. 

Educational  Syst*  i.  The  officers  having 
charge  of  the  i mon  schools  are  the  super- 
intendent of  public  instru  iion,  the  school  com- 
missioners, and  the  district  trustees.  The  super 
intendent  is  elected  for  three  years  on  joint  bal- 
lot of  botli  branches  of  the  legislature.  He  has 
the  general  supervision  of  all  the  schools  in  the 
state;  apportions  the  school  money,  superintends 
the  apportionment  by  the  commissioners,  and 
sees  that  it  is  paid  by  the  supervisors  and  ex- 
pended by  the  trustees  according  to  law.  He 
hears  and  decides  all  appeals  regarding  school 
matters,  and  his  decision  is  final,  lie  is  charged 
with  the  control  and  management  of  teachers' 
institutes,  and  makes  rules  concerning  district 
libraries.  He  makes  appointment  of  state  pupils 
to  the  institutions  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the 
Mind,  and  has  the  supervision  of  those  institu- 
tions. He  has  the  charge  of  all  the  Indian 
schools  in  the  state,  and  employs  agents  to  super- 
intend them.  He  is,  ex  officio,  a  regent  of  the 
university,  a  trustee  of  the  asylum  for  idiots,  and 
of  the  Cornell  University.  He  receives  and 
compiles  reports  from  all  the  school-districts, 
and  makes  an  annual  report  to  the  legislature. 
The  school  commissioners  are  elected  for  the 
term  of  three  years  by  the  people  of  their  several 
districts.  It  is  their  duty  to  see  that  the  bound- 
aries of  districts  are  correctly  described;  to  visit 
and  examine  the  schools;  to  advise  with  and 
counsel  the  trustees  ;  to  look  after  the  condition 
of  the  school-houses,  and  condemn  such  as  are 
unfit  for  use ;  to  recommend  studies  and  text- 
books; to  examine  and  license  teachers;  to 
examine  charges  against  teachers,  and,  on  suffi- 
cient proof,  to  annul  their  certificates;  and,  when 
required  by  the  superintendent,  to  take  and  re- 
port testimony  in  eases  of  appeal. 

District  trustees,  one  or  three  in  each  district, 
are  elected  by  the  inhabitants.  The  term  of 
office  of  a  sole  trustee  is  one  year;  of  each  of  a 
board  of  three  trustees,  three  years,  one  being 
elected  annually.  The  powers  and  duties  of 
these  officers  are,  to  make  out  tax  lists  and  war- 
rants ;  to  purchase  or  lease  sites,  to  build  or 
hire  school-houses,  and  to  insure  and  have  the 
custody  of  all  district  property  ;  to  employ  and 


pay  teachers;  and  to  report  annually  to  the  school 
commissioner  school  statistics  and  such  other  in- 
formation as  may  be  required. — The  school  dis- 
trict is  the  smallest  territorial  subdivision  of  the 
state.  It  is  formed  by  the  school  commissioner, 
who  makes  an  order  defining  its  boundaries,  and 
files  it  in  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  town  in 
which  the  district  is  situated,  lie  may  change 
the  limits  of  districts  by  a  similar  order.  A 
joint  district  is  one  that  lies  partly  in  two  or 
more  counties.  Union  free-school  districts  are 
formed  under  the  law  of  1853.  authorizing  the 
inhabitants  to  organize  a  school  in  a  district 
comprising  more  territory  and  population,  and 
possessing  greater  powers,  than  an  ordinary  dis- 
trict. About  100  districts  have  been  formed  by 
acts  of  the  legislature  granting  special  powers 
and  privileges.  The  inhabitants,  at  the  annual 
district  meeting,  have  power  to  elect  a  chair- 
man, one  or  three  trustees,  a  district  clerk,  a 
collector,  and  a  librarian  ;  to  designate  a  site 
for  a  school-house,  to  vote  taxes  to  pay  for  a 
site,  to  build  and  repair  school-houses,  and  to 
furnish  them  with  fuel  and  appendages,  also  to 
make  up  deficiencies  for  teachers'  wages.  They 
may  also  vote  taxes,  not  exceeding  $25,  for  ap- 
paratus and  text-books.  $50  fora  library, $25 for 
contingent  expenses,  and  any  sum  necessary  to 
insure  the  district  property,  and  to  pay  the  costs 
and  reasonable  expenses  of  suits  at  law  in  which 
the  district  may  be  interested.  The  librarian 
serves  one  year,  and  has  charge  of  the  district 
library.  The  collector  serves  ior  a  year,  giving 
a  bond  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  duty  in 
collecting  the  moneys  due  on  tax  lists,  and  hold- 
ing them  subject  to  the  order  of  the  trustees. 
The  clerk  holds  office  for  one  year.  It  is  his  duty 
to  keep  a  record  of  thedistrict  meetings,  to  attend 
meetings  of  trustees,  and  keep  a  record  of  pro- 
ceedings; to  notify  persons  elected  as  district 
officers  ;  to  report  to  the  town  clerk  the  names 
and  post-office  address  of  district  officers ;  to 
give  trustees  notice  of  every  resignation  accepted 
by  the  supervisor  ;  and  to  keeji  and  preserve  all 
records,  books,  and  papers  belonging  to  the 
office.— The  town  clerk  is  required  to  keep  in 
his  office  all  books,  maps,  papers,  and  records  re- 
lating to  the  schools ;  to  record  the  certificate 
of  apportionment  of  school  moneys,  and  to  notify 
trustees  of  such  certificate ;  to  obtain  from 
trustees  their  annual  report;  to  furnish  the 
commissioner  with  the  names  and  post-office  ad- 
dress of  all  district  officers ;  to  distribute  books 
and  blanks  to  the  trustees ;  to  file  and  record 
the  final  accounts  of  supervisors  ;  to  preserve 
the  supervisor's  bond  ;  to  file  and  keep  the  de- 
scription of  district  boundaries ;  and,  when 
called  upon,  to  take  part  in  the  formation 
or  alteration  of  a  school-district.  The  school 
moneys  apportioned  to  the  several  towns  are 
paid  by  the  county  treasurer  to  the  supervisor, 
who  gives  a  bond,  with  two  sureties,  for  double 
the  amount  of  money  set  apart  to  the  town,  for 
the  safe-keeping,  disbursement,  and  accounting 
for,  of  such  moneys,  and  all  other  school  moneys 
that  may  come  into  his  hands.   The  school  mon- 


nys  apportioned  to  a  county,  or  to  a  city,  arc  paid 
by  the  state  treasurer  mi  the  warrant  of  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  ;  and  the 
treasurer's  check  in  payment  must  lie  counter- 
signed by  the  superintendent.  All  children  in 
tin'  distrid  between  tin'  ages  of  5  and  21  years, 
ina\  attend  school ;  and  non-residents  may  also 
attend  it  on  such  terms  as  the  trustees  may  pre- 
scribe. None  hut  a  qualified  teacher  can  receive 
public  money,  or  money  raised  by  tax,  in  pay- 
ment of  his  wages.  A  qualified  teacher  is  one 
who  holds  a  state  normal  school  diploma,  a  cer- 
tificate from  the  superintendent,  from  a  school 
commissioner,  or  from  a  city  or  village  officer 
empowered  to  grant  licenses. — The  great  major- 
ity of  the  schools  in  the  rural  districts  employ 
but  a  single  teacher,  and  are  not  graded  ;  but 
the  pupils  are  generally  so  arranged  in  i  lasses  as 
in  part  to  compensate  for  this.  In  the  larger 
villages,  where  most  of  the  -union  free  schools," 
and  the  -free  schools"  by  special  acts,  are  found, 
the  schools  are  more  or  less  accurately  graded, 
and  the  system  culminates  in  academical  or 
high-school  departments.  In  the  cities,  each  of 
which,  though  under  the  general  law.  has  special 
provisions  of  law  applicable  to  its  own  schools, 
the  schools  are  well  I  I  and  generally,  with 
the  exception  of  Brooklyn  and  New  York,  have 
at  their  hea  I  a  high  school.  The  system  in 
Brooklyn,  finds  its  culmination  in  the  academ- 
ical grad  (S  of  its  grammar  schools;  and,  in  New 
York,  in  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York, 
connected  with  which  there  is  an  introductory 
department,  which  performs  the  office  of  a  high 
school,  a  business  or  commercial  school,  and  a 
preparatory  school.  This  department  is  under 
the  supervision  and  management  of  a  special 
principal. 

Secondary  and  superior  instruction  is  under 
the  control  and  supervision  of  the  ivi/riilx  of  tin' 
university  who  were  originally  incorporated 
May  1.,  1784;  and  were  re-organized  and  re- 
incorporated by  the  act  of  April  13.,  1787  ;  with 
power  to  incorporate  colleges  and  academies;  to 
appoint  a  president  for  any  college,  or  a  prin- 
cipal for  any  academy,  in  case  the  trustees 
should  leave  the  office  vacant  for  a  year  ;  to 
hold  property  to  the  amount  of  the  annual  in- 
come of  40,0111)  bushels  of  wheat ;  and  to  confer 
such  degrees,  above  that  of  Master  of  Arts,  as 
are  granted  by  any  college  or  university  in  Eu- 
rope. They  were  also  authorized  and  required 
to  visit  and  inspect  all  academies  and  colleges 
established  or  to  be  established  ;  to  Inquire  into 
the  system  of  education  and  discipl  i  th  I  in, 
and  make  an  annual  report  thereof  to  the  legis- 
lature; all  of  which  powers  and  duties  still  re- 
main. The  board  as  re-organized,  consisted  of 
the  governor  and  lieutenant-governor,  ex  officio, 
and  19  other  persons  named  in  the  act.  In 
1842,  the  secretary  of  state,  and  in  1854,  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  were  made 
regents,  </■  officio,  making  the  number  of  the 
board,  as  at  present  constituted,  23.  Vacancies, 
except  in  case  of  ex  officio  membera,  are  filled 
by  the  legislature;  and  the  term  of  office,  unless 


YORK  041 

1  forfeited,  is  for  life.  The  officers  of  the  board 
area  chancellor,  a  vice-chancellor,  a  secretary, 
and  an  assistanl  secretary.  The  annual  meeting 
is  fixed  by  statute,  and  is  held  in  the  senate 
chandier  at  Albany,  on  the  evening  of  the  second 
Thursday  of  January  of  each  year.  ( tthcr  meet- 
ings arc  held  at  such  time  and  place  as  the 
chancellor  may  appoint.  Six  members  consti- 
tute a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business. 
They  serve  without  salary.  Other  duties  have, 
from  time  to  time,  been  imposed  upon  them  by 
law.  In  1844,  they  were  made  trustees  of  the 
state  library;  and,  in  the  same  year,  in  con- 
junction with  the  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, were  placed  in  charge  of  the  State 
Normal  School  at  Albany.  In  L845,  they  were 
made  trustees  of  the  state  cabinet,  and.  in  1856, 
were  charged  with  what  remained  of  the  publi- 
cation of  thecoloni.il  history  of  the  state.     In 

of  study  for  teachers' classes  in  academies;  and 
have  prescribed  the  following  :  reading  and 
orthography;  writing;  arithmetic,  intellectual 
and  written;  English  grammar;  and  geography. 
The  theory  and  practice  of  teaching  must  be 
combined  with  these  studies.  When  any  of  the 
above  subjects  have  been  thoroughly  mastered, 
one  or  more  of  the  following  may  be  pursued: 
al-j  bia.  geography,  natural  history,  natural  phi- 
losophy, history  of  the  I  nited  Slate.,,  science 
of  government,  and  physiology.  In  1853,  the 
regents  were  r  quired  to  establish  general  titles 
for  the  incoriiorittiou  of  academies,  colleges,  and 
universities,  in  conformity  with  existing  laws. 
Academies,  colleges,  and  universities  are  corpo- 
rations, under  the  management  of  trustees,  who 
usually  till  all  vacancies  occurring  in  their  num- 
ber. They  hold  the  property,  appoint  the  pro- 
fessors and  instructors,  and,  in  the  absence  of 
special  agreement,  dismiss  them  at  pleasure. 

As  shown  by  t'  e  statistii  given  below,  much 
dissatisfaction  has  been  expressed  with  the  double 
feature  of  this  educational  system,  as  shown  in 
the  existence  of  the  office  of  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  and  of  the  board  of  regents; 
and  efforts  have  been  made  to  give  to  it  a  unitary 
character:  but  thus  far  without  success.  A  bill 
making  the  regents  subordinate  to  the  superin- 
tendent and  requiring  them  to  report  to  him, 
passed  both  houses  of  the  legislature  in  1870, 
but  was  vetoed  by  the  governor.  Since  then, 
each  of  the  patties  in  interest  has  tried,  through 
the  aid  of  the  law-making  power,  to  secure  for 
itself  the  sole  supervision  of  education :  and 
each  has  expressed,  by  these  acts,  the  conviction 
that  the  welfare  of  the  schools  demands  a  uni- 
tary system. 

Fiii mu-inl— The  schools  derive  their  support 
from  the  following  sources:  (1)  The  income  of  the 
common-school  fund,  which,  in  H75,  amounted 
to  about  $180,000.  (2)  The  amount  the  legislature 
may  annually  set  apart  from  the  income  of  the 
United  States  deposit  fund.  This  has  been  for 
many  years  SI  (15,000.  (3)  The  state  tax  of  one 
and  one-fourth  of  a  mill  on  the  dollar.  (I )  J  >istrict, 
village,  and  city  taxation.    (5)  The  income  from 


local  funds,  mainly  gospel  and  school  lands  — 
The  mode  of  distribution  is  as  follows :  The 
superintendent  of  public  instruction,  after  ascer- 
taining the  amount  to  be  apportioned,  sets  apart, 
from  the  income  of  the  United  States  deposit 
fund,  (1)  The  amount  necessary  to  pay  the 
salaries  of  the  school  commissioners;  (2)  to  each 
city  having  a  superintendent  of  common  schools, 
or  a  clerk  of  the  board  of  education  performing 
the  duty  of  superintendent,  the  sum  of  eight 
hundred  dollars,  and  in  case  any  city  is  entitled 
to  more  than  one  member  of  assembly,  five  hun- 
dred dollars  for  each  additional  member,  for  the 
support  of  the  common  schools  of  the  city; 
(3)  for  library  moneys,  such  sums  as  the  legis- 
lature shall  appropriate.  (4)  He  then  sets  apart 
from  the  five-school  fund,  four  thousand  dollars 
for  a  contingent  fund.  (5)  He  then  sets  apart 
for  the  support  of  Indian  schools  an  equitable 
sum,  the  same,  in  proportion  to  their  numbers, 
as  is  apportioned  to  schools  for  white  children. 
(6)  He  ascertains  the  total  so  apportioned,  and  i 
deducts  it  from  the  total  school  moneys  ap- 
propriated,  and  divides  the  remainder  into  two 
parts,  one  equal  to  one-third  thereof,  and  the 
other  to  two-thirds.  (7)  The  one-third  of  the 
money  is  divided  by  the  whole  number  of  quali- 
fied teachers  in  the  state,  employed  for  twenty-  ! 
eight  weeks  or  more  dining  the  school  year,  to 
ascertain  the  "district  quota;"  and  is  distributed 
to  the  districts,  one  quota  for  each  qualified 
teacher  employed  for  the  required  time.  (8)  He 
apportions  the  remaining  two-thirds,  and  also 
the  library  money,  among  the  counties  according 
to  their  population,  as  shown  by  the  last  state 
or  United  States  census,  excluding  Indians.  In 
counties  where  there  are  cities,  separate  appor- 
tionments are  made,  one  to  the  city,  and  one  to 
the  rest  of  the  county.  (9)  He  apportions  an 
equitable  sum  for  three  separate  neighborhoods 
from  the  contingent  fund.  He  certifies  to  the 
county  clerk,  county  treasurer,  and  school  com- 
missioners, and  to  city  chamberlains  or  treasurers 
the  amount  apportioned  to  each  county  and  city. 
The  apportionment  is  payable  on  the  first  day 
of  April  next  after  it  is  made.  —  The  school 
commissioners  having  received  such  certificate, 
meet  at  the  court-house  in  their  respective  coun- 
ties on  the  third  Tuesday  in  March,  and,  ap- 
portion the  money  to  the  districts.  (1)  They 
set  apart  to  each  district  the  "  district  quotas  " 
allowed  by  the  state  superintendent.  (2)  They 
set  apart  any  money  assigned  to  districts  as 
equitable  allowances.  (3)  They  divide  the  re- 
mainder into  two  equal  parts  ;  one  of  which 
they  apportion  to  the  districts  in  proportion  to 
the  children  of  school  age  residing  in  each  ;  and 
the  other,  to  the  districts  according  to  the  average 
daily  attendance  of  resilient  pupils.  (4)  They 
apportion  the  library  money  according  to  the 
number  of  resident  eliiMien  of  school  age.  They 
sign  their  apportionment  in  duplicate,  send  one 
copy  to  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
and  deliver  the  other  to  the  county  treasurer. 
They  also  certify  to  each  supervisor  the  amount 
apportioned  to  each  district  in  his  town,  desig- 


Dg  the  library  money,  and  that  for  teachers' 


The  capital  of  the  common-school  fund  Sept. 
30.,  1875  amounted  to  $3,080,107.68,  consisting 
of  the  following  items  : 

Bends  for  lands 

Bunds  tor  loans 

Loan   of   1S4U 

Bank  stocks 


$237,4ss.s7 

150,l2s.ol 

49,320.00 
5(1,(1(10.(111 

30. 1.0(1 

1,165,057.24 

10,400,00 

1,381,706.96 


Oswego  city  bonds 

Money  in  the  treasury 

The  income  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30.,  1875 
was  $179,303.66.  The  free-school  fund,  or 
income  derived  from  \\  mill  school  tax  on 
§2,367,780.102— equalized  valuation  of  the  real 
and  personal  property  in  the  state,  amounted  to 
$2,950,725.1  3.  The  'capital  of  the  U.  S.  deposit 
fund  amounted  to  $4,014,520.71,  consisting  of 
the  following : 
Mortgages    for    loans,    and    invested    in 

county   bonds $3,436,407.93 

State   stocks 315,239.44 

U.  >.  5  per  cent  stocks.  1881 50,000.00 

Money  in  the  treasury 12,873.34 

The  revenue  from  which,  in  1875,  was  $236,000, 

as  follows : 

Set  apart  by  statute  for  common  schools $1('.5.000 

For  dividends  to  academies 28,000 

For  addition  to  capital  of  common-school  fund     25,0(10 
For  teachers'  classes  m  academies 18,000 

The  state  has  provided  no  funds  for  the  sup- 
port of  colleges.  For  aid  to  academies,  a  fund 
known  as  the  literature  fund,  was  derived  from 
the  sale  of  certain  tracts  of  land  reserved  for 
literature,  and  was  largely  increased  by  four 
lotteries,  authorized  in  1801,  to  raise  8100,000 
for  the  joint  benefit  of  the  academies  and  com- 
mon schools. 

The  capital  of  this  fund  consists  of 

1.  State  stocks  :— 7  per  cent  $57,000.00 

6  per  cent 165,000.00 

5  per  cent 20,347.00' 

2.  Comptroller's  bond  payable  on  demand     25,330.94 

3.  One  hundred  shares  iii  the  Albany  In- 
surance Company 4,000.00 

$271,677.94 
The  income  for  the  year  ending  Sept.  30.,  1875, 
was  $17,979,49. 

School  Statistics. — The  following  are  the  chief 
items  of  statistics  of  the  common  schools  for  the 
year  ending  Sept.  30.,  1875  : 

Number  of  districts 11,291 

Number  of  children,,!  school  ape,  (5—21), 

cities,   728.948 
towns,  854,116 

Total 1,583,064 

Number  of  children  enrolled  in  the 

common  schools,  cities,    445,552 

towns.  (J13.C86 

Total 1,059,238 

Average  daily  attendance,      cities,  226.980 
towns,  304,855 

Total 531,835 

Number  of  male  teachers,     cities,  612 

towns.      6,816 

Total 7,42s 

Number  of  female  teachers,  cities,       5.724 
towns,     16.861 
Total 22,585 


NEW   YORK 


ii4:; 


Total  number  of  teachers  in  the  state 30,013 

Number  of  teachers  employed  at  the  same 

time  for  28  weeks  or  more 19,073 

Number  of  volumes  in  ilistriet  libraries 809,141 

Whole  number  of  school-houses 11,78s 

Whole  number  of  pupils  taught,  in 

Common  schools 1,059,238 

Normal  schools 6,348 

Academies 29,988 

Colleges 2,921 

Private  schools 134,644 

Law  schools 663 

Medical  schools 1 .47*2 

Total 1.235,269 

The  following  statistics  of  Indian  schools  were 
reported  in  1875  : 

Number  of  school  districts 29 

Number  of  teachers,  «  bites 23 

Indians 32 


Total 


Nam 


Exp< 


^  The  school  moneys  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
Sept.  30.,  1876,  were  from  the  following  sources: 

Common-school  fund $170,000 

U.  S.  deposit  fund lc.>[ooo 

State  school  tax 2,712,000 

$3,047, I 

follows : 


Total 

The  apportionment  for  1870  was  a 

For  salaries  of  school  conimis-  

sioners $89,600.00 

For  supervision  in  cities 30,200.00 

For  libraries 60,000.00 

For  contingent  fund,  including 
$89.01  for  separate  neighbor- 
hoods       2,583.13 

For  Indian  schools 3,379.9:1 

For  district    quotas 9.">7,'on1.9C 

For  pupil  and  average  attend- 
ance quotas 1,9]  t,l63.92 

Total j 

Aggregate  expenditures  for  school  purpo- 

cities $6,292,737.30 

towns 5,166,616.13 


$11,459,353.43 

-The  state  normal  school 
joint  supervision  and 


Total 

Normal  Instruction- 
at  Albany  is  under  tin 
management  of  the  si  t 
instruction  and  the  regents  of  the  imiversity 
who  arrange  the  studios,  fix  the  number  and' 
compensation  of  teachers,  prescribe  the  condi- 
tions on  which  pupils  shall  be   received  fr 

each  county,  giving  to  each  its  proportion  acced- 
ing to  population.  They  appoint  an  executive 
committee  oi  five  persons,  one  of  whom  is  the 
superintendent,  who  is  also  the  chairman  for  the 
management  of  the  school  under  the  prescribed 
regulations.  The  supervision  and  control  of  the 
other  normal  schools  are  exercised  by  the  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction,  who  appoints 
local  boards  for  their  management.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  statement  of  the  general  statistics  of  the 
normal  schools  for  1875  : 

Number  of  normal   schools,  state    ...  8 

city  (N.Y.  Normal 

College) 1 

Total 9 


Number  of  teachers  in  stale  normal  schools 112 

No.  of  pupils,  including  those  in  training  depts..   i;,:t(s 
No.  of  students,  in  normal  departments      .2,9.,.-, 
in  N.Y.  Normal  College.  .1,310 

Total 7777774,265 

No.  of  graduates,  state  normal  schools  •_>,-,!; 

N.  Y.  Normal  College I  us 

Total r_'i 

Cost  of  state  normal  schools $163,892.03 

«i    u     a      j^_  ym  formal  College 88,873.23 

Tlu>  state  normal  school  at  Albany,   in  187;">. 


was  14.  The  normal  school  at  I'.uekport  had  an 
enrollment  of  886:  normal  department,  325; 
academic  department.  221  ;  intermediate  and' 
primary  departments,  340.  The  average  attend- 
ance was  469,  of  whom  17(1  belonged  to  the 
normal  department.  The  number  of  graduates 
was  14. — In  the  normal  school  at  Buffalo,  the 
average  attendance  was  lso,  out  of  an  en- 
rollment of  314;  academic  students,  16.  The 
number  of  graduates  was  75. — In  the  normal 
school  at  Cortland,  the  enrollment  was  807, 
in  the  normal  department,  370;  training  school, 

179  and  328.  In  the  normal  school  at  h'redoi'iia,' 
the  enrollment  was  so.",,  in  the  normal  depart- 
ment, 230  ;  .academic.  Is.",;  senior,  116;  junior 
and  primary,  '27  I  :  the  average  attendance  was. 
respectively,  117, Is!),  103,  and  188;  total, 627. — 

In  the  normal  scl 1  at  Geneseo,  the  enrollment 

was  902,— in  the  normal  department,  347; 
academic,  intermediate,  and  primary,  555.  The 
number  of  graduates  was  24.  The  normal  and 
training  school  at  Oswego  had  13  instructors; 
an  enrollment  of  460  pupils,  and  59  graduates, 

In  the  normal  school 

lhnent  was    776, — normal 

demic,  163  ;  primary  and 

ie  average  attendance  was, 

and  1  49.     The  number  of 

ornial  ( 'ollcge  of 

iber  of  students 

of  the   training; 

ancc   was  1,07 1. 


,1,  .- 


lively,  183,   38,  a 
ictors  was   15.     I 

ty  of    New   York. 


i  ne  nuniner  or  pupus  enrolled  m  tne  training 
department  was  803;  average-  attendance",  761. 
The  number  of  instructors  in  the  normal  college 
was  34;  in  the  training  school,  18.—  Teachers' 
institutes  are  held  for  one  or  two  weeks  (in  the 
majority  of  the  counties,  for  two  weeks),  under 
the  instruction  of  persons  employed  by  the  state 
superintendent.  The  following  statistics  of  in- 
stitutes are  reported  for  1875  : — 
Number  "I  counties  in  which  institutes  were  held.  .5.8 

Number  of  institutes as 

No.  of  teachers  in  atttendance,  males      3,638 
females.  7.295 
Total.....          19.93:: 

Average  number  from  each  county 188 

Average  expense  per  couuty '. $279.44 


ii!4 


In  1875,  the  number  of  academies  which  main- 
tained teachers'  classes  was  95,  at  which  the  at- 
tendance was  619  males  and  1,275  females. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — 
The  convention  journals  of  the  various  dioceses 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  for  ls75, 
excepting  the  dioceses  of  New  York  and  <  'entral 
New  York,  state  the  number  of  schools,  church 
and  parochial,  as  16,  with  804  pupils;  Sadlier's 
Catholic  Directory  for  1876,  gives  data  from 
which  are  derived' the  following  :  the  number  of 
schools,  select  and  parochial,  was  292  ;  the  num- 
ber of  pupils,  94,430. 

Secondary  Instruction— The  whole  number 
of  academies  in  the  state  reporting  to  regents  is 
222,  of  which  more  than  one-half  are  connected 
with,  and  form  a  part  of,  the  free-school  systems 
of  their  respective  localities.  This  number  in- 
creases annually,  under  a  law  of  1864,  which 
authorizes  the  trustees  of  any  academy,  by  a 
majority  vote,  to  surrender  their  property  to 
the  board  of  education  of  any  union  free-school 
district  in  the  same  place,  and  thus  pass  out  oi 
existence  as  a  corporation.  The  academies  still 
exercising  their  corporate  rights  depend  mainly 
upon  tuition  fees  for  their  support.  In  1870, 
examinations  were  instituted  by  the  regents  to 
test  the  attainments  and  determine  the  classifi- 
cation of  academic  pupils.  Printed  lists  of 
questions  are  furnished  on  English  grammar, 
geography,  and  arithmetic,  anil  a  list  of  100 
words  to  be  spelled.  Certificates  are  issued  to 
those  who  pass  the  examination  successfully. 

The  following  items  of  statistics  are  for  the 
year  1875 : 
Number  of  academies  and  Bchools  reporting. .         222 

Number  of  teachers  employed 1,151 

Whole  number  of  scholars :il,4i;:i 

Average  attendance  bv  terms 20,742 

Number  of  academic  scholars *,M- 

Average  age  of  scholars 17.3  yrs. 

Receipts,  from  tuition $431,r>i'.0 

other  sources 7"i4.!i2.i 

Total $1,186,685 

Expenditures,  for  salaries ?7ss,2  l."> 

other  purposes. . .     372. aim 

Total T.   $1,160,844 

Value  of  academic  property $6,492,050 

At  the  regents' examination   in  1873 — 4,  the 
number  of  candidates  examined  was  as  follows  : 
lu  arithmetic,         18,856  ;     passed,        3,947 
"  geography,         17,376;  "  8,649 

"  graiumar,"  17,330;  "  7.300 

«  spelling,  17,182;  "  8,830 

Of  private  institutions  for  secondary  instruc- 
tion, 38  for  boys,  47  for  girls,  and  121  for  both, 
reported  to  the  IT.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  in 
1874,  a  total  of  1,400  teachers,  with  25,620  pu- 
pils ;  of  whom  14,721  were  represented  as  pur- 
suing English  studies,  3,131,  classical  studies, 
and  3,791,  scientific  studies.  There  are  also 
many  preparatory  schools,  included  in  which 
may' be  mentioned  the  introductory  department 
of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York.  These 
schools  contain,  in  the  aggregate,  upward  of 
6,000  pupils.  Business  colleges  are  also  numer- 
ous, 15  making  return,  in  L875,  to  the  U.  S. 
Bureau,  of  72  teachers  and  2,919  pupils.  Besides 


these  institutions,  several  of  the  cities— Albany, 
Buffalo,  Oswego,  Rochester,  Syra  u8e,Troy,Utica, 
etc,— support  free  academies  or  high  schools. 

Superior  Ins  ruction.— The  following  is  a  list 
of  the  principal  colleges  and  universities. 

[Those  exclusively  for  the  higher  education  of 
women  are  printed  in  italics  ;  those  in  small  caps 
admit  both  sexes.] 


N  UII-: 


Ami. en   1'mvh;hiv 

Urookhn  Collegiate 

and  Polyt.  lust..  . 

Camsms  Coll 


Location 


Alfred  Centre. 

Brooklyn 

Buffalo 


ev   fork, 
ew  York, 

l w  York. 


Union  College  1 
Univ.  of  N.  Y.  City 
Univ.  of  Rochester 

Vctssar  College 

Wells  College 


Auaudale 

Albany  and 

S.'ll.'Tii  ,  tudv 

New  York.... 
Rochester  . . . 
Po'keepsie  .., 


Date 


1861 


Iioiioin- 


R.  C. 

Noll-sect. 

N"ii  suet. 

Presb. 

Preab. 


Non-i 


For  further  information  in  regard  to  these  in- 
stitutions, see  their  respective  titles. 

Scientific  and  Professional  Instruction.— 
Under  this  head,  arc  included  7  schools  of  science, 
having,  in  the  aggregate,  S4  instructors  and  2,311 
students;  14  medical  schools,  with  199  instruct- 
ors, and  2,206  students;  4  schools  of  law,  with 
1 5  instructors  and  589  students;  and  12  theo- 
logical schools,  with  68  infractors  and  652 
students.  The  following  tables  contain  lists  of 
t  hi  ise  s  veral  institutions : 

Medical  Schools. 


College  of  Pliys.  4;  Surg, 
of  City  of  New  York.  . 

(  nil, -.■  of  Pharmacy  of 
City  of  New  York 

Medical  1  'opt.  of  Univer- 
sity of  Cityof  N.Y... 

Albany  Medical  College 
of  Union  University.. 

Medical  Dept.oftheUui- 
ilty  <  ■  - 


Long  Island  Collegellos 

pital  

Ilomu-opathio  Mod. Coll. 

of  tin'  State  of  N.Y... 
liollevne  Hospital  Mod 

ica!  College 

NowYork  Med.  Coll.  and 

Hospital  for  Women.. 
New   York     College    o: 

Dentistry 

Eclectic  Medical  Collegs 
New  York    Free    Med. 

Coll.  for  Women :New  York 

New  York     College     ofi 

Amcsthesia | 

College  of  Physicians  \ 

Surg.,  Syracuse  Univ.  Sy 


New  York 
New  York 
New  York 
Albany 
Buffalo 
Brooklyn 
New  York 
New  York 
New  York 


N.-w   York 


1807 

24  | 

1S31 

6 

1837 

21 

1839 

19 

1846 

9 

1858 

22 

18(30 

19 

1861 

19 

1863 

15 

1865 
1865 

8 
10 

1871 

13 

1873 
1870 

15 

NKYV    YORK 


tilf) 


Schools  of  Science. 


NAME 

Location 

When 

ed 

V.   . .  I 

No.  of 

College    of   Agriculture 

Dept    of  8  ic  m  •  .  1  ni\ 

Engineering  School,  Un 

Rensselaer  Polytechnic 

Institute 

School  of  Mines.  Colum 

Ithaca 
New  York 

S,  lie  10  i  Mil) 

Troy 

1865 
1831 
1795 
1826 
1864 

1859 

1802 

2 

12 

16 

25 
9 

206 
15 
33 

181 

Schools  of  Science  and 

Art.  Cooper  Institute 
U.  S.  Military  Academy. 

New  York 
West  Point 

1,436 
278 

Albany  Law  School,  Un- 
ion University 

Columbia  College,  Law 
School 

Department  of  Law. Uni- 
versity, City  of  "  • 


New  Y'ork 
New  York 


Theological  Schools. 


NAME 

Location 

ed 

Relcom 

Delancey  DiTinit;  School 
General  Theol,   Sera,   of 

Prot.  Episcop; 1<  hurcli 
Hamilton    T 1      S  m 

Madison  University. . . 

Hartwick  Seminary 

Theological   Dept..   Mar 

tin  Luther  College. 
Newburgh      Theological 

Geneva 
New  York 

Hamilton 

Hartwick 

Buffalo 

Xewbiirgh 

Rochester 

Troy 

Susp.  Bridge 

Canton 

New  York 

1817 

1820 
1816 

1853 

1836 

1850 

1864 

1863 

1820 

1858 

1836 

P.  Epis. 

P.  Epis. 

lop 
Luth. 

Ger.Lnth. 

Rochester      Theological 
Seminary 

St.   Joseph's    Provincial 


Seminary  of  <>ur  I.a.ly  ot 
Angels 

Auburn  The.logi.al  Sem- 
inary   

Theological      Dept..    St. 
Lawrence  University. . 

Union  Theological   Scm- 

Bap. 
B.  C. 

R.  C. 
Presb. 
Univ. 
Presb. 

Tho  New  York  Nautical  School,  under  the 
managment  of  the  hoard  of  education  of  the 
city  of  New  York,  was  established  for  the  pur- 
pose of  educating   seamen   for    the   mercantile 


marine,  and  i 

scupies,  in  conformity  with  an  act 

of  Congress, 

!    June  '-'..    1874,   the    1".  S. 

ship  St  Man 

-  in  \.  Y.  harbor.     In   1875,  the 

whole  numbe 

tan  In   was  185;  the  average  at- 

tendance.  97. 

This  institution  is  in  a  flourishing 

condition.      1 

te  first  class,  consisting  of  60  pu- 

pils,  graduate 

1  in  November,  L876. 

and  opened  in  1818  ;  (2)  The  N.  Y.  Institution 
for  the  Improved  Instruction  of  I  leaf-Mutes,  in 
New  York,    established  in    1870;    (3)    the   Cou- 


tcnlx  St.  Mary's  institution  for  the  Improved 
Instruction  of  Deaf-Mutes,  in  KulValo.  iv,  ..^m/rd 
by  the  state  in  1872;  and  (li  the  Central  New 
York  Institution  for  Deaf-Mutes,  in  Rome,  in- 
corporated and  organized  in  1875. 

Any  parent  having  a  deaf  and  dumb  child 
above  the  age  of  twelve  years,  though  able  to  sup- 
port him  at  home,  being  without  sufficienl  means 
to  pay  for  his  support  at  a  proper  institution 
where  lie  may  be  instructed,  mav  present   to   the 


inability  to  pay,  and  thereupon  it  becomes  the 
duty  of  the  superintendent  to  give  to  said  child 
an  appointment,  for  five  years,  to  one  of  tin- 
above  named  institutions.  'I  he  overseer  of  the 
poor  of  the  town,  if  any  deaf-mute  child,  over 
six  and  under  twelve  vein's  of  age.  is  liable  to  be- 
comeacounty  charge,  or  becomes  such.may  .--end 
such  deaf-mute  child  to  "any  institution  in  this 
state  for  the  education  of  deaf-mutes".  [Laws 
0/1875.)  A  boarding-school  for  female  deaf- 
mutes  is  connected  with  St.  Joseph's  Academy, 
located  at  Fordham,  and  under  the  control  of  tho 
Roman  Catholic  '  hurcli.  'I  he  following  statis- 
tics in  relation  to  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes 

No.  of   pupils  supported    by  the  state  355 


females  ....    '247 
Total...: 

684 

he  education  of  th 

The  New  \  oik  Inst 

•  blind 

B instructors, and  IT: 

pupils; 

State  Institution,  lot 

ited  at 

which,  in  1875,  had  I 
(2)  The  New  York  £ 

Batavia,  incorporated  in  1867,  and  receiving  its 
support  from  legislative  appropriations.  In 
L875,  the  number  of  instructors  was  10;  of  pu- 
pils, 166.— The  Now  York  Asylum  for   Idiots 

was  tirst  established  at  Albany  m  I'M",  by  11. 
B.Wilbur  as  a  private  institution.  It  was  adopted 
by  the  state,  and  continued  tit  Albany,  for  a  few 
years,  and  removed  to  Syracuse,  in  1854.  The 
building  was  erected  by  the  state,  in  1853  -I.  at 
a  cost  of  $70,000,  on  a  site  donated  by  residents 
of  SyraCVJ  e.  This  institution  has  deservedly  at- 
tained an  excellent  reputation, as  amongthebest 
of  its  kind. — The  number  of  pupils,  in  lis7.>.  was 
207  :  average  attendance  for  the  year,  L83. 

/.'/ I  'I  he  first  teachers' 

association  in  the  state,  as  far  as  can  be  ascer- 
tained, was  TheTeai  hi  re'  Association  for  Mutual 
Improvement,  of  the  town  of  Charlton.  Its  first 
meeting  was  held  .(an.  .">.,  1836;  and  it  continued 

M    L839.     In   July,  1836,  J.  Orville   Taylor 

issued  a  call,  in  the   Common  Scl   ol  Assistant, 

for  a  convention  of  tl common  .-  1 1  teachers 

of  the  Male''  to  bo  hold  at  Albany;  and  the  meet- 
ing. Sept.  'Jo..  L836,  resulted  in  the  formation  of 
the  State  Teachers'  Society.      This    a  a 

held  a  meeting  Feb.  18..  1837.  and  a  convention 
at  Utica  on  the  11th  of  May  following  ;  but,  for 


046 


NEW   YORK 


some  unexplained  reason,  no  subsequent  meeting 
was  held.  The  next  movement  to  form  an  associa- 
tion of  the  teachers  of  the  state  was  made  in 
March,  1845.  at  a  meeting  of  the  Albany  County 
Teachers'  Association.  A  call  for  a  convention 
was  issued:  and  a  meeting.  July  30.  and  31.,  1845, 
at  Syracuse,  resulted,  attended  by  more  than  150 
teachers.  This  association  has  held  an  annual 
convention  each  year  since  that  time,  except  in 
1x4'.).  The  addresses,  reports,  resolutions,  and 
discussions  have  taken  a  wide  range,  covering 
the  entire  field  of  public  education,  and  have  ex- 
erted a  powerful  influence  both  in  the  school 
room  and  in  legislative  halls.  Other  associations 
have  sprung  up  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  The 
principals  of  the  normal  schools  have  an  associa- 
tion which  holds  an  animal  meeting.  The  State 
Association  of  School  Commissioners  and  City 
Superintendents,  organized  in  185G,also  holds  an 
animal  meeting.  The  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  is,  ex  officio,  its  president.  The  Uni- 
versity ( 'onvocation,  organized  in  1863,  is  an  asso- 
ciation composed  of  the  members  of  the  board  of 
regents,  of  all  teachers  in  colleges,  normal  schools, 
ami  academies  that  are  subject  to  the  visitation 
of  the  regents,  of  the  trustees  of  such  institu- 
tions, and  of  the  president  and  other  officers  of 
the  State  Teachers'  Association.  The  chancellor 
is. the  permanent  president,  and  the  secretary  of 
the  board  of  regents  is  the  permanent   secretary. 

The rocation  meets  annually  at  Albany. 

School  Journals. — The  following  arc  the  prin- 
cipal school  journals  which  have  been  published 
in  the  state:  The  Common  School  Assistant 
(monthly),  published  at  Albany,  in  1836,  by  J. 
<  (rville  Taylor,  discontinued  in  1-:S!>;  The  Dis- 
trict School  Journal  (monthly),  commenced  at 
Geneva,  in  1840,  by  Francis  Dwight,  removed,  in 
1841,  to  Albany,'  discontinued  '  in  1  852  ;  The 
Teachers'  Advocate  (weekly),  first  published  at 
Syracuse,  in  1845,  by  L.  \V.  Hall,  in  1S47. 
united  with  the  American  Journal  of  Education 
(monthly),  commenced,  in  1846,  in  New  York. 
edited  by  Joseph  McKeeii,  afterwards  county 
superintendent  of  schools,  anil  (1854 — 6)  assist- 
ant en  \  superintendent  in  New  York;  this  jour- 
nal   was   merged   in     The    Teachers'  Advocate, 


New  York 

Albany,  in  1 
York  State 
1856,  by  Ja 
with  The  An 


NEW  YORK  (City) 

Educational  Journal  (monthly),  commenced  at 
Fredonia,  in  1872,  united,  in  1875,  with  The 
School  Bulletin,  established  in  1874,  at  Syracuse; 
and  TheNaiional  Teachers'  Monthly, commenced 

at  New  York,  in  1875. 

For  further  information  in  regard  to  the 
history  of  education  m  this  state. set-  ,\ .  IirssKix. 
An  Account  of  New  York  Schools  1847) ;  S.  S. 
Ram.au..  Hist,,,;/  of  On  <;,„,„   „->,/„.,./  Sushn, 


Education  in' 
order  of  the  In 
History  of  il 
Ddnshee,  Hist 
Prot.  Dutch  C 
of  Public  Edu 
1626  to  1746 

j  it  ni 


the   Vr, 


Education  (1869);  Bourne, 
fe  School  Society  (1870); 
hi  S  hool  of  the  Reformed 
1853);  D.J. Pratt, Annals 
n  the  State  of  N.Y.,  from 
V.  M.  Rice,  Special  Re- 
State  of  Education  in  the 


United  States  and  other  countries  (1867). 
NEW  YORK  (Cityi,  the  metropolis  of  the 

state  of  New  York,  the  chief  emporium  of  the 
United  States,  and  the  most  populous  city  of  the 
western  continent.  Its  population,  according  to 
the  state  census  of  1875,  was  1,046,037.— The 
history  of  education  in  this  city  commences 
almost  with  its  first  settlement  by  the  1  hitch, 
who,  in  their  own  country,  had  already  realized 
the  importance  of  popular  education.  "  Neither 
the  perils  of  war,"  says  Brodhead,  "  nor  the 
busy  pursuit  of  gain,  nor  the  excitement  of 
political  Btrife,  ever  caused  them  to  neglect  the 
duty  of  educating  their  offspring.  Schools  were 
every-where  provided,  at  the  public  expense, 
with  good  school-masters  to  instruct  the  chil- 
dren of  all  classes  in  the  usual  branches  of  edu- 
cation  ;  and  the  consistories  of  the  churches 
took  zealous  care  to  have  their  youth  thorough- 
ly taught  the  catechism  and  the  articles  of 
religion.  'I  he  offices  of  minister  and  school- 
master were  at  first  united,  and  the  school  was 
under  the  control  of  the  established  church.  In 
1633,  these  offices  were  separated:  but  it  was 
several  years  before  a  school-house  was  built.  At 
the  end  of  Stuyvesant's  administration,  there 
were,  in  New  Amsterdam.  3  public  schools,  a 
dozen  or  more  private  schools,  and  a  Latin  school 
of  great  repute.  The  first  public  school  estab- 
lished in  New  Amsterdam  by  the  Hutch  has 
continued  to  the  present  time,  under  the  title  of 
the  School  of  the  Reformed  Protestant  Hutch 
Church.  After  the  conquest  of  New  Nether- 
lands l.v  the  Knelish.in  1 IHM.  the  schools  of  New 


dai 


.establish, 


Seller 


Al.salc 

lislled 


York,  1855     7 


School  Journal  (semi-monthly),  established  in 
New  York,  1809  :  The  Journal  if  Eihieation . 
first  published  in  Brooklyn,  in  1875,  afterwards 
in  New  York,  until  1876  ;   The  New  York  State 


net  was  passed  by  the  colonial  legislature  for  the 
"encouragement  of  a  Grammar  Free  School  in 
the  City  of  New  York  :"  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  school  was  immediately  established. 
This  act  expired  bv  limitation  in  170!)  ;  and.  for 
a  period  of  twenty  years  thereafter,"  no  effort 
seems  to  have  been  made  to  revive  it,  nor  any 
The  New  York  \  measures  taken  in  behalf  of  primary  education 
during  the  subsequent  history  of  the  colony. 
King's  (now  Columbia)  College  was  established 
in  L754.  During  the  Revolutionary  war,  the 
schools  of  the  city  were  closed  ;  and,  for  several 


NEW   FORK    (Cm) 

years  after  the  termination  of  the  war  and  the  I  city,  ami  local  school  inspectc 


establishment    of    the    federal    government, 
measures  were  taken  to  provide  schools  for  the 
people,  except   by   benevolent    societies.     The 


each  ward  ;   but  still  allowing  (I 
Society  and  other  corporations  1 


schools  wen 

Society,  whi 
trol  of  the  i 
society  was 
"  The  Societ; 
the  City  of 


Wi 


elc 


the  society.  1  he  first  school  was  opened  by 
the  society  May  17.,  L806.  In  1808,  the  name 
of  the  society  was  changed  to  the  Free-School 
Society  of  New  York.  In  1815,  it  received 
$3,708.14  from  the  school  fund,  the  quota  of 
the  city  under  the  first  apportionment  of  the 
fund.  Then  the  whole  number  of  pupils,  un- 
der its  care  was  933,  taught  in  ;i  schools. 
These  schools  were  organized  under  the  Lan- 
casterian  or  monitorial  system,  and  so  con- 
tinued to  a  considerable  extent   up  to  the  time 


ol   S< 


embers  of  the 
•  officio,  of  the 


• :  and  the  trustees 
ie  members.  The 
ion  were  members. 


■ere  rapidly  established,  and 

■al  basis,  the  old  monitorial 
greatly  restricted  or  aban- 
buildings  Vicing  constructed 
ier  of  (lass  looms, auda  much 


liar 


vervyreat  rivalry,  and  the 
tturesof  the  ward  schools,  as  they 
ive   them   a  great   advantage  over 

'ublic  Scl 1  Society.     The  latter 

financial    embarrassment,  its  an- 


stanl  obstacle  to  this.  The  only 
to  merge  the  systems,  and  transfer 
of  the  society  to  the  city.     With  i 


corder,  of  the  board  of  trustees.  In  1831,  the 
legislature  authorized,  for  the.  support  of  the 
schools,  the  levying  of  a  tax  of  one-twentieth 
of  one  per  cent  of  the  assesse  1  valuation  of  the 
city  property.  The  commissioners  of  the  com- 
mon-school fund,  consisting  of  our  person  from 
each  ward  of  the  city,  appointed  by  the  common 
council,  received  and  distributed  the  school 
moneys  of  the  city  and  the  Btate;  and  it  was 
their  duty  to  visit  every  school  twice  in  each 
year.  In  addition  to  these  means  of  support, 
considerable  donations  of  money  and  land  had 
been  made  to  the  society  from  the  commence- 
ment of  its  beneficent  career.  In  1840,  the 
trustees  of  the  Catholic  Free  Schools  applied  to 

ipate  in  the  school  moneys,  and,  in  that  appli- 
cation, took  occasion  to  find  considerable  fault 
with  the  internal  management  of  the  schools. 
and  the  text-books  used,  which  they  denounced 
as  practically  sectarian,  and  referred  to  the 
Society  as  a  "gigantic  and  growing  monopoly", 
to  which  it  was  unwise  to  intrust,  to  so- large  an  J 
extent,  the  interests  of  public  instruction.'"  An  j 
exciting  discussion  ensued,  first,  in  the  common  j 
council,  afterwards,  in   the   legislature;  and,  in 

1842,  on  the  it emendation  of  the  governor, 

William  II.  Seward,  an  act  was  passed  author- 
izing the  election  of  school  commissioners  who 
were  to  constitute  a  board  of  education  for  the 


he  eslabhsh- 
demy,  for  hoys,  in  case  the 
veil  by  a  majority  of  the 
y.  Such  approval  having 
sry  large  majority  (19,400 
stitution  was  organized  in 
as  the  first  presi- 
ii.  by  a  special  act 
( 'ollcge  of  the  (  'ity 
ie  Female  Normal 
us  to  which  time, 


\\cb>l 


of    New   York.— In    1870, 

College  was  organized  :  prev 

there  was  no  normal  school  in  the  city  except  a 

Saturday  school  for  teachers.  There  is.  at  present, 


Nei 


\1,, 


gamzatiou  oi  the  system  in  New  \  ork  since  1853. 
Then  the  board  of  education  consisted  of  two 
school   commissioners  from  each  ward,  one-half 


048 


NEW  YORK  (City) 


elected  annually;  and  there  were  also  elected  in 
each  ward  eight  trustees,  and  two  school  inspect- 
ors; the  twelve,  including  i  c >i 1 1 in i.-^-i rs  trustees, 

and  inspectors,  constituting  a  waul  board  of 
school  officers.  This  continued  until  1m;  l.wlien  an 
act  was  passed  dividing  the  city  into  seven  school- 
districts,  for  each  of  which  three  commissioners 
of  schools  were  elected  for  a  term  of  office  of 
three  years,  one  third  retiring  each  year.  Five 
trustees  were   elected  in   each  ward;  and  three 

inspectors  were,  on  I  he  n ination  of  the  mayor. 

appointed  by  the  board  of  education  for  each 
distii  t.  In  1  869,  the  system  was  again  changed, 
the  board  of  education  being  composed  of  twelve 
commissioners  appointed  from  the  city  at  large 
by  the  mayor.  In  1871.  the  educational  system 
was  made  a  department  of  the  city  government, 
all  the  officers— commissioners,  inspectors,  and 
trustees  being  appointed  by  the  mayor.  In  1873, 
the  law  was  passed  under  which  the  schools  are 
now  (1876)   conducted. 

County  and  City  Superintendents.  -  The  first 
superintendent  of  schools  in  the  city  of  New 
York  was  William  L.  Stone,  appointed  in 
pursuance  of  the  state  law  passed  May  '_'<;., 
1841,  creating  the  office  of  county  superin- 
tendent to  be  appointed  by  the  board  of  super- 
visors in  each  county.  Col.  Stone  served  until 
his  death,  iii  1844,  when  he  was  succeeded  by 
David  ,\1.  Reese,  till  1847;  William  A.  Walker, 
till  1848;  Joseph  McKeen,  till  1853,  as  county 
and  city  superintendent,  the  latter  from  1851; 
S.S.  Randall,  till  1870;  Henry  Kiddle,  from 
1870  until  the  present  time.-  elected  for  the 
third  time  in  1876.  Mr,  Kiddle  had  previously 
served  as  chief  assistant  superintendent  from 
1856  to  1870. 

School  System. — The  board  of  education  con- 
sists of  twenty-one  members  appointed  from  the 
city  at  large 
of  tiv 


oroftener  if  required,  to  the  state  superintendent. 
He  may  also  revoke  licenses,  with  the  concurrence 
of  two  of  the  inspectors  of  the  district  in  which 
the  teacher  is  employed ;  but  the  teacher  has  a 
right  of  appeal  to  the  state  superintendent.  There 
are  also  seven  assistant  superintendents,  elected 
in  the  same  manner  and  for  the  same  term  as 
the  city  superintendent,  whose  duties  are  to  ex- 
amine schools  and  assist  in  the  examination  of 
teachers,  under  the  direction  of  the  city  super- 
intendent.— The  schools  are  supported  from  the 
general  tax  levied  on  the  real  and  personal  prop- 
erty of  the  city  for  the  support  of  the  city 
government,  etc.  The  city,  it  is  true,  receives 
from  the  state  its  distributive  portion  of  the 
state  school  moneys  (see  New  York);  but  its 
contribution  to  the  state  for  school  purposes  is 
greatly  in  excess  of  all  that  it  receives  in  return, 
the  difference,  in  1 875, amounting  to  $827,253.87. 
Teachers'  certificates  are  conferred,  after  ex- 
amination, by  the  city  superintendent,  but  must 
also  be  signed  by  at  least  two  school  inspectors, 
certifying  that  they  were  present  at  the  exami- 
nation and  that  they  concur  in  granting  the 
same.  These  certificates  are,  at  first,  provision- 
al, and  attest  only  the  scholarship  and  moral 
character  of  the  holders:  and  no  permanent 
certificate,  attesting  the  ability  to  teach,  can 
be  conferred  until  at  least  six  months'  experi- 
ence has  been  had  in  the  public  schools  of 
the  city.  No  person  is  permitted  to  perform 
service  in  any  position  as  a  teacher  until  duly 
licensed,  and  no  certificate  is  valid  after  a  dis- 
continuance of  service  of  two  years.  (  andidates 
for  provisional  licenses,  or  certificates,  must  be 
examined  in  reading,  spelling.  1'iiglish  grammar, 
history  of  the  United  Stat.-'.  English  literature, 
arithmetic,  algebra  (through  quadratics),  plane 
geometry,  descriptive  astronomy  |  hysi  B,  zoology, 
principles  and  methods 
to  obtain  a  permanent 
tion  or  grade,  the  candi- 
.  must  beattested,  and  he 
examination  in  the  par- 


NEW  YORK  (City) 

paid  to  teachers  are  as  follows:  to  principals 
of  male  grammar  schools — maximum,  $3,000; 
minimum,  $2,250  ;  of  female  grammar  schools- 

max.,$2, i;  min.,  $1,200;  of  primary  schools 

max.,  $1,800;  mira.,'$l,000;  to  vice-principals 
of  male  grammar  Bchools  max  $2,500;  min., 
$2,000;offemalegrammarschools  toot.,$1,298; 
min.,  §1,200;  of  primary  schools — max.,  $1 ,200; 
min.,  S900;  to  male  assistants,  an  average  nol 
exceeding  $1,652;  to  female  assistanta  in  male 
grammar  schools,  an  average  of  $850,  in  female 
grammar  schools,  an  average  of  $767;  in  primary 
schools,  an  average  of  SHOO.  The  minimum  of 
salary  payable  to  any  teacher  is  $500.  The 
school  age  is  from  4  to  21  years;  and  "par- 
ents, guardians,  or  other  persons  having  the 
care  or  custody  of  children,"  residing  in  the 
city,  are  entitled  to  send  such  children  to  any 
of  the  public  schools. —  The  course  of  study 
of  the  grammar  and  primary  schools  embraces 
reading,  spelling.  English  grammar,  geography, 
arithmetic,  the  history  of  the  United  States, 
astronomy,  algebra,  book-keeping,  penmanship, 
drawing,  and  vocal  music,  German  or  French 
maybe  taught  in  the  three  higher  grades  of  the 
grammar-school  course,  whenever  the  parents  or 
guardians  of  at  least  thirty  pupils  desire  it.  Pu- 
pils to  be  promoted  to  the  grammar  schools,  must 
be  able  to  read  inaThird  Header,  to  ciphi  i  a  Fat 
as  long  division  (with  divisors  not  exceeding  25), 
have  learned  the  elements  of  geography,  and 
have  made  some  progress  in  penmanship  and 
drawing.    Sewn,    i      ;   be  taught  in  the  grammar 

schools  forgirls.  Theai mt  of  time  to  he given 

to  each  study  is  carefully  fixed  by  the  rules  of 
the  board  of  education. 

The  whole  n Iier  of  ,-cl Is  under  the  (are  of 

the  board  of  education  is  3(18.  as  follows:  46 
grammar  schools  for  males:  46,for  females;  L3,for 
both  sexes  (mixed  schools)  :  66  primary  depart- 
ments (in  the  same  buildings  with  grammar 
schools)  ;  45  separate  primary  schools  ;  7  colored 
Schools:  4<;  corporate  schools;  .'{5  evening  schools: 
besides  the  Normal  College,  the  Saturday  Nor- 
mal School,  for  teachers,  the  Training  School. 
and  the  N.  Y.  Nautical  School.  The  following 
table  presents  the  »■/„»//  statistics  for  1875  : 


Grade  of  schools. 

No.  of 
-diool- 

v,    ,,| 

'"rolled" 

luelTT 

Normal  College 

Training  School 

Satmdav   Normal 
School 

1 
1 

1 
105 

111 

1 

34 

is 

9 

1,112 

1,388 
37 
3 

2,031 

803 

560 
46,813 

109,003 

1,482 

185 

1,071 

Grammar  Schools. .  . . 
Primary  Departments 

and  Schools 

Colored  Schools 

Nautical  School 

36,572 

62,418 

S72 
97 

Total  in  day  school ! 

227 

2,601 

lr.ll.s77 

101,940 

Evening  Schools 

35 

40S 
3,009 

24.149 

10,343 

Total  in  public  schools 

262 
46 

I   .-..ii-j.; 

112,283 

Corporate  Schools 

195 

3,204 

22,812 

2ii7,s::s 

9,092 

Grand  total 

308 

121,375 

NEW  YORK  CITY   COLLEGE      64» 

Receipts  (for  1875—6): 
Apportioned  to  the  city  by 

the  state  superintendent   J  .',-  I.e..  1    . 
Raised  by  local  tax 2,964,486.98 

Total $3,549,141.56 

Payments : 

Fori -hers'  salaries   ,  .  .   J 2, 439,696. 36 

"    buildings,  sites,  re- 
pairs, etc 390,296.22 

"    school  apparatus. 

books,  etc 144,273.29 

Colored  schools 39,503.82 

Corporate   "       103,126.05 

Other  expenses 432,245.82 

Total  13,549,141.56 

Private,  Parochial,  and  Denominational 
Schools. — No  complete  and  reliable  statistics  in 
relation  to  private  schools  in  the  city  have  been 
collected  since  1867,  in  which  year  there  were 

23  Roman  Catholic  free  schools,  having  16.342 
pupils  :  24  R.  C.  pay  schools,  with  6,070  pupils; 

24  schools  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church, 
with  2,367  pupils;  22  schools  connected  with 
other  Protestant  denominations,  with  5.713  pu- 
pils; 12  Hebrew  schools,  with  998  pupils;  25 
German  schools,  free  and  private,  with  3,641 
pupils;  and  1 68  oilier  private  schools,  with  1 1.875 
pupils ;  making,  in  all,  298  schools,  with  47,006 
pupils.  'I  his  class  of  schools  has  considerably 
increased  in  number  and  attendance  since  that 
time.  At  the  close  of  1875,  the  Catholic  paro- 
chial schools  numbered  57.  with  an  enrollment  of 
30,732  pupils,— 13,062  boys  and  17,670  girls, 
taught  by  about  380  religious  and  laj  teachers. 
Besides  these,  there  were  ISselecl  schot  I  i.  long- 
ing to  this  denomination,  which  gave  instruction 
to  about  1,500  pupils.  For  information  in  re- 
gard to  the  educational  institutions  of  a  higher 
grade,  see  Nkw  York  [State). 

NEW  YORK,  College  of  the  City  of, 
is  the  only  free  college  as  yet  established  by 
any  city  of  the  I'nited  States  which  is  supported 
wholly  by  annual  taxation.  It  was  originally 
organized  as  the  New  York  Free  Academy,  in 
the  year  1848,  the  subject  having  been  first  'sub- 
mitted to  a  vote  of  the  citizens,  who  approved  it 
by  an  overwhelming  majority.  In  the  year  i860, 
by  act  of  the  legislature,  it  was  "erected  into  the 
College  of  the  City  of  New  York."  but  the  emirs,. 
of  study  remained  unchanged.  It  is  a  part  of 
the  common-school  system  of  the  city,  and  is 
governed  by  a  board  of  trustei  3,<  omposed  of  the 
members  of  the  board  of  education  and  the  pres- 
ident of  the  college.  The  h»  also  establishes  an 
executive  committee  of  nine  trustees,  including 
the  president,  for  the  "care,  management,  and 
government  of  the  college."  An  annual  ap- 
propriation of  $150,000  is  made  for  its  support. 
Every  thing  is  tree. —tuition,  books,  and  station- 
ery. The  expenses  for  commencement  exercises 
and  junior  class  exhibitions  are  paid  by  the 
board,  and  an  annual  appropriation  of  $200  is 
made  to  each  of  the  two  literary  societii  s  of  the 
college.  Its  students  are  drawn  from  the  com- 
mon schools.  The  candidates  for  admission  must 
have  attended  one  year  at  a  common  school  in 
the  city,  and  must  be  14  years  of  age.    The  sub- 


<J50       NEW  YORK   UNIVERSITY 

jects  in  which  they  are  examined  in  June  of 
each  year  are  those  taught  in  the  grammar 
schools.  The  college  curriculum  extends  through 
5  years,  and  comprises  two  full  courses  of  study, 
— the  ancient,  and  the  scientific.  The  former  his 
for  its  main  feature  the  study  of  Latin  and 
Greek;  the  latter,  that  of  French  and  German. 
The  calculus  and  mixed  mathematics  are  taught 
only  in  the  scientific  course.  There  is  a  partial 
course  for  introductory  or  first-year  students, 
finished  in  one  year,  and  known  as  the  com- 
mercial course.  The  students  are  arranged  in 
five  classes,  introductory,  freshman,  sophomore, 
junior,  and  senior.  In  the  collegiate  year,  187(5 
— 7.  there  were  in  the  introductory  class,  512; 
freshman,  163;  sophomore.  KO;  junior,  57;  senior, 
50  ;  total,  862.  Of  these,  there  were  in  the  an- 
cient course  348  ;  in  the  scientific  course,  276  ; 
in  the  commercial  course,  238.  As  there  is  no 
requirement  in  ancient  or  modern  languages  for 
admission,  these  are  begun  in  the  college.  There 
are  It  professors,  who  with  the  president  form 
the  faculty.  In  addition  to  these,  there  are  18 
tutors;  total  number  of  instructors,  32.  The 
.subjects  taught  are  Latin,  (ireek,  French,  Ger- 
man. Spanish,  Knglish,  history,  mat  hematics, 
mechanics,  chemistry,  natural  history,  philosor,' 


NORMAL  SCHOOL 

with  the  scientific  department.  In  1874 — 5,  the 
number  of  instructors  and  students  was  as  fol- 
lows :  arts  and  science.  14  instructors  and  140 
students;  line  arts.  I  instructor  and  Li  students; 


versity  have  been  as  follows  :  the  Rev.JamesM. 
Mathews,  D.  D.,  1830—38  :  the  Hon.  Theodore 
Frelinghuysen,  1. 1..  D.,  1838—49;  the  Rev.  Isaac 
Ferris,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  1852—70;  and  the  Rev. 
Howard  Crosby.  I).  I).,  LL  !>.,  the  present  in- 
cumbent, appointed  in  1870. 

NEW  ZEALAND.     See  Australia. 

NIEMEYER,  August  Hermann,  a  Ger- 
man educator  and  author,  born  Sept.  L,  1754 ; 
died  July  7.,  1828.  In  1779,  he  was  appointed 
extraordinary,  and.  in  1784.  ordinary  professor 
of  theology  in  the  university  of  Halle,  holding 


if  A.  H.  Fn 

rity  as  one  c 
if  Franeke. 
in   1785;  an. 


ig;  and.  in  the  con 
.  book-keeping,  an 


penmanship.     Two  degr 

elor  of  Arts,  and   Bachelor  of  Sciences.     There 

is  also  a  J mst -gradual:-  course  in  engineering,  In 
1875—6,  this  had  no  students;  in  the  present 
year,  1876—7,  there  are  3.  The  library  con- 
tains 18,000  volumes,  and  its  support  is  de- 
rived  from   the  interest   on  two   bequests, — the 

fund  of  $5,000.  The  apparatus  of  all  kinds, 
illustrating  the  principles  of  chemical,  physical, 
and  mechanical  science,  is  valued  at  $20,000. 
The  cabinet  of  natural  history  is  estimated  to  be 
worth  $3.000.— One  of  the  best  collections,  in 
the  United  States,  of  casts  from  the  Elgin  mar- 
bles, is  in  the  department  of  drawing;  anil,  to- 
gether with  other  casts  from  the  antique,  is  val- 
ued at  83,000.  The  fund  for  annual  medals 
donated  by  citizens  is  $5,250.  The  college 
buildings  together  with  the  site  are  valued  at 
$190,000,  and  belong  to  the  city.  There  have 
been  but  two  presi  lents  since  the  organization 
of  the  institution:  Horace  Webster.  LL.  D.,  ap- 
pointed in   1848;    Alexander  S.  Webb.  LL.D., 

NEW  YORK,  University  of  the  City  of. 


\ 


as  appointed 
a  hers'  semi- 
s.Niemeyer 
07,  owing  to 
li  had  been 
id    by    King 

he  V  as  cole 


gards  the  harmonious  development  of  the  facul- 
ties with  which  v>e  are  endowed.  His  Grundr 
salze  tier  Erziehung  etc.  gradually  grew  from 
one  to  three  volumes,  and  he  himself  edited 
eight  editions  of  the  work. 

NORMAL  COLLEGE.  See  New  York 
{City). 

NORMAL  SCHOOL,  the  name  given,  in 
the  United  States  and  some  other  countries,  to 


of  $200,000,  wit 
Of  law  and  medi 
incut  of  arts  is 
course  in  the  oh 
engineering  and 


:e   i-  free.     The  i 

i-   rents  of   the  in 
neofaliemlowinei 


chool  of  art  an 


NOKTII    CAROLINA 


651 


NORTH  CAROLINA,  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the   American  Union,  having 


Educational    History.— The    constitution    of 
L776  provided  thai    a  school  orschools  shall  be 

established  liy  the  legislature  tor  the  convenient 
instruction  of  youth,  with  such  salaries  to  the 
masters,  paid  by  the  public,  as  may  enable  them 
to  instruct  at  low  prices;  and  that  all  useful 
learning  shall  be  encouraged  in  one  or  more 
universities."  This  is  believed  to  be  the  first 
declaration  made  by  the  authorities  of  the  state 
in  the  interest  of  education.  Nineteen  years  after, 
the  state  university  was  organized;  but  no  action 
was  taken  for  the  establishment  of  public  schools 
till  1816,  when  the  general  assembly,  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  governor,  took  measures  to  pro- 
vide a  general  system  of  public  instruction.  For 
tins  purpose,  a  committee  of  three  was  charged 
with  the  duty  of  devising  such  a  system,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  recommendations  of  the  gov- 
ernor and  the  assembly,  previously  made.  The 
ir  action  i»  b.-t  di-eii-.se  1  under  the 


mounting  them.  In  1 836,  the  board  was  changed 
so  as  to  consist  of  the  governor  and  three  other 
members  appointed  I >y  him  biennially.  In  1*37. 
'heir  duty  to  prepare  a 
suited  to  the  resources 


plan  for  common 

and  condition  of  t 
act,  the  hoard,  in 

report,  in  which,! 
condition    of    the 

of  the  countries 

this  respect,  they 
into  L,250  school 

thre> 
schoi 
(III) 


ilishing  of 
ing   them; 


i,  and  to  erect  in  each  a 

school-house  of  the  best  materials,  and  according 

plan,  and  location.  According  to  the  condition 
of  the  school  fund  at  that  time,  it  was  estimated 
that  each  of  these  schools  would  receive  about 
$240  annually.  With  the  scanty  means  at  the 
disposal  of  tiie  people,  they  could  hope  only  to 
lay  the  foundation  of  a  system,  trusting  to  after 
years  to  establish  also  schools  and  colleges  for 
more  advanced  instruction.  In  January,  183!), 
the  legislature  took  positive  action  upon  the  re- 
port, directing  that   counties  should  be  divided 

intoscl l-distriets  six  miles  square,  and  that  an 

election  should  he  held  in  each  countj  toascertain 

the  wishes  of  the  people  in  regard  to  these! Is. 

Nearly  every  county  voted  in  favor  of  their 
establishment.  In  all  such  counties,  the  county 
court  was  directed  to  levy  a  tax  for  the  building 
of  a  school-house  in  each  district,  large  enough 


course  of  studies  to  be  pursued,  the  mo  Le  of  in- 
struction, the  creation  of  a  permanent  school 
fund,  and  the  constitution  of  a  board  for  its 
management.  Their  report  was  favorably  con- 
sidered by  the  assembly,  and  passed  to  its  first 
reading,  but,  unfortunately,  went  no  further, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  raising  the  money 
needed  to  make  the  proposed  system  effective. 
Nothing  further  was  done  till  1  825,  when  a  fund 
was  created  for  the  establishment  and  support  of 
"common  and  convenient  schools  for  the  instruc- 
tion of  youth  in  the  several  counties  of  thestate." 
For  this  purpose,  the  second  section  of  the  act  of 
ihat  year  constitutes  the  governor,  the  chief 
justice  of  the  supreme  court,  the  speakers  of  the 
senate  and  house  of  commons,  and  the  treasurer 
of  the  state,  a  board,  "for  the  promotion  of  learn- 
ing, and  the  instruction  of  youth".  Under  the 
name  of  The  President  and  Directors  of  the 
Literary  Fund,  they  were  empowered  to  hold 
real  and  personal  property,  and  to  sell,  dispose  of, 
and  improve  the  same.  In  1832,  Joseph  <  'aid- 
well,  the  president  of  the  university,  aroused  the 
attention  of  the  state  to  the  nee  I  of  public 
schools,  by  the  publication  of  a  pamphlet  con- 
sisting of  eleven  letters  which  had  been  furnished 
by  him  to  a  local  paper.  In  these  letters,  he 
called  attention  to  the  progress  made  by  the  com- 
mon schools  of  other  states  and  countries,  enumer- 
ated the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  such  progress 
in  North  Carolina,  and  suggested  means  for  sur- 


fs according  to  the  plan  already 
ind  to  appoint  not  less  than  three 
ittee  men  in  each,  "to  assist  the 
nts  in  all  matters  pertaining  to   the 


which  substantially  continued  in  fore,,  till  1865. 
By  an  act  passed  in  1844,  county  superintend- 
ents were  permitted  tip  lay  out  school  districts  of 
such  form  and  size,  for  one  school  each,  as  they 
might  deem  most  convenient  for  the  inhabitants 
of  the  county.  As  the  money  appropriated  by  the 
state  was  to  lie  divided  equally  among  the  dis- 
tricts, the  effect  was  to  increase  greatly  their 
number.  The  result  was.  that  about  $250,000 
was  annually  divided  among  the  districts,  the 
number  of  which  had  increased  to  3.000,  but 
without  accomplishing  the  best  results. 

II.  There  have  been  two  principal  sources  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  schools:  (1)  the  income 
of  permanent  funds;  and  (2)  taxes. 

(1)  The  Income,  of  Permanent  Funds. — In 
1825,  the  legislature  created  a  fund  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools,  to  consist  of  the  dividends  re- 
ceived from  stock,  then  held  or  afterwards  ac- 
quired by  the  state,  in  banks  and  works  of  inter- 
nal improvement;  the  liquor  tax;  the  unexpended 
balance  of  the  agricultural  fund:  money  paid  to 
the  state  for  entries  of  vacant  lands  ;  money  de- 
rived from  the  sale  of  swamp  lands;  and  such 
sums  as  the  legislature  might,  from  time  to  time, 


»i.V2 


NORTH    CAROLINA 


appropriate.  In  1837,  the  state  received,  by  the 
removal  of  its  deposits  from  the  United  States 
treasury,  the  sum  of  $1,433,757.39.  This,  with 
I  lie  exception  of  §30(1,(1(11),  was  transferred  to  the 
literary  board,  to  be  set  apart  as  a  permanent 
fund  for  the  maintenance  of  the  schools,  the  in- 
come thence  derived,  with  the  amounts  received 
from  sources  above  specified,  constituting  the  an- 
nual school  fund  of  the  stair.  The  revenue  from 
this  source,  in  L838,  amounted  to  8100,000.  In 
L840,  the  permanent  fund  was  $2,000,000,  yield- 
ing an  annual  income  of  $120,000.  The  present 
permanent  fund  amounts  to  $2,190,564.65. 

(2)  Taxes. — In  the  report  made  to  the  legis- 
lature in  1838,  by  the  literary  board,  the  insuf- 
ficiency of  the  income  of  the  permanent  fund 
for  school  purposes  was  plainly  pointed  out.  In 
1840,  a  tax  was  levied  in  each  district  sufficient 
to  build  a  school-house;  and,  in  L844,each  county 
was  required  to  levy  a  tax  equal  to  one  half  of  the 
amount  annually  received  from  the  lit  era  rv  fund. 
In  I  868,  the  constitution  of  the  state  directed  that 
"the  general  assembly,  at  its  first  session  under 
this  constitution,  shall  provide,  by  taxation  and 
otherwise,  for  a  general  and  uniform  svstem  of 
public  schools."  The  following  year,  the  school 
lawprovided  that,  in  ease  any  township  .should 
fail,  at  the  annual  meeting,  to  provide  forschools 
to  be  taught  four  months  in  the  year,  the  school 
committee  should  immediately  forward  to  the 
county  commissioners  an  estimate  of  the  neces- 
sary expenses;  and  a  tax  equal  to  the  amount  of 
such  estimate  should  be  levied  on  the  township  by 
the  county  commissioners  at  the  same  time  that 
the  county  taxes  were  levied.  The  act  of  1*71  - 
required  that  a  tax  of  <>-',  cents  on  the  $]  00,  and 
20  cents  special  tax,  should  be  levied;  and  this. 
with  75  per  cent  of  the  State  and  county  poll  tax. 
and  all  other  public  school  funds,  should  be  paid 
at  the  rate  of  50  cents  per  month,  for  each 
pupil  attending  the  public  schools.  The  present 
law,  enacted  in  1*72 — 3,  levies  an  annual  tax  of 
8J  cents  on  the  $100,  and  a  special  poll-tax  of 
25  cents;  and  this,  with  75  per  cent  of  the  state 
and  county  poll-tax  and  all  other  school  money, 
is  distributed  among  the  school  districts  according 
to  the  number  of  children  of  school  age  in  each. 

III.  The  report  of  the  president  ami  directors 
of  the  literary  fund  to  the  legislature,  in  1  838, 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  no  supervision  of 
the  schools  was  maintained  by  the  intelligent  por- 
tion of  the  community,  on  account  of  their  want 
of  pecuniary  responsibility,  and  sugge  ted  thai 
the  portion  of  the  literarj  fund  due  each  county 
should  not  be  distill. ute  I  till  the  county  court 
should  have  levied  and  collected  twice  the  amount 
due  from  the  fund  to  the  county.  They  recom- 
mended a  thorough  organization  and  supervision 

of  the  schools.     In  L852,  Rev.  Calvin  II.  Wiley 

was  appointed  superintendent  of  schools,  and  re- 
tained   the    position  till   l-'.5        \|  that  time  the 

public  schools  were  closed  for  wanf  of  funds,  and 
remained  so  till  L870.  I  lis  successors  have  been 
S.  S.  Ashley,  till  L872;  Alexander  Mclver,  till 
1875;  and  Stephen  1).  Rool,  the  present  incum- 
bent (1876).  I 


. — The  general  supervision 


en 


ScJlOi 
the  schi 
ofeduc 

tary  of  state,  the  treasurer,  the  auditor,  and  the 
attorney  general.  Of  this  board,  the  governor  is 
the  president,  and  the  state  superintendent,  the 
secretary.  The  immediate  control  of  the  schools 
is  committed  to  the  state  superintendent,  who  is 
elected  by  the  people  for  four  years.  Courtly 
commissioners  arc  also  chosen,  who  are  charged 
with  "a  general  supervision  and  control  of  the 
schools  in  their  respective  counties".  Their  duties 
relate  chiefly  to  the  financial  management  of  the 
schools  ;  though,  in  other  respects,  they  have 
considerable  discretionary  power.  Their  efficiency, 
however,  is  impaired  by  the  fact  that  their  duties 
arc  confined  entirely  to  office  business,  there 
being  no  visiting  of  the  schools  on  their  part,  as 
in  other  states.  In  each  township,  a  school  com- 
mittee of  three  is  elected  biennially.  This  com- 
mittee is  empowered  to  purchase  and  hold  real 
estate  and  personal  property,  to  receive  any  gift, 
giant,  or  donation  made  for  the  use  of  anyschool 
within  its  jurisdiction,  and  to  sell  or  transfer  the 
same  for  school  purposes.  It  is  required  to  make, 
for  the  use  of  the  county  board,  an  annual  census 
of  all  children  of  s.  boo]  age,  designating  race  and 
sex.  of  all  public  schools,  and  the  number  of 
children  who  do  not  attend  school.  It  is  also  re- 
quired to  divide  the  township  into  suitable  dis- 
tricts, and  to  establish  separate  schools  for  white 
and  colored  children.      'I  his  committee,  also,  has 

to  iculate  their  salaries,  subject  to  certain  re- 
strictions as  to  grade.  Public  schools  must  be 
maintained  not  less  than  four  months  each  year. 

'I  he  scl 1  age  is  from  6  to  '21  years.  The  choice 

of  text-books  rests  partly  with  the  teachers  and 
partly  with  the  state  board  :  but  no  sectarian  or 
political  text-books  are  permitted. 

Educational  Condition.— The  number  of 
schools  in  the  state,  as  reported  in  1874,  was 
4,020,  of  which  2,820  were  for  white,  ami  1.200 
for  col. .led  children.  The  support  of  the  schools 
was  derived  from  the  following  sources  : 
From  the'state  treasury  I  3(1,230.67 

From  poll-tax. 143,609.92 

From  property-tax 109,434.94 

balance  from  previous  year..      202. 129.70 


it'll 

1 l-houses. 

i.nniy  treasure] 

were  as  follows  : 
....  ..$182,646.53 

s  of  OOl- 

77.illS.25 

2,854.55 

22,676.46 

........     11,802.06 

$297,594.86 

addition  to  this  amount.  812.450  was  dis- 
ted    among    30     public    schools    from    the 
ody  educational  fund. 
le  principal  items  of  school  statistics  were 

illowing  : 

lclnhlron  of  school  a-e,   white,      2I2.7HS 
colored,  127,192 
Total 369,9(10 


NORTH    CAROLINA 

No.  of  children  attending  school,  white,  lCUi-e: 
colored,    50,000 

Total T^TT7.  175,083 

No.  of  teuehcis  employed,  while  mule.       l.t'.C, 
white  female,      013 

Total  white 2,108 

colored  male,  515 

colored  female,        252 

Total  colored 707 

Whole  number  of  teachers  employed 2.875 

Formal  Instruction.— In  the  pamphlet  pub- 
lished by  the  prarideni  oi  the  Btate  university, 
referred  to  above,  special  attention  was  called  to 

proposed  for  supplying  this  deficiency.  No  im- 
mediate action,  however,  was  taken.  "  The  report 
of  the  presidenl  and  directors  of  the  literary 
fund,  in  1 838,  also  called  attention  to  the  subject, 
and  urgently  recommended  the  establishment  of 
normal  scho  ils  for  the  education  ofteachers,  and 
advised,  als  >,  the  establishment  of  a  normal  de- 
partment in  the  state  university.  The  Ashboro' 
Normal  School  was  organized,  in  1873,  by  the 
Randolph  County  Educational  Association,  and 
was  conducted  by  the  superintendent  of  the  as- 
sociation, one  month  in  L873,  and  one  in  1874. 
In  the  former  year.  LOO  teachers  received  in- 
struct ion :  in  the  latter.  75.  The  Lexington 
Normal  School  was  organized  by  the  Davidson 
County  board  of  education,  under  aspecial  ad  of 
the  legislature,  in  August,  1ST  1,  ami  continued 
oi  session  25  days,  under  the  direction  of  the 
eh  in  nan  of  the  county  board  of  examiners.  In 
this  -  iho  '  -  iparate  instruction  was  given  to  30 
white  teachers,  and  35  colored  teachers.  The 
normal  department  of  Shaw  University,  at  Ra- 
leigh, in  1874,  had  3  resident  instructors 
and    60    pupils,   of    whom   40    were    males,   and 


held  m  various  parts  oi  th  ■  state.  I  he  u  uliston 
A.ca  Lemy  and  Normal  School,  at  Raleigh,  also 
affords  special  instruction  to  teach  its.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  the  American  Missionary  Association. 
— The  Slate  Educational  Association  was  estab- 
lished July  11.,  1873. 

Secondary  Instruction.  —  Of  institutions  of 
this  grade,  there  were  reported,  in  1875,  to  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  27,  with  84  teachers 
and  1,638  pupils,  of  whom  478  were  in  classical 
studies,  201  in  modern  languages,  217  preparing 
for  a  classical  course  in  college,  and  53  for  a 
scientific  course.  There  are  also  preparatory  de- 
partments in  several  of  the  colleges,  which,  in 

Superior  Instruction.  -The institutions  which 
furnish  instruction  ot  this  grade  are  included  iu 
the  following  table. 


ItllVlilMnri    Oollrjw' 

North  Carolina  Coll., 
Rutherford  College.  . 
Trinity  College 

I'hiv.  ,,i'X.  Carolina,, 

Wake   Forest    College 

Wilson  College 


is:n  I'rrsi, 
1859  I.uth. 
1870    Noii  Beet. 


NORTHERN   ILLINOIS   COLLEGE     653 

Besides  these,  there  are  several  institutions  for 
the  higher  education  of  women.  Of  these.  0  re- 
ported, in  L874,  to  the  0.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. 70  instructors  and  580  stud  mts. 

Scientificand  Professional  Instruction. — Con- 
nected with  the  state  university. there  are  schools 
of  natural  science,  including  chemistry,  physics, 
and  engineering,  and  a  si  boo!  oi  agi  iculture,  en- 
dowed with  the  coiigre.-Monal  land 


Shav 


ity 


I  'nlloo,..  ;,  theological  and  a  law  department',  and 

Rutherford  College,  a  law  school 

Special  Instruction. — The  institution  for  the 
instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb. and  blind,  was 
founded  at  Raleigh  in  1847.  It  had.  in  1875,  a 
coq  is  of  L2  instructors,  and  208  pupils,  of  whom 
132  were  deaf-mutes,  and  76  were  Mind.  Special 
attention  is  given  to  music,  and  tin  re  is  a  mechan- 
ical department,  in  which  practical  instruction 
is  given  in  several  industrial  branches.  The  edu- 
cation of  colored  children  of  this  class  was  first 
undertaken  iii  this  institution.  The  Oxford  Or- 
phans' Home,  at  Oxford,  under  the  care  of  the 
.Marion  Fraternity,  affords  an  asylum  for  L15 
orphans.  It  is  sustained  by  voluntary  contribu- 
tions.   There  is  a  branch  asylum  at  Mars  Hill. 

NORTH  CAROLINA,  University  of,  at 
Chape]  Hill,  N.  C.was  chartered  in  1787,  and 
organized  in  1795.  1  cercises  were  resumed, 
aftera  period  oi  suspension, in  Sept..  1875.  It 
comprises  six  colleges;  namely,  of  mathematics, 
of  literature  (including  the  schools  of  Greek, 
Latin,  and  modern  languages),  of  philosophy 
(schools  of  metaphysics,  and  of  history  and 
political  science],  of  natural  science  (schools  of 
chemistry,  applied  chemistry ,  and  physics  i,  of 
engineering,  and  of  agriculture  (endowed  with 
the  congressional  land  grant,  and  including 
schools  of  natural  history,  chemistry,  and  mili- 
tary tactics).  Three  regular  courses  have  been 
established  :  the  classical  (4  years),  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Arts;  the  scientific 
(3  years),  leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of 
Science;  and  the  course  in  agriculture (3  years), 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Bachelorof  Agriculture. 
The  university  has  an  extensive  collection  of 
geological  and  mineralogical  specimet 
'library  of  about  5,000  volumes  and  2,000  pam- 
phlets; the  libraries  of  the  two  liti  rary  .->  i  leties 
contain  about  7,000  volumes  each.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  §60  a  year.  In  1876—7,  there  were 
9  instructors  and  100  students  145  classical,  31 
scientific,  7  agricultural,  and  1  7  optional).  Kemp 
P.  Battle  is  (1876)  the], resident. 

NORTHERN  ILLINOIS  COLLEGE,  at 


I'ulti 


111.. 


led. 


161,  as  the  We 


Union  College  and  .Military  Institute.  In 
1866,  it  was  chartered  and  opened  as  the  Illinois 
Soldiers'  College  for  the  education  of  disabled 
soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  state.  The  name  was 
changed  in  1873,  when  the  college  was  thrown 
open  to  both  sexes.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees  and  the  income  of  an  endowment  of  about 
§20,000.  The  college  building  originally  cost 
§100,000.  The  library  consists  of  over  1 000  vol- 
umes ;  the  cabinet  is'  well   furnished  with  spec- 


654      X.  W.  CHRISTIAN  UNIVERSITY 

iinens  in  geology,  mineralogy,  and  palaeontology; 
and  the  laboratory  has  a  valuable  set  of  philo- 
sophical  and  chemical  apparatus.  The  regular 
tuition  fees  vary  from  $27  to  $32j  per  year.  The 
college  has  a  preparatory  collegiate  course,  an 
academic  course  (designed  especially  for  those 
preparing  themselves  for  teaching  or  business), 
and  a  regular  graduating  course  of  four  years, 
which  seems  to  be  similar  to  the  courses  of  the 
higher  female  seminaries.  Female  students  who 
complete  the  full  course,  or  its  equivalent,  receive 
the  degree  of  .Mistress  of  Liberal  Arts  (M.L.A.); 
those  completing  the  English  studies  of  the 
course,  that  of  Mistress  of  English  Literature 
(M.B.L.);  and  male  students  completing  the 
course, the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  (ii.  S.). 
In  IsT")  6,  there  were  10  instructors  and  111 
students  (66  males  and  45  females).  The  pres- 
idents have  been,  Leander  II.  Potter,  A.  M.,  1866 
—73;  William  D.  P.  Lummis,  A.  M.,  1873— 5; 
and  the  Rev.  Joseph  W.  Hubbard,  A.M..  the 
present  incumbent,  appointed  ill  1875. 

NORTH  WESTERN  CHRISTIAN  UNI- 
VERSITY, at  Irvington,  lud.,  founded  inl853, 
is  under  the  control  of  the  Christian  denomina- 
tion. It  was  removed  from  Indianapolis  to  its 
present  site,  about  four  miles  east  of  that  city, 
in  1875.  It  has  a  fine  new  building  and  a  cam- 
pus of  25  acres,  situated  in  a  natural  grove  of 
forest  trees.  It  is  supported  by  the  interest  on 
an  endowment  .if  $300,000,  the  tuition  fees  be- 
ing merely  nominal.  The  endowment  property 
of  the  institution  amounts  to  nearly  $1,000,000. 
The  university  is  open  to  all  without  distinction 
of  sex,  race,  or  color.  It  comprises  a  college  of 
literature  (classical),  a  college  of  sciences,  a  col- 
lege of  the  Bible  (theological),  and  a  college  of 
business,  with  classes  preparatory  I"  the  classical 
and  scientific  departments.  In  1875 — 6,  the  stu- 
dents were  as  follows :  college  of  literature,'-'."!; 
college  of  science.  12;  preparatory,  48 ;  college 
of  the  Bible,  23;  college  of  business,  44  ;  total, 
deducting  repetitions,  12!).  There  were  !1  in- 
structors" The  presidents  of  the  university  have 
been  as  follows:  John  Young,  L.L. D.,  1855 — 7; 
S.  K.  Hoshour,  D.D.,  1858—61;  A.  K.  Benton, 
LI,  D..  1861  -8;  Otis  A.  Burgess,  l>.  D„  LL.D., 
1868—70;  W.  F.  Black,  A.M.,  L870— 73;  and 
Otis  A.  Burgess  again,  since  1873. 

NORTHWESTERN  COLLEGE,  at  Xa- 
pervillc.  01.,  organized  in  1861,  and  chartered  in 
1865,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Evangi  lical  As- 
sociation. It  admits  both  sexes.  The  productive 
funds  amountto  $85,000;  the  value  of  itsgrounds, 
buildings,  and  apparatus  is  $50,000.  The  in- 
stitution has  a  German  course,  an  English-Ger- 
man course,  a  commercial  department,  and  an 
art  department,  in  addition  to  the  usual  classical 
and  scientific  courses.  In  1873 — 4,  there  were 
II  instructors  and  105  students,  including  42  of 
collegiate  grade.     The  Rev.  A.  A.  Smith.  A.  M., 


NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY,  at 
Evanston,  111.,  under  Methodist  Episcopal  con- 
trol, was  chartered  in  L851,  organized  in  1853, 
and  opened  in  1855.   It  consists  of  the  following  | 


NORWICH    UNIVERSITY 

departments,  or  colleges :  (1 )  literature  and 
science  ;  (2)  technology  ;  (3)  literature  and  art 
(Woman's  College)  ;  (4)  conservatory  of  music; 
(5)  college  of  theology  (Garret  Biblical  Insti- 
tute); (6)  law  (Union  College  of  Law  of  the 
University  of  Chicago  aud  the  Northwestern 
University);  (7)  medicine  (Chicago  Medical  Col- 
lege); (8)  preparatory  school.  Departments  (6)  and 
(7)  are  located  in  (  bicago.  The  university  has 
a  library  of  about  25,000  volumes,  including 
pamphlets,  and  valuable  apparatus  and  cabinets. 
I  he  value  of  its  buildings,  library,  and  apparatus 
is  §400.11(10  ;  of  other  unproductive  property, 
$500,000;  productive  property,  $440,000.  In 
the  theological  department,  tuition  is  tree;  in 
the  first  three  departments  enumerated  above, 
the  cost  is  §45  per  annum.  1  here  are  six  paral- 
lel courses  of  four  years  each,  three  in  the  col- 
lege of  literature  and  science  (classical.  Latin, 
and  scientific,  and  a  course  in  modern  lan- 
guages), and  three  in  the  college  of  technology 
(a  course  in  chemistry,  a  course  in  engineering, 
and  a  course  in  natural  history).  The  courses 
in  the  Woman's  <  'ollege  are  the  same  as  those  in 
the  colleges  of  literature  and  science,  and  of  tech- 
nology. In  1873 — 4,  the  number  of  instructors, 
in  all  the  departments,  was  62  :  and  of  students. 
806.  The  presidents  of  the  university  have  been 
as  follows  :  the  Rev.  Dr.  Clark  T.  Hinman, 
1853— G ;  the  Rev.  Dr.  R.  S.  Foster.  1856—60  ; 
Prof. Henry S.  Noyes  (vice-president).  I860 — 67; 
the  Rev.  Dr.  F.  0.  Haven.  1869—72  ;  and  the 
Rev.  Dr.  (  harles  II.  Fowler,  since  1872. 

NORTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY,  at 
Watertown,  Wis.,  chartered  in  1864,  is  under 
the  control  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Synod 
of  Wisconsin.  It  comprises  a  collegiate,  a  pre- 
paratory, and  an  academic  department.  The 
library  contains  about  2.000  volumes.  The  cost 
of  tuition  is  $30  per  annum.  In  1874—5.  there 
were  6  instructors  and  180  students:  collegiate, 
T> ;  preparatory,  61  ;  academic.  !)7.  The  Rev. 
A.  F.  Ernst,  A.  M.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

NORWAY.     See  Sweden. 

NORWEGIAN  LUTHER  COLLEGE, 
at  Decorah,  Iowa,  founded  in  1861,  is  under 
Lutheran  control.  It  is  supported  by  collections 
in  the  congregations  of  the  Norwegian  Lutheran 
Synod  of  America.  It  contains  7  classes  or 
grades,  of  one  year  each.  Instruction  is  free, 
except  in  the  two  lower  classes,  where,  since 
Sept.  1.,  1876,  $30  a  year  is  paid  for  tuition. 
The  value  of  buildings,  grounds. and  apparatus  is 
$120,000  :  the  libraries  contain  about  4.000  vol- 
umes. In  1875 — ii,  there  were  8  instructors 
and  '200  students,  the  greater  part,  in  the  pre- 
paratory department.  The  Rev.  Laur  Larsen 
bas  been  the  president  from  the  organization  of 
the  college. 

NORWICH  UNIVERSITY,  a  military 
college,  at  Xorthfield,  Vt..  founded  in  L834,  is 
under  Protestant  Episcopal  control.  It  has  a 
preparatory,  a  business,  and  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, with  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course,  of 
four  years  each,  and  a  philosophical  course  of 
three  years,  leading,  respectively,  to  the  degrees 


NOTRE  DAME  DU  LAC 

of  B.A.,  B.  S.,  and  B.  Ph.  Drawing  and  military 
science  are  pursued  throughout  the  three  courses. 
The  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  is  $300  per 
year.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  8  instructors  and 
4!)  students.  The  Rev.  Josiah  Swett,  D.  D.,  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

NOTRE  DAME  DU  LAC,  University 
of,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution  at  Notre  Dame, 
Ind.,  was  founded  by  the  Congregation  of  the 
Holy  Cross  in  L842,  and  chartered  in  1844.  It 
has  commodious  buildings  finely  situated.  The 
libraries  contain  nearly  30,000  volumes.  The  reg- 
ular charge  t'or  I  >o;in  1. 1  nit  inn.  etc.,  istf.'KIO  per  year. 
The  universitj  has  a  classical,  a  scientific,  a  civil 
engineering,  a  law.  and  a  commercial  department, 
with  preparatory  and  post -graduate  courses.  In 
1875  —6,  then-  were  38  instructors  and  324  stu- 
dents. The  Very  Rev.  Edward  1".  Sorin,  the 
founder  of  the  institution,  was  its  president  for 
twenty-two  years.  The  Rev.  Patrick  J.  Colovin, 
0.  S.  ('.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

NOTT,  Eliphalet,  an  American  educator. 
born  at  Ashford,  Ct.,  June  25.,  177.'!:  died  at 
Schenectady,  X.  V..  Jan.  29.,  1866.  He  studied 
theology,  and  was  sent,  as  teacher  and  missii  inary, 
to  central  Xew  Fork,  locating  himself  at  Cher- 
ry Valley.  He  was  soon  alter  tailed  to  the 
pastorate  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Albany, 
where  his  sermon  on  the  death  of  Hamilton 
made  him  celebrated.  In  1804,  he  was  chosen 
president  of  Union  College,  tit  Schenectady, 
which  position  he  held  till  his  death.  During 
this    lung    period,    nearly    4, students    were 


NOVA   SCOTIA 


(>■,■> 


No 


se&  to  Yovaig  Men  (1810),  often  republished, 
and  Lectures  on  Temperance  (1847),  besides 
many  addresses,  discourses,  and  sermons.  Physical 

science,  also,  received  a  large  share  of  his  atten- 
tion, about  .'in  patents  for  inventions  having  been 
obtained  by  him. 

NOVA  '  SCOTIA,  a  British  province  of 
North  America,  forming  a  part  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada.  It  has  an  area  of  21. 731  sq.  m.;and 
its  population,  in  ls71,  was  3S7.NOO.  It  was 
first  settled,  in  1605,  by  the  French  under  De 
Monts.  at  Port  Royal  (now  Annapolis);  but, 
in  1621,  the  country  being  claimed  as  a  part 
of  Virginia.  James  I.  granted  it  to  Sir  William 
Alexander,  under  the  title  of  Nova  Scotia.  It. 
however,  continued  in  the  possession  of  France 
until  1713,  when  it  was  formally  ceded  to  the 
English  by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht.  The  island 
of  Cape  Breton  was  annexed  to  it  in  1703,  and 
the  province  of  New  Brunswick  separated  from 
it  in  1784.  In  1 867,  it  became  a  member  of  the 
f   Dominion  of  Canada. 

Educational  History.  —  The  highest  school 
thority  in  the  province,  is  the  council  of  public 
instruction,  composed  of  the  members  of  the 
executive  council.  The  superintendent,  who  is 
also  a  member,  and  the  secretary  of  the  council 
are  appointed  by  the  lieutenant-governor.  The 
council  appoints  an  inspector  for  each  county, 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  superintendent, 
and  with  his  concurrence  prescribes  text-books, 
library  books,  and  school-house  plans.  The  coun-  | 


-K. 


cil  also  makes  regulations  for  the  expenditure  of 
the  school  grants,  for  the  location,  construction, 
and  control  of  county  academies,  and  the  classi- 
fication of  teachers;  appoints  four  provincial 
examiners  for  teachers'  licenses ;  determines  ap- 
peals from  trustees,  and  may  take  such  action 
as  any  special  exigencies  require.  The  super- 
intendent has,  subject  to  the  council,  the  super- 
vision of  the  inspectors,  the  normal  and  the 
common  schools,  and  the  county  academies,  also 
the  enforcement  of  the  law.  He  inspects  the 
academies,  and.  if  directed,  other  schools  ;  holds 
meetings  and  teachers'  institutes  ;  reports  on 
school  management  and  teachers  cpudincations  ; 
furnishes  printed  regulations  and  instructions  to 
school  officers,  and  makes  an  annual  report  with 
suggestions.  The  lieutenant  governor  appoints 
fortheseveraldistrict8,correspondingtothe  end 
couniies.a  boa,,l,,f  seven  commissioners.  The 
commissioners  are  required  to  name  a  day  when 
all  semi-annual  school  return.-  will  be  received  at 
the  inspectors  office,  and  to  endorse  on  each  of 
such  returns  their  approval  or  disapproval,  and 
they  may  authorize,  on  the  inspector's  recom- 
mendation, the  payment  of  a  grant  to  a  licensed 
teacher  of  a  poor  section.  The  commissioners 
may  settle  disputes  in  regard  to  teachers'  sala- 
ries, and  may  appoint  trustees  in  certain  cases. 
'i  hey  may.  upon  the  inspector's  report,  declare 
school  premises  to  be  unfit  for  use  :  and  in  such 
a  case,  the  provincial  aid  to  the  section  is  with- 
held unless  the  necessary  improvement  is  pro- 
vided. They  may  cancel  or  suspend  the  license 
of  a  teacher  for  sufficient  cause  ;  but  in  the  case 
of  incapacity  or  negligence,  they  must  notify  the 
trustees  and  the  superintendent.  The  inspector 
is  required  to  inspect  semi-annually  each  school 
and  academy  in  his  district,  and  report  thereon 
to  the  superintendent.  He  must  also  give  such 
information  to  trustees  and  teachers  as  may  be 
required,  and  assist  in  improving  the  methods 
of  school  management.  1  le  must  make  an  annual 
report  to  the  superintendent  on  the  1st  of  De- 
cember, specifying  the  work  performed  and  its 
results.  Every  section  has  a  board  of  three  trust- 
ees, one  elected  each  year,  from  among  the  qual- 
ified voters  at  the  annual  meeting.  If  a  section 
fails  to  elect  a  trustee,  ora  trustee  refuses  or  fails 
to  serve  for  twenty  days,  the  commissioners  are 
required  to  till  such  vacancy.  If  a  person  elected 
a  trustee,  refuses  or  fails  to  serve,  he  is  liable  to 
a  tine  of  62(1,  which  is  applied  to  aid  the  erec- 
tion of  school-houses.  The  school  year  consists 
of  two  terms  :  the  winter  term,  from  Nov.  1.  to 
April  30.,  and  the  summer  term,  from  May  1.  to 
Oct.  31.  The  school  time,  holidays,  and  vaca- 
tions are  regulated  by  the  council,  trust,',  s  must 
employ  a  licensed  teacher,  and.  if  necessary,  an 
assistant,  for  not  less  than  five  months,  or  in  a 
poor  section,  three  months  in  a  year.  No  teacher 
can  establish  a  school  without  an  agreement  with 
the  section  trustees.  The  annual  giant  from  the 
provincial  treasury  for  the  public  schools  is 
SI  17.0(10,  of  which  the  city  of  Halifax  revives 
S7.."iOO.  This  grant  is  divided  according  to  the 
total  days'  attendance  of  registered  pupils  at  the 


o;.r, 


NOVA   SCOTIA 


common  schools,  the  distribution  for  each  term 
being  made  for  the  corresponding  term  of  the 
preceding- year.  Halifax  constitutes  one  school 
section,  with  a  board  of  thirteen  commissioners, 
who  form  a  corporation,  and  of  whom  seven  are 
appointed  by  the  government,  and  six  by  the  city 
council.  The  governor  may  appoinf  principals 
of  the  normal  and  model  schools,  who  with  the 
approval  of  the  council,  may  appoint  their  assist- 
ants. The  general  control  of  the  normal  school 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  superintendent.  An  an- 
nual grant  of  $600  is  made  to  each  county  acad- 
emy. The  normal  school  has  but  one  term, 
commencing  on  the  first  Wednesday  in  Novem- 
ber, and  closing  on  the  Friday  preceding  the 
annual  provincial  examinations,  in  July.  Before 
entering,  every  student,  must  declare  his  or  her 
int. 'iii ion  to  teach  three  years  in  the  schools  of 
the  province :  otherwise, 'a  fee  of  $20  is  charged. 
The  chief  town  of  each  county  is  entitled  to  a 
grant  for  an  academy,  on  complying  with  certain 
■conditions.  The  first  or  highest  department  is 
open,  free  of  charge,  to  all  children  of  the  county 
who  are  able  to  pass  the  required  examination. 
Whenever  the  chief  town  fails  to  obtain  the 
grant,  or  to  maintain  an  efficient  academy,  the 
council  reserves  the  right  to  treat  with  any  other 
section  in  the  county  for  the  establishment  and 
proper  maintenance  of  such  academy. — The  an- 
nual examination  of  teachers  takes  place  on  the 
tii  t  'I'ii  day  after  duly  15.  All  licenses  are 
valid  in  any  part  of  the  province  until  revoked 
I'n  cau  :  bur  nobody  under  1'  years  of  age  is 
allowed  to  teach  unless  with  the  cxpi 
of  the  inspector.  A  system  of  evening  schools 
is  authorized  for  persons  over  l.'i  years  of  age. 
The  number  of  teachers,  in  1874.  was  GS6.  The 
number  of  pupils  enrolled  during  the  year  was 
93,512;  and  the  number  present,  of  each  100 
registered,  was,  in  the  winter,  52.9  ;  and  in  the 
summer,  57.1.  The  normal  school  had  118  pu- 
pils under  instruction  and  training,  of  whom  SO 
received  licenses  to  teach.  The  total  number  of 
teachers  examined  was  1,108.  of  whom  59  (  were 
I  he  expenditure  for  the  public  schools 
was -See'J.'J'.'l,  of  which  the  government  grant 
was  $157,481;  and  for  the  normal  and  model 
schools,  $4,733,  all  of  which  expense  was  borne 

by  the  gover at.     In    1875,   there   were   10 

l«  tie  -i'ii  13  teachers  and  2,614 
pupil-.  I  !i  re  ai-alo  a  nuiiibir  of  special  acad- 
emies, of  which  the  Horton  Collegiate  School, 

with   I  la  pupils,  and    (he   I' '.     , 

120  pupils,  in  1H(.">,  are  the  largest.  The  latter 
institution  was  founded,  in  1816,  on  the  plan  of 
a  Scotch  college,  but  without  the  power  of  con- 
ferring degrees,  hi  addition  to  these  academies, 
there  ts  a  high  school  at  NewGlasgow,  founded 
in  I860.  The  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 
is  almost  entirely  free  ;  in  1875,  it  had  5  teachers 
and  12  Btudents.  The  University  of  Dalhousie 
now  virtually  tills  the  place  for  many  years  oc- 
cupied  by  the  academy  ;  and  the  latter  is  now 
organized  as  the  highest  or  academic  grade  of  the 
schools  of  the  town.  There  were,  in  1875,  five 
colleges  :  Dalhousie  College  and  University,  liaii- 


NUMBER 

fax;  St.  Mary's  College  (Roman  Catholic),  Hali- 
fax ;  Acadia  college  "(Baptist),  Wolfville  ;  St. 
Francis  College  (Roman  Catholic).  Antigonish; 
and  King's  College  and  University  (Church  of 
England),  Windsor.  Of  these,  King's  College  and 
Dalhousie  College  are  the  largest.  The  former 
originated  in  a  recommendation  made  by  a  com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Assembly,  in  1787.  It 
was  founded  by  an  act  of  parliament,  in  1788, 
and  received  a  royal  charter  from  Oeorge  III., 
in  1802.  Connected  with  it,  is  a  school  of  civil 
engineering,  a  library  of  6,000  volumes,  and  a 
museum  containing  i'iiiecollcclions  in  the  various 
departments  of  natural  history.  A  collegiate- 
school,  which  is  also  connected  with  it,  prepares 
boys  for  the  college.  It  had,  in  1875,  5  professors 
and  an  endowment  fund  of  $106,891.  Dalhousie 
College  had.  in  L875,  6  professors  and  an  endow- 
ment fund  of  $99,233.  There  is  a  medical  facul- 
ty in  connection  with  the  college,  in  which,  in 
1875,  there  were  11  professors. — See  Marling, 
Canada  Educational  Yearbook  for  1876; 
Lovell's  Gazetteer  of  British  North  America. 
NOVELS.  See  Fiction. 
NUMBER  is  here  considered  as  a  branch  of 
elementary  or  object  instruction.  Great  impor- 
tance should  be  placed  on  the  means  by  which 
children  acquire  their  first  ideas  of  number. 
Since  a  child's  knowledge  of  this  subject  begins 
with  counting,  the  first  exercises  for  teaching  it 
should  be  the  counting  of  objects.  The  child 
may  first  be  taught  to  count  as  far  as  ten  by  us- 
ing the  numeral  frame  (q.  v.),  or  buttons,  pencils, 
the  fingers,  sticks,  marks,  or  other  objects.  Next 
he  should  be  taught  to  count  groups  of  balls, 
buttons,  sticks,  or  other  objects,  used  to  repre- 
sent the  several  numbers,  one,  two,  three,  four, 
five,  etc.  By  using  the  groups  of  objects  thus 
counted  as  illustrations  of  the  several  numbers, 
figures  may  readily  be  taught.  Let  the  pupil 
count  one  ball  on  the  numeral  frame,  one  pencil, 
one  finger,  one  mark,  and  then  show  him  the 
figure  1  to  represent  the  number  of  each  object. 
Next  let  him  count,  in  groups,  two  balls  on 
the  numeral  frame,  tico  pencils,  two  fingers, 
two  marks,  etc.;  then  show  the  figure  2  as  a 
symbol  of  the  number  of  objects  in  each  group. 
Afterward,  require  the  pupil  to  count  balls,  pen- 
cils, and  other  objects  in  groups  of  three,  and 
then  show  the  figure  .'!  as  the  representative  of 
the  number  counted  iu  each  group.  In  a  similar 
manner,  the  several  figures  from  2  to  9  may  be 
associated,  and  their  value  learned  by  means  of 
counting.  In  order  to  teach  children  the  value 
of  the  several  figures  by  personal  experience,  let 
them  count  in  groups  two  balls,  or  buttons,  etc., 
and  observe  that  each  group  contains  two  ones, 
—  that  two  is  equal  to  one  and  one  more,  or  two 
ones.  After  the  pupils  have  counted  several 
kinds  of  objects  in  groups  of  three,  lead  them  to 
notice  that  one  and  one  and  one,  or  three  ones, 
make  three,  also  that  two  and  one  make  three. 
I  'roeeedingin  the  same  manner  to  count  in  groups 
''.:  ete  I  I  ''  pupils  observe  that  four  ones, 
or  two  and  one  and  one,  or  three  and  one,  or  two 
and  two,  or  two  times  two,  make  four.  By  means 


NTMKKAI.    I'llAMK 


of  similar  exercises,  the  value  of  each  aumber 
from  two  to  nine  may  be  thoroughly  learned  by 
children.  As  additional  exercises,  or  a  review 
of  previous  lessons,  lei  the  pupils  count  as  many 
balls  cm  the  numeral  frame,  or  hold  up  as  many 
fingers,  as  the  given  figure  represents.  By  this 
means, all  the  figures  from  1  to  9  may  be  learned 
as  symbols  of  numbers.  In  subsequent  lessons, 
for  teaching  figures  as  representatives  of  num- 
bers greater  than  nine,  let  the  figures  be  arranged 
in  groups  as  follows  : 

First  group,  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9 
Second  group,  L0,ll,12, 13, 14, 15,16, 17,18, 19 
Third  group,  20,2 1 ,  22,  23,  24,  25,  20,27,  28,29 

and  so  on  to  99.  Requiring  the  pupils  to  count 
as  many  balls,  or  other  objects,  to  represent  in 
order  the  numbers  symbolized  by  each  of  these 
groups,  will  lead  them  to  understand  the  value 
of  the  numbers  that  are  expressed  with  two 
figures.  This  part  of  the  instruction  may  be 
greatly  facilitated  by  giving  the  pupil  several 
small  ,-tieks.  like  matches,  and  requiring  him  to 
count  and  tie  in  bundles  as  many  sticks  as  each 
of  the  figures  from  1  to  9  represents.  Then  to 
furnish  the  pupil  with  favorable  opportunities 
of  learning,  by  personal  observation  and  experi- 
ence, that  each  number  represented  by  two  fig- 
ures in  the  second  group  is  composed  of  one 
bun  11  sof  i  mi  ones,  and  one  or  more  single  ones 
added,  let  him  count  and  tie  in  a  bundle  ten 
sticks  to  represent  the  number  10  ;  and  then  tie 
ten  sticks  in  a  bundle  and  add  to  it  one  single 
stick  to  represent  the  number  1 1 .  and  so  on  to  I  9. 
Two  bundles  often  sticks  each  may  be  made  for 
the  number  20,  and  two  similar  bundles  and  a 
single  stick  for  21;  and  so  on  to  29.  In  this 
manner,  children  may  be  taught  to  comprehend 
the  value  of  all  the  simple  numbers  to  100.  The 
knowledge  obtained  by  means  of  the  exi  rcises 
described  above  will  prepare  the  pupils  to  learn 
readily  and  intelligently  both  the  value  and  the 
form  of  writing  numbers  through  hundreds,  and 
thereby  to  understand  the  principles  of  numera- 
tion and  notation.  See  Cukrie,  Principles  and 
Practiceof  Early  and  Tnfant  School  Education 
(Edin.andLond.);  N.  A.  Calkins, New  Primary 
Object  Lessons  (  New  York,  1871). 

NUMERAL  FSAME.  This  simple  appa- 
ratus has  been  in  use  for  many  centuries.  In 
some  form  or  other,  it  is  now  used  for  teaching 
number,  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  some- 
times employed  to  represent  units,  tens,  hun- 
dreds, thousands,  etc.,  in  numeration.  This  use  of 
the  numeral  frame  renders  it  necessary  to  give  ar- 
tificial values  to  the  balls  on  different  wires;  and 
notwithstanding  that  this  is  analogous,  in  order, 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  numerical  system  of 
figures,  there  is  danger  that  young  children,  by 
the  use  of  it  for  tliis  purpose,  may  become  con- 
fused between  the  actual  numerical  value  of  a 
ball  and  its  several  artificial  values.  Inasmuch 
as  numeration  can  be  illustrated  much  more  in- 
telligently by  the  method  described  under  Num- 
ber (q.  v.),  if  aided  by  the  use  of  the  black- 
board, it  is  not  advisable  to  attempt  an  explana- 


tion of  it  by  the  numeral  frame;  not,  at  least, 
until  the  pupils  have  acquired  a  definite  under- 
standing  of   the    relation    between    the   value  of 

i!,.  ir  i-.-.T,-  \.    i- m  iv-ard  to  other  figures. 

The  most  important  uses  of  the  numeral  frame 
are,  to  teach  a  class  of  pupils  to  count,  and  to 
illustrate  the  value  of  numbers  and  figures;  also 
to  teach  the  first  steps  in  adding,  subtracting, 
multiplying,  and  dividing.  For  the  fir>i  M<  ]  -  in 
adding,  let  the  pupils  add  balls  on  the  numeral 
frame,  by  ones  as  far  as  ten.  When  they  can  do 
this  readily,  let  them  add  on  the  blackboard  a 
column  composed  of  Is;  then  let  them  add  alike 
column  of  figures  on  their  slates.  Subsequently, 
teach  them  to  add  balls  on  the  numeral  frame  by 
twos  :  then  to  add  a  column  of  figure  2s  on  the 
blackboard  ;  and  then  on  their  slates.  When  the 
adding  of  Is  and  2s  has  thus  been  learned,  pro- 
ceed in  the  same  manner  with  threes,  fours,  etc. 
After  the  pupils  have  learned  to  add  threes  as 
above,  they  may  be  taught  by  these  three  steps 
to  add  Is  and  2s  in  the  same  column ;  then  to 
add  Is,  2s,  and  .'Is  in  the  same  column.  In  this 
manner  the  pupils  may  be  taught  to  add  readily 
and  rapidly  single  columns  composed  of  such 
figures  as  t>,  7,  8,  9.  To  give  children  an  idea  of 
subtraction,  teach  them  to  count  backward  on 
the  numeral  frame  from  ten;  thus,  10,  9,  8,  7,  6, 
:">,  4.  :i.  2.  1.  0.  Subsequently,  call  on  a  pupil  to 
hold  the  numeral  frame,  to  take  one  ball  from 
two  balls,  and  tell  how  many  remain;  then  one 
ball  from  three  balls,  etc.  Proceed  in  a  similar 
nianner  with  other  numbers,  taking  care  to  ar- 
range the  exercises  so  as  to  give  the  pupils  as 
much  actual  practice  as  possible  in  taking  balls 
or  other  objects  from  a  larger  number  of  ob- 
jscts.  To  illustrate  the  first  ideas  of  multiplica- 
tion to  a  class  of  young  pupils,  arrange  the  balls 
on  the  numeral  frame  in  groups  of  tints.  Ilnvs, 
etc.  Place  on  one  wire  two  groups  of  two  each, 
and  lead  the  pupils  to  perceive  that  they  may 
say  that,  "two  and  two  make  four ;"  or  that 
"two  twos  make  four" ;  also  that  "two  times 
two  make  four. "  Place  on  another  wire 
three  groups  of  two  each,  and  let  the  pupils 
observe  that  "two  and  two  and  two  make 
six;"  or  that  "  three  twos  make  six,"  also  that 
'three  times  two  are  six."  Proceed  in  a  similar 
manner  with  numbers,  and  so  arrange  the  exer- 
cises as  to  furnish  the  pupils  as  much  individual 
practice  as  possible.  After  each  step  has  been  illus- 
trated by  the  numeral  frame,  place  figures  on 
the  blackboard  to  represent  what  has  been  thus 
taught.  To  illustrate  the  first  ideas  of  division, 
arrange  balls  in  groups  of  four,  si.r.  ci,jhl.  ti'u.vU:.. 
on  the  different  wires.  Lead  the  pupils  to  see  that 
each  of  these  groups  can  be  divided  into  groups 
of  twos.  Then  require  them  to  divide  the  groups 
thus  and  tell  how  many  groups  of  twos  can  be 
made  from  four  balls,  six  balls,  eight  balls,  etc. 
Let  the  pupils  also  find  how  many  threes  there 
are  in  six,  nine,  twelve  ;  and  how  many  fours  in 
eight,  twelve,  etc.  That  which  is  learned  in  each 
step  may  be  represented  by  figures  on  the  black- 
board.— (See  Number.) 


OU.IKCT   TEACJIINIi 


OBERLIN,  Johann  Friedrich,  a  noted 
philanthropist,    and    the    originator    of    infant 

schools,  was  born  in  Strasbourg,  Aug.  31.,  1740; 
died  at  Waldbaeh,  in  Alsace,  June  1 .,  1 826.  I  le 
was  educated  in  his  native  city,  was  occupied  as 
private  tutor  for  several  years,  ami,  in  1766,  be- 
came Protestant  pastor  of  a  district  in  Waldbaeh, 
which  had  been  reduced  to  a  condition  of  poverty 
by  the  devastations  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
His  office  as  pastor  of  Waldbaeh,  in  the  Ban  de 
la  Roche,  in  which  district  the  people  had  been 
brought  to  a  condition  of  helplessness  by  igno- 
rance and  want,  enabled  him  to  exercise  the  power 
almost  of  a  dictator ;  but  this  power  he  used 
solely  for  their  good.  I  lis  first  measures  were 
purely  philanthropic.  He  introduced  better 
methods  of  cultivating  the  soil,  caused  good 
roads,  bridges,  and  dwellings  to  be  constructed, 
and  established  schools,  hospitals,  and  various 
new  branches  of  manufacture.  With  the  in- 
crease of  material  prosperity,  the  moral  condition 
of  the  people  was  steadily  advanced,  till,  at  the! 
close  of  his  sixty  years'  labors,  the  population, 
originally  500,  had  increased  to  more  than  5,000; 
and  the  success  which  attended  his  efforts,  led, 
in  after  years,  to  an  unquestioned  recognition  of 
his  claim  to  a  place  among  the  world's  benefact- 
ors. His  distinctive  educational  work  was  the 
establishment  of  schools,  since  known  as  infant 
schools,  but  then  termed  asylums,  resembling  the 

creche  (q.  v.).    In  these,  he  gathered  I ither  the 

children  of  his  parishioners  for  amusement  and 
instruction,  while  their  parents  were  at  work. 
The  idea  of  instruction  seems  originally  to  have 
been  secondary  in  ( Ibcrlin's  mind,  his  first 
thought  being  to  occupy  the  children  so  as  to 
leave  their  parents  free  to  carry  out  his  plans  for 
the  amelioration  of  their  condition.  The  idea  of 
instructing  them,  however,  must  have  presented 
itself  almost  immediately;  and  his  method,  by 
combining  these  two  ideas,  was  productive  of  the 
happiest  results.  In  all  his  efforts,  he  was  affec- 
tionately seconded  by  his  housekeeper,  Louisa 
Schepler.  Memoirs  of  the  life  of  Oberliu  have 
been  published  as  follows:  T.  Sims,  Brief  Memo- 
rials of  Oberliu  (London,  1830)  ;  Memoirs  of 
Oberlin,  n-ilh  a  short  notice  of  Louisa  Schepler 
(London,  1838  and  1852);  and  a  biography  by 
II.  Ware,  Jr.  (Boston,  18-15). 

OBERLIN  COLLEGE,  at  Oberlin,  Ohio, 
was  opened  in  1833  as  the  Oberlin  Collegiate  In- 
stitute, and  received  its  present  title  in  1850.  It 
is  under  <  'ongrcgational  control.  Both  sexes  have 
been  admitted  from  the  first;  and,  in  1835,  it  was 
resolved  to  admit  colored  students.  It  has  valu- 
able apparatus  and  cabinets,  and  libraries  con- 
taining about  14,000  volumes.  The  value  of  its 
buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is  si  70,(Mio : 
the  amount  of  its  productive  funds.  SI  1  5,000.  The 
tuition  fees  are  small.  The  college  embraces  four 
departments:  (1)  theology;  ("J)  philosophy  and  the 
arts,  with  a  classical  and  scientific  course,  a  literary 


course,  and  select  courses;  (3)  preparatory  instruc- 
tion, including  a  classical  and  an  English  school ; 
and  (4)  a  conservatory  of  music.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  33  instructors.  The  number  of  stu- 
dents was  as  follows:  theological.  51;  classical  and 
scientific,  147  ;  literary.  I  45  :  select.  66;  classical 
schools,  250  ;  English  school.  379  ;  conservatory 
of  music,  288  ;  total,  deducting  repetitions,  1,216 
(648  male  and  568  female).  The  following  are 
the  names  of  the  presidents  :  the  Bev.  Asa  Ma- 
han.  1835—50;  the  Bev.  Charles  (i.  Finney, 
1851—66;  and  the  Bev.  James  II.  Fairchild, 
the  present  incumbent,  appointed  in  1866. 

OBJECT  TEACHING,  a  method  of  instruc- 
tion in  which  objects  an-  employed  by  means  of 
which  to  call  into  systematic  exi  i<  ise  the  observ- 
ing faculties  of  young  pupils,  with  the  threefold 
object,  (1)  to  cultivate  the  senses.  (21  to  train  the 
perceptive  faculty,  so  that  the  niind  may  be 
stored  with  clear  and  vivid  ideas,  and  (3),  simul- 
taneously with  these,  to  cultivate  the  power  of 
expression  by  associating  with  the  ideas  thus 
formed  appropriate  language.  The  merit  of 
introducing  object  teaching  as  a  special  method 
of  elementary  instruction,  is  usually  attributed 
to  Pestalozzi;  but  Comenius,  Locke,  Bousseau, 
liasedow.  Bochow,  and  others  basic]  their  systems 
of  education,  more  or  less,  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple; that  is,  they  recognized  the  necessity  of 
communicating  ideas,  or  of  affording  to  the  mind 
the  means  to  grasp  ideas  from  objects,  by  actual 
perception,  before  attempting  to  teach  the  verbal 
expression  ot  those  ideas,  and  that,  without  such 
ideas,  mere  "book-learning"  is  useless.  Festalozzi 
appears,  low  ever,  to  have  had  only  a  slight  knowl- 
edge of  the  works  of  those  educationists.  In- 
spired by  the  nailing  of  Bousseau  s  £mile  to 
study  the  phases  of  mental  growth,  he  arrived 
at  the  conclusion  that  the  teaching  of  his  day 
was  fundamentally  wrong,  from  its  violation  of, 
or  inattention  to.  the  laws  of  mental  develop- 
ment. These  laws  he  believed  to  be,  (1)  that 
the  knowledge  of  things  should  precede  that  of 
words:  (2)  that,  for  the  a.  epiisition  of  this  knowl- 
edge, the  only  effective  agents,  in  the  first  stages 
of  mental  growth,  are  the  senses,  chief  of  which 
is  the  eye  ;  (3)  that  the  first  objects  to  be  studied 
by  the  child  are  those  immediately  surrounding 
it,  and  these,  only  in  their  simplest  forms  and 
relations;  and  (4)  that  from  these  objects  as  a 
center,  the  sphere  of  knowledge  should  be  wid- 
ened by  a  gradual  extension  of  the  powers  of  ob- 
servation to  more  distant  objects.  The  first  in- 
struction, therefore,  according  to  this  plan,  should 
consist  in  concentrating  the  attention  upon  con- 
crete things,  in  such  a  way  as  to  result  in  a 
thorough  training  of  the  observing  faculties,  so 
that  the  conceptions  with  which  the  mind  is 
stored  may  be  as  well  defined,  and  as  true  to 
nature,  as  possible.  So  impressed  was  Festalozzi 
with  the  correctness,  and  the  supreme  importance, 
of  this  method,  that  he  declares  in,  Wie  Gertrud 


OBJECT   TEACHING 


li.VJ 


ihre  Kinder  lekrt  (180G),  that  the  sum  of  his 
achievements  in  education  is  the  establishment 
of  the  truth  that  "the  culture  of  the  outer  and 
inner  senses  is  the  absolute  foundation  of  all 
knowledge — the  first  aud  highest  principle  of 
instruction."  The  failure  of  the  first  attempts  of 
Pestalozzi  and  his  followers,  however,  in  the 
practical  application  of  his  theories,  was  dis- 
couraging: and  the  faith  of  the  progressive  edu- 
cators who  had  accepted  them  as  a  new  gospel, 
was  seriously  shaken.  The  reason  of  their  fail- 
ure, however,  was  that  their  practice  was  in  con- 
flict with  the  very  principles  which  Pestalozzi 
had  enunciated  as  fundamental.  The  human 
body,  with  which  they  began  their  instructions, 
is  not  only  highly  composite  in  itsstructure,  and 
difficult  of  description  in  the  language  of  the 
child,  but.  by  its  very  nearness,  is  rendered  unfit 
for  an  object  of  study  by  children,  their  senses 
being  most  powerfully,  and.  indeed,  almost  ex- 
clusively, turned  to  the  observation  of  objects 
external  to  themselves.  By  attempting,  there- 
fore, to  name  in  detail  and  to  describe  the  limbs, 
their  form,  color,  size,  actions,  and  uses,  the 
new  theory  was  exposed  to  the  ridicule  of  its 
enemies,  and  placed  in  serious  peril.  In  all  the 
Protestant  countries  of  Europe,  however,  and 
especially  in  Germany,  the  leaven  of  truth  con- 
tained in  the  principles  of  Pestalozzi,  wrought  a 
gradual  but  sure  reform  in  the  old  method  of 
instruction.  Attention  having  been  turned  to  a 
serious  consideration  of  the  new  system,  a  num- 
ber of  pedagogical  writers  contributed,  by  their 
discussion  of  its  principles,  to  give  definite  form  to 
the  truth  of  the  theory,  and  gradually  to  improve 
its  practice.  Among  these  writers,  the  names  of 
ITarnisch.  Denzel,  I  •inter,]  •iesterweg,  Grassmann, 
Graser,  VTurst,  Curtmann,  Volter.and  I  littes,  de- 
serve mention,  though  sea  re,  ly  any  two  of  them 
agree  as  to  the  order  in  which  the  objects  should 
be  introduced,  the  relative  importance  of  the 
purposes  for  which  they  are  used,  or  the  extent 
to  which  the  exercises  should  be  carried.  Object 
teaching  became  universal  in  the  primary  schools; 
and  the  dignity  and  usefulness  of  the  teacher 
were  increased  by  the  very  impossibility  of  pre- 
scribing any  one  method  in  which  the  principles 
should  be  applied,  thus  giving  special  prominence 
to  the  fact  that  the  determining  cause  in  favor 
of  one  method  over  another  was  the  individual 
ability  of  the  teacher.  Instead  of  one  invariable 
method,  which  might  be  unintelligently  acquired 
and  mechanically  applied,  a  variety  of  methods 
now  presented  themselves,  each  dependent  for  its 
success  upon  circumstances.  The  individuality  of 
the  pupil  suddenly  acquired  a  new  importance; 
and  the  teacher's  individuality,  also,  became, 
more  than  ever  before,  an  essential  factor  in  the 
successful  conduct  of  the  school.  For  the  diffi- 
cult work  thus  foreshadowed,  a  long  and  care- 
ful preparation  was  necessary  on  the  part  of  the: 
student.  The  first  step  in  this  preparation  was 
the  observation  of  the  educational  work  of  some 
good  teacher;  then,  a  thorough  study, in  the  nor- 
mal school,  of  the  subjects  of  pedagogy,  psychol- 
ogy,   the     history    of    education,    the   natural 


sciences,  universal  history,  mathematics,  and  arts; 
aud,  finally,  a  course  of  practical  teachingin  trial 
lessons,  under  the  supervision  of  model  teachers 
and  the  student's  own  associates.  Among  the 
writers  above  mentioned,  one  of  the  principal 
points  of  controversy  was  in  regard  to  the  neces- 
sity of  educating  the  senses.  Many  denied  alto- 
gether this  necessity,  and  insisted  that  object 
teaching  should  be  reserved  exclusively  for  exer- 
cises in  using  and  understanding  language.  The 
senses,  so  they  argued,  take  care  of  themselves. 
whenever  an  interest  in  surrounding  objects  is 
awakened  by  the  necessities  of  daily  life;  and  the 
common  school,  they  said,  can  present  but  few  ob- 
jects of  interest  on  which  the  senses  can  be  prof- 
itably exercised.  If.  for  instance,  pictures  of  ob- 
jects are  presented — as  is  most  frequently  the  case, 
aud  if  these  pictures  are  large  and  faithful  copies 
of  the  originals  which  is  rarely  the  case — the 
exercise  is  still  confined  to  only  one  sense:  and 
experience  proves  that  this  is  insufficient  to 
awaken  a  lively  interest.  The  impression  made 
on  the  sight,  therefore,  is  short-lived  and  feeble. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  objects  themselves  are 
produced,  as  these  are  generally  house  utensils, 
or  articles  of  school  furniture,  only  a  languid 
;  interest  is  aroused  in  the  pupils'  minds,  because 
|  there  is  rarely  any  new  feature  to  be  observed 
in  objects  so  familiar.  The  incentive  to  any  ob- 
servation or  comparison  of  qualities,  therefore,  is 
utterly  wanting:  and  any  sharpening  of  the  senses 
is  improbable.  If,  on  the  contrary,  the  exercises 
upon  objects  be  carried  on  for  the  purpose  of  en- 
riching the  child's  vocabulary,  and  of  storing  his 
mind  with  just  and  accurate  conceptions,  by 
causing  him  to  connect  with  every  word  its  proper 
idea,  all  will  have  been  done  to  benefit  the  pupil 


ject  teaching  for  the  exclusive  purpose  of  the  ac- 
quisition of  language,  would  overthrow  that 
fundamental  principle  of  the  system  which  dis- 
countenances mere  word  learning.  The  correct 
understanding  and  use  of  language,  also,  they 
thought,  could  be  learned  as  well  from  books  and 
conversation;  while,  if  the  child  is  made  to  under- 
stand, that  to  talk  fluently  and  correctly  of  ob- 
jects is  all  that  is  required,  and  that  a  real  knowl- 
edge of  those  objects  is  of  no  consequence,  clever 
talk  will  always  be  more  highly  valued  by  him 
than  exact  knowledge.  According  to  their  view. 
the  pupil  firings  with  him  to  the  primary  school 
only  the  raw  material  out  of  which  objective 
knowledge  and  the  proper  use  of  the  senses  may 
be  developed  :  his  mental  pictures  are  wanting 
in  definiteness  and  in  order.  These  must  be 
taken  to  pieces,   ('.  e.,  analyzed,  and  recomposed, 

,yn- 

.1  o 
the  exercise  of  the  senses  is  lacking,  it  is  the 
teacher's  duty  to  excite  it;  and  this  should  be 
easy  with  young  children,  if  the  teacher's  inter- 
est in  the  subject  is  lively  enough  to  communicate 
itself  to  them.— While  the  rapid  progress  of 
science  and  art  in  our  day  infinitely  augments 
the  mass  of  knowledge  which  it  is  desirable  and 


nthetized,  at  the  sight,  hearing,  or  touch, 
of  real  objects.    If  the  interest  of  the  children  in 


000 


OP..IECT   TEACHING 


important  for  every  liody  to  learn,  the  increasing 
artificiality  of  our  daily  life  tends  to  alienate  us 
from  a  spontaneous  exercise  of  our  senses;  and 
this  di'lh-icncy  must  be  supplied  by  education,  to 
enable  us  to  compass  the  amount  of  knowledge 
which  it  is  desirable  to  acquire.  The  exercise  of 
the  senses  is  not  only  practically  useful,  but  it  is, 
in  most  cases,  full  of  interest.  To  illustrate  this, 
let  pupils  be  asked  toestimate  bysighf  the  length 
of  a  pen-holder,  the  dimensions  of  a  window  pane, 
distances  on  the  floor  or  on  the  ground,  the 
weight  of  objects  that  can  be  held  in  the  hand: 
or  to  distinguish  shades  of  color,  and  the  differ- 
ences in  pitch  or  quality  of  musical  sounds.  Such 
exercises  are  not  only  amusing,  but  useful :  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  abundant  evidence 
that  the  circumstances  of  daily  life  do  not,  of 
themselves,  educate  the  senses.  Thus,  let  a 
dozen  countrymen  be  asked  the  length  of  a  cer- 
tain way  over  which  they  often  travel,  and 
the  probability  is  that  a  dozen  different  answers 
will  be  given,  many  of  them  wide  of  the  mark. 
rnstances  might  be  multiplied  indefinitely  to 
show  that  the  senses  are  not  self -e  lucative.  Some 
educators,  while  not  objecting  to  any  of  the  five 
purposss  to  which  object  lessons  may  be  applied; 
namely,  (1)  the  preparation  of  the  pupil  for 
serious  learning;  (I!)  the  sharpening  of  the  senses, 
and  the  exercise  of  all  the  mental  functions; 
(3)  exercise  in  language  ;  (4)  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge;  and  (5)  moral  training;  still  have  in- 
sisted that  a  distinction  should  be  made  between 
object  teaching  and  objective  teaching;  the  former 
comprising  exercises  in  which  the  objects  are 
taught  for  themselves,  i.  e.,  for  instruction  in  all 
the  properties  which  are  peculiar  to  them  ;  the 
latter,  for  the  acquisition  of  that  generalized  or 
fundamental  knowledge  which  is  common  to 
many  widely  different  objects.  The  former,  they 
contended,  should  occupy  only  a  part  of  the 
time  during  the  first  year  or  two,  after  wdiich 
it  should  cease ;  but  every  branch  of  learning 
should,  in  turn,  be  treated  objectively.  The 
method  of  procedure  should  be,  first,  the  presen- 
tation of  the  object.  This  should  be  analyzed  by 
tile  pupils,  ami  immediately  reconstructed,  tin' 
teacher  supplying  nothing  but  technical  terms 
which  are  supposed  to  be  unknown  to  the  pupils, 
but  guiding  them  by  conversation  to  observe,  com- 
pare, and  reason  correctly  and  in  proper  language, 
to  rise  from  the  single  features  of  the  object  to 
its  entirety,  from  similar  features  to  generali- 
zations, from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  from 
facts  to  laws.  The  opponents  of  this  view  said 
that  the  principle  was  good,  but  did  not  go  far 
enough.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  a  vast  body 
of  knowledge  that  cannot  be  treated  objectively. 
All  facts,  for  instance,  in  regard  to  the  days  of 
the  week,  and  the  months,  their  names,  number, 
etc.;  many  facts  in  regard  to  time,  such  as  the 
number  of  seconds  in  a  minute,  the  number  of 
minutes  in  an  hour,  etc.,  the  names  of  the 
seasons,  the  method  of  telling  time  by  the 
elock.  —  these  and  many  other  necessary  facts 
eannot  be  objectively  presented,  but  must  be 
learned  arbitrarily;  while,  at  a  later  period  in 


sable;  and  all  attempts  to  teach  without  them  are 
useless,  and  result  in  a  waste  of  precious  time. 
While  recognizing,  therefore,  the  value  of  object 
teaching  in  many  branches,  and  its  pre-eminent 
value  in  a  few,  they  assert  that  it  has  its  natural 
limitations  beyond  which  memorizing  and  an 
adherence  to  the  text-book  are  the  only  proper 
means  to  be  relied  upon  by  the  teacher.  At  the 
present  time,  this  latter  view — that  a  combination 
of  the  two  methods  should  be  employed,  is  in  the 
ascendant.  In  Europe,  especially  in  Germany,  this 
reactionary  movement  is  thought  to  be  fostered 
from  political  and  religious  motives.  In  the  United 
States,  the  demand  for  teachers  has  so  far  ex- 
ceeded the  supply  from  the  normal  schools,  with- 
out a  corresponding  rise  in  salaries,  that  the 
standard  of  qualifications  for  teachers  has  not 
been  maintained  at  the  height  which  many  edu- 
cational reformers  had  hoped  it  would  be.  In  short, 
the  principles  and  system  of  Pestalozzi  cannot  be 
said,  at  the  present  time,  to  be  fully  carried   out. 

object  teaching  should  be  begun  as  early  as  pos- 
sible, and  in  the  manner  of  the  kindergarten, 
and  should  be  followed   by   objective  ami  oon- 

ceptive  teaching,  which  should  !»■  carried  through 
every  branch  of  learning.  The  mental  growth  of 
pupils,  however,  should  not  be  retarded  by  a 
superfluous  use  of  this  method.  A  Bafe criterion, 
by  which  the  teacher  may  know. at  any  moment, 
whether  he  has  made  a  proper  use  of  the  object 
method,  may  be  found  in  the  self-activity  of 
his  pupils,  their  ability  to  grasp, in  their  answers 
to  his  questions,  the  general  fact,  proposition,  or 
law.  The  new  method  is  justly  called  the  devel- 
oping method  (q.  v.),  the  pupils'  minds  being 
made  to  develop  themselves,  the  teacher  only 
suggesting  what  they  are  to  discover.  Every 
pupil  is.  as  it  were,  to  rediscover  every  science  in 
the  genetic  method  (q.  v.),  a  difficult  task  for  the 
teacher,  and  apparently  a  circuitous  way  for  the 
pupil.  But  because  of  its  thoroughness,  it  is  the 
most  rapid  way  of  learning ;  and  its  results  arc 
indelibly  fixed  in  the  mind.  This  method,  also, 
if  early  begun,  and  consistently  carried  out,  is 
successful  with  every  child,  and  saves  precious 
time,  which,  later  in  life,  may  be  devoted  to  those 
higher  branches  that  lie  beyond  the  common- 
■  school  course,  but  which  are  every  year  becom- 
ing, in  many  cases,  highly  desirable,  and,  in  some, 
indispensable.  The  literature  of  object  teaching 
is  much  too  extensive  to  permit  the  enumeration 
here  of  more  than  a  few  of  the  principal  works. 
Pestalozzi's  complete  works  are  now  (187G) 
undergoing,  in  Germany,  a  second  revision.  Die- 
sterweg'smonthly,  i?//c//(/.sr//cZ.V(i7A'/',  contains,  in 
its  long  series. and  in  its  continuation  by  \\  ichard 
Lange,  more  information  on  this  subject  than 
any  other  work.  The  latest  German  work  of 
a  progressive  nature  is  l'r.  Dittes's  Die  Meikodik 
ilri-  i'ii//:s.«-//>i/i-  iinf  i/i-xi-hii-htlii-hrr  <1  riiinllniie 
(Leipsic,1874).  In  English  literature,  compare  the 
works  enumerated    under   Kindergarten.     See 


OBSERVING    FACULTIES 

also.  Krdsi's  Biography  of  Pestalozzi  (Cin., 
1875);  Hailman,  History  of  Pedagogy  ( <  "in.. 
1874) :  and.  Outlines  of  Object  Teaching  |  N.  V.. 
L867);  N.  A.  Calkins,  Primary  01  ect  /.  saws 
(X.  Y.,  1873);  Currie,  Prh  pies  ,  d  Practia 
of  Early  School-  hi  cation  1,1m  .  L857  ; 
Barnard,  Object  Teaching  (N.  F.,  I860).  (See 
also  Color,  Form.  Ximrkr,  and  Pkstai.ozzi.) 

OBSERVING  FACULTIES.  See  Intel- 
lectual Education,  and  Ohject  Teaching. 

OHIO,  one  of  the  central  states  of  the  Amer- 
ican Union,  at  first  a  part  of  the  North-west 
Territory,  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a 
state  in  1802,  but  not  organized  as  such  till 
March,  1803.  Its  area  is  3!),9(U  sq.  in.;  and  its 
population,  in  1870,  was  2,665,260,  of  whom 
63,213  were  colored  persons. 

Educational  History.  The  germ  of  public 
education  in  ( thio  is  to  be  found  in  the  ordinance 
of  July  13..  L787,  enacted  to  provide  a  terri- 
torial government  for  the  region  north- west  of  the 
Ohio  river.  At  that  time,  an  association  of  peopli 
of  New  England— chiefly  soldiers  of  the  Revolu- 
tion— organized  as  the  Ohio  Company  of  Asso- 
ciates, was  lie-  .datine-  nrh  ( ',,n..r.-s  for  a  lafv 


OHIO 


001 


the  acknowledged  lead,  r  .,i  the  movement,  and 
the  Re\  ttanasseh  I  utler,  1. 1..  D  .  of  Massachu 
setts,  was  the  agent  to  purchase  the  land.  The  lat- 
ter was  a  man  of  broad  and  liberal  culture;  and. 
at  the  time  the  ordinance  was  framed,  was  con- 
sulted as  to  its  provisions.  It  is  believed  that  to 
him  more  than  to  any  other  person  an  to  1 
attributed  those  clauses  winch  have  made  the  or- 
dinance so  famous  and  useful:  the  prohibition  of 
slavery,and  the  declaration  that  "religion,  moral- 
ity, and  knowledge  being  nei  i  ssary  to  g 1  gov- 
ernment and  to  the  happiness  of  mankind, 
schools  and  the  means  of  education  shall  be  for- 
ever encouraged."  By  the  contract  afterward 
signed  by  Dr.  (.'utler  and  Winthrop  Sargent,  on 
the  part  of  the  Ohio  Company,  and  by  the 
Board  of  Treasury,  Oct.,  1787,  it.  was  stipulated 
that  lot  or  section  number  sixteen  in  each  town- 
ship should  be  set  apart  for  the  maintenance  of 
schools,  and  also,  that  two  complete  townships 
should  be  given  perpetually  for  the  purposes  of 
a  university.  Under  this  contract,  a  settlement 
was  made  at  Marietta.  April  7.,  1788.  This  was 
the  first  organized  white  settlement  within  the 
present  hunts  of  Ohio.  Stimulated  by  the 
example  of  the  Ohio  Company.  John  Cleves 
Symmes.of  New  Jersey,  negotiated,  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  year  1787,  for  a  tract  of  land 
lying  between  the  two  .Miami  rivers — the  region 
which  now  includes  Cincinnati.  In  connection 
with  tlit-  purchas  \  <  longress  gave  another  town- 
ship of  I  oi  I  t  ii-  a  nniversity.  Congress  after- 
ward gave  th  i  sixteenth  section  in  each  township 
of  the  ,ta'e.  oran  area  equal  to  this,  for  (he  sup- 
port of  common  schools.  Thus  one  thirty-sixth 
part  of  all  the  land  of  the  stale  was  devoted  to 
common  schools,  besides  the  three  townships  for 
universities.  The  early  schools  in  the  state  were 
private  schools.  They  were  more  numerous  in 
the  settlements  formed  by  immigrants  from  the 


more  enlightened  port  ion  of  the  older  .states. 
Often  graduates  of  Vale  or  Harvard  were  teach- 
ers :  but.  as  a  rule,  the  teachers  had  little  edu- 
cation, and  the  range  of  instruction  was  very 
limited.  In  the  course  of  time,  school-districts 
were  formed,  and  the  small  revenues  from  leases 
of  school  lands  were  applied  to  the  payment 
of  teachers.  Thus  the  schools  gradually  were 
changed  from  private  schools  to  public  schools 
under  legal  control.  The  first  general  school 
law  was  enacted  in  1*21.  This  authorized  the 
division  of  townships  into  school  districts,  upon 
a  majority  vote  of  the  resident  householders,  the 
appointment  of  these  householders  as  school- 
committee  men,  the  erection  of  school  buildings, 
the  employment  of  teachers,  and  the  levying  of 
taxes  upon  all  the  parents  and  guardians  of  chil- 
dren attending  the  si  hools,  who  were  able  to  pay. 
Cnder  this  law,  liowev,  i.  action  on  the  part  of 
the  people  was  lea  obligatory  :  and  the  attitude 
of  charity  assumed  bj  its  provisions  toward  the 
poor  man  caused  it  to  become  unpopular.  In 
L825,  another  general  school  law  was  passed  by 
which,  for  the  first  time  in  the  history  Of  the 

was  directed  to  be  levied.     This  law  provided 


com n  education.        It  authorized 

incut,  by  the  court  of  common  pie 
niei-s  of  schools,  whose  dtttv  it  u 
teachers'  certificates  to  ssuch  applic 


county  tax  by  an  assessment  of  rate-bills  on  alV* 

school  patrons,  in  order  to  keep  the  s.  hools  o]  en 
for  a  reasonable  period.  The  organization  at 
Cincinnati  in  1831,  of  a  college  of  teachers, 
composed  of  the  most  prominent  educators  of 
Ohio  and  the  neighboring  states,  led  to  a  gen- 
eral awakening  on  the  subject  of  education,  and 
to  the  need  of  a  superintendent  of  common 
schools.  In  U.'!7.  accordingly,  the  office  of 
late  superintendent  was  created;  and  statistical 
information  in  regard  to  the  schools  was  first 
collected  by  the  state 


partly  for  that  ] 
port  of  the  state 
strumental  in  br 

the  school  law  of 
fund  of  $200,001 
2  mills,  and  local 
houses  were  imp 
were  required, 
tary  of  slate  was 
In  the  latter  yeai 


department  created 
'he  first  annual  re- 
ident  was  largely  hi- 
nt the  enactment  of 
w  hieb  a  state  school 
ed,  a  countj  tax  of 
e  building  of  school- 
eports  from  teachers 
i  to  1853,  the  secre- 
tate  superintendent, 
passed  making  each 


township  a  school -disi  rict,  and  creating  i 
ship  board  of  education,  whose  dutj  if  ■  ■  to 
make  an  estimate,  annually,  of  the  money  re- 
quired lor  the  schools,  exec] it  for  ihe  payment 
of  teachers:  to  establish  high  schools  ill  each 
district,  if  deemed  necessary  by  a  majority  of 
voters — the  latter  to  decide  the  amount  of  tax 
to  lie  levied  for  the  purpose:  and  to  levy  a  tax 
of  not    more  than  2  mills  on  the  dollar,  for  the 


662  OH 

payment  of  teachers  in  such  schools,  or  for  the  ' 
purpose  of  extending  the  terms  of  the  sub-district 
schools  beyond  the  time  provided  for  by  the 
state  funds.  Every  city  or  village  of  300  in- 
habitants, also,  was  constituted  a  separate  school- 
district.  Various  changes  have  been  made  in 
the  law  from  that  time  to  1873,  relating  prin- 
cipally to  the  amount  of  the  school  tax,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  should  be  levied.  In  that 
year,  all  previous  school  laws  were  codified  ;  and 
a  general  law  was  enacted,  by  which  the  various 
systems  of  local  organization  were  made  uniform. 
Slight  amendments  were  made  to  this  law  during 
that  and  the  following  year. 

State  Superintendents.— Vast  first  state  super- 
intendent of  common  schools  was  Samuel 
Lewis,  chosen  by  the  general  assembly,  March 
31.,  1837.  He  held  the  office  until  his  resigna- 
tion, m  1840  ;  when  it  was  abolished,  its  duties 
being  assigned  to  the  secretary  of  state.  Mr. 
Lewis  was  a  man  of  great  earnestness  and  vigor, 
eloquent  in  his  addresses,  and  of  rare  good  sense. 
He  did  a  noble  work  for  the  cause  of  popular 
education.  The  secretaries  of  state  had  little 
time  to  devote  to  the  cause  of  education,  and 
generally  did  little  more  than  refer  to  the  sub- 
ject in  their  annual  reports.  Samuel  Galloway, 
who  was  elected  secretary  in  1844,  gave  the  sub- 
ject much  attention ;  and,  by  his  stirring  ad- 
dresses and  reports,  exerted  a  wide  influence. 
He  held  the  office  for  six  years.  In  L853,  the 
office  of  state  superintendent  was  again  made  a 
distinct  one,  under  the  title  of  State  School 
Commissioner,  such  commissioner  to  be  elected 
by  tin'  people,  and  to  hold  office  for  three  years. 
II.  H.  Barney  was  elected  in  the  fall  of  1853. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Anson  Smith,  who  held 
the  office  for  two  terms,— from  1856  until  1862. 
('.  \V.  II.  Cathcart  succeeded  him,  but  resigned 
after  holding  the  office  nine  months;  and  E.  E. 
White  was  appointed  by  the  governor  to  com- 
plete the  term,  which  expired  in  1*65.  Hissucces- 
sor  was  John  A.  X  orris,  who  was  re-elected  for 
a  second  term,  but  resigned  in  1869  ;  and  W.  D. 
Henkle  was  appointed  to  till  the  vacancy.  He 
was  succeeded  by  T.  W.  Harvey,  who  continued 
in  office  one  term.  The  present  commissioner, 
C.  S.  Smart,  entered  upon  his  duty  in  1875. 

School  System. —  The  principal  educational 
officer  of  the  state  is  the  state  commissioner  of 
common  schools,  who  is  elected  for  three  years. 
His  duties  are  the  following:  to  prepare  annually 
a  statistical  report,  showing  the  condition  of 
the  common  schools ;  to  make  such  suggestions 
or  recommendations  to  the  legislature  concern- 
ing the  schools  of  the  state  as  he  may  deem 
proper ;  to  visit  annually  each  of  the  nine 
judicial  districts  of  the  state,  "superintending 
and  encouraging  teachers'  institutes,  conferring 
with  boards  of  education,  and  other  school  offi- 
cers, consulting  teachers,  visiting  schools,  and 
delivering  lectures  on  topics  calculated  to  sub- 
serve the  interests  of  popular  education.  "District 

boards  of  education  are  elected  by  the  ] pie. 

They  may  authorize,  for  school  purposes,  a  tax 
not  exceeding  seven  mills  on  the  dollar,  may  di- 


rect any  language  to  be  taught  in  the  schools, 
and  are  required  to  provide  instruction  in  Ger- 
man when  it  is  demanded  by  75  freeholders,  on 
behalf  of  not  less  than  40  pupils  who  intend  to 
study  both  German  and  English.  They  may 
also  establish  evening  schools  for  whites,  and 
separate  schools  for  colored  children,  when  these 
are  more  than  20  in  number.  In  most  of  the 
cities  and  towns,  the  boards  of  education  ap- 
point superintendents,  as  officers  of  the  local 
school  systems.  These  superintendents  have  a 
general  oversight  of  the  public  schools,  but  are 
themselves  subject  to  the  control  of  the  boards 
of  education.  They  visit  the  schools,  give  advice 
to  the  teachers,  and  look  after  many  matters 
which  would  otherwise  require  the  personal  at- 
tention of  the  board.  If  they  are  persons  of 
thorough  culture,  they  elevate  the  literary  char- 
acter of  the  teachers  and  schools,  and  often  exert 
a  very  wide  influence.  In  some  cases,  the  super- 
intendent does  a  limited  work  of  personal  in- 
struction in  the  schools.  A  state  board  of  exam- 
iners, three  in  number,  is  appointed  for  two 
years  by  the  state  commissioner,  to  issue  life 
certificates  to  teachers  after  strict  examination. 
County  boards  of  examiners  are  also  appointed. 
The  common-school  fund  of  the  state  consists  of 
the  amount  derived  from  a  one-mill  tax  on  tax- 
able property,  and  from  the  proceeds  of  the  sales 
of  public  lands.  The  lands  set  apart  for  common 
schools  were  for  a  time  leased,  but  have  now 
nearly  all  been  sold.  The  proceeds  of  the  sales 
of  these  school  lands  constitute  "  an  irreducible 
fund  for  the  support  of  the  common  schools 
of  the  township  or  other  district  having  credit 
for  the  same."  This  fund  yields  an  interest  of 
six  per  cent.  To  this  should  be  added  rents  etc. 
on  unsold  land,  and  the  revenue  from  certain 
fines  and  licenses.  The  chief  support  of  the 
schools,  however,  comes  from  direct  taxes,  state 
and  district.  At  present,  each  civil  township  is 
a  school-district,  managed  by  a  township  board 
of  education  :  and  this  district  is  divided  into 
sub-districts  for  the  convenience  of  the  inhab- 
itants. The  title  to  grounds,  school  buildings, 
and  all  other  property,  is  vested  in  the  township 
board.  The  local  directors  of  the  several  sub- 
districts  employ  the  teachers,  purchase  or  lease 
school-house  sites,  rent  school  rooms,  buy  fuel, 
ami  make  all  other  provision  necessary  for  the 
schools.  There  are.  besides  these,  city  districts 
of  the  first  class,  being  cities  with  a  population 
of  over  10,000.  city  districts  of  the  second 
class,  containing  a  less  population,  and  village 
districts.  In  these  districts,  the  boards  of  edu- 
cation have  somewhat  enlarged  powers.  The 
legal  school  year  is  24  weeks ;  the  school  age  is 
from  6  to  21  years. 

Educational  Condition. — The  whole  number 
of  township  districts  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was 
1.337;  of  sub  districts  in  townships.  10,433;  of 
city,  village,  and  special  districts.  005;  and  of 
district  divisions  included  in  city,  village,  and 
special   districts,   701.     The    whole   number  of 

school    l ins   was   14,868,    of    which    450    were 

classed  as  high  school   rooms.     The  whole  mini- 


ber  of  school-houses  was  10,695,  the  total  value 
of  which,  including  grounds,  was  estimated  at 
$8,037,446.  The  whole  amount  of  school  rev- 
enue was  as  follows : 


From    interest 

funds ..$215,718.85 

Fr rents  of  school  lands,  ,.      22,283.19 

Prom  -tale  school  tax 1,560,397.93 

From   local    taxes 0,153,442.63 

From  sale  of  bonds 489,408.32 

From  tines,  licenses,  etc.   ...     270,160.94 


Total $8,711,411.80 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows : 

For  teachers'  salaries $4,787,903.76 

For  superintendents'  salaries      laK,77:j.G4 

For  sites  and  buildings 1,313,514.86 

For  fuel  and  contingent  ex- 
penses   1,31)1, 704.42 

Total $7,651,950.68 

The  other  important  items  of  school  statistics 
are  the  following : 

No.  of  children  of  school  age,  males,    522,418 
females.495,308 


Total.... 

Total  enrollment:    male-,... 

females,  . 


Total 712,129 

Average   daily   attendance:   male-       2'J."> ,."»:'.  1 
females   209,918 


Total 

No. 
No. 

of   teachers    common    sol Is: 

males,        9,759 
females,    12,092 

of   teachers   in    high     schools: 

males,            427 
females,          214 

Total 

Ave 

rage  monthly  salary,  common  schools,  ma 

22,492 

es.    $47 
females,$31 

"  "  "  hii;li  "         male-,    $72 

females,$57 
Normal  Instruction. — There  are,  in  Ohio,  no 
normal  school.-  under  state  control.  Such  schools 
"have  been  officially  recommended  by  governors, 
■school  commissioners,  etc.,  but  the  state  has 
never  established  them.  To  meet  this  want, 
some  of  the  cities  have  normal  and  training 
schools  as  a  part  of  their  school  systems;  and 
there  are  several  private  independent  normal 
.schools.  The  cities  in  which  there  are  depart- 
ments for  training  teachers  connected  with  the 
public  schools,  are  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Hay- 
ton,  and  Sandusky.  The  primary  design  of 
these  schools  is  to  prepare  teachers  for  their  own 
schools.  Such  teachers  are  generally  graduates 
of  the  city  high  schools,  or  of  schools  of  a  similar 
grade.  The  students  are  not  only  instructed  in 
the  general  principles  and  methods  of  teaching, 
but  in  the  special  methods  in  vogue  in  the 
schools  of  their  respective  cities.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  graduates  of  these  normal  departments 
are  given  a  preference,  by  the  boards  of  educa- 
tion, in  the  appointment  of  teachers  for  the  city 
schools.  They  also  receive  a  larger  compensation 
than  teachers  not  so  trained. — The  private  nor- 
mal schools  are  the  following :   The   McNealy 


lO  663 

Normal  School,  at  ETopedale,  Harrison  Co.;  the 
National  Normal  School,  at  Lebanon,  Warren 
Co.;  the  Western  Reserve  Normal  School,  at, 
Milan,  Erie  Co.;  the  Orwell  Normal  School,  at 
Orwell,  Ashtabula  Co.;  the  Northwestern  Ohio 
Normal  School,  at  A. la,  Hardin  Co.;  the  Ohio 
Central  Normal  School,  at  Worthington,  Frank- 
lin Co.;  and  the  Southern  Ohio  Normal  School, 
at  Pleasantville.  Fairfield  Co. 

Teachers'  Institutes. — The  law  authorizes  the 
teachers  in  each  of  the  several  counties  to  form 
an  association  and  to  hold   annually  an  institute 

tion;  and  they  are  permitted  t . >  devote  a  week 
to  attendance  at  the  institute  without  any  de- 
duction from  their  salary  as  teachers.  The  surplus 
money  derived  from  the  examination  fees  paid 
by  all  teachers  when  examined  by  the  board  of 
county  examiners,  after  tin'  expenses  of  the 
latter  have  been  deducted,  constitutes  an  insti- 
tute fund.  The  county  commissioners  may  add 
to  this  fund,  when  necessary,  a  limited  sum  by 
direct  appropriation.  The  meetings  of  these 
institutes  are  well  attended,  and  are  generally 
conducted  w  it li  spirit.  Methods  of  teaching  the 
several  branches  of  study,  and  of  school  man- 
agement, are  considered  and  discussed.  In  1875, 
there  were  92  institutes  held,  with  an  aggregate 
attendance  of  10,125  teachers,  at  a  total  expense 
of  $18,988.— Besides  these  county  institutes,  it 
has  been  customary,  in  several  of  the  cities,  to 
hold,  each  year,  a  local  institute  for  the  special 
benefit  of  the  teachers  of  the  city  schools,  the 
first  week  of  the  school  year  being  devoted  to 
this  purpose. 

Secondary  Instruction. —  The  first  graded 
course  of  instruction  was  adopted  in  Cincinnati 
soon  after  the  year  1840.  Since  then,  high 
schools  have  gradually  been  introduced  into  the 
cities  and  towns.  The  Cincinnati  Central  High 
School,  with  a  graded  course,  was  established  in 
1*47.  and  classes  were  admitted  from  the  lower 
schools  once  each  year.  The  schools  of  Cleve- 
land, I  iolumbus,  Dayton,  and  Portsmouth  adopt- 
ed, in  the  order  named,  the  graded  system  ;  and 
afterward  the  system  met  with  general  favor 
in  the  larger  places.  These  follow  a  graded 
system  of  instruction  and  generally  require  four 
years  for  the  completion  of  the  full  course. 
Pupils  pass,  by  examination,  to  the  high  schools 
from  the  grammar  schools.  In  this  way.  there 
is  a  perfect  gradation,  and  the  pupils  are  taken 
through  the  progressive  stages  until  they  emerge 
from  the  high  school  with  an  excellent  education. 
Eight  years  are  spent  in  the  common  grades  and 
four  in  the  high  school — in  all  twelve  years. 
e  largely  displaced  the  old- 


upon   private  foundations  ; 
doIs  were  good  preparatory 


schools  for  the  colleges,  there  would  be  no  further 
need  of  academies  in  the  state.  Few  of  the  high 
schools  have  a  sufficiently  thorough  course  of 
classical  study  to  fit  boys  for  the  best  colleges. 
Greek  is  ofteu  omitted  altogether.  Further- 
more, iu  order  to  obtain  the  classical  training 
furnished  by  the  high  school,  it  is  generally  neces- 


(361  01 

sary  to  take  all  the  other  studies  of  the  full  four 
years'  course,  some  of  which  are  included  in  the 
usual  college  course.  Hence,  the  high  schools 
do  not,  as  a  rule,  serve  as  preparatory  schools  for 
the  better  class  of  colleges,  such  colleges  in  Ohio 
being  obliged  to  organize  preparatory  depart- 
ments of  their  own. 

Superior  Instruction. — Three  state  institutions 
for  higher  education  have  been  established — the 
Ohio  University.  Miami  University,  and  the 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College.  The  state 
has  never  directly  aided  any  of  them,  their  en- 
dowments having  been  derived  from  lands 
granted  by  the  general  government. 

The  state,  under  the  first  constitution,  granted 
college  charters  quite  freely;  and,  under  the  pres- 
ent constitution,  adopted  in  1851,  colleges  may 
be  incorporated  under  a  general  law  without  a 
special  charter.  Some  of  the  colleges  are  close 
corporations,  and  are  independent  of  state  or  ec- 
clesiastical control.  Western  Reserve.  Marietta, 
and  Oberlin,  are  of  this  class.  The  trustees  ofthe 
University  of  Cincinnati  are  appointed  by  the 
city  council.  The  larger  part  of  the  colleges  are 
under  ecclesiastical  supervision.  Some  of  the 
Ohio  colleges  are  modeled  after  the  best  institu- 
tions of  the  Eastern  states,  and  are  characterized 
by  thorough  and  exact  scholarship. 

The  followin-  table  contains  an  enumeration 
of  all  the  important  institutions  of  this  grade  in 
the  state. 

[The  names  of  those  for  f.nial.s  ex.  lnsnvly  art- printed 
in  Itnlu:*  ;  those  tor  both  s.-xos.  in  small  oafs.] 


NAME 

location 

S' 

Religions 

liALllwiN     1        I.I      .''.-, 
111.    Hl.ll        . 

Capital  1        i       1 

Cin.   II 

Hems  ...  |-,..v,iMty.. 

.    ,U, 
Franklin  foil-  ...... 

ll.i.l.'il..  i,.  .     11    _■. 

'/.'..'■' /.....  CoUtgt 

^Hiram  Coll-      

"Kenyon  Colh-^.- 

MrO'lkl,.      I'' 'II      : 

'MamttaC    11.  - 

Mt.  St  Mary's  nt  tin 
'    West 

Mt.  Union  College.  . 

MrsiiiN.iM  College. 
"Oberlin  College 

Ohio  Ci  nthal  Coi  i, 

tlHIo   r/MVI  IMIV.... 

Okie  ii.  '  ran   /..... 
OneStnd5  1  niv,  rsitj 

OTTEEB]     .I'm. 

f^'ll."       t         ' 
Uuiv.  of  \v.„...... 

l'rl..iii;i  Inn    .    ih 
ffESTl  .'.          10   II  i:M 

Yellotf  Springs 

College  Hill 
New  Athens 

Tiffin 

Hillsboro 

Hiram 

Gambier 

Blooinneld 

Marietta 

Cincinnati 

Mt.  Union 
v  ...  i  loncord 
Oberlin 
Iberia 
Athens 

W,  stirville 

10.  In ..1 

Cincinnati 

ISM 
1856 

1850 

is:u 

1S47 

1SU4 
1850 
1839 
1867 

1873 

1851 
1858 
1867 
1k;i:i 
1854 

1844 
1889 

ls:r> 

1873 

ISTU 
1851 

M    Ejus. 
Uuiv. 
Ev.  Lnth. 
M.  Epis. 
Bap. 

N..||.s..rt. 

Un.Presb. 
M.  Epis. 
It. .formed 
M.  Epis. 
Disoiplcs 
l'r.  Epis. 
Ass.Presb. 
Non-sect. 

II    C. 
M.  Epis. 
Non-sect. 
Cong, 
r.  Presb. 

M    I  pis. 

K    C. 

Non-sect. 

New  Ch'ch 

Franklin  having  offered  §300,000  to  secure  it. 
The  proceeds  of  the  land  grant  of  1862,  which 
constitute  its  endowment,  have  already  reached 
the  sum  of  $500,000.  In  addition  to  the  neces- 
sary buildings  and  apparatus,  it  has  a  farm  of 
320  acres.  Its  object  is  to  supply  a  general  and 
scientific  education  rather  than  a  professional 
one;  and  to  this  end  its  provisions  are  ample, 
consisting  of  well  -  equipped  departments  in  all 
the  branches  of  natural  science  ordinarily  taught, 
supplemented  by  instruments,  cabinets,  and 
laboratories.  In  the  course  of  study,  a  union  of 
the  obligatory  and  elective  systems  is  followed. 
A  fixed  preparatory  course  of  2  years  is  pursued, 
at  the  end  of  which  the  student  is  permitted  to 
enter  whatever  department  he  may  choose.  The 
number  of  instructors,  in  1875,  was  !);  the  num- 
ber of  students,  65.  The  Toledo  University  of 
Arts  and  Trades  has  been  recently  organized  for 
the  purpose  of  affording  instruction  to  young 
men  and  women  in  the  branches  indicated  by  its 
name.  In  1874,  one  professor  gave  instruction 
to  8!)  students.  The  institution  still  hicks  many 
requisites  for  thorough  efficiency,  owing  to  its 
\ei-\  ton-lit  establishment.  The  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  at  Cincinnati,  was  founded  in  1829  by 
the  Presbyterians.  It  provides  a  •'!  vears  course 
of  study.  '  In  ls7  1.it  had  5  redden)  i  I  if  ssors 
and  ID  students.  Instruction  in  theologj  is  also 
given  at  the  St.  Mary's  Theological  Seminary 
lit.  C),  at  Cleveland:  the  Theological  Seminary 
nt  St.  i 'hailos  Borromeo  (R.  C.J,  at  Carthagena; 
the  Heidelberg  Theological  Seminary  I  Reformed), 
at  Tiffin;  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Joint  Synod  of  Ohio  (Evang.  Lutheran), 
at  Columbus;  the  Union  I'iblical  Seminary  (In. 
Brethren),  at  I>avt<.n;  and  the  United  Presby- 
terian Theological  Seminary,  at  Xenia.  Several  of 
the  secular  colleges  and  universities  of  the  state 
also  have  separate  departments  for  instruction  in 
theology.  The  Ohio  State  and  Union  Law  Col- 
lege was  founded  at  ( 'levclaiid.  in  I  Sou.  Its  aim 
is  to  give  each  student  a  thorough  theoretical  and 
practical  knowledge  of  law.  and  to  accomplish 
him  as  an  extemporaneous  speaker.  For  the  latter 
purpose,  weekly  debates  are  held,  and  law  cases 
are  provided  in  which  the  actual  practice  of  the 
court  room  is  illustrated.  In  1874,  the  number  of 
professors  of  all  kinds  was  8.  There  is  also  a  law 

school   co i ted  with   Wilberforce   University, 

besides  the  Cincinnati  Law  School,  formerly  a  de- 


•al  College,  the  Eclectic  Medical  In- 
Ihio  College  of  Dental  Surgery,  and 
if  Pharmacy,  all  at  Cincinnati:  the 
ege  and  the  Homoeopathic  Hospital 

lowland;    and  the  Stai'lino   Medical 


Prqfesi 

Ohio  Agr 
ope I.  n 


<.-i.;ili/,r  Inst, ■  it, I ;,,,,.— -The 

d  Mechanical  i  !ollege  was 
■  i  'olumbus,  ih. limy  of 


of  the  colleges  and  universities.  — Schoolsof  draw- 
iiie  and  design  exist  in  connection  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  ( 'inciniiatiaiidthe  Mechanics'  Institute. 
The  number  of  pupils  in  each  is  from  300  to  400. 


OHIO 

Special  Instruction. — The  institutions  for  the 
blind,  and  for  the  deaf  and  duinb,  located  at 
Columbus,  are,  strictly  speaking,  schools.  In 
them  are  taught,  in  addition  to  the  elementary 
branches.all  the  studies  of  high  schools,  includ- 
ing Latin.  The  instruction  is  thorough  and 
complete,  and  these  institutions  are  an  honor  to 
tin-Mil-'-  There  is  also,  at  t  'oliiin  Kits,  an  asylum 
for  idiotic  and  imbecile  youth,  which  in  its  very 
nature  is  a  school.  (If  the  whole  number  un- 
der instruction  in  1S7.">,  253  had  been  taught 
to  readand  write.  It  has  ben  ascertained  thai 
one-third  of  the  inmates  can  be  so  trained  as  to 
be  able  to  support  themselves. 

The  Reform  Farm  for  Boys,  located  near 
Lancaster,  Fairfield  Co.,  is  also  a  school.  This 
was  the  first  reformatory  in  the  United  States 
to  adopt  the  "family  plan"  and  has  proved  a 
remarkable  success.  No  walk,  or  cells,  or  iron 
bars  restrain  the  boys.  They  are  grouped  into 
families  under  the  care  of  "elder  brothers",  all 
under  the  general  supervision  of  the  commissioner 
in  charge."  Kindness,  and  appeal,  to  tl,.-  hid,,  r 
and  better  nature,  and  to  Christia  i  principles, are 
the  guiding  and  controlling  forces,  the  object 
being  nurture  rather  than  discipli  te  o:  |  anish- 
metit.  Of  704  boys,  in  1875,  only  30  attempted  to 
i  return  voluntarily.  I  lalt'  of 


OHIO  CENTEAL  COLLEGE       665 

ferent  publishers.  In  Dial,  its  name  was  changed 
to  7'/,e  Ohio  Educational  Month!,/;  and,  in  1801, 
ii  passed  under  the  control  of  E.E.  WhiteandCo., 
Anson  Smyth  being  the  partner.  Mr.  Smyth 
retired  alter  twoyears,  and  Mr.  White  continued 


wh( 


transferred  to  its  present  proprietor.  W.  I). 
Benkle.  In  L870,  Mr.  White  issued  audition 
of  the  Monthly  for  circulation  within  the  state, 
which  was  called  the  National  Teacher.  'I  Ins 
journal  has  been  the  leading  educational  publica- 
tion in  the  state  since  the  day  of  its  establish- 
ment. In  1875,  W,  l».  I!,  iikb-  commenced  the 
publication  of  the  Educational  Notes  and  Que- 
rns, which  supplies  a  want,  and  has  already  at- 
tained a  wide  circulation. 

Teachers'   Associations.  —  In    1829,    "some 


escape.  Many  fugitive 
each  day  is  spent  in  i 
work  upon  the  farm  a 
learn  useful  tra  les.  S 
discharged  have  beet 


bre 


her  halt  in 
re  the  boys 
have  been 


are  group  1 
he  ordinary 

•s'  and  Sail- 
■nia,  ( irecne 
The  graded 
dgh  school. 


valuable  and  elaborate  addressee  ami  reports 
were  made  by  the  more  promini  n1  ti  ai  hers  and 
friends  of  education  of  Cincinnati  and  of  the 
Ohio  valley.  In  the  fourteen  years  of  its  exist- 
ence, more  than  three  hundred  such  addresses 
and  reports  were  given.  The  first  state  conven- 
tion for  the  promotion  of  public  education  was 
held  in  Columbus,  January  l.'i.,  L836.  Similar 
convert -  were  held  in  L837  and  in  1838.  'I  he 


Co.,  is  a  school  as  well  asa  hon 
system  is  adopted,  crowned  with 
Besides  the  above  institutions  supported  by  th 
state,  there  are  many  of  local  character  in  which 
instruction  is  given  to  the  young.— The  Cincin- 
nati llouseof  Refuge  is  a  reform  school,  in  which 
study  and  work  are  combined.  The  Cleveland 
House  of  Refuge  is  similar.  The  Industrial 
School  of  Cleveland  is  a  private  enterprise,  where 
instruction  in  letters,  as  well  as  in  sound  moral- 
ity, is  given.  There  are  in  the  state  many  homes 
for  poor  ehil  ben.  supported,  in  whole  or  in  part. 
■counties.  In  all  these,  the  elementary 


Akron.  Dec  30.,  I- 
i  ontinued  to  the  pp 
most  efficient  aid  in 
popular  education  ii 
and  is  conducted  i 
A  somewhat  similar 

sulfation  was  formei 
of  many  of  the  CI 
Association  of  Ohio 

are  held. and  the  assi 
In  addition  to  these 


at 


bra 


iff 'lent 


cational  journals  have  been  pul 
most  were  short-lived.  The  ft 
was  established  by  Dr.  A.  D. 
published  at  Columbus.  In  t 
School  Friend  was  issued  by  \\ 
of  Cincinnati.  Thesetwojour 
L850,  under  the  joint  names, 
in  September,  1861.    The  Ohi 


North-Eastern  Ohio  T. 
the  Central  Ohio  Teach 
are  ttlso  many  count}  ti 
History  of  Education  i, 
1876,  as  "a  centennial  v 
general   assembly   oi   th 

ouii  ■  1   by  a  volu f    Hi  itorical 

the  Public  S  hoots,  an  1  an  ith  i  oi 
Sketches  of  the  Higher  Educational  i 
OHIO  CENTRAL  COLLEGE 
founded  in  1854,  is  a  non-sectarian 
It   comprises  an    KmdisI,    dciiartuic, 


\iiiiual   meetings 

ations,  there  are 
r.  sin  h  as  the 
Association,  and 
ociation.  There 
associations.  A 
ias  published  in 
I  iy  order  of  the 


dlv 


Jo 


al  of  Edu- 
cation  was  issued   in  January,   1852,  under  the 

auspices  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association,  with 
Br.  Lord  as  chief  editor,  assist,,!  |,v  several  of 
the  leading  educational  men  in  the  state.  It  has 
had  a  long  succession  of  editors  and  several  dif- 


Oesigncil  tor  those  preparing  to   lie  teachers  m 

the  n  hi  schools;  a  preparatory  department; 

and  a  collegiate  department,  with  a  classical  and 
a  scientific  course.  Roth  sexes  are  admitted. 
The  cost  of  tuition  ranges  fr $18  to  $24  pet- 
year.  The  Rev.  Wm.  Maelareu.  D.D.,  is  (1876), 
the  president. 


OHIO    UNIVERSITY 


ONE  .STUDY  UNIVERSITY 


OHIO  UNIVERSITY,  at  Athens.  Ohio, 
was  founded  upon  a  grant  of  two  townships  of 
land  by  the  general  government  for  the  endow- 
ment of  a  state  university.  This  was  the  first 
educational  endowment  by  the  general  govern- 
ment, being  made  in  1787.  The  lands  to  be  de- 
voted to  the  support  of  the  university  were 
located  in  1795  ;  and,  in  1802,  an  act  was  passed 
by  the  territorial  legislature,  establishing  the 
institution  under  the  name  of  the  American 
Western  University.  Nothing  was  done  under 
this  act ;  and.  in  ls04. the  institution  was  char- 
tered as  the  Ohio  University.  Instruction  com- 
menced in  1809  ;  but  a  full  faculty  was  not 
organized  till  1 822.  The  institution  is  supported 
by  the  rents  from  its  endowment  and  by  tuition 
fees.  It  has  a  cabinet,  apparatus,  and  libraries 
containing  8.000  volumes.  The  university  com- 
prises a  preparatory  department  and  a  collegiate 
department,  with  a  classical  course  of  four  years, 
and  a  scientific  course  of  three  years.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $18 
a  year  in  the  preparatory,  and  $30  in  the  col- 
legiate, department.  One  student  from  each 
county  of  the  state  is  admitted  free  of  tuition. 
In  1875 — 6,  there  were  6  instructors  and  LOO 
students  (46  collegiate  and  54  preparatory).  The 
presidents  have  been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  James 
Irvine.  A.  M.,  1H22— 4  ;  the  Rev.  Robert  G.Wil- 
son, D.D.,  1824—39;  the  Rev.  William  II. 
McGuffey,  T).  D.,  LL.  D.,  1839— 43 ;  the  Rev. 
Alfred  Ryors,  D.  I).,  1848—52  ;  the  Rev.  Solo- 
mon Howard.  I).  D..  LL.  D-,  1852— 72;  and  the 
Rev.  William   II.   Scott.   A.  M.,  the  present  in- 

OHIO  WESLEY  AN  UNIVERSITY,    at 

Delaware,  Ohio,  founded  in  1842.  is  under  Meth- 
odist Episcopal  control.  The  grounds  consist 
of  30  acres,  and  contain  four  college  buildings. 
There  are  cabinets  of  aivlueology.  neology,  min- 
eralogy, and  natural  history,  and  libraries  con- 
taining 13,000  volumes.  The  university  has  au 
endowment  of  $300,000;  and  the  vdue  of  its 
buildings,  grounds,  etc..  is  $200,000.  Scholar- 
ships, admitting  the  student  to  all  the  studies 
required  for  graduation,  can  be  purchased  at  the 
university  at  prices  as  follows:  perpetual  scholar- 
ships, $500;  for  twenty  years,  $100;  ten  years, 
$50;  six  years.  $30  ;  four  years,  $20  ;  two  years, 
$15.  There  is  a  collegiate  and  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment (with  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course), 
and  a  teachers' course.  In  1875 — 6  there  were 
10  instructors.  335  students  (141  collegiate) ,  and 
about  Too  alumni.  The  presidents  of  the  univer- 
sity have  been  a.s  follows:  the  Rev.  Edward  Thom- 
son, D.D.,  LL.D.,  1844  -60;  the  Rev.  Frederick 
Merrick,  M.  A.,  L860— 73  ;  the  Rev.  Lorenzo  I). 
McCabe,  D.  D.,  LL.  It.  (acting),  1873—6;  and 
the  Rev.  Charles  II.  Payne,  I >.!).,  LL.D., elected  : 
in  L876. 

OLIVET  COLLEGE,  at  Olivet,  Mich.,  was 
founded  in  1844.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees 
of  from  $15  to  $21  a  year,  and  the  income  of 
an  endowment  of  $140,000.  The  library  contains 
about  C.ooo  volumes.  The  institution  comprises 
a  collegiate  department,  with  a  classical,  a  scien- 1 


'  tific,  and  a  Indies'  course ;  and  a  preparatory 
department,  with  a  classical,  an  English,  and  a 
-  es  course.  Facilities  are  afforded  for  instruc- 
tion  in  art,  music,  and  normal  school  branches. 
In  1875 — 6, there  were  14  instructors  and  317 
students  (124  collegiate  and  193  preparatory),  of 
whom  151  were  males  and  1G6  females.  The 
presidents  of  the  college  have  been  as  follows  : 
the  Rev.  M.  W.  Fairfield,  2  years ;  the  Rev.  N. 
J.  Morrison.  8  years;  the  Rev.  J.  H.  Hewitt 
(pro  tern.),  2  years;  the  Rev.  Oramel  Hosford 
(pro  tern.),  1  year  ;  and  the  Rev.  II.  Q.  Butter- 
field,  I).  D.,  the  present  incumbent  (1876). 

OLMSTED,  Denison,  a  natural  philosopher 
and  educator,  born  in  Fast  Hartford,  Ct.,  June 
18.,  1791  ;  died  in  New  Haven.  May  13..  1859. 
He  graduated  at  Yale  College,  and  shortly  after 
became  a  tutor  there.  In  lsl7.be  was  appointed 
professor  of  chemistry  in  the  University  of 
North  Carolina;  and.  while  in  that  position,  he 
proposed  and  completed  the  first  state  geological 
survey  ever  made  in  the  United  States.  In  1825, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  philosophy  in  Y'ale  College,  with  which 
institution  lie  remained  connected  till   his  death. 

j  In  1830,  he  published  a  theory  of  hail  storms, 
which,  after  much  discussion.  \\;is  accepted  as 
a  valuable  contribution  to  scientific  knowledge. 
Three  years  later,  he  began  an  investigation  into 
the  cause  of  the  shower  of  shooting  stats  which 
occurred  in  1833.  and  made  such  suggestions  in 
regard  to  them  as,  followed  up  by  astronomers 
in  this  country  and  in  Europe,  have  led  to  a  great 
addition  to  our  knowledge  of  these  singular 
bodies.  Professor  Olmsted,  besides  being  a  fre- 
quent contributor  to  scientific  periodicals,  has 
been  the  author  of  many  textbooks  on  natural 
science,  the  principal  of  which  are  :  Iittrmlnrlion 


qphy  (183 
oky   (1835 


I 'hi  I, 


to  Natural  l'hih 
Natural  Phih 
Astronomy  1 1 8i 
(1841);  Letters 
diments  of  Ndt< 
(1844). 

ONE  STUDY  UNIVERSITY,  at  Scio, 
Harrison  Co.,  Ohio,  under  Methodist  Episcopal 
control,  was  opened  in  the  fall  of  1859.  at  Har- 
lem Springs,  Ohio,  and  was  known  as  the  Rural 
Seminary,  which  name  it  retained  until  1867, 
when  it  was  removed  to  New  Market  Station, 
and  the  name  changed  to  New  Market  College. 
In  1*74.  the  legislature  changed  the  name  of 
the  village  from  New  Market  to  Scio;  and 
the  name  of  the  college  was  then  changed  to 
One  Study  University.  The  institution  was  char- 
tered  in  1*60;  and  since  then.  111  students  have 
graduated.  The  distinctive  feature  of  this  in- 
stitution is  the  plan  of  study.  Each  student 
passes  through  the  course  by  taking  up  and 
thoroughly  completing  one  study  at  a  time.  It  is 
claimed  that  "a  practical  test  of  six  years  shows 
a  great  gain  in  scholarship,  and  a  saving  of  about 
one-third  of  the  usual  time."  Both  sexes  are 
admitted.  There  is  a  collegiate  (classical  and 
scientific),  a  preparatory,  and  a  normal  course. 
Facilities  are  afforded  for  musical  instruction. 


The  cost,  of   tuition  in   the   classical   and   the 

scientific  course    is  $12    per  quarter,  of    twelve 

29inmusic).     Alfred  D.  Lee,  A    ML,  has' been 

ONTARIO,  the  most  populous  province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  having  an  area  of  107,780 
sq.  in.,  and  a  population,  according  to  the  census 


jf   It 


of 


I  Iri-i 


.Methodists:  .'{.Ml.  I  12  Presbyterians: 

cppalians;  and  274,162  Roman  Cal 
nally  a  part  of  the  old  province  of  Quebec,it  was, 
in  1791,  organized  as  an  independent  province, 
under  the  name  of  Upper  Canada.  In  1841,  it 
was  reunited  with  Quebec :  and,  in  1867,  it  be- 
came a  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  under 
its  present  name. — The  first  settlers  in  Ontario 
were  chiefly  from  England  and  Scotland;  and,  as 
most  of  them  had  received  a  good  education  at 
home,  they  were  anxious  to  provide  good  schools 
for  their  children.    As  early  as  1807,  each  of  the 

vided,  had  it.  grammar  school.  In 
islative  assembly  passed  the  first  law 
lization  of  primary  instruction,  and 


that  time  divide  1.  had  it.  gra 
1816,  the  legislative  assembly  p 

fort] rganization  of  primary 

appropriated  $6, I  for  carryii 

Sir  Peregrine  Maitland  obtained  permission  from 
the  imperial  government  to  establish  a  board  of 
education  for  the  province,  with  power  to  super- 
intend the  schools,  and  manage  the  university 
and  school  lands.  In  1H44.  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ryer- 
-son  was  appointed  superintendent  of  schools;  and 
before  entering  upon  his  office,  he  visited  Europe 
and  the  United  States,  and  presented  a  report 
in  which  he  suggested  the  principles  upon  Which 


at  the  head  of  the  school  system,  the  develop- 
ment of  which  is  chiefly  his  work.  In  1850,  the 
comprehensive  school  bill,  which  was  prepared  by 
him,  became  a  law;  and,  in  1853,  an  amendment 
•act  was  passed  making  several  improvements  in 
the  system.  Separate  Protestant  and  colored 
schools  were  now  permitted,  as  well  as  Roman 
Catholic  schools.  A  most  important  measure, 
making  all  the  public  schools  free,  and  introducing 
compulsory  education,  was  passed  in  1871,  and 
somewhat  modified  in  1K74.  The  council  of  public 
instruction  consists  of  the  chief  superintendent, or 
in  his  absence,  of  the  deputy,  eight  members  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown,  one  member  by  each  of  the 
colleges  having  university  powers,  one  bymasters 
and  teachers  of  high  schools,  one  by  the  public- 
school  inspectors,  and  one  by  the  public  and  sepa- 
rate school-teachers.  Each  member  holds  office 
for  two  years,  and  is  eligible  to  re-appointment. 
The  council  prescribes  text-books  for  the  normal, 
high,  ami  public  schools,  and  makes  rules  and  reg- 
ulations for  their  government.  It  lias  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  high-sehool  inspectors,  the  cen- 
tral committee  of  examiners,  and  the  teachers  of 
the  normal  and  model  schools.  It  prescribes  the 
-qualification  of,  and  grants  certificates  to,  inspect- 
ors, examiners,  and  teachers,  prescribes  library 
and  school  books,  and  makes  regulations  for  the 


.BIO  007 

superannuation  of  teachers,  to  whom  pensions 
are  granted.  The  chief  superintendent  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  lieutenant-governor.  It  is  his 
duty  to  see  that  all  moneys  drawn  from  the  pro- 
vincial treasury  are  duly  applied,  and  to  have  the 
general  supervision  of  the  schools.  The  county 
councils  levy  for  teachers'  salaries  an  amount  equal 
to  the  chief  superintendent's  apportionment;  and 
designate  and  pay  the  county's  proportion  of 
the  salary  of  legally  qualified  inspectors,  each  of 
whom  must  have  not  more  than  120  nor  less 
than  50  schools.  Where  French  or  German  is  the 
language  spoken,  the  inspector  may  have  not  less 
than  40  schools;  if  there  are  more  than  50  schools, 
the  county  must  have  two  or  more  inspectors. 
The  council  is  empowered  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  the 
office  of  inspector,  and  to  appoint  not  more  than 
four  persons,  who,  with  the  inspector,  form  a 
board  for  the  examination  of  teachers.  Township 
councils  form  school  sections  with  not  less  than 
50  children.  The  township  councils  are  also  em- 
powered to  establish  township  school  boards,  if 
two-thirds  of  the  sections  desire  it,  each  board  to 
consist  of  five  trustees;  to  levy  sums  required  for 
purchasing  a  township  library,  and  for  the  support 
of  a  township  model  school,  of  which  the  coun- 
cilors are  the  trustees.  City,  town,  and  village 
councils  have  the  same  powers  and  duties  as 
county  and  township  councils.  For  every  school 
section,  a  board  of  three  trustees  is  elected  by  the 
people.  Inspectors  are  appointed  by  county  coun- 
cils, or  by  city  or  town  school  boards,  and  may- 
be dismissed  for  misconduct  by  the  lieutenant- 
governor,  or  by  the  county  or  town  councils.  All 
the  public  schools  are  free;  the  rural  trustees  and 
the  municipal  councils  tx  ing  required  to  levy  the 
tax  upon  the  taxable  property,  in  order  to  defray 
the  school  expenses  according  as  the  trusties 
determine.  No  pupil  can  be  compelled  to  join 
in  any  exercise  of  devotion  or  religious  study 
objected  to  by  the  parents  ;  but  pupils  may  re- 
ceive such  religious  instruction  as  their  parents 
desire,  subject  to  general  regulations.  The  union 
of  the  high  and  public  school  boards  of  a  city 
is  called  the  Board  of  Education  of  that  city, 
and  this  board  possesses  the  same  powers  as 
the  high  and  public  school  trustees.  Parents 
neglecting  to  have  their  children  between  the 
ages  of  7  and  12  years  instructed  for  four  months 
in  the  year,  are  liable  to  a  penalty ;  but  no  I  Io- 
nian Catholic  can  be  required  to  attend  a  public 
school,  nor  a  Protestant,  a  I  Ionian  <  'atholic  school. 
The  clergy  of  any  persuasion,  or  their  represent- 
atives, may  use  the  school  house  to  give  religious 

instruction  to  the  pupils  of  their  own  church, 
at  least  once  a  week,  after  4  o'clock.  The  daily 
exercises  must  be  opened  by  reading  a  portion 
of  the  Scripture,  and  by  prayer;  and  the  Tell 
Commandments  must  be  taught  to  all  the  pupils. 
and  be  repeated  at  least  once  a  week  ;  but  no 
pupil  need  be  present  at  these  exercises  against 
the  written  request  of  his  parents.  The  master 
of  the  school  may  suspend,  or,  with  the  consent  of 
the  trustees,  may  expel  a  pupil.  All  teachers  are 
required  to  attend  regularly  the  teachers'  meet- 
ings ;    and    any   teacher    may    be    absent   two 


663 


ORAL   INSTRUCTION 


days  every  half  year  for  tin 
other  schools,  and  observin 
tiued  therein.  The  laws  gov 
lie  separate  schools  are  near 

of    the   public    schools.     A 


not 


board  of  my 


ity  may  establish  an 
chool  for  destitute,  vagrant,  and  de- 
praved children.  The  number  of  children  between 
the  ages  of  5  and  16  years,  in  1874,  was  511,003; 
the  number  of  schools,  4,758  ;  the  number  of  pu- 
pils, 464,047 ;  and  the  number  of  teachers,  5,736. 
The  amount  expended  from  grants  was  $267,782; 
and  the  amount  raised  and  expended  from  local 
sources.  $2,597,550.  The  Roman  Catholic  sepa- 
rate schools,  which  are  included  in  the  above, 
were  166  in  number,  with  22,780  pupils. — By  the 
law  of  1871,  the  former  grammar  schools  were, 
changed  into  high  schools.  The  course  of  study 
in  these  schools  comprises  the  Knglish  language, 
arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  natural  philos- 
ophy, French,  (ieriuan,  Latin.  <  J  reek,  chemistry, 
botany,  physiology,  history,  geography,  book- 
keeping, writing,  drawing,  and  penmanship.  The 
governor  may  confer  on  any  high  school,  the 
name  of  collegiate  institute,  if  four  masters  are 
fully  employed,  and  an  averageof  60  male  pupils  in 
the  classics  is  maintained;  and  such  institute  may 
receive  an  additional  S750  per  annum,  while  that 
standard  is  maintained.  The  number  of  high 
schools,  in  1874,  was  103.  with  240  teachers,  a 
total  enrollment  of  7,871  pupils,  and  an  average 
attendance  of  4,021.  The  expenditure,  including 
a  grant  of  $78,494,  was  $286,593.  Besides  the 
public  schools,  there  were,  in  1874,  280  colle- 
giate and  private  school  organized  independently 
of  the  school  laws,  with  about  8,500  pupils  and 
540  teachers.  The  University  of  Toronto  was 
established,  in  1827,  as  Kings  College.  The  in- 
stitution was  inaugurated,  and  the  first  students 
were  admitted,  in  1843.  The  university  confers 
the  degrees  of  Master  of  Arts,  and  Bachelor  of 
\ its.  Connected  with  the  university  then'  is  a 
faculty  of  medicine  and  of  law.  a  school  of  civil 
engineering,  and  a  department  of  agriculture, 
each  department  conferring  the  usual  degrees. 
The  Cniversity  College  of  Toronto  was  original- 
ly a  part,  of  the  university  ;  but  was  separated 
from  it  in  1853.  By  this  act,  the  university  be- 
came ih-  examining  boly.  al-o  conferring  de- 
grees in  arts,  law,  and  dicine  ;  and  the  college 

was  constituted  a  teaching  institution  for  the 
faculty  of  arts.  The  c se  of  instruction  pre- 
scribed by  the  university  has  been  adopted  by 
the  college,  and  its  lectures  are  given  on  the  sub- 
jects appointed  for  candid; 
B.  A.,  or  for  the  diplom 
and  agriculture.  The  Ui 
uieler  the  control  of  the  A\ 
Church.  It  was  opened  ; 
.  m  L836,  and  recei 
powers,  in  L841,  and  its  pn  Bern  m  me.  I 
faculty  of  arts,  a  scientific  department,  a 

theology.     It  confers  the  usual   degrees 


faculty.  The  Cobourg  Collegiate  School  serves 
as  a  preparatory  department  for  the  university. 
Queen's  University  and  College,  in  Kingston, 
was  established  by  an  act  of  the  legislature  of 
Upper  Canada,  in  1840,  as  the  University  of 
Kingston.  This  act  was  disallowed;  and,  in 
1841,  the  queen  issued  her  letters  patent,  incor- 
porating the  institution.  The  first  session  was 
opened  in  1842,  with  11  students.  A  faculty  of 
medicine  was  organized  in  1854, but  became  a 
separate  school  in  1800,  under  the  name  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons.  It 
has  its  seat  in  Kingston,  and  is  connected  with 
the  university.  The  faculty  of  law  which  was 
opened  in  1861,  was  discontinued  in  1803.  Since 
the  opening  of  the  college,  871  students  have 
been  enrolled,  and  520  degrees  have  been  con- 
ferred. The  university  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church.  Trinity  College  was 
established  by  an  act  of  the  legislature  in  1851, 
and  was  opened  the  same  year.  The  Cniversity 
of  Trinity  College  was  established  by  a  royal 
charter  in  1852,  and  was  empowered  to  confer 
degrees  in  di\  inily.  arts,  law,  and  medicine.  Ot- 
tawa ( 'ollege,  in  Ottawa,  was  incorporated,  and 
empowered  to  grant  university  degrees,  in  1800. 
It  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Oblate  Fathers 
of  .Mary  Immaculate.  Albert  University,  in 
Belleville,  was  incorporated  in  L857,as  Belleville 
Seminary,  by  t lie  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
It  received  limited  university  powers  in  L866, 
and  full  powers,  in  1871.  It  has  faculties  of  arts, 
law,  music,  tl logy,  and  engineering,  and  a  de- 


tor 

thedegt 

se  of 

of  Victo 
,n  Metl 

idist 

boll, 

tion  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  the  blind,  for 
orphans,  and  for  vagrants  and  young  criminals 

are  also  provided.  The  number  of  Sunday-scl Is, 

in  1874.  was  about  3,500,  with  197.000  scholars 
and  22.700  teachers.  —  See  Marling,  Canada 
Educational  Yearbook  and  Directory  for  1876; 
Lovell's  Gazetteer  of  British  Worth  America, 
(1873);  Chauveau  (formerly  minister  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  province  of  Quebec),  in  Schmid's  En- 
cychpadie,  art.  Canada  (2d  edit.,  1870). 

ORAL  INSTRUCTION  isatechnical  term 
in  use  ill  the  common  schools  of  the  United 
States  in  denote  instruction,  without  text  books, 
in  the  nature  and  uses  of  common  objects,  and 
also  in  the  elements  of  natural  science.  In  a 
certain  sense. all  instruction  given  by  the  teacher 
in  the  classro ,  cither  to  supplenienf  the  text- 
book, or  by  way  of  general  explanation,  may  be 
said  to  be  oral ;  and,  considered  in  this  sense,  it, 
belongs  to  every  subject  taught.  Hut  oral  instruc- 
tion, as  it  appears  in  courses  of  study,  is  limited 
to  a  distinct  channel  of  teaching,  and,  therefore. 
is  not    to   be  confounded    with' general  class  in- 


■ach    have  benefited  by  what 


object  teach- 


(IKAI.    IXSTIirCTION 


i;c,<» 


ing.  Tt  has  to  do,  moreover,  with  elementary 
knowledge,  and  has  been  gradually  narrowed  to 
instruction  in  natural  science.  As  might  be  gath- 
ered from  the  word  oral,  its  leading  or  cardinal 
idea  is  instruction  without   ..  I  xt-book.    The 

teacher  is  in  the  placeoi  thel k.  Theinforma- 

tion  given  flows  entirelj  froml and  the  skill 

with  which  he  imjKirts  this,  is  the  measure  of  his 
success.  Closely  allied  ill  importance  to  the  fore- 
gtmig.  is  the  principle  that  the  instruction  shall 
be  familiar.  In  its  methods,  it  must  approach 
closely  those  that  are  adopted  in  an  intelligent 
family  circle ;  it  must  emulate  the  kindliness, 
patience,  and  watchfulness  of  a  parent,  or  of 
;i  deeply  interested  friend.  With  a  clear  idea  as 
to  the  kind  and  amount  of  instruction  to  be 
given  at  each  lesson,  it  must  avoid  mere  amuse- 
ment and  puerilities,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
danger  of  a  mechanical  and  hard  method,  on  the 
other.  The  test  of  such  familiar  instruction  is 
the  interest  which  the  teacher  creates  and  main- 
tains; the  want  of  life  and  animation  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils  is  an  unfailing  measure  of  the 
teacher's  short-coming.  !!ut  instruction  to  be 
familiar  must  be  fertile  in  illustration.  In  no 
part  of  the  teacher's  work  is  there  greater  need 
of  versatility.  It  is  in  this  that  the  vast  advan- 
tage of  oral  teaching  over  that  which  depends  on 
the  text-book  is  apparent.  Pliancy,  variety,  suit- 
ableness  to  the  particular  wants  of  certain  pupils. 
or  of  the  class  as  a  whole,  simple  familiar  allu- 
sions and  illustrations,  all  come  into  play.  If  ex- 
periments are  necessary,  they  should  be  always  of 
the  simplest  kind, and  with  the  commonest  mate- 
rials, such  as  nearly  every  child  can  obtain,  if  he 
can  be  induced  to  imitate  the  experiments.  So  far 
as  objects  are  needed,  those  that  are  easily  obtain- 
able are  to  be  preferred.  The  approach  to  the 
pupil's  mind  through  his  senses  is  carefully  to  be 
kept  open;  most  constantly  of  all.  the  avenue  of 
sight,  although,  of  course,  the  other  senses  are 
not  to  be  neglected.  As  a  natural  result  of  this 
familiar  instruction,  the  interest  of  the  pupils 
will  manifest  itself  in  inquiries,  and  especially  in 
a  desire  to  communicate  the  glimmerings  of  their 
own  knowledge.  This  will  render  the  exercise  still 
more  familiar,  break  down  the  barrier  of  reserve 
on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  stimulate  observation 
and  thought  throughout  the  class,  and  react  on 
the  mind  of  the  teacher,  compelling  perhaps  new 
illustrations,  a  more  carefully  considered  state- 
ment, or  fresh  investigation  outside  of  school. 
From  what  has  been  stated,  it  will  be  seen  that 
•oral  instruction  is  widely  separated  from  lectur- 
ing. The  children  are  brought  immediately  in 
•contact  with  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  by  means 
of  skillful  questioning  on  his  part,  by  requiring 
from  them  connected  statements,  and  by  stimulat- 
ing them  with  his  approval  when  a  happy  answer 
or  statement  has  been  made.  This  method  never 
loses  sightof  class  instruction. and, therefore,  can- 
not be  carried  on  without  the  assistance  of  the 
class.  Nor  is  it  a  recitation  in  the  generally  received 
acceptation  of  the  word.  There  is  no  lesson  to 
"be  learned  in  the  sense  implied  by  a  recitation, 
nor  any  to  be  recited.    The  memory  is  of  course 


|  taxed,  but  it  is  not  taxed  by  any  lesson  to  be 
committed  as  a  task.  The  measure  of  the  pupil's 
interest  is  the  measure  of  his  acquisition.  What- 
ever he  learns  is  in  nosense  compulsory.  Skillful 
reviewing  is.  indeed,  used  to  test  the  hold  that  the 
oral  instruction  has  kept  on  the  pupil,  and  to 
supplement  what  has  been  imparted,  oy  new  or 
more  lively  illustration.  But  repetition,  in  a 
mechanical  or  rote  sense,  as  understood  to  be  an 
underlying  principle  in  text-book  instruction,  is 

!  not  used  in  oral  instruction.  The  sul  tjects  to  whi  it, 
oral  instruction,  as  a  special  method,  is  usually 
confined,  are  embraced,  under  the  head  of  natural 
science.     While  it  does    not  aim  to  make   the 

|  instruction  in  these  subjects  scientific,  it  does 
aim  to  impart  such  instruction  in  a  methodical 
way,  and  with  the  most  careful  accuracy.  Wher- 
ever classifieai is  necessary,  such  classifica- 
tion, naturally,  becomes  more  or  less  scientific. 
Whenever  definitions  are  necessary,  they  must 
approach  scientific  accuracy.  Hut  the  scientific 
nomenclature,  except  in  those  cases  in  which  it 
has  passed  into  common  use.  is  carefully  avoided. 
Latin  or  Greek  terms,  therefore,  being  burden- 
some to  the  young,  however  instructive  to  the 
adult,  are  generally  to  be  discarded,  and  familiar  or 
common  names  to  be  used.  As  a  thorough 
scientific  classification  is  not  the  object  of  oral 
instruction,  neither  does  it  endeavor  to  make  the 
treatment  of  the  various  subjects  exhaustive.  It 
has  done   much  of  its  true  work   when    it  has 


idea  of  the  simpler  elements  of  the  science,  to 
which  the  instruction  has  been  confined.  It  has 
done  its  full  work  when,  in  addition  to  this.it  has 
accustomed  the  pupil  to  express,  in  his  own 
language,  what  he  has  learned  and  retained, 
without  the  painful  halting  and  poverty  of 
language  so  often  manifest  in  the  class  room. 
With  some  approach  to  scientific  accuracy,  oral 
instruction  may  be  defined  as  the  union  of  eon- 
ceptive  and  objective  training.  It  does  not  dis- 
card objective  illustration,  nor  does  it  depend 
entirely  on  the  development  of  perception  to 
furnish  new  ideas.  It  proceeds  on  the  principle, 
that,  in  the  mind  of  every  healthy  child  of  eight 
years  of  age,  there  is  a  vast  number  of  tolerably 
distinct  conceptions,  obtained  through  the 
senses,  as  well  as  from  conversation,  from  read- 
ing, from  home  instruction,  and  from  play;  that 
these  conceptions  are  particularly  abundant  in 
relation  to  natural  objects;  and  that  it  is  the  of- 
fice of  the  oral  instructor  to  recognize  their  exist- 
ence by  using  them  to  form  more  complex  ideas, 
or  as  the  nucleuses  around  which  to  arrange  the 
new  ideas  imparted  during  instruction.  As  to 
the  age  when  this  instruction  should  be  given,  as 
well  as  its  importance,  the  following  words  of 
President  Porter,  in  the  Human  Intellect,  may 
be  cited.  "The  studies  which  should  be  first 
pursued  are  those  which  require  and  discipline 
the  powers  of  observation  and  acquisition, 
and  which  involve  imagination  and  memory,  in 


contrast  with  those  which  demand  severe  efforts 
and  trained  habits  of  thought.  Inasmuch  also  as 
materia]  objects  are  apprehended  and   mastered 


early  life  with  far  greater  ease  and 
than  the  acts  and  states  of  the  spirit,  objective 
and  material  studies  should  have  almost  the  ex- 
clusive precedence.  The  capacity  of  exact  and 
discriminating  perception,  and  of  clear  and  re- 
tentive memory,  should  be  developed  as  largely 
as  possible.  The  imagination  in  all  its  forms 
should  be  directed  and  elevated — we  do  not  say 
stimulated,  because  in  the  case  of  most  children, 
its  activity  is  never-tiring,  whether  they  be  at 
study,  work,  or  play.  We  do  not  say,  cultivate 
perception,  memory  and  fancy,  to  the  exclusion 
or  repression  of  thought,  for  this  is  impossible. 
These  powers,  if  exercised  by  human  beings,  must 
be  interpenetrated  by  thought.  If  wisely  culti- 
vated by  studies  properly  arranged,  they  will  neces- 
sarily involve  discrimination,  comparison,  and 
explanation.  To  teach  pure  observation,  or  the 
mastery  of  objects  or  words,  without  classifica- 
tion and  interpretation,  is  to  be  ignorant  even 
to  simple  stupidity."  Further  on,  the  same  author, 
in  speaking  of  the  various  studies  to  be  prose- 
cuted in  childhood  says  -Natural  history  in  all  its 
branches,  as  contrasted  with  the  sciences  of 
nature,  or  scientific  physics,  should  be  mastered 
with  the  objects  before  the  eye — flowers,  miner- 
als, shells,  birds,  and  beasts.  These  studies  should 
all  be  mastered  in  the  spring-time  of  life,  when 
the  tastes  are  simple,  the  heart  is  fresh,  and  the 
eye  is  sharp  and  clear.  But  science  of  every  kind, 
whether  of  language,  of  nature,  of  the  soul,  or  of 
God,  as  science  should  not  be  prematurely 
taught."— See  How  to  Teach  (N.  Y.,  1874); 
Barnard,  Oral  Training  Lemons  in  Natural 
Science  (N.  Y.,  1871);  Youmans,  The  Culture 
Demanded  by  Modern  Life  (N.  Y..  L867); 
Burton,  The  Culture  of  the.  Observing  Faculties 
(N.  T.,  1865). 

ORDER,  in  school  management,  implies 
(1)  the  existence  of  a  judicious  system  of  regu- 
lations, and  (2)  a  uniform  and  habitual  observ- 
ance of  them  by  the  pupils.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  important  elements  of  a  good  school,  since 
it  enables  the  teacher  to  concentrate  all  its  edu- 
cative agencies  without  embarrassment  or  inter- 
ruption. The  characteristics  of  good  order  are 
(1)  attention  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  to  the 
legitimate  work  of  the  school,  (2)  obedience  and 
respect  to  teachers,  (3)  decorous  deportment — 
the  absence  of  tumult,  rudeness,  frivolity,  and 
frolicsome  actions,  calculated  to  disturb  the 
school,  and  (4)  propriety  and  exactness  in  the 
school  evolutions  and  drill.  Order  is  the  result 
of  skill  and  tact  on  the  part  of  the  teacher;  but 
it  cannot  be  fully  maintained  unless  he  is  vested 
with  suitable  authority,  so  as  to  be  able  to  cor- 
rect disorder,  as  soon  as  it  manifests  itself.  Gen- 
eral disorder  in  a  school  can  result  only  from 
bad  management,  indicating  incompetency  on 
the  pari  of  the  teacher.  "If  a  school  be  well  or- 
ganized", says  Wickersham,  "its  classes  well  ar- 
ratiged.  its  work  well  systematized;  if  pupils  be 
properly  employed  iu  study,  in  recitation,  in  ex- 


OEEGON 

ercise;  if  school-government  be  well  understood 
and  wisely  administered,  a  large  proportion  of 
the  offenses  which  now  occur  in  school  will  dis- 
appear."—  (See  Discipline,  and  Government.) 

ORDER  OF  STUDIES.  See  Course  op 
Instruction. 

OREGON,  one  of  the  Pacific  states  of  the 
American  Union,  originally  a  part  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  Oregon,  which  was  organized  in  1848, 
and  comprised  all  the  U.  S.  territory  west  of  the 
Rocky  mountains  and  north  of  the  parallel  of 
42°.  From  this,  the  territory  of  'Washington 
was  formed,  in  1853;  and,  in  18r>9.  Oregon  was 
admitted  into  the  Union,  as  a  state,  with  its 
present  limits.  Its  area  is  95,274  sq.  m.:  and  its 
population,  in  1870,  was  90,923,  of  whom  340 
were  colored  persons,  3,330  Chinese. 

Educational  History. —  As  early  as  1 850,  while 
Oregon  was  yet  a  territory,  itslaws  provided  tor 
the  establishment  of  public  schools;  but  the  want 
of  teachers,  and  the  unsettled  character  of  the 
population,  made  it  difficult  to  organize  any  ef- 
fective system.  According  to  the  census  of  1850, 
there  were  in  the  territory  32  academies;  a  flour- 
ishing institute  belonging  to  the  .Methodists,  near 
Salem;  and  two  female  seminaries  at  Oregon 
City.  A  general  recommendation  in  behalf  of 
education  was  made  by  the  first  constitution  of 
the  state,  adopted  in  1859;  and  certain  specified 
sources  of  revenue  were  assigned  for  the  produc- 
tion of  a  permanent  school  fund.  No  state  super- 
intendent or  board  of  education  was.  however, 
created,  the  governor  being  required  to  include 
the  care  of  the  schools  with  his  other  duties:  but 
one  of  the  section-  provided  that,  after  five  y<  are, 
it  should  be  competent  for  the  legislature  to  pro- 
vide for  tin-  election  of  a  superintendent.  In  1872, 
a  general  school  law  was  passed,  which  created 
the  office  of  state  superintendent  of  public  in- 
struction, and  provided  for  the  election  of  county 
superintendents  and  district  directors.  This  law 
is  still  in  force.  The  first  superintendent  was 
Sylvester  C.  Simpson,  appointed,  ad  interim,}^ 
the  governor,  hi  1873  ;  and,  in  18^4,  L.  L.  Bow- 
land  was  elected  to  succeed  him. 

School  System.— By  the  law  of  1872,  which 
went  into  effect  in  1873,  the  state  board  of 
education,  consisting  of  the  governor,  secretary 
of  state,  and  state  superintendent,  is  charged 
with  the  care  of  the  public  schools.  It  holds  semi- 
annual meetings,  at  which  it  examines  teachers, 
prescribes  a  course  of  study  for  the  public  schools, 
designates  the  text-books  to  be  used,  and  lays 
down  general  rules  for  the  management  of  the 
schools.  The  diplomas  issued  by  the  board  are 
of  two  kinds,  life  and  state — the  latter  valid  for 
6  years  throughout  the  state.  It  also  issues  first 
and  second  grade  certificates,  valid  for  2  years, 
and  (i  months,  respectively.  The  state  super- 
intendent if  pub  lie  instruction  is  elected  by  the 
people  for  4  years,  and  is,  ex  officio,  secretary  of 
the  board  of  education,  lie  exercises  a  general 
supervision  over  the  public  schools  and  over 
subordinate  officers;  holds  annually,  at  the  cap- 
|  ital,  a  state  teachers'  institute,  and  local  insti- 
tutes in  the  judicial  districts;  and  makes  a  report 


to  the  legislature  once  in  2  years.  County  super- 
intendents are  elected  biennially.  Their  duties 
are  to  divide  their  counties  into  school-districts; 
to  establish  new  districts  when  directed  by  a 
majority  of  the  legal  voters:  to  apportion  the 
school  fund  ;  to  take  charge  of  the  school  lands. 
selecting  in  each  township  the  16th  and  36th 
sections  ;  and  to  examine  teachers,  granting  cer- 
tificates graduated  according  to  qualifications. 
They  are,  also,  required  to  visit  the  schools  under 
their  jurisdiction,  and  to  make  annual  reports  to 
the  state  superintendent.  Three  i/is/rict  directors 
are  elected,  whose  terms  of  office  are  3  years,  one 
director  being  chosen  annually  in  each  district. 
A  district  clerk,  also,  is  annually  elected,  who 
acts  as  the  executive  officer  of  the  board  of 
directors.  The  permanent  school  fund  consists 
of  the  proceeds  of  all  lands  granted  to  the  state 
for  educational  purposes,  except  university  lands; 
all  money  accruing  to  the  state  by  escheat  and 
forfeiture;  all  money  for  exemption  from  military 
services;  all  gifts,  devises,  and  bequests  made  by 
any  person  to  the  state  for  common-school  pur- 
poses; all  the  proceeds  of  the  lands  granted  to 
the  state  by  Congress,  in  1841;  and  5  per  cent 
of  the  proceeds  of  the  land  to  which  the  state 
was  entitled  on  her  admission  into  the  Union. 
In  1875,  this  fund,  derived  mainly  from  the  sale 
or  rent  of  the  500,000  acres  of  lands  given  by  the 
general  government,  amounted  to  $564,000,  be- 
sides about  $750,000  not  then  available.  The  in- 
come from  this  was,  at  that  time,  $56,400.  The 
university  land  grant  of  0(1,080  acres  has,  thus 
far.  yielded  about  $100,000.  The  school  revenue 
is  further  increased  annually  by  a  state  3  mill 
tax,  by  county  and  district  taxes,  by  rate-bills, 
and  by  voluntary  contributions.  The  legal  school 
age  is  from  I  to  20  years;  the  school  year,  60 
days;  the  school  week.  5  days.  The  course  of 
study  comprises  orthography,  reading,  writing, 
mental  and  practical  arithmetic,  English  gram- 
mar, geography,  and  modern  history.  In  addition 
to  these  branches,  which  arc  obligatory,  others 
may  be  taught,  up  to,  but  not  including,  training 
for  college.  In  one  of  the  schools,  in  every  dis- 
trict of  not  less  than  10,000  inhabitants,  instruc- 
tion is  directed  to  be  given  in  the  German  lan- 
guage, if  applied  for  by  100  voters. 

Educational  Condition. — The  whole  number 
of  schools  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was  594,  of 
which  4  were  high  schools,  31  were  graded 
schools,  and  550,  ungraded.  The  income  was  as 
follows:  from  state  tax.  $30,273;  from  interest 
on  the  permanent  fund,  $56,400;  total,  $86,673 
Other  items  of  school  statistics  are  the  following: 
Number  of  children  of  school  age: 

males 23,2(55 

females....  21,396 


11,  Wl 


ales. 


females  .  457 

Total 953 

Average  duration  of  school,  in  days 105J 

Average  monthly  salary  of  male  teachers $51.45 

"  "  "       "female      "       $45.50 

Estimated  value  of  school  property $350,000 


>N  671 

Ncyrmal  Instruction. — Provision  is  made  for 
the  professional  education  of  teachers  by  the 
Pacific  University.  Willamette  University,  and 
McMinnville  College.  In  the  first,  a  course  of  2 
years  is  provided,  admission  to  which  is  granted 
after  a  satisfactory  examination  is  passed  in 
arithmetic,  penmanship,  reading,  spelling.  En- 
glish grammar,  geography,  the  history  of  the 
United  States,  and  elementary  algebra.  A 
limited  number  of  teachers' institutes  have  been 
held  since  the  organization  of  the  public-school 
system.  The  State  Teachers'  Institute  held  a 
meeting  at  Salem,  in  1875. 

Secondary  Instruction. — Of  the  4  high  schools 
existing  in  1874,  the  most  important  is  that  at 
Portland.  Besides  giving  instruction  in  all  the 
higher  English  branches,  it  affords  opportunities 
for  the  study  of  Latin,  Greek,  French,  and 
German.  Its  course  of  study  extends  over  3 
years.  Five  private  schools  and  academies  exist 
in  the  state,  and  there  are  preparatory  classes. 
connected  with  nearly  all  of  the  colleges.  The 
commercial  department  of  Willamette  I  'ni versify 
furnishes  instruction  to  between  60  and  70  stu- 
dents in  a  single  year's  course,  in  this  respect 
taking  the  place  of  the  ordinary  business  college. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — A 
few  institutions  of  this  class  exist,  the  prin- 
cipal being  the  Portland  Academy  and  Female 
Seminary  (Methodist  Episcopal),  St.  Mary's 
Academy  for  Young  Ladies  (Roman  Catholic), 
and  the  Bishop  Scott  Grammar  and  Divinity 
School  (Episcopal).  In  all  these,  the  grade  of 
instruction  is  secondary,  or  above;  in  one,  the 
course  extending  as  far  as  the  third  year  of  the 

college  curriculum.  The  Chinese  Mission  Sel 1 

of  Portland  was  established  by  the  Baptists,  in 
1874.  While  imparting  religious  instruction,  it 
also  supports  an  evening  school,  in  which  music 
and  the  ordinary  branches  of  an  English  edu- 
cation are  taught. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  colleges  and  uni- 
versities arc  as  follows: 


NAME 

Location 

i,,„m'l' 
ed 

nation 

Christian  College 

Corvallis  College 

McJImuville     College...  . 

OregonStati  Univ.  reitj 
Pari  tie  1'inv  and  Tualatin 

Philomath  College! "".'.'.! 

Willamette  1  nivei-sity.... 

Monmouth 
Corvallis 
McMinnville 
Eugene  City 
Forest  Grove 

Philomath 
Salem 

ISI',5 

lHf.K 
1872 
1854 

18GB 
1853 

Christian 
M.  K)i.  S. 
llajitist 
N,  n-seot 

D  Breth 
M.  Epis. 

Of  the  above,  the  Oregon  State  University, 
though  founded  in  1872,  had  not,  up  to  1875, 
been  opened;  $25,000  yet  remaining  to  be  raised 
by  the  county,  in  order  to  entitle  the  regents  to 
the  use  of  the  660,000  already  raised.  In  all 
the  other  institutions  enumerated  in  the  table, 
both  sexes  are  admitted.  St.  Helen's  Hall.  Port- 
land, is  the  only  institution  in  the  state  for  the 
higher  education  of  women  exclusively.  The 
regular  course  of  study  occupies  5  years,  but 
academic  degrees  are  not  conferred. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — 
Corvallis  State    Agricultural    College    (q.  v.), 


072 


ORPHAN    ASYLUMS 


♦hough  founded  by  the  Methodists,  has  received 
the  congressional  grant  of  90,000  acres,  and  is 
the  only  institution  in  the  state  in  which  in- 
struction in  agriculture  is  given.  Though  still 
under  sectarian  control,  it  receives  annually  from 
the  state  an  appropriation  of  $5,000.  There  is, 
also,  a  scientific  department  and  a  medical  de- 
partment in  Willamette  University. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Institution  for  the 
Deaf  and  Dumb,  at  Salem,  was  founded  in  L870, 
by  an  annual  appropriation  of  §2.000  for2years. 
In  1873,  a  further  appropriation  of  $4,500  was 
made,  which  was  increased,  in  1874,  to  $5,000. 
It  had,  iu  1875,  3  instructors,  and  an  average  of 
22  pupils.  The  Oregon  School  for  the  Education 
of  the  Blind  was  founded  at  Salem,  in  1*72.  by 
an  appropriation  of  $4,000.  It  was  opened  in 
1873  with  one  instructor  and  7  pupils.  The  fol- 
lowing year,  the  legislature  authorized  an  an- 
nual appropriation  of  $2,000  for  its  support. 
In  addition  to  instruction  in  the  elementary 
branches  which  are  usually  taught  in  common 
schools,  special  instruction  is  given  in  pin-type 
printing,  music  (vocal  and  instrumental),  plain 
sewing,  and  fancy  work. 

ORPHAN  ASYLUMS,  orOrphanHouses, 
are  institutions  in  which  orphans  are  received 
and  educated.  Although  some  arrangements  for 
tin'  support  of  orphans  are  met  with  in  the 
history  of  ancient  Greece  and  Home.  and.  to  a 
much  greater  extent  among  the  Hebrews,  the 
establishment  of  special  institutions  for  their 
care  and  education  is  due  to  the  influence  of 
Christianity.  The  first  orphan  houses  (orphano- 
trnptiia)  appear  to  have  been  founded  in  the  time 
.if  Constantine  I.;  and  the  church  law  expressly 
placed  them  under  the  control  of  the  clergy.  In  the 
1  1th  century,  France  had  a  confraternity  whose 
chief  object  was  the  support  of  orphans.  The 
number  of  special  orphan  institutions  remained, 
however,  comparatively  small,  until  A.ll.  Francke 
(q.  v.)  excited  a  more  general  interest  in  their 
behalf,  and  gave  a  powerful  impulse  to  their  more 
rapid  progress.  Among  the  rulers  of  Europe, 
none  gained  so  great  a  distinction  for  a  kindly 
and  active  promotion  of  orphan  education  as  the 
empress  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  — The  num- 
ber of  orphan  asylums  in  the  United  States  is 
very  large,  nearly  every  state  being  represented 
in  the  list.  Girard  College,  in  Philadelphia,  is, 
in  every  respect,  one  of  the  foremost  orphan 
houses  of  the  world.  Its  founder,  Stephen  < Gi- 
rard (born  in  Bordeaux,  France,  in  1750;  died 
in  1831,  in  Philadelphia),  left  by  his  last  will 
$2,000,000  for  the  erection  of  an  institution  in 
which  should  be  maintained  and  educated  as  many 
white  male  orphans  as  might  be  in  need  of  such 
support.    It  was  opened  in  1848,  with  a  class  of 

100  orphans,  and,  in  1875,  contained  550  ;  but, 
in  that  year,  the  erection  of  additional  buildings 
had  been  resolved  upon.  TI13  permanent  income 
from  the  estate  will  support  about  1,050  orphans 
The  large  majority  of  orphan  houses,  both  in  the 

Pnitcd  States  and  in  Europe,  are  charitable  in- 
stitutions, supported  by  endowments  and  volun- 
tary contributions.    Quite  a  number  are  main- 


ORTHOGRAPHY 

tained  and  controlled  by  each  particular  religious 
denomination,  a  noble  rivalry  existing  among 
the  churches  of  the  civilized  world,  to  provide  in 
an  efficient  manner  for  their  own  orphans.  ( inly 
quite  recently  have  state  and  municipal  govern- 
ments begun  to  recognize  the  care  of  orphans 
as  a  duty,  and  to  make  appropriations  for  their 
education.  Thus,  there  were,  in  1874.  in  the 
United  States,  21  soldiers'  and  sailors'  orphans' 
homes,  chiefly  maintained  by  state  appropria- 
tions.— It  is  natural  to  expect  that,  in  a  great 
many  orphan  houses,  the  instruction  imparted 
would  be  inferior  to  that  which  children  under 
the  care  of  their  parents  usually  receive  at  school 
and  at  home.  In  poorly  endowed  schools,  the 
number  of  inmates  is  too  large  in  proportion  to 
that  of  the  instructors  and  other  employes;  and, 
consequently,  sufficient  attention  cannot  be  be- 
stowed upon  individual  wants.  It  has  been  espe- 
cially noticed  that  the  too  strict  uniformity  to 
which  orphan  children  are  usually  subjected  in 
their  daily  occupations,  produces  a  lack  of  versa- 
tility and  sprightHness,  which,  when  they  are  dis- 
missed from  the  asylums,  prejudices  employers 
against  them.  The  hygienic  condition  of  these  in- 
stitutions has  also  been  found,  in  many  instances, 
to  lie  very  unsatisfactory.  As  many  orphans  are 
the  offspring  of  depraved  parents,  there  is  great 
danger  from  the  admission  of  children  of  vicious 
habits.  It  has,  therefore,  been  proposed  to  bring 
together  only  a  small  number  of  orphans  (from 
lit  to  20)  into  a  kind  of  family,  and  thus  to  fur- 
nish the  best  attainable  substitute  for  a  good 
home  education.  Others  have  recommended  that 
orphans  should  be  committed,  for  their  educa- 
tion, to  private  families  rather  than  to  institu- 
tions. Experience,  however,  has  shown  that  even 
these  methods  of  providing  for  orphans  are  by 
no  means  devoid  of  danger.  A  full  and  inter- 
esting account,  of  the  orphan  asylums  in  the 
United  States  is  given  in  No.  C>  of  the  (  Hrcidars 
of  Lift  intuition  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion, containing  Statement*  re/a/iiir/  to  Reform- 
atory, Charitable,  ami  Industrial  Schools  for  the 

Young  (Washington.  1875).  The  early  history 
of  orphan  houses  is  fully  treated  of  by  De  Ge- 
rando,  in  his  work  De  la  Bienfaisance  Pub- 
iique.  (See  also  Foundling  Asylums,  Industrial, 
Schools,  and  Reform  Schools.) 

ORTHOGRAPHY,  as  a  science,  treats  of 
the  representation  of  spoken  language  by  visible 
signs;  it  includes  a  systematic  history  of  such 
signs,  and  a  discussion  of  the  principles  accord- 
ing to  which  they  should  be  made   and   used. 

Picture  writing  is  first  used  ;  pictures  of  objects 
are  used  as  signs  of  the  names  of  the  objects, 
then  of  initial  syllables  in  such  names,  and  final- 
ly of  elementary  sounds.  The  pictures,  meantime, 
are  abbreviated  and  modified  to  what  we  call 
letters.  The  essential  principle  of  alphabetic 
writing  is  that  a  perfect  alphabet  must  have  one 
character  for  each  elementary  sound  in  the  lan- 
guage, and  only  one.  Subordinate  rules  are,  that 
the  characters  should  be  easy  to  write  and  to 
distinguish. and  shapely  ;  like  sounds  should  have 
like  signs,  and  similar  series  of  sounds   should 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


Lave  analogous  sets  of  signs ;  each  character 
should  be  so  shaped  as  to  suggest,  to  si. me  extent, 
the  position  of   the  organs  of  speech  in  form- 


A„„bi<i, 
Anqlo-S 


rthography  (Phila.,  1858)  j  March's 
m  Grammar  (N.Y.,  1870) ;  and  the 
;lo-Saxon,  and  English,  the  Stdbtt 


values.  No  nation  has  ever  made  any  near  ap- 
proach to  a  perfect  alphabet.  The  growth  from 
picture  writing  goes  on  without  much  guidance 
from  ideas:  and  all  the  qualities  which  are  mere- 
ly matters  of  history  and  symmetry,  are  of  little 
consequence  in  comparison  with  the  essential 
principle  of  phonetic  convenience.  A  good  his- 
torical sketch  of  writing  is  to  be  found  in  Whit- 
ney's Language  and  the  Study  of  Language 
{S.^-  York.  L867);  see  also  Steinthal's  Die  Eat- 
wichelung  der  Schrift  Berlin,  1852).  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  language  was  reduced  to  writing  in  Ro- 
man letters  by  the  missionaries,  who  converted  the 
people  to  Christianity, ainl  gave  them  a  pretty  good 
alphabet.  The  letters  were  used  in  their  Roman 
values,  or  nearly  so,  and  new  characters  were 
added  for  the  sounds  of  a  in  fut.th  in  tln-ir.  (»tt) 
th  in  thine,  and.  w.  After  the  Norman  conquest, 
chaos  came  again  with  Anglo-Saxon,  or  rather 
English,  spelling.  A  large  part  of  the  words  of 
each  race  of  the  new  people  w.re  difficult  for 
the  other  to  pronounce.  The  scholars  inclined 
to  spell  in  the  old  book  fashion:  but  the  Normans 
dropped  the  special  Anglo-Saxon  discriminations, 
■and  left  many  of  their  own  letters  standing  which 
were  not  pronounced  by  the  people;  and  many 
letters  were  inserted  to  no  purpose  in  ill-directed 

i  the  whole  gamut,  so 
to  speak,  of  the  vowel  sounds.  The  close  vowels 
changed  under  the  accent  into  diphthongs  by 
taking  an  a  sound  before  them.  The  old  i  as  in 
machine  has  thus  changed  to  ai,  as  in  mine;  u 
as  in  rule  has  given  rise  to  an,  as  in  house.  The 
open  and  mixed  vowels  have  become  closer:  a,  as 
in  far,  changing  to  a  (i.  e.,  e)  va.fa.te  or  wall,  or  to 
o  in  home  | A-S.  hdmy,  e  as  in  ihey,  changing  to  e 
(i.e.,  ()in  me;  oas  in  foe.  changing  to  <«<(/.<■.,  u)  as 
in  moon  (A-S.  mdna).  Single  characters  have  thus 
come  to  stand  for  diphthongs,  and  the  long  and 
short  sounds,  which  go  in  pairs  in  other  languages, 
are  denoted  in  ours  by  different  characters,  and 
come  from  different  si  inn  vs.  Intern  tediate  between 
the  old  a  (far)  and  e  (met)  has  become  established 
a  in  fit.  fare;  between  a  (/ar).and  o(note),oin 
■not  and  nor,  and  the  sounds  of  u  in  but,  burn. 
have  also  arisen.  All  these  have  no  special  signs. 
Four  consonants  sh,  zh,  th,  <lh  are  in  the  same 
condition.  The  people  have  long  since  ceased  to 
feel  any  necessity  for  keeping  sounds  and  signs 
together.  Changes  go  on  without  auy  record  in 
the  writing:  etymologists  slip  in  new  silent  let- 
ters, on  the  ground  of  imaginary  derivations;  old 
monsters,  fertile  in  the  popular  fancy,  propagate 
themselves  in  the  congenial  environment ;  and. 
altogether,  we  have  attained  the  worst  alphabet- 
ical spelling  in  the  world.  For  the  history  of  all 
/these  changes,  see  Ellis's  History  of  English 
Pronunciation  (London,  1^67);  Sweet's  History 
of  English  Sounds  (London,  1874);  Haldemax's 


(trtliogiapliy.  in  a  narrow,  i   -.-n-,  .  i,  the  art  of 

language.  It  first  demands  the  attention  of  teach- 
ers as  the  art  of  inculcating  the  sp  Uingoi   English 

according  to  the  dictionaries  of  our  langui  _■  In 
early  times,  there  was  no  standard  English  spell- 
ing. The  printers  added  or  subtracted  letters  for 
convenience  of  spacing ;  the  same  word  will  be 
found  spelt  several  different  ways  on  the  same 
page.  Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary  (1755)  was  the 
first  recognized  standard.  The  common  way  of 
teaching  spelling,  is  to  teach  from  a  spelling-book 
the  form  and  name  of  each  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet;  then  to  practice  on  combinations 
of  the  letters  in  pairs,  naming  each  letter  and 
then  uttering  the  sound  of  the  combination  ; 
then  to  practice  in  the  .same  way  on  combinations 
of  three  letters  :  then  on  words  of  two  syllables, 
and  so  on.  These  syllables  and.  words  are  selected 
with  care  ;  similar  sounds  are  grouped  together, 
and  the  groups  arranged  in  a  progressive  order 
of  difficulty  in  spelling-books.  '1  he  first  steps 
of  this  process  maybe  made  easier  by  using  blocks 
with  the  letters  on  them  for  the  learner  to  name 
and  arrange  into  syllables;  by  setting  him  to 
write  the  letters  on  the  slate,  the  paper,  or  on  the 
blackboard;  by  adding  pictures  of  the  objects  the 
names  of  which  are  spelt;  or  by  the  use  of  rhymes, 
and  other  contrivances  of  artificial  memory.  An- 
other method  is  to  begin  with  words  as  wholes, 
and,  after  some  ]  .rogress  has  been  made  in  reading 
in  that  way,  to  direct  attention  to  the  separate 
letters,  their  names,  and  sounds  (u-onl  method) 
Teachers  proceeding  in  this  way  often  name  the 
letters  by  the  sounds  which  they  have  in  the  word 
to  be  spelt,  and  not  by  their  proper  names.  This  is 
sometimes  called  the  jilmuir  methml.  Scholars  are 
led  on  to  more  difficult  words.  Text-books  of  hard 
words,  more  or  less  classified,  with  rides  for  the 
most  puzzliug  groups,  are  prepared,  and  blanks 
for  written  exercises  in  spelling.  Some  little  help 
may  be  gained  by  rides,  and  mnemonic  contriv- 
ances ;  but  the  standard  spelling  of  our  language 
is  so  irregular,  that  continual  practice  for  many 
years  is  necessary  to  make  any  approach  to  the 
mastery  of  it.  Among  the  most  efficient  helps 
to  the  teacher  is  the  spelling  match,  for  which 
sides  are  chosen  which  contend  for  the  victory. 
It  should  be  noted  that  continual  practice  in  read- 
ing and  writing  is  needed,  or  training  to  spell 
aloud  in  ckiss  will  not  save  from  mistakes  in 
writing.  Further,  the  most  important  w .  id  Is  f.  >r 
each  person  are  his  own  vocabulary, — the  words 
which  he  uses  in  his  own  writing.  Perfect  ac- 
curacy in  these  is  the  end  most  to  be  desired  in 
teaching.  If  this  habit  is  once  established,  un- 
usual words  will  be  looked  up,  when  the  writer 
has  occasion  to  use  them.  With  all  aids  and  arts, 
good  spelling  is  one  of  the  rare  and  costly  accom- 
plishments ;  and,  naturally,  stress  is  laid  on  it  as 
the  sign  of  a  thoroughly  educated  person  out  of 
all  proportion  to  its  real  value.   It  is  made  prom- 


674 

inent  in  all  civil  set 
trance  examinations 
In  the  civil  service  ex 
of  1,972  failures  1,86 
inor.   But  it  is  said  that  the 


ORTHOGRAPHY 


ions  and  en- 
1  universities. 
England,  out 
ailed  in  spell- 
?nts  prepared 
by"the  prime  ministers  of  England  show  that  no 
one  of  them  could  have  passed  these  examina- 
tions in  spelling.  The  best  teachers  in  other 
respects  often  fail  in  spelling.  English  orthog- 
raphy is  the  opprobrium  of  English  scholarship, 
and  the  greatest,  hindrance  b>  education  and  to  the 
spread  of  our  language.  Our  children  spend  three 
years  in  learning  to  spell  a  little:  while  German 
children  get  further  in  a  twelve  month.  There  are 
about  5,500,0(10  illiterates  in  the  ("nitd  States. 
(See  articles  on  Illiteracy  and  Phonetics.) 
Millions  of  dollars  are  spent  every  year  in  printing 
silent  letters.  Earnest  efforts  are  now  making  for 
reform.  The  philological  associations  of  Eng- 
land and  America,  teachers'  associations,  state 
and  national,  in  England  and  America,  and  some 
state  legislatures,  have  committees  appointed  on 
the  subject.  Several  schemes  of  reform  have 
been  presented,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  those  of  A.J.  Ellis  and  I.  Pitman,  E.  Jones, 
A.  M.  Bell,  and  E.  Leigh.  Mr.  Bell  has  invented 
a  set  of  characters  wholly  unlike  our  present  let- 
ters, which  indicate  by  their  form  the  position 
of  the  organs  of  speech.  It  can  hardly  come  into 
speedy  use  in  common  1 ks.  Scholars  have  be- 
gun to  use  it  somewhat  in  scientific  treatises. 
{See  Bell,  Visible  Speech,  London.  L867.)  Mr. 
Pitman  has  proposed  an  alphabet  containing  10 
new  letters;  and  there  is  already  quite  a  body  of 
literature  in  that  alphabet.  I  le  publishes  a  /'//..- 
netic  Journal,  having  a  circulation  of  LO.OOO  cop- 
ies in  various  parts  of  the  world.  <  'harts  for  lect- 
urers, and  for  school  display,  and  other  meanE  of 
instruction  adapted  to  it.  are  at  hand.  1  »r.  E.  I  eigh 
has  combined  a  phonetic  print,  like  Pitman's, 
with  the  standard  spelling.  (See  Leigh,  Pro- 
iiDiniriini  Or//,,,,/,-'//,//!/,  St.  I.ouis.  1  sol.  ami  his 
later  publications  in  Xew  York.)  Elementary 
books  for  schools,  printed  according  to  his  33  stem, 
have  been  used  for  ten  years  in  St.  Louis.  Wash- 
ington. Xew  York,  Boston,  and  other  cities,  and 
are  said  to  save  much  of  the  time  usually  spent 
in  learning  to  read.  Editions  of  most  of  the 
elementary  books  (primers,  etc.)  published  in  the 
United  States  are  issued  in  Leigh's  print     (See 

Phonetics.)     Mr.  Ellis  and   Mr.  .1 s   propose 

systems  based  on  the  present  spelling,  using 
always  the  same  letters  for  each  sound  that  are 
now  oftenest  used  to  denote  it.  as  follows: 
(Mr.  Jones's  scheme)  a  as  in  at,  aa  {father), 
,11  [aid), '/"  [taught), b,c  [cat),ch  [cliip^,d,  e  [met), 
ee(eel)tf,g(go),h,  i  [in),  ie  (pie),  j,l,m,n,ng 
[sing),  0  [on),  oe  [foe),  oi  [oil), 00  [ooze),  ou  [out), 
p,  r,  s[sun),  sh  [ship),  1.  th  [their, thine), u [bun), 
ice  (hue),v,  w,  y,  2  [zeal).  This  scheme  is  de- 
fective in  giving  the  letters  different  values  in  com- 
bination from  those  which  the\    have  when  alone. 

and  in  representing  so  man;  elementary  sounds 
by  digraphs.  Besides,  it  does  not  serve  to  iiringour 
spelling  into  harmony  with  other  languages.  Its 
advantage  is,  that  it  can  be  set  up  from 


printer's  cases,  and  that  it  can  be  read  by  any  one 
who  can  read  the  old  spelling.  (See  A.  J.  Ellis, 
Early  English  Pronunciation,  London,  L867j 
E.  Joins,  A  Revision  of  English  Spelling  a  Na- 
tional Necessity,  London.  L875;  E.  11.  Burns, 
.  [nglo-Anu  ricanOrtJiography,  New  York,  187G). 
According  to  the  principles  laid  down  by  the 
American  Philological  Association,  by  the  In- 
ternational <  invention  for  the  Reform  of  English 
Orthography,  held  in  Philadelphia,  August,  1876, 
and  by  the  Spell  in;;  Reform  Association,  which  are 


should  be  directed  to  using  it  with  umtormity 
and  in  conformity  with  other  nations.  The  let- 
ter's now  used  in  nearly  their  Roman  sound  are 
a(far),b,c(k),d,e(met),f,g(go),h,i(picB, 
1.  m.  n,  o  (note),  p,  q,  r,  s  (so).  I.  u  (rude).  To 
these  it  is  agreed  to  add  r.  w,  y,z  withtheircom- 
inonest  English  power.  Three  new  short  vowels 
need  signs,  those  in  fat,  not.  but;  for  easy  intro- 
duction, these  should  be  slight  modifications  of  a, 
o,  a.  such  as  for  example  a,  o-.  u.  The  Romanic 
languages  have  heretofore  used  one  sign  for  a  short 
vowel  and  its  corresponding  long  sound,  adding 
a  diacritical  mark  when  great  precision  is  needed. 
This  would  be  acceptable  in  English  for  a  (ask, 
far),  a  (fat,  fare),  o  (obey,  note],  o-  (not.  nor), 
a  (full,  rude),  u  (but,  burn).  For  e  (let,  late) 
two  characters  are  needed,  a  variation  of  e  look- 
ing like  a  is  of  good  pr ise;  such  as,  for  example, 

1;  as  in  fate  ;  i  in  pick,  pique,  perhaps  may  stand. 
Eor  diphthongs  there  follow  ni  (by),  tin  (house), 
07  1  in  rise),  in  (music):  but  it  is  best  to  use  for  <d 
some  modification  of  i,  and  for  in  some  modifi- 
cation of  a.  such  as,  for  example,  [,  i(. 

The  consonants  s/i  (as  s  in  sugar),  zh  (as  s  in 
pleasure),  lli  (as  in  their  .  ,11,  (as  th  in  thine),  ng 
(as  in  sing),  and  perhaps  also  tsh  as  ch  in  church), 
,/://  las  ,/,/  in  judge)  call  for  single  signs;  but  the 
present  notation  will  answer  tolerably  well,  if  car- 
ried out  with  uniformity,  though  scholars  seek  to 
revive  the  old  signs  for  th  and  dh.  Thus  we  have 
described  a  complete  alphabet,  such  as  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  philologists  would  seem  to  call  for. 

A  first  step  for  teachers  who  favor  this  reform 
is  to  cease  to  use  the  old  names  of  the  letters 
which  do  not  contain  the  sounds  here  given  to  the 
letters,  and  call  them  by  names  having  those 
sounds;  e.  g.,  a  should  be  called  a(re)  ;  e  should 
be  named  as  sounded  in  met,  e  as  sounded  in  can. 
Then  drop  silent  letters,  and  finally  spell  all 
words  with  these  letters  uniformly,  according  to 


ml,,/  andLinguistic  Studies,  2d  Be N    ¥.}>, 

Proceedings  of  ffu  American  Philological  Asso- 
ciation, 1875,  1876;  A,/,/,;;*  to  the  American 
Philological  Association,  by  the  President,  V.  A. 
March  (Hartford,  L874);  8.S.  II  wihmw  .\i„i- 
ytic  Orthography  (Phila.,1858  :  Pro     di;  gs  of, 

ill,-  I„l.-,-„:,l„,  1,,,/  Cm,!-.  ,,!,,.„  forth'  Aii,.;„l„onl 


ll„-  S/ 


I  L876)  j  Pitman's  Phonetic  Journal  (Bath,  Eng.; 


OSKALOOSA    COLLEGE 


OWENS   COLLEGE 


OSKALOOSA    COLLEGE,    at    Oskaloosa,  I  sum  of  £211,000,  contributed    partly   for   spe 


Iowa,  founded  in  1856,  is  under  the  control  of 

the  Christian  den ination.    The  value  of  the 

buildings,  grounds,  and  apparatus  is  $50,000;  the 
amount  of  its  productive  funds,  $30,000.  It  com- 
prises a  preparatory  department,  a  collegiate  de- 
partment (with  a  classical  course  of  four  years 
and  a  Indies'  course  of  three  years  I,  a  Bible  depart- 
ment, and  a  commercial  department.  Facilities 
are  afforded  for  normal  instruction,  and  for  in- 
struction in  music,  painting,  and  drawing.  The 
cost  of  tuition  is  $30  a  year.  In  1874—5,  there 
were  6  instructors  and  200  students  (deducting 
repetitions);  namely,  irregular,  106;  collegiate, 
16  ;  preparatory,  .it':  liible  department.  II  ;'com- 
mercial,  17.  F.  M.  Bruner,  A.  M.,  is  the  pres- 
ident (1875). 

OTTEBBEIN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Wester- 


and  partly  for  general,  purposes.  In  ad- 
i  to  this,  Mr.  Beyer's  recent  legacy  will  prob- 
vieM  £100,000  more.  1'he  new  college  was 

■din  1*7.'!;  anil,  including  the  site  and  the 
ical  laboratory,  which  lias  room  for  more 
1(1(1    students,    it  cost  above  ,11  00.000,  and 


when  complt 


Afi 


llde 


upon  the  adjoining  buildings  of  the  medical 
school,  previously  known  as  the  Manchester 
Royal  School  of  Medicine,  which  was  now, 
for  the  first  time,  united  with  the  college.  Ac- 
cording to  the  new  constitution  of  the  college, 
the  governors  are  42  in  number.  Fourteen  of 
them  form  an  executive  committee,  called  the 
council,  which  transacts  the  external  business  of 
the  college,  while  the  senate,  i.  e.,  the  body  of 
professors,   transacts    its   internal    or  academic 


bv  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  an  endow- 
ment of  $80,000.  The  tuition  fee,  including  in- 
cidental expenses,  is  S'J  t  a  year.  The  university 
comprises  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, with  a  classical,  a  scientific,  and  a  ladies' 
course.  The  last  is  especially  designed  for  females 
who,  however,  are  also  admitted  to  the  other 
courses.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  12  instructors, 
and  '2(11  students  (72  collegiate  and  12'J  pre- 
paratory).  The  presidents  have  I a  as  follows: 

William  R.  Griffith  (principal).  1847—9:  the  Rev. 
William  Davis,  1849—50  ;  the  Rev.  Lewis  Davis. 
1850—57  ;  the  Rev.  Alexander  ( Iwen,  1858—60  ; 
the  Rev.  Lewis  Davis,  D.  D.,  1860—71  ;  the  Rev. 
Daniel  Eberly,  A.  M.,  1871—2;  and  the  Rev. 
H.  A.  Thompson.  D.  D.,  the  present  incumbent, 
appointed  in  1872. 

OWENS  COLLEGE  (Manchester, England) 
was  founded  by  the  bequest  of  Mr.  John  Owens, 
a  merchant  of  '.Manchester,  who,  at  his  death  in 
1846,  bequeathed  the  bulk  of  his  property, 
amounting  to  nearly  £100.000,  to  trustees  to 
found  an  institution  for  teaching  such  branches 
of  learning  and  science  as  were  or  might  after- 
wards be  taught  in  the  English  universities. 
After  extensive  inquiries,  a  college  was  founded 
and  opened  in  1851,  which,  like  University  Col- 
lege, London,  was  to  be  in  connection  with  the 
London  University,  and  was  to  be  absolutely  free 

from  any  religions  disqualification.  The  terms  was  about  £11,000,  of  which  £6,000  was  derived 
of  the  original  bequest  allowed  no  portion  of  the  from  endowments,  and  £5,000  from  students' 
endowment  to  be  expended  on  land  or  buildings,  fees.  This  does  not  include  the  medical  depart- 
Accordingly,  in  the  earlier  years  of  the  college,  ment.  It  may  be  added  that  a  proposal  for 
£24,000  was  contributed  by  the  trustees  and  the    erecting  Owens   College  into  a  university  has 


t 

The  college  began  with  six  professors,  several 
allied  subjects  being  assigned  to  one  chair. 
There  are  now.  20  professors,  and  22  assistants. 
in  arts,  science,  law,  and  medicine.  The  profess- 
orships are  endowed  :  one  important  result  of 
this  is  that  it  is  possible  to  charge  lower  fees,  and 
to  bring  the  benefits  of  the  college  within  the 
reach  of  much  larger  numbers.  The  more  im- 
portant chairs  have  an  endowment  generally  of 
£350  a  year,  to  which  a  large  proportion  of  the 
fees  is  added.  In  L852,  evening  classes  were  be- 
gun for  the  sake  originally  of  school-masters;  but 
afterwards  of  all  who  chose  to  come.  The  AVork- 
ing  Men's  College  in  Manchester  was  incorpo- 
rated with  these  evening  classes  in  1  SCI,  and  the 
result  was  a  large  increase  in  the  number  of  stu- 
dents. These  students,  in  the  session  ending 
in  May.  1S75,  numbered  eT>3,  including  35  who 
were  also  students  in  the  day  classes.  In  the 
same  session,  there  were  375  day  students  with 
159  medical  .students,  making  a  total  of  1,362. 
There  are  many  valuable  scholarships  and  ex- 
hibitions in  connection  with  the  college.  The 
Rtunncy  and  Ramsbottom  scholarships,  with  five 
Whitworth  exhibitions,  were  founded  with  the 
design  of  enabling  young  artisans  to  pursue 
scientific  studies  at  the  coliege  for  two  or  three 
years.  In  1872 — 3,  the  income  of  the  college, 
out  of  which  it  defrayed  its  general  expenditure. 


people  of  Manchester  in  aid  of  Mr.  Owens'i. 
bequest  and  for  the  foundation  of  scholarships. 
The  home  of  the  college,  for  twenty -two  years, 
was  in  a  large  building  in  Quay  St..'  which  had 
formerly  been  a  private  house.  But,  in  1867, 
the  old  buildings  had  become  inadequate;  and 
an  influential  committee  was  formed  to  prepare 
a  scheme  for  the  erection  of  new  buildings  in  a 
better  part  of  the  city,  also  for  the  endowment  of 
new  professorships,  and  to  make  an  appeal  for 


been  widely  discussed  this  year  (1876),  and  has 
met  with  considerable  approval. 

The  first  principal  of  the  college  was  the  late 
Prof.  A.  J.  Scott ;  the  second  and  present  prin- 
cipal is  Prof.  J.  G.  Greenwood.  Students  live 
outside  the  college,  and  for  the  most  part  make 
their  own  arrangements  as  to  residence. — See 
The  Calendar  of  the  college:  Fifth  Report  of 
the  Hut/iil  Cmimissiiiji  mi  Sririilith-  fiis/rmj/ion 
(1*74)' «•///<  the  Minutes  ,,f  Eridenre  ,■  Letter  by 


the  necessary  funds.    The  response,  in  contribu-     Principal    Greenwood    iii   the    Athenceum    for 
tions  and  legacies,  down  to  July  1876,  was  the  j  April  10.,  1875. 


076 


OXFORD   UNIVERSITY 


OXFORD,  University  of,  one  of  the  two 

great  universities  of  England.  legend  ascribes 
its  origin  to  Alfred  the  Great,  and  University 
College  claims  to  date  from  A.  D.  872;  but  of 
this  we  have  no  proof.  Oxford  first  became 
famous  as  a  school  of  learning  in  the  reign  of 
Stephen,  about  1140.  From  John  it  won  its  ear- 
liest charters;  and,  under  his  successor,  the  num- 
ber of  students  is  said  to  have  risen  to  30,000 
(though  this  included  many  attendants  and  me- 
nials): at  the  end  of  the  14th  century,  it  had  fallen 
to  15,000;  after  the  Reformation,  to  5,000;  it  is 
now  about  2.500.  This  popularity  in  the  earliest 
times  was  due  mainly  to  the  influence  of  in- 
dividual teachers.  Famous  men.  like  Grosseteste. 
Roger  Bacon,  Duns  Scotus,  and  Occam. attracted 
.students,  who  came  from  the  universities  of 
Paris  and  Bologna  to  attend  Lectures  at  Oxford. 
Each  teacher  lived  in  a  hall,  or  inn,  with  his 
students,  for  colleges  did  not  yet  exist.  The  only 
endowed  teachers  were  the  monks.  But  the  rule 
that  every  student  should  reside  in  a  recognized 
boarding-house,  and  the  example  of  University. 
Merton,  and  Balliol  colleges,  all  incorporated 
toward  the  end  of  the  L3th  century,  gradually 
effected  the  extinction  of  the  halls,  and  brought 
about  the  present  college  .system.  The  old  chron- 
icles tell  us  of  the  division  of  the  students  into 
nations  -  North  and  South,  of  the  quarrels 
between  them  even  on  such  questions  as  Nom- 
inalism versus  Realism,  of  their  electing  proctors 
to  protect  their  privileges  against  the  chancellor, 
of  their  long  feud  and  many  riots  with  the  citi- 
zens, and  of  the  chancellor's  summoning  the  citi- 
zens in  arms  to  keep  the  peace,  thereby  often  ad- 
ding fuel  to  the  flames.  In  120D,  we  read  of  a  riot 
so  serious  that  the  University  incurred  papal  ex- 
communication, and  was  forced,  with  the  king,  to 
accept  the  pope's  terms;  and,  after  another  great 
tumult,  subsequent  to  the  Black  Death,  town  and 
university  both  put  themselves  into  the  king's 
hands  to  "settle  their  differences,  the  settlement 
made  being  greatly  in  favor  of  the  latter.  Al- 
though, during  the  barons'  war,  in  Henry  the 
Third's  reign. and  in  the  Lollard  movement,  under 
Edwar  1  HI.  and  Richard  II.,  Oxford  had  shown 
popular  sympathies,  yet  in  the  next  century  it 
became  decidedly  ecclesiastical,  and  for  some 
time  the  lay  element  played  but  a  small  part  in 
it.  With  the  revival  of  learning,  came  the  fresh 
stimulus  of  Fox's,  Wolsey's,  and  Henry  the 
Eighth's  patronage;  and  ten  out  of  the  twenty 
colleges,  as  well  as  all  the  professorships,  date 
from  1500,  or  later.  The  principles  of  the  Ref- 
ormation were  to  be  carried  out  by  a  commis- 
sion sent  down  to  Oxford  by  Edward  VI.,  but  the 
quick  succession  of  Mary  prevented  this;  and  we 
find  evidence  of  the  <  'atholic  reaction  in  the  foun- 
dation of  Trinity  (1554),  and  St.  John's  (1555). 
Under  Queen  Elizabeth,  Protestantism  was  def- 
initely established  (1571),  the  statutes  of  1549 
being  enforced;  butvery  little  change  occurred  ex- 
cept in  the  matter  of  religion.  Even  the  old  rule 
of  enjoining  celibacy  on  the  fellows  was  retained. 
The  last  contest  between  the  tuitions  took  place  in 
this  reign,  in  the  election  of  Leicester's  successor 


to  the  chancellorship.  James  I.  granted  the  par- 
liamentary franchise  to  the  universities  in  1G0G. 
and  divided  between  them  such  church  patn  mage 
as  was  still  in  the  hands  of  Catholics.  ( Ixford  tak- 
ing the  south  of  England.  Cambridge  the  north; 
and,  in  1617,  he  made  adhesion  to  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England  a  neces- 
sary qualification  for  the  degree,  which  was  after- 
wards extended  to  the  matriculation.  In  1C28, 
the  election  of  proctors  was  taken  out  of  the  j 
hands  of  the  masters,  and  given  to  the  colleges  is 
turn:  and.  in  1638,  something  like  a  real  exami- 
nation for  degrees  was  introduced  in  place  of  the 
merely  formal  disputations.  In  the  civil  wars. 
Oxford  sided  with  Charles  I.,  and  consequent!)' 
suffered  from  Cromwell,  though  only  slightly. 
To  Charles  II,  she  was  heartily  loyal,  but  even  the 
firmest  belief  in  "passive  obedience''  was  shaken 
by  his  brother's  measures.  Nevertheless  though 
William  was  generally  welcomed  as  a  savior 
of  society,  very  many  of  the  fellows  continued 
friendly  to  the  old  dynasty,  and  talked  Jaeobit- 
ism  against  the  Hanoverians. 

In  considering  the  actual  state  and  working 
of  the  University  nowadays,  we  must  carefully 
distinguish  between  it  and  the  colleges.  The  lat- 
ter are  corporate  bodies  consisting  of  fellows  and 
scholars,  possessing  property  and  a  building— 
the  college  proper — where  they  and  the  unen- 
dowed students  reside.  The  University,  while 
technically  described  as  consisting  of  the  "chan- 
cellor, masters,  and  scholars",  consists  practically 
of  certain  fellows  and  heads  of  colleges  who  fill 
various  public  posts,  and  administer  public  trusts. 
Within  their  own  walls,  the  members  of  a  college 
are  independent,  the  fellows  carrying  out  the 
services,  lectures,  and  organizatii  id  generally;  out- 
side the  university,  officers  intervene,  whether 
the  proctors  to  enforce  public  order,  the  profess- 
ors to  give  public  instruction,  or  the  examiners 
to  test  candidates  for  degrees,  and  the  vice- 
chancellor  to  confer  them.  To  qualify  for  these, 
a  student  must  reside  in  a  college  or  licensed 
lodging-house  12  terms,  i.  e.,  three  academic  years 
of  6  months  each,  and  must  pass  three  examina- 
tions,—  Responsions,  Moderations,  and  Final 
.Schools.  The  first  is  the  same  for  every  candi- 
date; in  the  latter  two,  however,  he  has  a  choice 
of  either  taking  a  pass  degree,  or  going  in  for 
"honors"  in  one  or  more  subjects.  The  Honors 
Schools  in  Moderations  are  only  classical  and 
mathematical;  but,  in  the  Final,  a  choice  is  offered 
between  classics,  mathematics,  law,  history,  nat- 
ural science,  and  theology.  As  the  competition 
in  these  subjects  is  strong,  and  as  the  result  in- 
fluences greatly  a  man's  chances  of  getting  a  fel- 
lowship, most 'candidates  defer  their  final  exam- 
ination until  their  16th  or  18th  term,  the  latter 
being  the  latest  allowed. 

Fellowships  are  given  upon  examination,  to  be 
held  either  indefinitely,  or  only  if  the  holder  be- 
come a  clergyman,  and  if,  in  either  case,  he  re- 
main a  bachelor.  Some  few  have,  of  late  years, 
been  granted  (or  renewed)  to  married  men.  Their 
value  varies  from  £200  to  £300  per  annum;  but 
a  resident  fellow  is  generally  a  tutor  also,  and  for 


OXFORD   UNIVERSITY 


that  receives  a  proportion  of  the  tuition  fees  paid 
by  the  students.  ' I'lic  average  total  is  then  from 
6600  to  £800.    The  fellows  manage  the  affairs 

of  the  college  entirely:   one  of   their  number   is 


I'1'' 


the  like — and  he  is  allowed  to  marry.  These  are 
all  said  to  be  "in  the  foundation',  as  are  also  the 
scholars— with  incomes  of  from  £20  to  £100, 
granted  by  the  college,  and  tenable  4  or  5  years 
— and  the  exhibitioners,  or  holders  of  inferior 
scholarships.  Many  colleges  offer  very  valuable 
rewards  of  this  kind  ;  and  many  large  schools 
throughout  the  country  confer  similar  scholar- 
ships to  last  during  a  similar  period.  Such  as- 
sistance, of  course,  materially  lessens  a  student's 
expenses,  which. on  the  average,  may  be  reckoned 
at  £200  to  £250  a  year.  A  less  sum,  however, 
will  suffice,  and  frequently  docs;  as  is  shown  by 
the  reported  expenditure  (£60  or  even  less)  of 
several  "unattached  '  students,  that  is,  those  who 
attend  lectures  as  members  of  the  university, 
but  live  always  in  lodgings,  and  are  members  of 
no  college.  Such  students  were  first  admitted 
in  L868,  specially  to  diminish  the  expense  of  ac- 
quiring a  degree.  Their  numbers  have  steadily 
increased;  and  the  object  of  their  institution — 
economy— is  certainly  gained.  There  are,  also, 
many  scholarships  offered  by  the  university,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  colleges,  which  are  open 
to  all  undergraduates,  and  some  of  which  are  of 
considerable  value.  The  most  important  of  these 
■are  the  Ireland.  Hertford.  Craven,  and  Derby, 
for  classical  excellence;  the  Junior  and  Senior 
mathematical,  in  their  own  province;  the  Bo- 
den  in  Sanskrit  ;  the  Radeliffe  Travelling  Fel- 
lowship and  the  Burdett-Coutts  scholarship,  in 
science;  the  Pusey  ami  Ellerton,  and  the  Hall 
and  Houghton,  in  divinity.  Special  prizes  arc 
given  for  essays  in  certain  subjects:  and  one, 
for  poetry.  The  university,  besides  the  award 
of  these  honors,  has  also  the  charge  of  all 
public  examinations,  of  which  it  fixes  both 
the  manner  and  the  matter,  appointing  the  ex- 
edge.  Within  the  last  few  years,  it  has  exercised 
its  powers  in  creating  separate  schools — or  ex- 
aminations—for  law  and  history  (previously 
united)  and  for  theology.  It  elects  ami  defines 
the  duties  of  the  professors,  and  its  own  officers. 
I'Vtlie  former,  the  oldest  foundations  date  from 
Henry  VII  [..who  instituted  the  professorship  of 
Divinity,  Civil  Law.  Medicine,  Hebrew,  and 
(ireek.  Before  his  time  there  was  only  one — the 
Lady  Margaret  Divinity  (1502);  between  1619 
and  L624,  five  others  were  endowed,  and  the 
rest  are  of  later  origin.  Rattlers  are  also  ap- 
pointed in  several  subjects,  and  for  modern  lan- 
guages teaeherst  who  hold  a  somewhat  less  dig- 
nified position.  The  whole  number  of  public 
instructors  is  50.  Their  lectures  are,  in  some  cases, 
free;  in  most,  a  small  fee  is  charged;  and,  though 
but  few  command  large  audiences,  their  teaching 
not  being  supposed  to  "pay"  for  the  examinations,  I 
almost  all  give  valuable  assistance  to  the  more 
thoughtful    and    industrious  students. — Of  the  I 


university  officers,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  men- 
tion the  chancellor,  the  high  steward,  the  vice- 
chancellor,  and  the  proctors.  The  first  was,  in 
old  times,  the  ruling  head  of  the  University;  he 
was  the  nominee  of  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and 
the  guardian  of  his  rights  and  privileges.  Gradu- 
ally, the  nomination  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
masters,  the  ratification  only  resting  with  the 
bishop,  till,  in  1338,  that  too  was  taken  away  by 
a  papal  bull.  At  present,  he  is  little  more  than 
an  ornamental  appendage;  the  practical  duties  of 
his  office  being  discharged  by  the  vice-chancellor, 
who  is  nominated  annually  by  the  chancellor 
from  the  heads  of  colleges,  and  holds  office  gen- 
erally for  a  term  of  four  years;  under  him  are 
four  pro-vice-chancellors,  lie  is  the  resident  head 
of  the  university,  and  presides  in  all  its  meetings; 
and,  being  invested  with  the  powers  of  a  justice  of 
the  peace,  possesses  civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction 
over  its  members.  The  proctors  rank  next  in 
importance.  These  are  two  in  number,  fellows  of 
colleges,  elected  according  to  a  cycle  of  rotation, 
for  one  year  only.  Their  business  is  to  maintain 
discipline  among  the  students  outside  their  college 
walls,  to  appoint  public  examiners,  and  to  attend 
meetings  of  the  authorities;  and,  ex  officio,  they 

university  property  and  trusts.  The  high  Reward 
— who  was  once  elected  for  his  local  influence 
and  power  to  protect  the  university — is  now  of 
somewhat  less  importance  than  the  chancellor, 
his  only  duty  being  to  try  serious  criminal  cases, 

high  steward  is  the  Earl  of  Carnarvon;  the 
chancellor,  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury.  The  rep- 
resentatives in  the  Commons  are  the  Bt.  Hon. 
Gathorne  Hardy,  secretary  for  war,  and  the  lit. 
Hon.  .Mm  Mowbray,  both  elected  by(  'onvocation. 
The  assemblies  governing  —or,  we  might  almost 
say,  forming  the  University,  arc  four:  (1)  The 
lb  u.-c  ot  ('oimre._ia.ioii  :  i-|  The  House  of  Con- 
vocation :  (3)  'J  he  i  'ongregation  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford;  and  |  I  c|'|,e  Hebdomadal  Coun- 
cil, constituted  according  to  the  act  of  1854. 
(1 )  Congregation  consists  of  Regents  {i.e.,  Masters 
of  Arts  of  a  certain  Standing)  of  all  kinds,  and 
merely  ratifies  the  nomination  of  examiners,  and 
the  ordinary  degrees.  (2)  Convocation  consists 
of   Regents  and  Non-Regents  (i.e.  all  admitted 


.,  elects  to  all  university  offices  and 

diooses  the  burgesses  for  parliament, 
lbly.  the  vice-chancellor  (or  his  dep- 
3  right  of  veto  on  till  proceedings 
s;  as  have  also  the  proctors  if  agreed. 
,  aim  of  (he  University  em- 
it officials,  and  all  members  of  Con- 
ine' in  I  Ixford  duririe  the  year.    Its 


passed  on  to  ('onvocation  for  approval    i   ivje, 
tion.     (4)   Lastly,  we  come  to  the   Hebdomadal 
Council,  in  which  sit  the  chancellor,  vice-chancel- 


tiTS 


PACIFIC   UNIVERSITY 


lor  and  proctors,  e.r  otfiri,,,  as  ^\< -11  as  fi  Heads  of 
Colleges,  6  Professors,  and  6  members  of  Convo- 
cation, elected  for  a  term  of  6  years  by  the  »  !on- 
gregation  of  the  University.  This  assembly  meets 
we  ikly,  and  initiates  all  legislation. 

About  twenty  years  ago,  the  two  universities 
Mailed  -chemes' for  the  examination  of  boys  — 
unl-r  the  name  of  the  middle-class  local  exami- 
nati  .ns.  In  the  Junior  Group,  candidates  were 
to  be  under  16,  in  the  Senior,  under  18  years  of 
age;  every  thing  was  conducted  by  nominees  of 
the  university  ;  perfect  impartiality  and  a  high 
stan  lard  of  merit  were  secured ;  and  the  exami- 
nations soon  became  popular.  Scholar  hips  are 
offered  at  three  colleges  in  Oxford  to  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  senior  candidates.  Such  a  test 
has  doubtless  been  of  great  service  in  improving 
the  teaching  in  middle-class  schools,  and  in  calling 
forth  the  emulation  both  of  masters  and  boys; 
but  it  Ins  brought  with  it  the  apparently  inevi- 
table result  of  "cramming"  and  overworking  boys 
of  promise.  It  has  lately  been  extended  to  ejirls. 
by  Cambridge  and  also  by  Oxford.  The  latter 
university  is  behindhand,  however,  in  that  it  has 
not  yet  supplied  anything  analogous  to  the 
Cambridge  higher  examinations  for  women  (over 
18  years  of  age),  and  to  the  lectures  given  by 
Cn'nliihn  in  support  of  university  extension 
throughout  the  kingdom;  but,  at  Oxford  itself, 
there  has,  probably,  never  been  a  period  when 
teaching  was  more  careful  and  effective. or  study 
more  earnest,  and  its  results  more  highly  prized, 
than  to-day. 

The  names  of  the  colleges  with  the  dates  oftheir 
foundation  are  as  follows:  I  rniversitj  .  LD.872(?), 
incorporated  in  1  '_'.slb  from  funds  let t.  in  L249,by 

Win.  de  Durham  for  1  J  poor  masters  tr Dur- 

hamjJBalliol,  1263-^8;  Merton,  founded  in  1264, 
at  Maldon,  removed  to  Oxford  in  I'-'TI  :  Exeter, 
L314;  Oriel,  L326;  Queen's,   L340 ;   New,  L386; 

l.i In,  1  1:27;  All  Souls.  1  137;  Magdalen,!  158; 

Brasenose,  L509  ;  Corpus  Christi,  L516  ;  Christ 
( ihurch,  1 546—7;  Trinity,  1 554;  St.  John's,  1 555; 
Jesus.  L571  ;  Wadham,  1609;  Pembroke,  1624; 
Worcester,  1714;  Keble,  1870  ;  Hertford.  IsT  1. 
'Hie  Halls  are  :  St.  Mary's.  L333  ;  New  Inn.  used 
as  a  mint  under  Charles  I.;  St.  Albans;  and 
St.  Edmund's,  the  last  as  an  adjunct  of  Queen's 
College.  Of  the  colleges,  the  largest  and  richest 
is  Christ  Church,  begun  by  Wolsey  under  the 
name  of  Cardinal  College:  completed  and  en- 
dowed by  HeniT  VIII.;  its  under-graduates 
number  249;  those  at  Baliol.182.  The  most  com- 
plete is  Xew  College,  which    has.  at   its  nursery. 


PACIFIC  METHODIST  COLLEGE 

Winchester  School,  founded  by  the  same  munif- 
icent patron,  Wm.  of  Wykeham,  and  proportion- 
ately endowed.  New  College  and  Magdalen  are 
both  famous  for  their  handsome  chapels  and 
grounds.  The  total  number  of  undergraduates 
m  the  calendar  for  1876  is  2,542,  of  whom  213 
arc  unattached  to  anj  college  or  hall'.  The  num- 
ber of  matriculations  was.  in  the  last  academic 
year.  718;  of  conferred  degrees:  Bachelors',  3,941, 
and  Masters',  254.  The  revenue  of  colleges  and 
university  together  is  £420,000.  —  Besides  the 
above  collegiate  buildings,  there  are  others  of 
great  interest,  also  belonging  to  the  university. 
The  oldest  is  the  Divinity  School,  opened  in 
1480,  and  now  used  chiefly  for  conferring  de- 
grees. Close  to  it  are  the  schools  (1011  seq.), 
in  which  examinations  arc  conducted;  and  the 
Sheldonian  Theater  (built  by  Abp.  Sheldon 
from  the  designs  of  Wren,  in  168.'!),  in  which 
honorary  degrees  are  given  and  prize  composi- 
tions read,  at  the  annual  commemoration.  The 
.Bodleian  library  was  founded,  in  1597,  by  Sir 
Thomas  Bodley,  in  place  of  the  small  library, 
which  had  been  scattered  at  the  Reformation. 
Bodley  bought  largely  for  it  during  the  Thirty 
Years'    War :     but    its    usefulness    dates    from 

James  I.    Connected  with  it   as  areading-r i, 

is  the  library  built  by  Dr.  Kaddiffe.  founder  also 
of  the  Infirmary  and  the  Observatory.  The  Asli- 
molean  museum  (1632)  is  the  property  of  the 
university,  which  has  also  its  own  press.  Founded 
about  1672,  it  was  extended  iii  1711.  chiefly 
through  the  profits  of  Lord  Clarendon's  History 
of  the  Civil  Wars,  the  copyright  of  which  he 
presented  to  the  university.  It  was  removed  to 
new  buildings  in  L833,  and  is  now  a  very  large 
establishment,  distinguished  by   the   chancellor's 


ian  Institute,  also,  is  of  late  date;  it  contains 
licture  gallery  and  has  an  endowment  for  en- 
gaging the  study  of  modern  languages, 
noiig  the  undergraduates  then, selves,  there  are 
iiv  private  clubs;  but  the  only  one  of  these 
sessing  buildings  of  its  own  is  the  Union 
nb.  which,  besides  the  ordinary  appliances  of 

■  members  meet  for  weekly  discussions,  during 


/     Tr, 

)-,,„■  Book;   The  Student's 

the 

University   and    Colleges   of 

endon 

Dress.  Oxford). 

PACIFIC,  University  of  the,  at  Santa  I  courses:  classical,  4 years;  Latin  scientific,  3  years; 
Clara,  Cal.,  under  Methodist  Episcopal  control,  and  scientific.  3  years.  There  is  also  a  prepar- 
was  organized  in  L851,  and  chartered  in  1853.  It  '  atory  and  a  commercial  department.  In  1875— C, 
admits  both  sexes,  [t  has  productive  funds  to  the  there  were  Hi  instructors  and  212  students  (69 
amount  of  $40,000,  libraries  containing  about  collegiate  and  143  preparatory).  The  Rev.  A.  S. 
2,000  volumes.  Thecost  of  tuition  varies  from  (iibbons.  A.M.,  M.D..  is  (1876)  the  president. 
$8  to  .$20  per  term  of  1 4  weeks,  with  modern  Ian-  PACIFIC  METHODIST  COLLEGE  was 
guages.     The  collegiate  department    has  three  I  organized  in  1861,  at  VacaviHe,  Solano  Co.,  Cal.; 


PACIFIC    UNIVERSITY 


chartered  in  1862  ;  and  removed  to  Santa  Rosa, 
Sonoma  <  !o.,  in  1  870.  It  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  Candi- 
dates for  a  degree  have  the  choice  of  four  courses 
of  study.  Two  are  for  males — one  in  letters,  and 
one  in  science;  two  are  for  females — a  special 
course  in  letters,  and  a  special  course  in  science. 
Females  may  also  pursue  the  two  former  courses. 
The  college  has  a  preparatory  department,  and 
affords  instruction  in  pedagogics,  painting  and 
drawing,  music,  and  commercial  branches.  The 
regular  tuition  fees  vary  from  §3(1  to  $70  per  an- 
num. In  1S74 — 5,  there  were  9  instructors  and 
276  students,  of  whom  59  were  of  the  collegiate 
grade.  A.  L.  Fitzgerald.  A.M.  (appointed  in 
1870)  is  the  president  (1876). 

PACIFIC  UNIVERSITY,  at  Forest  Grove, 
Oregon,  chartered  in  1853 — i,  is  under  evangel- 
ical, but  not  denominational,  control.  Connected 
with  it  is  the  Tualatin  Academy,  chartered  in 
1849.  It  has  an  endowment  of  about  $65,000, 
and  a  library  of  5,000  volumes.  The  university 
has  four  courses:  namely,  classical,  4  years,  leu  ling 
to  the  degree  of  A.  B.;  scientific,  3  years,  leading 
to  the  degree  of  B.  S.;  ladies'  course,  3  years, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  M.S.  (Mistress  of  Sci- 
ence) ;  and  normal,  2  years.  The  cost  of  tuition 
in  these  courses  is  $45  per  year;  in  the  academy, 
$30.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  8  instructors,  and 
lis  students  (13  collegiate  and  lll.l  academic]. 

PAGE,  David  Perkins,  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  eminent  of  American  educators,  born 
at  Epping,  N.  II.,  duly  4.,  1810  ;  died  at  Al- 
bany, N.  Y.,  Jan.  1..  1848.  The  first  part  of 
his  life  was  spent  in  agricultural  labor  on  his 
fathers  farm  :  and  it  was  not  until  his  sixteenth 
year  that  he  was  permitted  to  enjoy  the  ad- 
vantages of  any  thing  beyond  an  elementary 
education.  In  1826,  he  entered  Hampton 
Academy,  where  he  spent  two  terms  preparing 
for  the  vocation  to  which  he  afterwards  devoted 
his  life.  His  first  service  as  a  teacher  was  in 
the  district  schools,  from  which,  in  a  short  time, 
he  became  associate  principal  of  the  Newbuiy- 
port  High  School,  in  which  he  remained  12 
years.  He  distinguished  himself  also  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Essex  County  Teachers'  Association, 
before  which  he  delivered  several  lectures  that 
elicited  the  highest  encomiums  from  Horace 
Mann  and  others.  One  of  these,  on  The  Mutual 
Duties  of  Parents  and  Teachers,  was  espei  tally 
admired,  more  than  6,000  copies  being  printed 
and  distributed.  As  a  speaker,  Mr.  Page  was 
fluent  and  impressive.  "He  possessed.'  says 
Horace  Mann,  "that  rare  quality,  so  indispen- 
sable to  an  orator,  the  power  to  think,  standing 
on  his  feet,  and  before  folks."  "  As  a  teacher," 
says  Barnard.  "  he  exhibited  two  valuable  quali- 
fications,— the  ability  to  turn  the  attention  of 
his  pupils  to  the  principles  which  explain  facts, 
and  in  such  a  way  that  they  could  see  clearly 
the  connection  ;  and  the  talent  for  reading  the 
character  of  his  scholars,  so  accurately,  that  he 
could  at  once  discern  what  were  their  governing 
passions  and  tendencies — what  in  them  needed 
encouragement,  and  what  repression."    In  1844, 


preparations  were  making  to  open  the  state  ] 
malscl I  at  Albany,N.Y.;  and  on  the  rec 


idation  of  H< 
shusetts,  Mi 


Mam, 


prmcipawup.  wli 

The  school  conn, 
fore  the  close  of 
increased  to  100 ; 


thers,  in  Mas- 
ge  was  invited  to  assume  its 
•h  he  did  the  following  year. 

■need  with  2.1  pupils;  but,  be- 
he  first  tern,,  the  number  had 
and.  at  the  commencement  of 
the  second  term,  there  were  200  students. 
Numerous  obstacles,  incident  to  every  experi 
ment,  such  as  this  was  at  that  time,  opposed  its 
progress;  but  the  indefatigable  energies,  con- 
summate ability,  and  devoted  spirit  of  its  prin- 
cipal overcame  them  all;  and  every  new  term 
increased  the  popularity  and  success  of  the 
school  Mr.  Cages  incessant  labors,  however, 
had  exhausted  his  vital  energies;  and  at  the 
close  of  December,  1847,  he  was  attacked  with 


moral  and  intellectual  qualities  which  made  him 
truly  a  model  teacher.  "Of  the  hundreds  of 
teachers,"  says  his  biographer.  "  who  were  under 
his  care  at  Albany,  there  was  not  one  who  did 
not  look  up  to  him  with  admiration  and  love; 
not  one  who  did  not  bear,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  the  impress  of  his  character  and  influence." 
His  Theory  and  Practice  of  Teaching,  origin- 
ally published  in  1847,  has  been  universally  ad- 
mired, and  has  had  a  very  wide  circulation. — 
See  Barnard,  American  Teachers  and  Educa- 
tors (N.  Y..  1861). 

PALAEONTOLOGY.     See  Geology. 

PALATINATE  COLLEGE,  near  the  vil- 
lage of  Myerstown,  Lebanon  Co.,  Pa.,  founded  in 
1868,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Reformed 
Church.  It  has  a  commodious  building  situated 
on  high  ground,  amid  fine  scenery.  The  institu- 
tion comprises  tin  elementary,  an  academic,  a  col- 
legiate, and  a  musical  department.  Both  sexes 
are  admitted.  In  1874  .1.  there  v> ere  7  instruct- 
ors and  208  students.  The  Rev.  George  W. 
Aughinbaugh,  1».  D.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

PARAGUAY,  a  republic  of  South  America; 
area  56,715  sq.  m.;  population,  about  221,000. 
The  inhabitants  are  elderly  Indians,  the  Guarani 
language  being  dominant  throughout  the  repub- 
lic, although  Spanish  is  the  official  language. 
The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  prevailing  religion. 
Paraguay  was  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  in 
I  530.  It  remained  a  part  of  the  Spanish  domin- 
ions until  1811,  when  it  declared  its  independence. 
The  early  history  of  Paraguay  presents  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  attempts  ever  made  to  educate 
a  barbarous  nation.  After  missionaries  of  other 
orders  had  been  unsuccessful  among  the  Gua- 
ranis,  the  Jesuits  entered  the  country,  in  1557, 
and  met  with  wonderful  success.  'I  hey  collected 
the  Indians  in  villages,  which  they  called  reduc- 
tions, and  enlisted  their  sympathies,  by  opening 
to  them  profitable  sources  of  employment,  chiefly 
by  extending  the  commerce  with  mate,  the  so- 
called  Paraguay  tea.  At  the  same  time  they 
strictly  forbade  them  to  hold  any  intercourse 
with  the  Spanish  colonists,  and  obtained  from 
Philip  111.  a  mandate  forbidding  every  body  from 


6S0 


PARENTAL  EDUCATION 


entering  their  reductions  without  their  permis- 
sion. After  these  measures  had  been  firmly  es- 
tablished, they  began  with  a  strong  hand  to  put 
their  plans  into  execution.  Every  reduction  re- 
ceived two  missionaries,  one  for  religious  and 
the  other  for  secular  affairs.  Every  village  was 
built  in  the  same  style,  having  in  the  center  a 
large  square,  fronting  on  which  were  the  church 
and  the  school-house.  The  streets  were  wide  and 
regular.  Every  luxury,  both  in  dress  and  habi- 
tation, was  strictly  prohibited  :  but  the  churches 
were  decorated  with  gold  and  silver.  The  Jesuits 
administered  all  property  belonging  to  the  vil- 
lages, and  governed  by  means  of  the  native  ca- 
ziques,  who,  although  chosen  by  the  inhabitants, 
were  entirely  dependent  on  the  fathers.  The 
slightest  infractions  of  the  law  were  severely 
punished.  The  instruction  given  by  them  con- 
sisted in  teaching  to  read  and  write,  and  to  recite 
the  catechism ;  but,  owing  to  their  seclusion 
from  the  outer  world,  their  acquirements  availed 
them  but.  little.  Edgar  Quinet,  one  of  the  most 
bitter  opponents  of  the  Jesuits,  recognized  that 
this  method  of  education,  "which  would  have 
destroyed  older  nations,  was  admirably  adapted 
to  a  kind  of  grown-up  children  like  the  Guara- 
nis" ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  he  adds  that  "  it 
showed  an  unsurpassed  ability  to  attract  these 
children  by  granting  them  every  thing,  but  what 
woidd  have  rendered  them  men."  As  their  power 
increased,  the  fathers  grew  more  independent, 
and  finally  broke  off  all  connection  with  the 
home  government.  In  1767,  a  royal  decree 
ordered  their  expulsion  from  the  three  provinces 
of  Buenos  Ayres,  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  Tucu- 
man,  to  which  they  offered  no  resistance.  Their 
reductions  gradually  disappeared,  while  the  Indi- 
ans relapsed  into  barbarism.  Under  the  dictator 
Francia  (1814 — 1840),  who  practiced  the  same 
policy  of  seclusion  that  the  Jesuit  fathers  had  pre- 
viously adopted,  and  under  Lopez,  schools  were 
founded,  and  education  generally,  though  slow- 
ly, advanced;  so  that,  in  1861,  Paraguay  had  as 
many  primary  schools  in  proportion  to  her  popu- 
lation, as  any  of  the  other  South  American  states. 
But  during  the  disastrous  war  that  followed, 
education  was  entirely  neglected.  Since  1870. 
determined  efforts  have  been  made  to  extend  the 
benefitsof  instruction.  The  amount  appropriated 
for  schools,  in  1874,  was  $34,860.  The  capital, 
Asuncion,  formerly,  had  a  colegio,  which  was 
founded  in  1783,  and  in  which,  among  others, 
candidates  for  the  priesthood  w^ere  educated. 
Lopez  founded  a  gymnasium  under  the  name 
Academia  Literaria;  but  the  course  of  in- 
struction embraced  only  two  subjects,  Latin 
and  philosophy.  Subsequently  other  subjects,  as 
mathematics,  law.  and  theology  were  added.  It 
was-re-organized  under  the  name  Jnslilnln  </>'  Eu- 
senanza;  the  establishment  of  several  colleges  in 
provincial  towns  was  resolved  upon,  and  a  num- 
ber of  young  men  were  sent  to  France  to  be  edu- 
cated as  professors.  See  I.e  Roy,  in  Schmtd's 
Enct/elopadie,  art.  Sudamerica. 

PARENTAL  EDUCATION.     See  Home 
Education. 


PASSOW 

PAROCHIAL  SCHOOL,  an  elementary 
school  which  is  united  with  a  parish,  and  under 
the  control  of  its  pastor.  Schools  of  this  kind 
arose  early  in  the  middle  ages.  Although  the 
mass  of  the  people  did  not  yet  appreciate  the 
value  of  school  instruction,  the  popes  repeatedly 
urged  the  erection  of  parish  schools  in  connec- 
tion with  the  churches.  Teachers  of  Holy  Writ, 
aud  instructors  in  ecclesiastical  obligations,  were, 
in  particular,  to  be  appointed  in  all  parishes; 
for  it  was  not  conceived  that  any  person  could 
profitably  take  part  in  divine  service,  if  he  had 
not  received  proper  instruction.  In  France, 
bishop  Theodulph  of  Orleans  admonished  the 
parish  priests  to  instruct  the  boys  gratuitously 
in  science.  Charlemagne  decreed  that  youths 
should  be  educated  in  reading,  singing,  arith- 
metic, grammar,  and  writing.  A  synod  held  at 
Mavence.  before  the  middle  of  the  i)th  century, 
enjoined  that  the  children  be  sent  either  to  the 
convent  or  to  the  parochial  school,  in  order  to 
learn,  at  least,  the  creed  and  the  Lord's  Prayer 
in  the  native  tongue. — For  many  centuries,  the 
elementary  schools  grew  and  developed  inclose 
connection  with  the  church.  The  Reformation 
did  not  change  this  relation  ;  and,  in  Protestant 
as  well  as  in  Catholic  countries,  the  common 
school  continued  to  be  a  parochial  school.  More 
recently,  in  most  countries,  state  authorities 
have  assumed  the  chief  control  of  the  common 
schools  ;  and  the  parochial  character  of  such  in- 
stitutions has  more  or  less  disappeared  ;  although 
many  governments  still  delegate  to  the  pastors 
of  the  established  churches  certain  rights  of  in- 
spection, and  maintain  separate  selwols  for  dif- 
ferent denominations.  In  the  United  States,  the 
name  parochial  schools  is  now  geni  rally  applied 
to  Roman  Catholic  and  to  Episcopalian  schools 

which  have  been  organized  inclose) lection 

with  the  parishes  ;  because,  in  the  opinion  of  their 
founders,  all  elementary  schools  should  provide 
religious  as  well  as  secular  instruct  ion.  and  should, 
therefore,  have  a  strictly  denominational  char- 
acter.    (See  Denominational  Schools.) 

PARSONS  COLLEGE,  at  Fairfield,  Iowa, 
founded  in  1855,  is  under  Presbyterian  control. 
It  has  a  campus  of  '20  acres,  2  handsome  and 
commodious  brick  buildings,  philosophical  and 
chemical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of  about  700 
volumes.  Its  productive fundsamount  toSiM.nuo, 
nearly.  There  is  an  academic  department,  with 
a  preparatory  and  a  normal  course,  and  a  col- 
legiate department,  with  a  classical  (4years),and 
a  scientific  (3  years)  course.  The  cost  of  tuition 
is  $30  a  year  in  the  academic,  and  $36  in  the 
'  collegiate  department.  Both  sexes  are  admitted. 
\  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  6  instructors  and  63  stu- 
dents (1  collegiate  and  62  academic  I. 

PASSOW.  Franz  Ludwig-  Karl  Friedrich, 
one  of  the  foremost  representatives  of  lexico- 
graphic literature,  born  in  Ludwigslust,  Germany, 
Sept.  20..1786  :  died  in  Breslau,  March  11.,  1833. 
He  became,  in  1807,  professor  at  the  gymnasium 
of  Weimar,  in  L810,  director  of  the  Conradinum 
of  Jenkaii.  near  Dantzic,  and  in  181 
|  at  the  university  of  Breslau.     He  t 


PATIENCE 

thusiastic  admirer  of  Creek  culture,  and  not 
only  preferred  the  Creek-  language  and  literature 
to  the  Latin,  but  made  a  practical  attempt,  in  the 
school  of  Jenkau,  to  have  the  study  of  Creek 
begun  before  that  of  Latin.  His  fame  chiefly 
rests  on  his  Greek  lexicon,  which  not  only  began 
an  entirely  new  era  in  the  history  of  classical 
dictionaries,  but  is  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  productions  in  the  entire  range 
of  lexical  literature.  The  tir.-t  edition  of  the  work 
[HandwSrterbuch  der  griechUchen  Spracke, 
2  vols.,  Leips..  1819 — 24),  appeared  as  a  revision 
of  the  <ireek-(  lerman  lexicon  of  Schneider:  but. 
in  the  following  editions,  it  was  so  completely  re- 
written by  him.  that  the  4th  edition  (1831)  bore 
only  his  name  on  the  title  page.  Passow's  work 
constitutes  the  basis  of  the  Greek- English  lexi- 
con of  Liddell  ami  Scott.  (SeeGREKK  Language.) 
The  Prussian  minister  of  education,  A.  Falk, 
(q.  v.),  is  a  son-in-law  of  Passow. 

PATIENCE,   the  calm  endurance  of  neces- 
sary toil   or  suffering.      This   quality,  though 


FEAIiOltY    FOND 


GS1 


education  in  the  College  of  Preceptors,  the   first 


chair  in  any  public  institution 

signed  to  that   subject,      lie  dry. 


in   the  prolonged  effort 
presupposes,   differs  from  it 


nilar  to  ps: 
which  its  ex.' 
chiefly  in  the 

most  important  elements  in  the  character  of  a 
successful  educator.  Many  occasions,  indeed, 
will  occur,  when  patience  will  be  the  only  virtue 
which  will  command  success.  Its  cultivation, 
therefore,  is  desirable  both  on  this  account,  and 
because  of  its  value  in  mental  discipline.  Its 
possession,  moreover,  is  necessary  both  to  the 
teacher  and  to  the  pupil.  To  the  former,  it  is  of 
special  use  in  his  treatment  of  the  varying  dis- 
positions with  which  he  has  to  deal.  The  prov- 
ocations to  impatience  and  ill  temper  are  so 
many  and  so  constant,  that,  without  patience, 
the  teacher's  life  will  be  a  continued  series  of  an- 
noyances. Impatience  in  children  is  the  result 
either  of  temperament  or  hereditary  predisposi- 
tion ;  and,  in  dealing  with  it,  the  teacher  should 
remember  that  nothing  so  tends  to  develop  and 
foster  it  in  his  pupils,  as  a  constant  practical  ex-  J 
hibition  of  it  in  his  daily  intercourse  with  them. 
As  nothing  is  so  infectious  as  ill  temper,  so 
nothing  tends  so  rapidly  to  curb  ill  temper  as  j 
that  quiet  forbearance  which  a  patient  spirit  J 
diffuses  around  it  like  an  atmosphere.  The 
mental  powers,  also,  act  with  much  greater  effect 
when  the  calmness  of  the  judgment  is  undis- 
turbed by  ill  temper  or  impatience.  Perseve-  i 
ranee  may.  indeed,  exist  without  patience. and  to 
•a  certain  extent  may  accomplish  its  objects  ;  but 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  more  than  half  the  good 
results  which  perseverance  aided  by  patience 
might  accomplish,  are  thrown  away  if  patience 
does  not  accompany  it. 

PAYNE,  Joseph,  one  of  the  most  noted 
English  educators  of  our  times,  born  in  1808  ; 
died  April  30.,  1876.  lie  received  his  educa- 
tional training  at  the  University  of  London,  and 
early  distinguished  himself  as  a  teacher  of  En- 
glish. For  a  number  of  years,  he  was  connected 
with  his  ahnu  mater.  In  1873,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  newly-founded  professorship  of 


England  as- 
ed  himself,  in 
this  position,  and  also  by  his  writings,  to  the 
promotion  of  education,  making  the  improve- 
ment of  methods  of  teaching  his  special  object. 
lie  was  the  author  of  Lectures  <>»  Education, 
and  numerous  lectures  and  pamphlets  on  allied 
subjects.  He  also  took  an  active  part  in  the 
Woman's  Education  Union.  -Mr.  Payne  con- 
tributed several  papers  to  the  proceedings  of  the 
Philological  Society  chiefly  on  English  dialects 
and  the  relation  of  Old  English  to  Norman 
French.  Among  his  other  publications,  were 
textbooks  on  English  literature,  entitled  Stud- 
ies in  Kn,/lisli  (5th  ed.,  London.  1864)  :  Studies 
in  English  Prose  (1867);  and  Select  Poetry  for 
Children,  which  had  a  very  large  circulation 
(15th  ed.,  1868). 

PEABODY,  George,  an  American  merchant 
and  banker,  born  in  Danvers.  Mass.,  Feb.  18. , 
1795;  died  in  London.  Nov.  4..  1869.  Mr.  Pea- 
body's  gifts  to  charitable  and  educational  institu- 
tions have  been  enormous,  if  not  unequaled.  <  »f 
the  latter,  the  principal   are  the  following  :  the 

founded  by  a  gift   of  $30,000,   afterwards  in- 
creased   to    S'-'IIO. ;    a   similar    institution   in 


Peabody  Institute  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  founded 
by  a  bequest  of  $300,000,  to  which  he  added 
$700,000;  the  Archaeological  Institute  of  Har- 
vard College,  with  an  endowment  fund  of 
$150,000;  and  the  department  of  physical 
science,   in   Yale   College,   with   an   equal    fund. 

The  total  a unt  of  his  bequests  to  the  cause 

of  education  exceeds  $5,365,000. 

PEABODY    FUND     (Educational),     an 


I  gi 


;.  in  the  following  words  : 
dollars  for  the  encourage- 


ntellectual.  moral,  and 
industrial  education  among  the  young  of  the 
more  destitute  portions  of  the  southern  and 
southwestern  states  of  the  Union."  Ten  trustees 
were  selected  by  him  to  carry  his  wishes  into 
effect  ;  and.  at  a  meeting  held  in  New  York, 
March  1!)..  1867,  a  general  plan  was  adopted, 
and  Dr.  Harnas  Sears  was  appointed  agent.  On 
July  L,  1869,  Mr.  Peabody  added  a  sec 1  mil- 
lion to  the  cash  capital  of  the  fund.  Besides 
this,  there  were  donations  of  Mississippi  and 
Florida  bonds  amounting  to  about  $1,500,000, 
not  realizing,  however,  any  income.  According 
to  the  donor's  directions,  the  principal  must. 
remain  unchanged  for  30  years,  the  trustees  be- 
ing enjoined  from  expending  any  portion  of 
it  or  adding  to  it  any  part  of  the  accruing  in- 
terest. The  manner  of  using  the  latter,  as  well' 
as  the  final  distribution  of  the  principal,  was 
left  entirely  to  the  discretion  of  the  trustees, 
who  are  vested  with  authority  to  till  vacancies 
in  their  number.  "  Not  a  single  Southern  state," 
says  the  agent,  "  had  a  modern  system  of  public^ 


CS2 


PEDAGOGY 


schools  when  the  trustees  first  entered  upon 
their  work,  and  now  (1875)  no  state  is  without 
such  a  system,  existing  at  least  in  law:  and  every 
state  has  either  already  organized  or  is  now 
organizing  its  schools."  While  it  is  not  claimed 
by  the  trustees  that  all  this  has  been  done  by 
means  of  the  distribution  of  the  proceeds  of  the 
fund  ;  it  must  be  conceded  that  this  great  work 
has  been  greatly  aided  and  stimulated  thereby. 
The  promotion  of  primary  education  for  the 
masses  has  been  the  chief  object  kept  in  view: 
and,  in  the  effort  to  accomplish  it.  the  trustees 
have  followed  the  "  sound  maxim  of  giving  help 
to  those,  and  only  to  those,  who  help  themselves." 
I  leucc.  whenever  efficient  measures  have  been 
inaugurated  by  state,  city,  or  town  to  estab- 
lish and  support  a  permanent  system  of  schools, 
and  aid  has  been  needed  to  meet  the  outlay 
necessary  at  first,  contributions  have  been 
promptly  and  liberally  made  to  supplement  the 
funds  publicly  raised.  The  rules  followed  in  the 
distribution  have  been  as  follows:  ( 1 )  A 11  schools 
aided  must  have  at  least  LOO  pupils,  with  a 
teacher  for  every  50 ;  must  be  properly  graded, 
and  must  be  continued  during  ten  months  in  the 
year,  with  an  average  attendance  of  not  less  than 
85  per  cent  ;  (2)  The  trustees  act  in  concert  with 
the  state  authorities,  and  with  the  co-operation 
of  the  state  superintendent  in  each;  |3)  The 
largest  sum  given  to  a  school  of  100  pupils  is 
$300  ;  to  one  of  200  pupils,  §000,  and  to  one 
of  3IKI  pupils,  SHllMl  ;  but  always  on  the  condi- 
tion that  the  district  pay  at  least  twice  the 
amount  given  from  the  fund. 

PEDAGOGY,  or  Pedagogics  (Gr.  ircutSa- 
) ,,.;  in,  from  Kali .  iraiSdc,  a  boy,  and  ayur)  ti< .  lead- 
ing or  guiding),  the  science  and  art  of  giving  in- 
struction to  children,  particularly  in  school,  or 
as  by  a  school-teacher  (-euiSajujuc).  This  term 
is  more  generally  used  in  Germany  than  in  the 
United  States  or  Great  Britain,  in  which  the 
theory  and  art  of  the  teacher  or  educator  is  de- 
signated as  instruction  or  education  ;  indeed. 
the  word  pedagogue  is,  in  these  countries,  used 
as  a  term  of  reproach.  For  information  in  re- 
gard to  the  various  departments  of  pedagogy, 
see  Education,  Instruction,  Didactics,  etc. 

PEET,  Harvey  Prindle,  a  noted  teacher 
of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  bom  in  Bethlehem.  Gt., 
Nov.  L9.,  1794;  died  in  New  York.  Jan.  1.,  1873. 
The  ordinary  life  of  the  country  boy.  working 
on  the  farm  in  summer,  and  attending  the  district- 
school  in  winter,  when  associated  with  an  ardent 
thirst  for  knowledge,  is  by  no  means  an  inap- 
propriate school  for  the  development  of  a  self- 
reliant  character.  Such  was  the  early  life  of  I  >r. 
Peet,  with  this  additional  advantage,  that  he  was 
surrounded  by  a  society  exceptionally  refined  and 
cultivated  for  a  country  town.  At  the  age  of  21, 
he  began  to  teach;  but,  becoming  ambitious  for 
a  college  education,  he  entered  upon  a  course  of 
Study  while  he  was  teaching,  and  Having  finished 
his  preparatory  course  at  A  ndover,  Mass..  entered 
Vale  <  iollege,  from  which  he  graduated  in  1822. 
He  received  an  invitation  to  teach  in  the  Amer- 
ican Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  at  1  lartford, 


PEET 

1  and  entered  there  upon  a  career  which  he  never 
afterwards  abandoned.  His  own  qualifications, 
and  the  society  of  several  eminent  and  successful 

;  instructors  in  this  peculiar  field,  soon  gave  him 
a  proficiency  that  led  to  his  appointment  as 
steward  of  the  institution,  and.  shortly  after- 
wards, to  his  selection,  by  the  directors  of  the 
New  York  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb, 
for  the  situation  of  principal.  He  entered  upon 
his  new  duties  in  1831 .  and  found,  in  the  neces- 
sary re-organization  of  the  institution,  ample  field 
for  all  his  energy.  In  the  training  of  teachers 
for  the  instruction  of  the  unfortunate  class  with 
whom  he  was  associated,  his  peculiar  ability  and 
patience  were  more  particularly  manifested.  This 
work  of  re-organi/.ati(in  and  instruction  was  long 
and  an  Luous;  but  the  marked  improvement  which 
followed  placed  the  institution  on  a  higher  level 
of  usefulness  and  reputation,  that  afterwards  led 
to  the  rebuilding  of  it  on  an  enlarged  scale,  and  to 
its  incorporation  by  the  state.  Dr.  Peet  becoming 
its  president.  This  position  he  continued  to  hold 
till  his  death. —  His  peculiar  service  in  the  cause 
of  deaf-mute  instruction  deserves  not  only  com- 
mendation but  careful  study  by  all  engaged  in 
that  peculiar  field  of  educational  labor,  in  1844, 
Horace  Mann,  after  an  extended  examination  of 
the  school  systems  of  Europe,  made  the  assertion 
that  the  institutions  for  deaf-mutes  in  Prussia. 

I  Saxony,  and  Holland  were  decidedly  superior  to 
any  existing  in  America;the  ground  of  this  asser- 
tion being  that  while  the  American  system  taught 
pupils  to  converse  by  signs  only,  the  systems 
in  those  countries  taught  the  pupils  actually  to 
speak,  as  well  as  to  understand  spoken  language, 
and  that  this  hitter  was  the  only  way  in  which 
their  defect  could  be  thoroughly  remedied.  Mr. 
Manns  great  reputation, though  not  shaking  Dr. 
I'eet  s  belief  in  the  superiority  of  his  favorite 
method  —  that  of  signs,  made  it  necessary  to 
answer  this  charge  in  the  most  conclusive  way. 
To  this  end,  Dr.  Weld,  of  the  Hartford  Asylum, 
and  Dr.  Day,  of  the  New  York  institution,  were 
sent  to  Europe  on  a  tour  of  investigation;  and,  in 
the  New  York  institution,  a  class  of  the  most. 
promising  pupils  was  formed  for  practice  in  artic- 
ulation and  lip-reading.  After  a  year's  exper- 
iment, the  class  proved  a  failure,  and  the  ex- 
haustive report  made  by  Dr.  Day,  on  his  return 
from  Europe,  did  not  sustain  Mr.  Mann  in  his 
assertions.  Dr.Peel  regarded  uneducated  deaf - 
mule,  ;,s  children  iii  intelligence;  because,  of  the 
avenues  through  which  intelligence  is  increased 
and  perfected,  two  hearing  and  speech — are. 
closed  from  birth.  An  evidence  of  this  childish 
condition  is  found  in  the  fact  that  their  minds 
are  engrossed  by  concrete  ideas  to  the  almost  en- 
tirc  exclusion  of  abstract  ones.  I  laving  satisfied 
himself  of  this,  therefore,  instead  of  attempting  to 
impose  upon  these  immature  minds  complex  and 
abstract  ideas,  such  as  only  a  person  in  the  full 
possession  of  his  faculties  can  entertain,  he  placed 
himself  on  their  level,  and  endeavored  to  watch 
the  very  birth  of  thought,  following  the  processes 
by  which  perceptions  become  conceptions,  and 
studying  the  nature  of  the  conceptions  so  formed. 


PEET 

This  led  him  to  adopt  a  strictly  natural  method 
in  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes — a  method 
which  should  conform  to  the  natural,  in  the  kind 
of  objects  first  presented  for  observation,  and  in 
the  order  of  presentation.  According  to  this 
plan,  the  first  to  be  employed  arc  .simple,  tan- 
gible, or  sensuous,  objects,  the  abstract  ideas, 
formed  by  a  generalization  of  these,  having  no 
existence  till  the  concrete  ideas  have  become  per- 
fectly familiar  by  long  usage.  As  to  the  means 
to  be  employed  for  communicating  with  deaf- 
mutes  during  instruction,  his  position  was  always 
that  articulation,  except  in  its  most  elementary 
stage,  being  an  arbitrary  method  for  the  com- 
munication of  thought,  can  he  learned,  with  any 
degree  of  accuracy,  only  by  persons  in  possession 
of  the  faculties  of  hotJi  car  and  speech;  that  deaf- 
mutes,  therefore,  i.  e.,  born  deaf-mutes,  will  only 
lose  time  and  patience  by  attempting  to  acquire 
the  facidty  of  speech;  and  i  hat  their  efforts  should 
be  turned  to  the  developing  and  perfecting  of 
the  sign  language  as  their  most  efficient  means 
of  conversation.  Exceptions  to  this  are  made 
in  the  case  of  semi-mutes,  by  which  term  he 
meant  those  who  had  lost  the  faculty  of  hearing 
after  they  had  learned  to  speak  or  read,  the 
semi-deaf ,  and  a  few  deaf-mutes  of  exceptional 
ability;  but  as  these  constitute  only  about  fifteen 
percent  of  the  whole  number  of  the  deaf,  the 
method  to  be  pursued  should  be  that  which  will 
benefit  the  remaining  eighty-five  percent.  While, 
however,  he  considered  the  sign  language  the 
only  one  natural  to  deaf-mutes,  and  therefore 
the  fittest  for  the  development  of  their  minds, 
it  was  necessary  to  keep  constantly  in  view,  not 
only  the  means  by  which  they  were  to  com- 
municate with  each  other,  but  more  especially  the 
means  by  which  they  were  to  communicate  \\  ith 
the  world  around  them,  with  the  members  of 
which  they  were  to  associate, as  nearlj  as  possible, 
on  terms  of  equality,  for  this  purpose,  the  defi- 
ciency of  the  sign  language  is  at  once  evident. 
In  the  investigation  of  the  causes  of  this  defi- 
ciency, Dr.  Peet  discovered  that  the  natural  lan- 
guage of  signs  had  a  syntax  of  its  own,  which  dif- 
fered from  spoken  English  principally  in  the  fol- 
lowing particulars;    (I)   the  order  of  expression 

is  inverted;  (2)  the  time  is  marked  one ,lv.  as 

in  the  Hebrew;  (3)  of  the  radical  elements,  there 
are  no  variations  corresponding  to  parts  of  speech; 

(4)  there  arc  no  inflections  to  denote  gender, 
number,   person,    case,    voice,  mood,  or    tense; 

(5)  particles  and  pronouns  are  seldom  used. 
Methodical  or  arbitrary  signs,  were,  therefore, 
necessary  to  supply  these  deficiencies,  and  the 
extent  to  which  these  should  be  used,  and  the 
method  of  using  them,  became  a  subject  not  only 
of  difficulty  but  of  controversy.  Dr.  Peet  looked 
upon  the  deaf-mute,  while  learning  written 
English,  as  in  the  condition  of  an  English  boy 
learning  any  foreign  language — Latin,  for  in- 
stance. To  such  a  boy.  the  English  word  and 
the  Latin  word  were  both,  he  thought,  direct 
representatives  of  the  idea.  His  opponents  held, 
on  the  contrary,  that  only  one  of  these — the  En- 
glish word — was  the  direct  representative;  and 


PE1KCK 


i;s;; 


that  the  Latin  word  represented  the  idea  indi- 
rectly. /.  c.  through  the  English   (inc.      Holding, 

therefore,  as  he  did,  that  the  written  word  and 
the  sign  were  equally  direct  representatives  of 
the  idea,  lie  considered  that,  in  the  use  of  lan- 
guage, the  sign  should  be  dropped  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  the  idea  attached  directly  to  the 
written  word.  Acting  on  these  views,  Dr.  Peet 
prepared,  for  use  in  his  institution,  a  course  of 
instruction,  arranged  to  embody  two  other  prin- 
ciples; namely,  that  ideas  should  he  taught  before 
words,  and  that  difficulties  should  be  gradually 
and  singly  overcome.  It  is  not  necessary,  how- 
ever, to  describe  the  manner  in  which  these  ideas 
are  practically  illustrated,  in  his  series  of  text- 
books,  or  to  trace  their  further  development  in 
subsequent  works.  Enough  has  been  said  to  in- 
dicate the  distinctive  character  of  his  system ;  and 
the  success  which  has  attended  the  use  of  it  in 
the  institution  which  he  conducted  so  many 
years,  and  which  is,  at  present,  under  the  care  of 
Ids  son,  Isaac  LewisPeet — trained  under  parental 
care  for  the  work — appears  to  be  an  ample  vin- 
dication of  its  correctness.  Of  the  place  Dr.  1'eet 
should  hold  in  the  ranks  of  those  noble  men  who 
have  given  their  lives  to  the  work  of  education, 
of  his  high  place  among  the  exceptional  men 
who  have  devoted  their  energies  to  the  difficult 
task  of  lifting  the  veil  from  intelligences  clouded 
by  misfortune,  there  can  be  no  question.  The 
essentially  Christian  character  of  the  work  un- 
dertaken, the  ability  and  patience  with  which 
it  was  pursued,  and  the  success  with  which  it 
was  attended,  must  always  claim  our  admiration 
and  demand  for  Dr.  Peet  a  place  among  the 
benefactors  of  his  race.  Besides  his  Course  of 
Instruction,  and.  JJixlon/  of  the  United  States 
(1869),  Dr.  Peet's  published  works  are  to  be 
found  in  articles  furnished  to  various  periodicals. 


.hiSOWB   rose 

Gerando,  Si 


the  results  reached 

and  (iuyot  were  first  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  English-reading  public.  Perhaps,  his  most 
valuable  contribution,  however,  was  the  Report 
on  the  Legal  Rights  and  Liabilities  of 'the  Deaf 
and  Dumb,  published  in  the  Herald  <•/'  Health 
(New  York.  L868).  It  will  be  seen  at  once  that 
deficiency  of  intellect  on  the  part  of  .leaf-mutes 
raises  important  questions  in  regard  to  their  legal 
rights.  This  report  furnishes  valuable  infor- 
mation on  marriage,  the  disposal  of  property, 
the  comprehension  of  the  oath,  and  many  other 
subjects;  and  being  unique  in  kind,  and  sup- 
plying, as  it  docs,  information  not  hitherto  at- 
tainable, it  will  long  be  quoted  as  an  authority. 
—  SeeBARNAKii,  American  Teachers  and  Edu- 
cators; Sylb,  Summary  of  the  Recorded  He- 
searches  and  Opinions  of  II  /'■  Peet  (Wash- 
ington, L873),  reprinted  from  American  Annals 
of  the  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

PEIRCE,  Cyrus,  a  noted  teacher,  born  in 
Waltham,  Mass..  August  L5.,  1790;  died  in  West 
Newton,  Mass.,  April  (1.,  1860.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  district  school  of  his  native  place, 
and  in  Harvard  College,  from  which  he  graduated 


084 


PEIEOB 


i  school  in  that 
wo  years.  At 
the  invitation, 
take  charge  of 


in  1810.  For  two  years,  he  taught  school  in 
Nantucket,  but.  in  L  81 2,  returned  to  college  to 
prepare  himself  for  the  ministry.  After  three 
years  spent  in  the  study  of  theology,  the  per- 
suasions  of  his  former  patrons  at  Nantucket  in- 

ilu 1  him  to  return  to  the  charge  of  the  school 

he  had  relinquished  there;  and,  for  three  years 
more,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  teach- 
ing. At  the  end  of  that  time,  he  entered  the 
ministry,  in  which  he  continued  eight  years.  Sus- 
pecting, however,  that  his  want  of  a  pleasing  ad- 
dress was  preventing  him  from  using  his  energies 
to  the  best  effect  morally,  and  that  the  faults  he 
sought  to  correct  in  adults,  could  be  dealt  with 
more  successfully,  if  taken  at  an  earlier  period, 
he  determined  to  abandon  the  pulpit  for  the  desk 
of  the  teacher.  Accordingly,  he  associated  him- 
self with  a  relative,  ami  opened  a  school  at  North 
Andover,  but  their  want  of  agreement  as  to  dis- 
cipline and  methods  of  teaching  led  to  a  sepa- 
ration after  four  years;  and,  in  18151 ,  he  returned 
to  Nantucket  where,  for  six  years,  he  conducted 
a  large  and  Houri.-hingscl 1.  One  of  his st  use- 
ful measures  was  tin.-  grading  of  the  public  schools 
of  Nantucket.  This  led,  Bhortly  after,  to  his  ap- 
pointment as  principal  of  tin 
place,  which  position  he  held 
the  end  of  that  time,  he  acce 
extended  by  Horace  Maun 
the  normal  school  at  Lexington,  the  establish- 
ment of  which  had  been  decided  upon  as  an  ex- 
periment by  the  state  board  of  education.  Only 
three  pupils  presented  themselves  at  the  opening 
of  the  school,  and  the  prospect  was  most  dis- 
heartening. The  thoroughness  of  Mr.  Peirce's 
instruction,  however,  and  his  ardent  devotion  to 
his  work  soon  attracted  attention;  the  apathy 
with  which  his  labors  were  regarded  by  a  large 
majority  of  the  friends  of  education  gradually 
gave  [place  to  confidence  :  and  the  superiority  of 
the  graduates  of  his  school  to  ordinary  teachers 
soon  placed  the  new  system  in  the  pathway  of 
assured  success.  I  luring  the  three  years  of  his 
labors  at  Lexingt  on,  more  than  fifty  teachers  were 
graduated,  and  the  testimony  generally  given  as 
to  their  fitness  for  the  profession  was  cordial  and 
almost  uniform.  In  connection  with  the  normal 
school,  he  established  a  model  school,  in  which 
the  methods  he  taught  were  pul  to  a  practical 
test  under  his  own  supervision.  From  1842  to 
the  close  of  his  life,  his  time  was  passed  in  teach- 
ing, and  writing  essays  on  education.  The  prin- 
cipal characteristics  of  Cyrus  Feirce  were  his 
deep  moral  convictions,  unwearied  patience,  and 
conscientious  devotion  to  duty— the  deepest  im- 
pression left  on  the  minds  of  all  with  whom 
he  was  associated  being  that  of  his  unswerving 
integrity.  As  the  principal  of  the  first  normal 
school  in  America,  specially  chosen  for  the  work 
by  one  so  eminent  in  the  educational  annals  of 
the  United  States,  and  justifying  that  choice  by 
self-sacrificing  and  effective  work,  at  a  critical 
moment,  his  name  will  always  be  accorded  a 
prominent    place   among  American   educators. — 

See  Barnard,  American  Teachers  and  Educa- 
tors (New  York.  L861). 


PENMANSH1F 

PENMANSHIP,  writing  with  the  pen;  al- 
though  the  term   is  sometimes  used  to  indicate 

pen  being  the  most  important  instrument  for 
writing.  The  ability  to  write  is  one  of  the  two 
fundamental  characteristics  of  an  educated  per- 
son, the  inability  to  read  and  write  constituting 
what  is  technically  called  illiteracy;  and  yet,  in 
advanced  education,  a  legible  or  elegant  style 
of  handwriting  is  not  considered  of  great  im- 
portance ;  for  the  cases  are  very  few  in  which  a 
candidate  either  for  admission  to  a  college  or 
university,  or  for  a  graduating  diploma,  is  re- 
jected for  not  being  able  to  write,  any  scrawl, 
however  illegible  or  inelegant,  being  usually  ac- 
cepted as  evidence  of  such  ability.  The  conse- 
quence is,  that  good  penmanship  has  not  been 
the  distinguishing  feature  of  college  graduates, 
but  rather  the  reverse.  When  the  value  of  this 
accomplishment,  in  every  sphere  of  life,  is  con- 
sidered, it  will  be  obvious  that  the  policy  of  thus 
disparaging  penmanship  as  the  accomplishment 
of  a  scholar  is  an  entirely  mistaken  one.  It  is 
irue  that  it  cannot  be  considered  as  an  element 
of  superior  instruction  :  but  those  who  have  the 
direction  of  that  grade  of  instruction,  should  al- 
ways insist  upon  the  completion  of  the  inferior 
grades  as  an  indispensable  prerequisite  for  ad- 
mission to  higher  studies.  In  elementary  schools, 
penmanship  constitutes  a  very  important  branch 
of  instruction;  and,  in  these,  sufficient  time 
should  be  given  to  it  to  insure,  at  least,  a  respect- 
able degree  of  excellence  to  each  of  the  pupils. — 

There  are  various  so-called  systems  of  teaching 
penmanship,  but  the  underlying  principles  are 
the  same  in  all.  the  difference  chiefly  consisting 
in  a  diversity  in  the  arrangement  of  the  elements 
of  the  letters,  with  slight  modifications  in  their 
forms  and  mode  of  execution,  and  in  the  exer- 
cises for  practice.  In  order  to  write  well,  the 
pupil  must  have  (1)  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  forms  of  the  letters,  and  (2)  a  command  of 
the  pen  to  execute  them.  These  two  fundament- 
al acquirements  must  be  made  simultaneously, 
except  that  some  previous  elementary  instruction 
and  practice  in  drawing  will  aid    the   pupil  very 


the 


Hienlty  /,.,/■/  ,-«■«  with  the 
and  arm.  The  proper  posi- 
ilie  correct  mode  of  hold- 
"  ile  prerequisites  to 


m 


a  careful  analysis  of  the  elementary 
forms  of  the  letters;  and.  in  this  respect,  systems 
greatly  differ.  They  have,  however,  many  points 
in  common— -indeed  every  thing  that  is  essen- 
tial. Commencing  with  straigbl  line-;,  to  lie  made 
at  the  proper  slope. and  with  perfect  parallelism, 

the  pupil  advances  progressively  to  the  pot-hook, 

the  loop,  the  ellipse,  as  iii  the  letter  o,  etc.,  till, 
by  practicing  these  and  their  combinations,  he 
has  mastered  all  tin'  small  letters  of  the  script 
alphabet,  when  he  proceeds, in  a  similar  manner, 
with  the  capitals,  from  which  he  passes  to  words,. 


PENN   COLLEGE 


PENNSYLVANIA 


phrases,  sentences,  and  paragraphs.  The  copy- 
book should  not  be  used  after  the  pupil  has  be- 
come thoroughly  familiar  with  the  proper  forms 
of  the  letters,  and  thus  acquired  a  fair  style  of 
writing.  -Much  time  is  frequently  lost  in  com- 
pelling pupils,  year  after  year,  to  write  copies. 
Quantity  as  well  as  quality  .should  be  required  ; 
excellence  in  penmanship  consisting  both  in  cor- 
rectness and  speed  of  execution.  Many  useful 
exercises  may  be  blended  with  practice  in  pen- 
manship, as  the  learning  of  the  forms  used  in 
business,  such  as  bilk,  receipts,  modes  of  super- 
scribing and  addressing  letters,  etc.  Practice  in 
calligraphy,  or  artistic  penmanship,  is  also  of 
use,  but  should  not  be  carried  to  an  extreme  in 
schools.  The  remarks  of  an  experienced  teacher 
may  here  be  cited  :  "Constant  vigilance,  and 
continual  correction  of  errors,  are  indispensable 
to  the  formation  of  a  good  hand.  To  know  how 
to  execute  well,  then,  is  the  grand  requisite  in 
the  teacher  ;  the  next,  to  furnish  good  models  ; 
and  the  third,  to  have  a  quick  eye  to  detect 
faults,  and  a  persistent  determination  for  their 
correction.  These  conditions  existing,  and  the 
principle  carried  out.  your  pupils  will  write  well, 
with  a  reasonable  amount  and  duration  of  prac- 
tice." (Gideon  F.Thayer, in  Barnard's  Journal 
of  Education.)  —  See  also  Payson,  Dunton,  etc. 
Theory  and  Art  of  Penmanship  (NT.  Y.,  1863)  ; 
Wickebsham,  Methods  of  Instruction  (Phila., 
1865) ;  How  to  Teach  (N.  Y.,  187-1). 

PENN  COLLEGE,  at  ( Iskaloosa,  Iowa,  under 
the  control  of  the  Friends,  was  incorporated  in 
1866  as  Iowa  Union  College  Association  of 
Friends.  The  name  was  changed  in  1873.  It 
has  an  endowment  of  $5,000,  and  a  library  of 
about  2,000  volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $30 
a  year.  The  institution  comprises  a  collegiate 
(a  classical  and  a  scientific  course),  a  preparatory, 
a  normal,  and  a  business  department.  Both  sexes 
are  admitted.  In  187-4 — 5,  there  were  12  in- 
structors, and  38  collegiate,  183  preparatory,  41 
normal,  and  32  business  students,  of  whom  some 
belong  to  more  than  one  department.  John  W. 
Woody,  A.  M.,  is  the  president  (1876). 

PENNSYLVANIA,  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  important  of  the  thirteen  original  states  of 
the  American  Union.  Its  area  is  46,000  sq.  m., 
and  its  population,  in  1870,  was  3,522,050,  of 
whom  65,294  were  colored  persons.  Its  popula- 
tion in  1875,  was  estimated  at  3.941,400. 

Educational  History.  —  This  subject  will  be 
treated  under  the  following  heads :  (I)  The 
Colonial  period  :.  (II)  Under  the  constitution  of 
1790;  (HI)  Under  the  constitutions  of  1838 
and  1873. 

I.  The  Colonial  Period. — From  the  founding 
of  Penn's  colony  on  the  banks  of  the  IMaware, 
may  be  said  to  date  the  beginning  of  Pennsyl-  , 
vania's  educational  history.  The  first  plan  of  the 
proprietary  government  drafted  by  Penn  before 
leaving  England,  in  1682,  stipulated  that  "the  | 
governor  and  provincial  council  shall  erect  and 
order  all  public  schools,  and  reward  the  authors 
of  useful  sciences  and  laudable  inventions  in  said 
provinces."     During  the  following  year,  a  law  | 


was  enacted  by  the  council  of  the  province,  which 
provided  that  a  Bchool  should  be  established  for 
tfie  education  of  the  young.  Immediate  steps 
were  taken  to  put  this  enactment  into  execution. 

The  gover 'and  the  council,  perceiving  "the 

great  necessity  there  is  of  a  school  master,  for  the 
instruction  and  sober  education  of  youth."  elect- 
ed one  Enoch  Flower,  a  teacher  of  several  years 
experience,  to  open  a  school.  The  branches  re- 
quired to  be  taught  were,  reading,  writing,  ami 
the  easting  of  accounts.  According  to  the  most 
authentic  records,  this  was  the  first  school  estab- 
lished within  the  present  territorial  limits  of 
the  state.  In  different  parts  of  the  province, 
other  schools  were  organized.  In  1692,  a  school 
was  opened  at  Darby  (now  in  Delaware  Co.)  ; 
and  in  1698.  the  Society  of  Friends  established 
a  school  in  Philadelphia,  where  all  the  children 
and  servants,  male  and  female,  "might  be  taught, 
and  provision  made  that  the  poor  might  be 
taught  gratis."  The  motto  of  the  school,  "Good 
instruction  is  better  than  riches,"  was  selected 
by  Penn.  In  1701,  the  charter  of  this  Friends' 
School  was  confirmed  by  a  new  patent  from 
Penn,  bearing  date.  October  25.,  1701,  and,  also, 
by  another,  in  1708,  whereby  the  corporation 
was  "  forever  thereafter  to  consist  of  15  discreet, 
religious  persons  of  the  people  called  Quakers, 
by  the  name  of  Overseers  of  the  Public  School, 
founded  in  Philadelphia  at  the  request,  cost,  and 
charges,  of  the  people  called  Quakers."  Another 
charter  was  granted  by  Penn,  in  1711,  for  ex- 
tending the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  corpora- 
tion. This  was  the  first  public  school  in  Penn- 
sylvania ;  and  the  design  of  the  governor  and 
council  in  establishing  this  institution  is  best  set 
forth  in  the  preamble  of  the  last  charter,  which 
reads  as  follows : 

"  Whereas  the  prosperity  and  welfare  of  any  people 
depend  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  good  education 
of  youth,  and  their  early  introduction  in  the  principles 
of  true  religion  and  virtue,  and  qualifying  them  to 
serve  their  country  ami  themselves  by  breeding  them 
in  reading,  writing,  and  learning  et  languages  and  use- 
ful arts  and  seieiiees,  suitable  to  their  sex,  age,  and 
degree;  which  cannot  be  affected,  in  any  manner,  so 
well  as  by  erecting  Pcblic  Schools  for  the  purpose 
aforesaid." 

As  the  early  settlers  pushed  their  way  west- 
ward, the  progress  of  education  was  accelerated 
by  the  prosperity  of  the  thrifty  colonists.  Thus 
far,  the  schools  established  had  been  chiefly 
under  the  direction  of  the  governor  and  pro- 
vincial council ;  though  no  special  provision  was 
made  by  the  authorities  regulating  the  number 
of  schools  in  accordance  with  the  number  of 
families  in  each  settlement,  as  was  done  in  some 
other  colonies. — It  should  be  distinctly  under- 
stood that  the  school  established  by  the  Society 
of  Friends  in  1698,  and  supported  by  them  and 
conducted  under  their  direct  and  exclusive  con- 
trol, was  open  indiscriminately  to  persons  of  all 
religious  denominations,  and  was,  for  more  than 
half  a  century,  the  only  public  school  in  the 
province.  In  the  mean  time,  new  settlements 
had  been  formed  in  various  parts  of  the  province; 
and  the  school,  by  reason  of  its  location  as  well 


r,st3 


PKXXSYLYAX1A 


as  the  want  of  accommodations,  had  long  bees 
inadequate  to  meet  the  educational  necessities 
of  the  province.  Private  schools  were  there- 
fore, called  into  existence,  "whenever  the  colonists 
could  find  means  and  the  opportunity  to  provide 
for  them. — Among  tin-  early  German  settlers  the 
proper  instruction  of  their  youth  was  a  subject 
of  deep  concern.  As  early  as  L755,  they  num- 
bered 30,000  souls;  and,  wherever  a  sufficient 
number  were  settled,  the  church  and  the  school- 
house  were  erected.  From  I  TliO  until  the  close 
of  the  Revolution,  the  vicissitudes  of  the  colony 
were  so  great  as  to  prevent  the  establishment 
of  any  educational  system  whatever.  Ai  tin- 
close  of  the  Revolution  the  first  fundamental 
law  adopted  by  the  people  recognized  the 
right  to  provide  schools  and  defray  the  expense 
thereof,  to  a  certain  extent,  from  the  public 
funds. 

II.  Under  the  Constitution  of  1790.  -The  con- 
stitution of  1790  required  that  the  legislature 
should  "  provide  by  law  for  the  establishment  of 
schools  throughout  the  state  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  poor  maybe  taught  gratis;"  and,  also, 
that  "the  arts  and  sciences  shall  be  promoted  in 
one  or  more  seminaries  of  learning."  The  con- 
stitutional convention  of  1  7!M),  however,  did  not 
contemplate  the  establishment  of  a  system  of 
common  schools  which  should  be  free  to  all  the 
children  of  the  commonwealth,  nor,  prior  to 
1830,  was  the  establishment  of  such  a  system 
recognized  by  many  as  a  legitimate  object  of 
strife  legislation,  or  even  regarded  as  a  matter  of 
great  public  concern.  'I'll  •  opinion  which  long 
prevailed  was.  that  this  duty  belonged  exclusive- 
ly to  parents  and  guardians;  and  when  the  legis- 
lature, soon  after  the  adoption  of  the  constitu- 
tion, took  action  on  thesubject,  nothing  more  was 

d than  to  make  provision  whereby  the  poor 

children  in  every  district  were  to  be  enrolled  for 
the  purpose  of  attending  school  if  they  wished. 
their  tuition  to  be  paid  out  of  the  county  funds. 
Laws  of  the  same  import  were  enacted  in  I  -<<-. 
'I. and  1809.  Thatof  Ihelastdatewasentitlel 
/^  "An  act  to  provide  for  the  education  of  the  poor 
gratis."  and  remained  in  force  up  to  the  time  of 
the  adoption  of  the  first  common-school  system, 
/  in  183d.  The  new  system  was  called  by  those 
wdio  disliked  it  the  "pauper  system."  as  H  drew 
a  line  of  distinction  between  the  rich  and  the 
poor,  the  children  in  all  the  schools  being  divide  1 
into  two  classes  known  as  pay  scholars  and 
paupers.  The  whole numberof  children  who  were 
brought  into  the  schools,  in  the  year  1833,  the 
last  in  which  these  acts  were  in  force,  was  only 
17.4117.  and  the  whole  amount  expended  in  their 
behalf.  .^ts.ii;i;.'j."i.  <  ippositiou  to  the  /./»/.•;■ 
systt  in  manifest,  d  ;■-.  It  tVom  the  beginning;  but 
many  years  elapsed  before  the  friends  of  a 
broadei  and  b  fci  i  system,  were  able  to  make 
their  influence  felt  in  the  legislature.  This  in- 
fluence was  increased  in  L818,  when  Phila- 
delphia was  exempted  from  the  operation  of 
the  pauper  system,  by  the  pa  sage  of  a  special 
act,  which  provided  for  the  education  of  its 
children   at   the  public    expense.      This   same 


act,  with  a  few  changes,  is  still  in  force  in 
that  city.  In  1827,  a  number  of  citizens,  re- 
siding in  the  city  and  county  of  Philadelphia, 
formed  an  association  for  the  promotion  of  edu- 
cation in  the  state,  by  the  establishment  of  a 
system  of  public  schools  ;  and.  after  considerable 
agitation,  the  measure,  being  strongly  urged  by 
George  Wolf,  then  governor,  was  adopted  by  the 
legislature,  April  1.,  L834.  The  ad  passed  was, 
however,  defective,  and  encountered  the  most  vio- 
lent opposition.  During  the  legislative  session 
of  1S34 — 5,  thousands  of  petitions  were  pre- 
sented, asking  for  the  repeal  of  the  law.  and  few 
of  the  representatives  had  sufficient  courage  to 
defend  it  openly.  Notwithstanding  this,  it  was 
defended  by  'I  haddetis  Stevens, then  a  represent- 
ative from  Adams  County,  who,  at  this  critical 
moment,  made  one  of  his  most  eloquent  appeals 
in  its  behalf,  and  thus  saved  the  system.  Accord- 
ing to  the  report  of  James  Findlay,  secretary  of 
the  commonwealth,  and  superintendent  of  com- 
mon schools,  ex  officio,  only  93  districts,  out  of 
900,  accepted  the  system  during  the  first  year  it 
was  in  operation.  The  average  length  of  the  school 
term  at  that  time  was  3}  months;  the  number 
of  schools,  -l."d  :  and  the  number  of  pupils  in  at- 
tendance, 19,864.  The  average  salary  paid  to 
teachers  was  not  epiite  $16  a  month.  (  ^position  to 
the  law  creating  the  system,  continued  to  in- 
crease as  its  defects  became  more  apparent,  t  hie 
of  the  first  official  acts  of  Governor  Eitner,  in 
1835,  was  to  appoint  as  secretary  of  the  common- 
wealth Thomas  II.  Burrowes,  who,  by  virtue  of 
his  office,  became  superintendent  of  common 
schools.  He  remained,  through  his  whole  public 
career,  a  steadfasl  friend  of  the  system.  In  1  s:;.., 
a  new  bill  was  presented  "to  consolidate  and 
amend  the  several  acts  in  relation  to  a  system  of 
education  by  common  schools,"  in  securing  the 
passage  of  which  both  Mr.  Stevens  and  Mr.  Bur- 
rowes rendered  valuable  assistance.  The  accept- 
ance of  the  new  law  was  made  optional  with 
each  district,  the  citizens  being  allowed  to  \ote 
on  the  question  of  the  continuance  of  the  public 
schools  every  third  year.  The  great  work  now  to 
be  done  was  to  secure  the  adoption  of  the  system 
bj  the  people,  and  to  put  it  into  operation.  Mr. 
Burrowes,  the  superintendent,  undertook  this 
work.  Be  visited  nearly  all  the  counties  in  the 
state,  delivered  addresses,  explained  the  law,  pre- 
pared the  necessary  forms.  —  and  succeeded  in 
placing  the  system  upon  a  firm  basis.  His  suc- 
cess was  so  great  that,  in  the  third  and  last  re- 
port made  'luring  his  term  of  office  under  Gover- 
nor Ritner,  he  was  able  to  present  the  following 
statistics:  accepting  districts.  840;  number  of 
schools,  5,269  ;  number  of  teachers,  fi.732  :  num- 
berof pupils.  174.7:13.  The  state  appropriation, 
also,  had  reached  the  sum  of  $308,819;a  tax  had 
been  raised  for  the  support  of  schools,  amount- 
ing to  $385,788;  and  the  average  school  term 
ths. 
e  time   of  the  or- 


had  been   e 

Forty  yi 

ganization 
tion  of  the 


however,   be    inferred    that,   during 


vcrmnent  to  the  adop- 

svstem.     It  must  not 


period 


PENNSYLVANIA 


there  was  no  legislation  relating  to  education  ;' its  abolition.      Principally,  however,  through  the 
such  as  there  was.  however,  was  generally  in  the    efforts  of  the  stair   superintendent.  Mr.  I  lickok. 


teachers'  institutes  were  legalized  in  all  thi 
counties  of  the  state,  and  authority  was  givei 
to  the  state  superintendent  to  issues  high  gradi 


interest  of   private  schools. 

lie  policy    of  the 

legislature  seemed  to  be,  toes 

abliah,  first,  acad- 

emies,  colleges,  and    universit 
number  of  arts  passed  mostly 

D  behalf    of    SUCh 

institutions,  was  186;  and  thi 

whole  ;, mount  of 

appropriations,  in  money  or  i 

s  equivalent,  be- 

stowed  chiefly  on   corporate 

bodies,  including 

academies,  colleges,    and    uni 

rersities,    reached 

nearly  $300,000.  In  1833,  ther 

•  were  '1  universi- 

ties.  8  colleges,  and  50  acadei 

ies,    all  of    which 

had  been  liberally  aided  by  thi 

III.  Education und  r  fa  Co 

stituiions  of  1838 

and  1873.-  in  1-.:-   i ven 

ion  met  inPhila- 

delphiato  revise  the  constitu 

ion  of  the  state. 

On  the  subject  of  education, 

it   recommended, 

without  change,  the  provisions 

found  in  the  con- 

stitutionof  1790.     Th an 

m-school    system 

had  now  been  in  operations 

veral   years,   and 

was  gradually  commending  its 

«  to  the   ! pie. 

Important  changes  in  the  law 

took    place   ft 

time  to  time.     In  1848,  th  s  pi 

ople    having  pre- 

viously,  in  the  triennial  electdo 

,m  every  part  -it 
ance   of  the  sys- 

tern'  an  act  was  passed  extendi 

ig  it  over  the  en- 

commonwealth    were    enrolle 

1    in    the   public 

schools,  and  taught  ab  ml  five  i 

onthsinthe  year, 

at  a  cost  of  about  $600,000. 

In  1849,  all  the 

laws  relating  to  schools  were  c 

fleeted  and  codi- 

tied.    In  January,   1852,  Thoi 

las   II.    Burrowes 

commenced   the  publication  i 

f   an   educational 

journal,  the  title  of  which,  at  1 

ie  end  of  the  first 

half  year,  was    changed    to  1 

ie    /',;>)ts,/lr,.milt 

School  Journal;  and,  in   1855 

it  became  the  of- 

ficial  organ  of  the  school  depa 

■tinent.     In  1870, 

James  P.  Wickersham,  the  sta 

e  superintendent. 

became  its  editor;  and,  since 

that  time,  it  has 

gained  largely  in  influence  am 

circulation.     On 

the  28th  of  December,  1852,  a 

Bmall   number  of 

prominent  teachers  and  friend 

of  education  met 

a1  Harrisburg  and  organized  I 

e  State  Teachers' 

Association,  which  hasconven 

id    annually  since 

that  time.     In  1854,  a  genert 

1   school   law  was 

passed   which  created  the  offici 

of  county  super- 

intcnd.nt.  abolished  committei 

s   in  sub-districts, 

ities  to  school  di- 

w-t,r.'r,uJllori/.e'l,,th,.'ap".a.iui 

uent  of  a  deputy 

state  superintendent,   introduc 

id    uniformity   of 

text-books  iuto  the  schools  of  ( 

ich  district,  fixed 

the   minimum  school    term    i 

t    1    months,  and 

authorized  boards  of   school   .1 

rectors  to  levy  a 

special  tax  annually  for  buildii 

g  purposes.   April 

17.,  1855,  the  Lancasl  ir  Cou 

nv  Normal  Insti- 

tute  was  opened  in  Millersyille 

by  J.  P.  Wicker- 

sham,  who  was  then  superintei 

lent  of  the  above 

named  county.     In  1857,  the 

normal  school  act 

was  passed,  also  a  law  sepan 

ing  the  office  of 

the  Commonwealth!  and  creat 

■,i,.'.    at    the   same 

time,  the  department  of  conn 

ion  schools.     The 

county  superintendence  which 

had  just  been  put 

in   operation,    under    the    new 

law,  was,  at  this 

time,  so  unpopular,  that,  at  ti 

lies,  it   seemed   as 

if  its  enemies  would  succeed 

in  bringing  about 

years  of  ace. and  E 
■ast  $1,000,000  foi 
us,,  of  any  of  thi 
•tarian   schools,  ai 

'     t       ll;\      til  ■     :f 


The   follow 
of  schools  sta 


ti;  T.  II.  Bun 

)_41  ;    A.  V. 


diaries     M< 


The  state 
lows :  James 
1836—8;  F 
sons,    1841 

Jesse  Miller,  1846  8;  Townsend  Haines.  1849 
—50;  A.  L.  Russell,  1851—2;  V.  W.  Hughes, 
1853—4;  C.A.  Black,  1854-  -5:  A.  G.  Curtin, 
1856—7.  The  persons  above  named  filled  the 
office  of  superintendent,  by  virtue  of  holding 
the  office  of  secretary  of  the  commonwealth. 
In  June,  1857,  the  Department  of  Common 
Schools  was  organized;  and.  since  that  time,  the 
following  named  persons  have  been  commis 
sinned  as  superintendent:  II.  ('.  Hickok,  1858 
— 60  ;T.  H.  Burrowes,  1860— 63;  C.R.Coburn, 
1863—6;  J.  P.  Wickersham,  from  1866  to  the 
presenl  time  (1877). 

School  System.— The  educational  interests  of 


the  senate.  His  term  of  office  is  4  years.  Hi 
duties  arc  to  decide  all  controversies  between 
school  officers  ;  to  give   advice  and  explanation 


PENNSYLVANIA 


relative  to  the  common-school  law,  the  duties  of 
school  officers,  and  the  rights  ami  duties  of 
parents,  guardians,  teachers,  and  pupils ;  to  sign 
all  orders  on  the  state  treasurer  for  the  payment 
of  the  state  appropriation  to  the  several  districts, 
and  for  salaries  of  county  superintendents:  to 
prepare  blank  forms  for  the  use  of  school  officers 
and  the  department  of  public  instruction;  to 
commission  county,  city,  and  borough  superin- 
tendents ;  to  appoint  trustees  for  normal  schools, 
and  committees  to  examine  annually  the  grad- 
uating classes  of  the  state  normal  schools  ;  to  fill 
all  vacancies  among  county  superintendents  ;  and 
to  make  an  annual  report  to  the  governor  and 
the  state  legislature. — The  school  directors  of 
each  county  meet  in  convention  at  the  county 
seat,  on  the  first  Tuesday  of  .May,  every  third 
year,  and  elect  a  county  superintendent  for  a 
term  of  three  years,  and  lix  his  salary  for  the 
same  time.  He  must  be  a  legal  resident  of  the 
county  ;  and  must  have  one  of  the  following 
documents:  a  diploma  from  a  college,  a  diploma 
from  a  state  normal  school,  a  professional  or 
permanent  certificate,  or  a  certificate  of  com- 
petency from  the  state  superintendent.  He 
must,  also,  have  skill  and  experience  in  teach- 
ing.— The  duties  of  the  county  superintendent 
are,  to  examine  teachers  and  give  certificates, 
setting  forth  the  qualifications  of  applicants;  to 
visit  the  schools  as  often  as  possible,  and  give 
instruction  in  teaching  and  school  government ; 
to  see  that  orthography,  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic, geography,  and  grammar  are  taught  in  all 
the  schools;  to  hold  annually  a  teachers' insti- 
tute which  must  remain  in  session  5  days ;  to 
annul  certificates  of  teachers  for  incompetency, 
cruelty,  negligence,  or  immorality  ;  to  examine, 
affirm,  and  forward  to  the  state  department  the 
annual  reports  of  the  several  boards  ;  and  to  make 
an  annual  report  to  the  state  superintendent. 
Cities  and  borouglis  having  not  less  than  7,000 
inhabitants,  may  elect  superintendents  of  their 
own.  The  duties  and  powers  of  such  officers 
are  similar  to  those  of  county  superintendents. 
The  state  is  divided  into  school-districts;  each 
township,  borough,  and  city  constituting  one 
district.  School  directors,  generally  six  in  num- 
ber, are  elected  in  each  district  by  the  people 
for  a  term  of  3  years,  and  constitute  the  district 
school  board.  The  officers  of  each  of  these  boards 
are  a  president,  a  secretary,  and  a  treasurer.  It  is 
the  duty  of  the  president  to  issue  warrants  for 
the  collection  of  taxes ;  to  sign  all  orders,  deeds, 
and  contracts  ;  to  attest  by  oath  or  affirmation 
the  correctness  of  the  annual  statement  of  ex- 
penses, liabilities,  etc..  which  must  be  presented 
tn.  ami  accepted  by,  the  department  of  public 
instruction  before  a  warrant  for  the  annual  state 
appropriation  is  issued.  The  duties  of  the  secre- 
tary are  to  keep  minutes  of  all  the  proceedings 
of  the  board ;  to  prepare  duplicates  for  the  tax 
collector;  to  prepare  and  forward  the  annual 
district  report  and  certificate  :  to  examine  and 
approve  monthly  reports  of  teachers:  and  to  keep 
in  charge  all  valuable  papers.  The  treasurer 
receives  all  moneys,  disburses  the  school  moneys 


on  proper  orders  ;  and  settles  his  accounts  an- 
nually with  the  board  and  auditors.  The  school 
boards  must  organize  each  year  within  ten  days 
after  the  first  Monday  in  June.  Their  duties 
are  to  establish  a  sufficient  number  of  schools  ; 
to  fill  vacancies  in  the  board ;  to  levy  a  tax  for 
school  and  building  purposes  :  to  select  sites  for, 
and  erect,  school  houses  ;  to  fix  the  length  of  the 
school  term  ;  to  appoint  teachers  and  fix  salaries; 
to  grade  schools  when  necessary  ;  to  direct  what 
branches  shall  be  taught  ;  to  decide  what  text- 
books shall  be  used  ;  and  to  visit  the  schools  at 
least  once  a  month.  These  boards,  also,  may  dis- 
miss teachers  for  cruelty,  negligence,  incompe- 
tency, or  immorality.  They  pay  all  expenses  by 
order  on  the  treasurer,  and  publish  annually  a 
statement  setting  forth  the  receipts  and  expend- 
itures of  the  district.  The  scliool  revenue  is 
derived    from   the  following  sources  :   (1)  a  state 

appropriation  of  not  less  than  $1,000,< to  he 

anuually  distributed  among  the  several  districts 
upon  the  basis  of  the  number  of  taxable  citizens; 
(2)  a  school  tax  not  to  exceed  13  mills  on  each 
dollar  of  the  assessed  valuation,  to  be  levied  and 
collected  annually,  to  pay  teachers'  salaries  and 
other  necessary  expenses  of  the  schools;  (3)  a 
"building  tax''  to  be  levied  and  collected  annually, 
if  the  school  board  deem  it  necessary,  but  not  to 
exceed  the  amount  levied  for  school  purposes. 
This  tax  is  used  in  paying  for  sites  for  school- 
houses,  and  the  erection  and  repairs  of  school 
buildings.  The  studies  to  be  pursued  in  the 
common  schools,  not  being  strictly  designated 
by  law,  have  been  left,  by  the  interpretation  of 
the  state  superintendent,  to  the  discretion  of  the 
local  boards,  who  are  governed  in  their  decision 
by  the  wants  of  their  districts.  These  boards, 
also,  may  establish  separate  schools  for  colored 
children,  whenever  they  can  be  so  located  as  to 
accommodate  20  or  more  pupils.  The  school 
age  is  from  G  to  21  years  ;  the  school  year, 
5  months  of  22  days  each. 

Kilm-iitiuiKit  Cuuilitiiiii. —  The  number  of 
school  districts  in  the  state  is  2,103  ;  the  num- 
ber of  schools,  17,497,  of  which  5,957  are  graded. 
The  school  revenue,  exclusive  of  $28,000  for  nor- 
mal schools,  for  the  year  ending  June  1.,  1876, 
was  as  follows: 

From  local  tax $8,659,73S.67 

"     state  appropriation.. .      972,000.00 

Total. . .  .7777 $9,631,738.67 

The  expenditures  for  common-school  purposes 
were  as  follows : 
For  tuition $4,856,888.91 


For  fuel,  contingencies,  etc.  2,  +71,890.90 

Total $9,063,928.68 

The  principal    items  of    school  statistics  for 
1870  are  as  follows: 
Number  of  children  enrolled  in  public  schools.  902,34.1 

Average  daily  attendance 578,718 

Number  of  teachers, 20,192 

\vcra"C  IllontMv  sal. n  V  d  in.il'    I    a    hn  ,  «::     7- 

"  "        "  female     "       $30.42 

Estimated  value  of  school  property $26,265,925.2S 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Normal  [iisfn 
■enacted  in   18.">7 


■  normal  school  law, 
e  state  into  12  dis- 
diool  in  each.  Nine 


I'he  whole 
state  nor- 
e  number 
issors  and 

I  he  libra- 


tricts.  allowing  one  normal  scl 
have  already  been  organized,  a 
under  this  act.  Philadelphia 
school,  which  was  opened  in 
number  of  students  who  attei 
mal  schools  during  1S7.">.  was 
of  graduates,  191  ;  the  numbe 
teachers.  1 14;  the  number  of  VI 
ries,  13,000  ;  the  value  of  buildings  and  grounds, 
$940,000;  the  whole  amount  appropriated  to  all 
'  the  schools.  $350,000.  The  entire  income  from 
all  sources  (luring  the  same  time  was  $357,996.91; 
total  expenditures  for  all  purposes,  $350,173.83. 

Teachers'  Institutes.  —  In  lsc>7,  a  law  was 
passed  requiring  a  teachers'  institute  to  be  held 
once  a  year  in  each  county,  to  continue  in  ses- 
sion 5  days.  To  defray  the  expenses,  superin- 
tendents are  entitled  to  draw  from  the  county 
treasury  a  sum  of  money  not  exceeding  $200. 
The  attendance  of  teachers  in  l£75,  was  L3,523; 
the  number  of  school  directors,  1  .Hi 2  ;  the  num- 
ber of  instructors  and  lecturers,  4:!5  ;  the  whole 
amount  expended  was  $21,160.54. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  number  of  pub- 
lic schools  in  the  state  in  which  instruction  in 
the  higher  branches  was  given  in  1875, was  1,601. 
Besides  these,  there  were  88  academies  and  sem- 
inaries, that  reported  to  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, and  also  7  preparatory  schools,  and  10 
business  colleges. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  following  is  a  list 
of  colleges  and  universities  in  the  state  : 

[The  names  ol  those  for  females  exclusively  are  print- 
ed in  italics;  those  for  both  sexes,  in  Small  Caps.] 


For  further  information  in  regard  to  these  in- 
stitutions, sec  the  respective  titles,  in  other  parts 
of  this  work. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction.— 
Many  of  the  institutions  enumerated  under  the 
head  of  superior  instruction  have  special  depart- 
ments in  winch  professional  or  scientific  instruc- 
tion is  given.  The  principal  schools  of  each  class 
arc  enumerated  in  I  In-  following  tables: 


NAME 

Location 

char- 

Denomi- 

Meadville 

1811 

M.  Epis. 

Allentown 

1807 

Kef. 

Dickinson  College.... 

Carlisle 

1783 

M.  Epis. 

1853 

Kef.  (Ger.) 

Havei-lonl  College.  .  .  . 

Haverl'ord  Coll. 

1833 

Friends 

lrviiu)  Female  College. . 

Meohanicsburg 

1857 

Non-sect. 

Lafayette  College..    .. 

Eastou 

1820 

La  Salle  College     ....      hiladeiphia 

|sc,;l 

R   C. 

Lebanon  vail  s  Col]        Innville 

1807 

Un. Broth. 

LehlghUniversitj    ...    So. Bethlehem 

1800 

Pr.  Epis. 

'l.i 10    1     „■>.,         1.                 .!!,-..,■<    ... 

1854 

M,  ccerabiu    I    U  -      M  rcersnurg 

Kef. 

MOBOKGAHELACotL    .      Ii  It  r-n 

1807 

Bap. 

Muhlenberg  College..  Ullentown 

1807 

Luth. 

'NewCasttj  Co i      Ni  n  Castle 

PAI.ATIMII     1-..I  1.1  OK.       Mv.TstoWIl 

lM',8 

Kef. 

"P.   ,.1,-M      .                                                       ,..,-; 

is:  12 

Ev.  Luth. 

Perm.  Female  Co      \        1      .     i  .  i  1. 

1  •-..; 

I'm,,.  Female  Ci                - 

IVnn.  Mihtarv  V  a.l         i-li    strr 

'PUUtm,  ,■•  i     i       I          Pit   -i.urgh 

St    Iran.  iaCol                Loretl 

Tst.JoBi  ph'aCoUege  ..    Philadelphia 

SI    \|1,   ■  :  i  -.     Uegi         .   .■      i. 

R    C. 

'SwAisnni.  ..i  .  ..   i  ,  ...     s    .nil, mm .re 

1804 

Thi.l  College        Greeneville 

1870 

Ev.  Luth. 

^Usiv.  at  l.l.ui-l.ria.    .     I..  ui-Ihu" 

1846 

Bap. 

Philadelphia 

1755 

1800 

Ref. 

Villanova  College 

Villanova 

1848 

R.  C. 

Washington  and  Jef- 

ferson College 

1802 

Presb. 

.  Wayneslnirg  College. 
Western  t'niv.ofPenn. 

Waynesburg 

18511 

Cu.Presb. 

Pittsburgh 

1810 

Noll-Bert. 

Wkstminster  Coll... 

NewWilmingt'n 

1852 

PH. Presb. 

Wilson  College 

Chambersburg 

1869 

Presb. 

Mfi 

FOAL  Schooi 

NAME. 

Location 

£% 

:  jj  | 

z  s 

o  S 

ll.iliuolnali 

Med.  Col- 
ladelphia. 
d.College 

Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 

1848 
1825 

13 

17 

140 
500 

Si, ,■■■,,>.. 

Philadelphia 

1856 

20 

90 

PhSZDeni 

d-Coiieg, 

Philadelphia 
Philadelphia 

1822 
1863 

3 

21 

.110 
105 

oi  Pi  mi  J 

vania 

Philadelphia 

1850 

14 

75 

Schools  op  Science. 

NAME 

Location 

p-s 

11 

£  2 

'l^'s. 

Institute 
lie  College  of 

Philadelphia 

Philadelphia 
State  College 

Philadelphia 

1824 

1854 
1855 

144 
i   SOO 

to 

Aii:'ii>!ilii;i!i  (olli-e 

ot  \  illauova 

Crozer  Theological 


Theol.  Seminary  i 

('has.  Borroi > 

Thei.l.Soiiiinnryof  the 


R.  C. 

Bap. 

Prot.  Epis. 

Moravian 

Unitarian 
Evan.  Luth. 
R.  C. 
R.  C. 

It.  C. 

Ref. 

Evan  Luth. 

Evan.  Luth. 

Dn.  Presb. 


Allegheny  1844    Presb. 

Sp.-r,,,/  I  Hornet  inn. — The  Pennsylvania  Insti- 
tution for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was  founded  at 
Philadelphia,  in  1821.  The  minimum  age  for 
admission  is  10  years.  It  combines  with  a  i  ourse 
of  elementary  instruction  in  common  school 
branches,  special  instruction  in  industrial  pur- 
suits, principally  shoe-making  and  tailoring.  The 
number  of  instructors,  in  1875,  was  17  ;  the 
number  of  pupils,  338.  The  number  of  gradu- 
ates, since  the  organization  of  the  institution,  is 
1,566.     There  is  a  day  school  for  deaf-mutes  at 


Ref.  Chi 
Tlieol.Senuiiar\  of  Ev 

Luth.  Church 

Theol  Seminary  of  Ev 

Luth.  Church 

Theol.    Seminary    of 


Villanova 

Upland 

Philadelphia 


Lower  Merion 

Lancaster 

Gettysburg 

Philadelphia 

Allegheny 


090     PENNSYLVANIA  UNIVERSITY 

Pittsburgh,  which  was  founded  in  1869,  as  a  part 
of  the  school  system  of  that  city,  and  is  supported 
partially  by  a  small  appropriation  from  the  city 
school  fund.  The  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the 
instruction  of  the  Blind,  at  Philadelphia,  was 
founded  in  1833,  as  a  private  institution,  but  has 
been  for  some  time  in  receipt   of  a  state  appro- 


oer  01  mecnanicai  ami  niausrriai  pursuits.  ine 
number  of  instructors  and  employes,  in  1876, 
was  63  ;  the  number  of  pupils,  207.  Since  its 
foundation,  885  pupils  have  been  admitted.  Tin- 
Pennsylvania  Training  School  for  Pet-ble-M  hided 
Children  was  established,  in  L853,  at  Media.  In 
187"),  the  number  of  instructors  and  employes 
was  60;  the  number  of  pupils,  225.  Of  '■'•'^ 
children  admitted  since  1 8(14,  about  247  have 
been  dismissed  in  an  improved,  and  49  in  a  self- 
supporting,  condition.  The  three  institutions 
above  mentioned  are  open  to  inmates  from  the 
two  adjoining  States,  Xew  Jersey  and  Delaware. 

Girard  College  was  established .  in  1848,  for  the 

benefit  of  white  male  orphans  born  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  course  of  study  covers  from  8  to  9 
years,  and  includes  common-school  branches,  and 
such  additional  studies  as  fit  for  progress  in  prac- 
tical or  business  life.  The  Educational  Home  for 
Boys,  and  the  Lincoln  Institution, both  in  Phila- 
delphia, are  intended  principally  for  orphans  ;  the 
latter,  for  those  of  soldiers  especially,  though 
others  are  admitted.  Elementary  instruction  is 
given  in  both.  The  Aimwell  School  Association, 
in  Philadelphia,  was  incorporated  in  1859,  its 
origin  being  traced  to  the  efforts  of  Anne  Parish, 
a  Friend,  wdio  resided  in  Philadelphia  in  1796. 
The  association  formed  by  her  numbered  at  first 
only  three  members,  but.  in  1799,  had  increased 
to  eighteen.  Their  object  was  to  teach  poor  girls 
the  common  Knglish  branches  and  sewing.  The 
association  now  numbers  119  members.  In- 
struction of  an  elementary  grade,  or  in  special 
branches,  is  also  given  in  2  reform  schools,  and 
more  than  30  orphan  homes  and  industrial 
schools  in  various  parts  of  the  state. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  University  of,  in 
Philadelphia,  comprises  four  departments:  the  de- 
partment of  arts,  the  Tow  ne  scientific  school,  the 
department  of  medicine,  and  the  department  of 
law.  It  grew  out  of  a  charitable  school  established 
by  subscription  in  1745,  became  an  academy  in 
1749,  and  was  chartered,  in  17f>f>,  as  The  ( 'ollege. 
Academy, and  ( 'haritable  School  of  Philadelphia. 
It  was  created  a  university  in  1779:  and.  in  1  79 1 . 
the  present  organization  was  established.  The  med- 
ical department  elates  from  1  765,  and  the  law  de- 
partment from  1 789.  In  1865, an  Auxiliary  [''acuity 
of  Medicine  was  constituted,  for  the  purpose  of 
supplementing  the  ordinary  course  of  medical  in- 
struction by  lectures  given  during  the  spring 
months  on  certain  collateral  branches  of  science. 
The  university  buildings,  situated  in  the  portion 
of  the  city  known  as  West  Philadelphia,  are  new, 
and  comprise  a  hall  for  the  departments  of  arts, 
science,  and  law.  the  medical  hall,  and  the  uni- 


PA.    MILITARY   ACADEMY 

versify  hospital.  The  institution  has  extensive- 
chemical  and  physical  apparatus,  cabinets  of  fos- 
sils and  minerals,  and  valuable  medical  cabinets. 
The  libraries  contain  about  20,000  volumes.  The 
endowment  amounts  to  about  $1,000,000,  of 
which  only  one  half  is,  at  present,  productive. 
'  The  cost  of  tuition  in  tin- departments  of  arts  and 

sciei is  $150  a  year.    The  regular  course  in  the 

department  of  arts,  comprising  the  usual  collegiate 
branches,  is  four  years.    The  regular  courses  in 

the    scientific  scl 1.    each   of  four  years,  are: 

(1)  analytical  and  applied  chemistry  and  min- 
eralogy; (2)  geology  and  milling;  (3)  civil  en- 
gineering; (Ij  mechanical  engineering;  (5)  draw- 
ing and  architecture;  (6)  general  course.  There 
is  also  a  post-graduate  course.  In  1875—6,  the 
number  of  professors  was  as  follows  :  department 
of  arts.  13;  science.  It;  medicine,  7;  medicine 
(auxiliary  faculty),  5;  hospital  12;  law.  5;  total, 
deducting  repetitions,  13,  besides  which,  there 
were  5   lecturers  and  other  instructors.     There 


and    136   pupils.      Charles. I.    Stille.    LI,.  1).,    is 
(1876),  the  provost  of  the  university. 

PENNSYLVANIA  COLLEGE,  at  Gettys- 
burg, Pa.,  founded  in  1832,  is  under  Lutheran 
control.  It  grew  out  of  the  Gettysburg  Gymna- 
sium, an  institution  that  had  been  established  for 
the  preparation  of  young  men  for  the  Lutheran 
ministry.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  the 
income  of  an  endowment  of  : $140,000.  The  col- 
lege has  an  astronomical  observatory,  chemical 
and  philosophical  apparatus,  a  chemical  laboratory, 
and  a  botanical  and  a  mineralogical  cabinet.  The 
libraries  contain  19.550  volumes.  There  is  a  clas- 
sical and  a  special  scientific  course,  and  a  prepar- 
atory department.  The  cost  of  tuition,  in  the 
college,  is  $50  a  year  ;  in  the  preparatory  depart 
nieiit.  $39.  In  L874  —5, there  were  12  instructors 
and  152  students  (83  collegiate  and  69  prepar- 
atory). The  presidents  have  been  as  follows:  the 
Rev.  Charles  Philip  Krauth.  D.D.,  1834— 50;  the 
Rev.  Henry  Lewis  Baugher,  I).  P..  1850— 68;  and 
the  Rev.  Milton  Valentine,  D.  D.,  the  present  in- 

PENNSYLVANIA  MILITARY  ACAD- 
EMY, at  Chester,  Pa.,  was  founded  in  1862, 
and  is  designed  for  resident  cadets  only.  It  has. 
commodious  buildings  situated  on  an  elevated 
site,  the  grounds  comprising  25  acres,  in  part 
tastefully  laid  out  and  ornamented  with  trees.  It 
has  astronomical,  chemical,  mathematical,  and 
physical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of  1,200 
volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition,  board,  etc.,  is 
$550  a  year,  with  music  extra.  The  courses  of 
instruction  are  the  English  (2  yrs.),  collegiate 
preparatory,  scientific  (4  yrs.),  civil  engineering 
(4  yrs.),  chemical  and  mining  engineering  (each 
1  yr.),  designed  for  graduates  in  civil  engineering, 
and  collegiate  or  classical  (4  yrs.).  The  degrees 
conferred  are  S.  B.,  C.  E.,  Ph.  B.,  M.  E.,  and  A. 
B.     Military  instruction,  theoretical  and  practi- 


PA.  WESTERN    UNIVERSITY 

cal,  is  given.   The  former  is  optional ;  the  latter 

is  required  of  all.  and  consists  of  drills  in  in- 
fantry and  artillery  taeties  etc.  In  1876-  7. 
there  were  10  instructors  and  126  students 
(scientific  course,  113;  English  course,  13).  The 
number  of  graduates  (all  0.  K  |,  including  those 
of  1876,  is  76.  Col.  Theodore  Hyatt,  M.  A.,  is 
(1876)  the  president. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  The  Western  Uni- 
versity of,  at  Pittsburgh.  I 'a.,  was  founded 
in  1819.  It  is  unden inational,  and  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees,  ranging  from  $72  to  $100 
a  year,  and  the  income  of  an  endowment  of 
$275,000.  It  has  a  well-equipped  astronomical 
observatory  (situated  in  Allegheny  ).  a  cab- 
inet containing  over  10,000  choice  specimens  in 
geology,  conchology,  mineralogy,  and  zoology, 
extensive  philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus, 
and  libraries  containing  about  6,000  volumes. 
The  university  has  a  collegiate  department,  with 
a  classical  course  of  I  years,  two  scientific  courses 
of  3  years  each,  and  two  engineering  courses 
(civil  ami  mechanical)  of  4  years  each,  leading 
respectively  to  the  degrees  of  A.  1!..  Ph.  B.  or  S. 
B.,  and.  C.  E.  or  M.  E.,  besides,  a  preparatory 
department,  with  a  classical  and  an  English 
course  of  3  years  each.  In  1875 — (i,  there  were 
10  instructors  and  272  students,  of  whom  186 
were  preparatory  and  80  collegiate  (2!)  unclas- 
sified, 11  engineering,  28  scientific,  and  18  clas- 
sical). The  present  chancellor  is  (1870)  Gejrge 
Woods.  LL.  D.,  appointed  in  1858. 

PENSIONS,  Teachers'.  The  justice  and 
expediency  of  granting  pensions  to  teachers  of 
public  elementary  schools,  on  retiring  after  a 
long  and  faithful  service,  have  frequently  been 
urged  ;  and,  with  others,  the  following  arguments 
have  been  advanced  in  support  of  such  a  meas- 
ure :  (1)  The  office  of  elementary  teacher  re- 
quires an  amount  of  bodily  and  mental  vigor, 
patience,  tact,  and  elasticity  of  spirit,  rarely  met 
with  in  any  one  who  has  spent  twenty  or  thirty 
years  in  a  harassing  profession;  (2)  the  salaries 
received  by  such  teachers  afford  them  no  suffi- 
cient margin  by  means  of  which  to  make  ade- 
quate provision  for  old  age;  (3)  there  is  no 
prospect  that  the  salaries  of  teachers  will  be  in- 
creased to  any  great  extent  in  the  future  ;  since, 
by  means  of  normal  and  training  schools,  the 
supply  of  teachers  is  generally  greater  than  the 
demand ;  (4)  since,  therefore,  teachers  cannot 
themselves  make  due  provision  for  old  age,  the 
government  employing  them  should  do  so ;  be- 
cause, if  it  does  not,  the  service  will  suffer  by 
the  retention  of  aged  and  worn-out  teachers 
beyond  the  period  of  superannuation.  In  view 
of  these  facts,  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Edu- 
cation, in  England,  by  a  minute  dated  Dec.  21., 
1840,  enacted  the  following :  "  That  a  retiring 
pension  may  be  granted  by  the  Committee  of 
Council  to  any  school-master  or  school-mistress 
who  shall  be  rendered  incapable,  by  age  or  in- 
firmity, of  continuing  to  teach  a  school  efficient- 
ly ;  provided  that  no  such  pension  shall  be 
granted  to  any  school-master  or  school-mistress 
who  shall  not  have  conducted  a  normal  or  ele- 


PERSIA 


691 


mentary  school  for  fifteen  years,  during  seven, 
at  least,  of  which  such  school  shall  have  been 
under  inspection."  This  minute  was  afterward 
modified,  and  the  amount  to  he  annually  ex- 
pended in  pensions  was  limited,  Aug.  6.,  1851, 
to   £6,500;    but,   subsequently,  even  this   was 

i  have,   however,   claimed   that    the    gover ent 

having  held  out  the  inducement  to  persons  to 
enter  upon  and  continue  in  the  sen  ice  as  teach- 
ers, is  morally  bound  to  grant  thepensrions  thus 
virtually  promised.  In  L872,  a  select  committee 
of  the  Bouse  of  Commons,  appointed  to  con- 
sider the  matter,  reported  against  the  teachers' 
claims;  but  the  code  of  1876  permits  the  payment 
of  pensions.  In  1876,  a  law  permitting  such 
pensions  passed  the  assembly,  in  the  state  of 
New  York,  hut  failed  in  the  senate. — In  Prus- 
sia, teachers  of  public  schools,  being  regarded 
as  state  officers,  are  entitled  to  pensions.  Every 
teacher,  however,  is  required  to  make  an  annual 
contribution  to  the  pension  fund  (from  1  to  2 
per  cent  of  his  annual  salary),  and  has  also  to 
pay  into  the  same  one-half  of  his  first  years 
salary.  Special  funds  have  been  established,  by 
private  munificence,  in  connection  with  many  of 
the  schools,  for  the  support  of  the  widow*  and 
orphans  of  deceased  teachers.  The  Pesialozzi- 
verein  of  Germany  is  a  society  one  of  the  spe- 
cial objects  of  which  is  to  aid  superannuated 
'teachers. — In  France,  the  pensions  of  school- 
teachers and  their  widows  are  regulated  by  the 
law  of  June  9.,  1853.  All  (he  pensions  are 
entered  in  the  grand  book  of  the  public  debt. 
In  aid  of  the  pension  fund,  contributions  are 
made  from  the  following  sources:  (1)  a  deduc- 
tion of  5  per  cent  of  the  regular  salary  ;  (2)  one- 
twelfth  of  the  first  year's  salary,  and  of  every  in- 
crease of  salary  ;  (3)  all  deductions  made  in  con- 
sequence of  absence,  and  all  fines  imposed  upon 
teachers.  A  teacher  begins  to  lie  entitled  to  a 
pension  when  he  is  CD  years  of  age, or  after  hav- 
ing been  in  office  30  years.  The  amount  of  the 
pension  is  based  upon  the  average  of  the  incomes, 
subject  to  the  above  deductions,  received  during 
the  last  six  years  of  service.  (For  a  full  account 
nl'  l-'iciich  legislation  on  this  subject,  see  ( i  heard. 
La  legislation  de  VInsiruciion  Primaire,  vol. 
in.)  —  In  Servia,  in  1875,  regulations  were 
adopted  granting  to  teachers  who  resigned  after 
ten  years'  service,  40  per  cent  of  the  salary  pre- 
viously received,  and  2  per  cent  more  for  every 
additional  year's  service,  for  35  years,  after 
which  the  teacher,  of  whatever  grade,  is  entitled 
to  his  full  salary  as  a  pension. 

PERCEPTION,  or  Perceptive  Faculties. 

See   INTELLECTUAL    Eril'l'ATION. 

PERSIA,  a  country  of  western  Asia,  having 
an  area  of  about  038,000  sq.  m„  and  a  popula- 
tion estimated  at  5,000,000,  nearly  all  of  whom 
are  Mohammedans. 

I.  Ancient  Persia.  —  Among  the  Indo-Ger- 
manic  tribes  west  of  India,  the  Bactrians  were 
the  first  to  attain  any  considerable  culture. 
They  were,  however,  soon  reduced  in  impor- 
tance by  the  neighboring  and  kindred  na'iou, 


692  PERSIA 

the  Medes,  and  subsequently  still  more  by  the 
Persians,  who  in  the  6th  century  B.  C,  under 
Cyrus  the  <  Treat,  overran  a  large  ]>art  of  west- 
ern Asia.  While  China  had  its  family  educa- 
tion, and  India  that  of  caste,  education  in  Per- 
sia was  decidedly  a  national  institution.  There, 
as  in  India,  the  people  were  divided  into  sev- 
eral distinct  castes ;  but  the  separating  line 
was  not  strictly  drawn;  and,  before  the  king,  all 
were  equal.  The  state,  as  represented  by  the 
king,  was  the  highest  object  of  veneration;  and 
all  interests,  whether  of  caste,  of  the  family,  or 
of  children,  were  subordinated  to  it.  The  edu- 
cation of  the  people  was  like  their  life.  In 
Persia,  the  child  was  born  and  educated  for 
the  state  ;  and,  for  that  reason,  we  see  here,  for 
the  first  time,  physical  combined  with  mental 
education.  The  national  education  of  the  Per- 
sians comprised  the  first  twenty-four  years  of 
life.  Very  little  was  done  for  the  education  of 
girls,  since  they  occupied,  as  among  most  of  the 
oriental  nations,  an  inferior  position.  Boys  re- 
mained, up  to  their  7th  year,  with  the  women; 
but  after  that,  the  national  education  began.  In 
all  the  larger  towns,  there  were  public  educa- 
tional institutions  in  which  the  boys  lived  to- 
gether. These  schools  were  open  to  every  one, 
as  any  Persian  could  legally  occupy  the  highest 
offices.  In  their  schools,  they  were  instructed 
to  practice  truth,  justice,  and  self-command,  and 
were  trained  in  riding,  the  use  of  the  bow  and 
arrow,  and  other  weapons.  Reading  and  writing 
were  also  taught,  but  in  a  limited  degree.  On  the 
completion  of  his  15th  year,  the  boy  was  regarded 
as  entering  upon  the  age  of  a  young  man.  The 
bond  connecting  the  parents  and  the  children  was 
now  dissolved ;  for  the  young  man,  now  belong- 
ing to  the  state,  must  pre] >are  himself,  by  suitable 
physical  exercises,  for  the  chase  and  for  war. 
On  completing  his  25th  year,  the  youth  became  a 
man  and  a  citizen.  I  Ie  accepted  tin.'  duties  which 
he  had  to  perform  up  to  his  50th  year,  after  which 
he  was  obliged  to  care  for  the  general  welfare  by 
supervising  or  conducting  the  education  of  the 
boys.  Persian  education  was,  on  the  whole,  an 
effort  to  impart  moral  and  physical  perfection. 
School  instruction  seems  to  have  been  neglected. 
probably  because  the  state  needed,  at  first,  only 
moral  and  physical  excellence  in  its  citizens;  for 
when  the  Persians  had  become  a  great  nation, 
they  regarded  the  preparation  for  citizenship  as 
the  grand  object  of  education ;  and,  if  in  this 
they  partly  lost  sight  of  the  individual,  they, 
for  the  first  time  in  history,  recognized  educa- 
tion as  a  matter  of  public  concern — a  duty  of 
the  state.  This  principle  was,  however,  not  fully 
carried  out ;  for  the  female  sex  were  almost  en- 
tirely excluded  from  public  education,  and  the 
great  mass  of  the  people  had  no  time  for  it,  be- 
ing forced  to  work  in  order  to  support  the  king 
and  his  servants,  or  to  expose  their  lives  in  war. 
Xenophon  tells  us  that,  besides  the  general  edu- 
cation, there  was  a  particular  education  for 
the  higher  classes.  In  the  dialogue  Alcibiades 
(which  is  ascribed  to  Plato),  the  education  of 
the  kings  is  described  as  follows  :  "At  the  com- 


pletion of  his  7th  year,  the  boy  learns  to  ride 
and  to  hunt;  and,  in  his  14th  year,  he  is  handed 
over  to  the  so-called  royal  preceptors.  These  are 
four  noble  Persians,  selected  for  their  virtues, 
and  known  as  the  wisest,  the  most  just,  the  most 
temperate,  and  the  bravest  of  men." 

II.  Modem  Persia. — According  to  the  in- 
stitutions of  modern  Persia,  the  boy.  in  his  <ith 
year,  is  consigned  to  the  care  of  a  private  teacher, 
or  is  sent  to  school.  It  was  formerly  considered 
unnecessary  to  educate  girls;  but,  at  the  present 
time,  in  Persia,  female  education  is  steadily  gain- 
ing ground.  For  the  poorer  classes,  there  are 
mixed  schools,  in  which  instruction  is  given  for 
a  certain  small  compensation;  but  all  schools  are 
private  institutions,  and  any  man  able  to  write 
may  open  a  school.  As  soon  as  the  children 
possess  a  knowledge  of  the  alphabet,  and  can 
spell  with  some  facility,  the  Koran  is  taken  up, 
which  is  read  by  the  teacher  with  an  Arabic  ac- 
cent, and  is  repeated  and  learned  by  heart  by 
the  children,  without  being  translated  or  under- 
stood by  them.  At  the  .same  time,  the  most  im- 
portant and  most  difficult  study,  writing,  is  be- 
gun. The  teacher  writes  a  line  as  a  model,  and 
the  children  are  required  to  imitate  the  char- 
acters on  a  piece  of  paper.  AVhen  the  Koran 
has  been  read  several  times,  the  children  are 
given  Saadi's  Gulistan  to  read;  and  they  read 
the  numerous  tales  contained  in  this  work  with- 
out understanding  their  meaning,  and  learn  its 
epigrams  by  heart.  This  is  considered  the  high- 
est attainment  of  education ;  for  the  Persians 
like  to  spice  their  conversation  with  quotations. 
On  completing  their  10th  year,  the  poorer  boys 
enter  the  business  of  their  father,  or  accept  the 
position  of  page.  The  wealthier  boys,  however, 
are  consigned  to  the  care  of  a  teacher,  who  in- 
structs them  in  grammar  and  letter-writing,  ex- 
plains to  them  difficult  passages  from  the  legends 
and  the  laws,  and  reads  with  them  the  Slmh 
Nameh  {Book  of  Kings)  of  Firdousi,  the  odes  of 
Hafiz,  and  other  works.  This  generally  com- 
pletes their  education,  and,  at  the  15th  or  lGth 
year  of  age,  they  enter  the  civil  or  military 
service  of  the  state.  Recently,  high  schools  or 
colleges  have  been  established  in  the  principal 
cities,  on  the  European  plan.  The  studies  pur- 
sued are  astronomy,  astrology,  rudimentary 
chemistry,  alchemy,  logic,  metaphysics,  mathe- 
matics, theology,  and  the  Arabian  and  Persian 
languages.  In  the  government  college,  in  Teheran, 
instruction  is  given  in  French  and  English. 
Shiraz  has  the  largest  number  of  colleges  (ten), 
but  the  most  extensive  college  is  at  Ispahan.  For 
a  full  account  of  the  educational  system  of  mod- 
ern Persia,  see  I'oi.ak,  /',  rsien.  JJas  Land  und 
.-../„  ■  lU'ti-ol/iier  (U-ipsic,  1SG5). 

PERU,  a  republic  of  South  America,  having 
an  area  of  510,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of 
about  '2,500,000.  Of  the  inhabitants.  57  per 
cent  are  Indians.  22  per  cent,  half-breeds,  14  per 
cent,  whites,  and  7  per  cent,  negroes  and  their 
descendants.  Nearly  all  the  inhabitants  be- 
long to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Peru 
was  first  discovered  by  Francisco  Pizarro,  who, 


PERU 


PESTALOZZI 


O'J.'i 


lonquest  of  the  country  for 
and.  in  less  than  twenty 
rule   was    completely    estab- 


in  1531,  began  the 

the  king  of  Spain 

years,   the    Spanish 

lished.     Among  the  Spanish  provinces  ol  soutn 

America,  which,  during  the   firet   part  of  the 

19th  century,  achieved  their  independence.  Peru 

final    victory  over  the  Spaniards,  by  the  capture 

of  Callao.— Under  the  incas,  the  nam.- ruins 
of  Peru,  the  people  made  con.-.ideral>le  advanco- 
ment  in  education;  but  they  remained,  in  this 
respect,  inferior  to  the  Aztec's.  The  Spaniards, 
soon  after  their  conquest  of  the  country,  began 
to  introduce  their  educational  system.  The  uni- 
versity of  Lima  was  founded  in  1551;  and.  in 
L571,  its  faculties  were  regularly  organized.  In 
1650,  it  had  over  20  professors  of  the  Spanish 
and  Quichua  languages,  law,  medicine,  philoso- 
phy, and  theology.  Besides  the  university, 
there  were  in  Lima  several  other  institutions  of 
learning,  one  of  which  was  particularly  devoted 
to  giving  instruction  in  Latin  and  literature. 
The  elementary  schools  were  free,  and  even 
furnished  the  children  with  books  and  writing 
materials.  Owing  to  the  numerous  civil  wars, 
education  was.  for  a  long  time,  at  a  stand-still 
in  the  republic.  In  1855,  public  instruction  of 
all  grades  was  placed  under  the  supervision  of  a 
direction  general  de  <  studios  :  and,  since  that 
time,  it  has  made  steady  progress.  1 'resident 
Pardo.  in  his  message  of  1S74.  states  that  "ad- 
mission to  the  universities  is  now  confined  to 
such  as  arc  quite  prepared  to  enter  upon  uni- 
versity studies.  A  number  of  competent  teacher.; 
have  been  engaged  in  Europe,  and  the  services 
of  many  more  will  be  engaged.  Arrangements 
are  likewise  on  foot  for  the  establishment  of 
suitable  normal  schools.  The  departmental  coun- 
cils arc  authorized  to  institute  correctional  agri- 
cultural schools  for  uneducated  children,  to  be 
supported  out  of  certain  branches  of  the  ordinary 
contributions."  According  to  the  latest  accounts, 
there  were  in  the  republic  790  elementary  or  pri- 
mary schools.  Of  these.  502  I  150  for  boys,  and  52 
for  girls)  were  public,  and  288  (206  for  boys.and 
82  for  girls)  were  private.  The  number  of  pupils 
was  34,326,  of  whom  29,687  were  boys,  and  4,639 
were  girls.  The  normal  school  for  primary 
teachers,  in  Lima,  had  300  pupils;  of  whom,  3(1 
were  supported  by  the  state.  In  order  to  improve 
female  education,  the  Peruvian  congress,  in  L873, 
passed  a  law  that  every  community  of  more  than 
500  inhabitants,  should  establish  a  school  for 
girls.  There  are  5  universities — in  Lima,  Trujillo, 
Ayacueho.  Cuzco,  and  I'uno.  These  universities. 
however,  only  confer  degrees,  the  studies  being 
pursued  in  co/er/ins.  of  which  there  were,  accord- 
ing to  the  latest  accounts.  30,  and  of  these,  .'twere 
for  girls.  The  largest  of  these  were  the  Colegio 
de  San  Carina,  and  the  Colegio  de  In  Tndepen- 
dencia,  both  in  Lima,  the  latter  of  which  is  con- 
sidered the  best  medical  school  in  South  America. 
There  are  also  38  private  colegios,  of  which  14 
are  for  girls:  and.  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  6 
dioceses,  there  are  so-called  xfminarios  contilia- 
res,  in  which,  besides  theology,  mathematics  and 


I  law  are  taught.  There  is.  also,  in  Lima  a  mil- 
itary school,  a  school  of  navigation,  and  a  school 
of  midwifery. — Sec    Le   Roy  in  Schmid's  Ency- 

PESTALOZZI,  Johann  Heinrich,  one  of 
the  greatest  of  modern  educators,  was  born  Jan. 
12.,  L 746,  at  Zurich.  Switzerland,  and  died  at 
Neuhof,  Febr.  IT..  1827.  As  he  lost, when  only 
|  six  years  old,  his  father,  who  was  a  physician 
of   modest  means,  his  training  depended  chiefly 


•-pi 


and  degraded,  a  love  of  children, 
promising  sense  of  justice.  In  compliance  with 
the  wish  of  his  grandfather,  who  was  a  Protestant 
clergyman,  he  studied  theology;  but  his  very 
first  effort  at  preaching  proved  such  a  decided 
failure,  that  he  turned  directly  to  the  study  of 
law.  About  this  time  (1764),  Rousseau's  £tnile 
fell  into  his  hands,  and  gave  him  the  hope  that 
his  longings  for  the  improvement  of  his  country's 
lower  classes  could  be  successfully  satisfied.  He 
had  come  to  realize  that  the  principal  cause  of 
the  misery  of  the  multitude  was  their  ignorance, 
which  prevented  a  proper  and  advantageous  use 
of  the  political  rights  they  enjoyed.  His  fun- 
damental conclusion,  therefore,  was.  that  where 
the  masses  are  stupid  and  brutalized,  democracy 
can  produce  no  blessings:  and.  hence,  that  his  first 
effort  should  be  to  aid  in  the  rearing  up  of  good 
citizens,  the  preparing  of  devoted  hearts  and 
manly  intellects  for  his  country.  He  proposed 
to  effect  this  result  not  simply  by  instruction 
but  by  a  judicious  blending  of  industrial,  intel- 
lectual, and  moral  training.  He  rightly  saw  that 
it  was  not  enough  to  impart  instruction  to  chil- 
dren, but  that  their  moral  nature  should  be  par- 
ticularly eared  for,  and  habits  of  activity  instilled 
into  them  through  agricultural  and  industrial 
labors.  To  his  way  of  thinking,  the  great  draw- 
back on  the  side  of  industry  was  the  weakening 
of  the  natural  affections  and  the  development  of 
the  mercantile  spirit,  without  having  the  moral 
resources  and  consolations  afforded  by  rural  oc- 
cupations. He,  therefore,  preferred  to  withdraw 
to  a  farm,  there  to  gather  about  him  the  children 
of  the  poor,  and  to  foster,  in  the  coming  men  and 
women,  the  taste  for  domestic  life  and  the  senti- 
ment of  human  dignity.  Previous  to  the  purchase 
of  land  in  order  to  put  his  scheme  into  practice, 
he  retired  to  the  estate  of  a  friend,  celebrated  for 
his  improved  methods  of  cultivation,  and  there 
prepared  himself  for  his  new  task  with  his  usual 
zeal.  In  1769,  he  bought  a  tract  of  about  loo 
acres,  and  named  this  possession  Neuhof.  In 
the  same  year  he  married  a  lady  of  means  and 
culture.  By  1775,  the  place  was  ready  for  the 
realization  of  his  projects.  He  opened  what  may 
be  considered  the  first  industrial  school  for  the 
poor.  He  gathered  about  him  a.  number  of 
ragged  and  half-starved  children,  and  lived  with 
them  the  life  of  the  poor,  in  order  to  teach  them, 
in  their  poverty,  how  to  become  active  members 
of  the  great  human  family.  He  soon  found, 
however,  to  his  great  sorrow,  that  these  vagabond 


t','.)4 


PESTALOZZI 


children  could  never  be  made  to  accommodate 
themselves  to  the  laborious  and  regular  life 
he  desired,  as  long  as  their  parents  were  not  far 
removed  ;  for  the  latter  had  but  too  frequently 
encouraged  vagabondage  as  a  source  of  income. 
In  1780.  his  own  straitened  financial  circum- 
stances obliged  him  to  abandon  the  enterprise. 
His  experience  he  embodied  in  the  publication 
Evenings  of  a  Recluse  (1780),  which  proves 
that,  in' the  midst  of  his  failures,  he  had  profited 
by  important  discoveries  in  the  realm  of  human 
knowledge,  and  in  the  principles  which  underlie 
all  true  processes  of  education, — results  which 
have  transmuted  his  individual  disappointments 
and  failures  into  blessings  for  the  world.  He 
published,  in  this  little  treatise,  a  programme 
for  his  future  exertions,  surveyed  the  mode  of 
life  of  the  people,  and  laid  bare  their  defi- 
ciencies, indicating  the  only  remedy ;  namely, 
a  return  to  nature  ami  to  truth.  The  general 
favor  with  which  his  views  were  received  in- 
duced him  to  follow  with  other  writings  in 
their  advocacy.  Of  these  publications,  his  Lien- 
hard  u,i,l  Qerirud  (Basel,  1781—9,  4  vols.)— 
a  popular  tale,  presenting  a  picture  of  exalted 
virtue  in  the  midst  of  crime  and  error — created 
quite  a  sensation.  It  circulated  far  and  wide, 
and  was  translated  into  many  languages.  The 
government  of  Berne  decreed  him  a  gold  medal, 
which  he  was  afterwards  obliged  to  turn  into 
money  to  supply  his  family  with  the  necessaries 
of  life.  Not  until  I  "98,  did  Festalozzi's  oppor- 
tunity come  again  to  put  his  theories  into  practice. 
In  this  year,  his  friend  Legrand,  one  of  the  Swiss 
Directory,  appointed  him  to  establish  an  orphan 
school  at  Stanz,  in  the  canton  of  Unterwalden. 
The  French  revolution  had  given  rise  to  turbu- 
lence and  anarchy.  Stanz  had  been  sacked  by  the 
French  troops,  and  stood  in  flames.  Thousands 
were  homeless.  Many  a  child  saw  itself  bereft 
of  parents  and  friends.  Of  such  children,  Pes- 
talozzi  gathered  eighty  in  the  Ursuline  convent, 
which  had  been  spared;  and  alone  (his  wife  hav- 
ing remained  at  Neuhof)  he  cared  for  them,  lived, 
played,  and  prayed  with  them,  and  earnestly  in- 
structed them.  He  "manifested  an  amount  of 
vigor,  self-forgetfulness,  and  enthusiasm  such  as 
the  world  has  seldom  seen  combined  in  the  soul 
of  one  frail  mortal"  (KruSi).  "I  had  to  act," 
says  he  himself,  "amidst  a  confusion  of  elements, 
and  amidst  unbounded  misery;  but  the  zeal  that 
urged  me  on  to  seize  the  possibility  of  realizing, 
at  last,  the  dream  of  my  entire  life  would  have 
transported  me  to  the  summit  of  the  highest 
Alps,  and  through  air  and  tire."  I  lis  aim  was 
to  impart  to  the  school  the  character  of  a  family. 
Being  without  books  and  without  apparatus,  he 
directed  his  whole  attention  to  those  natural  ele- 
ments which  are  found  in  the  mind  of  every 
child.  He  taught  numbers,  instead  of  figures; 
living  sounds,  instead  of  dead  characters;  deeds  of 
faith  and  love,  instead  of  abstruse  creeds;  sub- 
stance, instead  of  shadow ;  realities,  instead  of 
signs.  His  main  object  sinned  to  be,  to  ascertain 
the  kind  of  instruction  most  needed  by  the 
children,  and  how  to  base  it  upon  their  previous 


knowledge.  When  he  saw  them  interested,  he 
pursued  the  same  topic  for  hours,  and  left  it  only 
when  the  interest  flagged  or  the  point  was 
gained,  lie  gave  them  no  lessons  to  commit  to 
memory,  but  always  something  to  investigate. 
They  gained  little  positive  knowledge,  but  their 
love  of  knowledge  and  power  of  acquiring  it  in- 
creased daily.  Being  without  assistance,  he  was 
driven  by  necessity  to  set  the  elder  and  better- 
taught  scholars  to  teach  the  younger  and  more 
ignorant  ;  and  thus  he  struck  out  the  mutual  in- 
struction system,  which,  about  the  same  time, 
Lancaster  (q.  v.)  was,  under  somewhat  similar 
circumstances,  led  to  adopt  in  England.  At  the 
end  of  a  single  term,  the  result  of  this  course  of 
instruction  was  manifestly  great.  rl  he  children 
had  improved  so  much,  both  physically  and 
morally,  that  Festalozzi  said  :  "They  seemed  en- 
tirely different  beings  from  those  1  had  received 
six  months  before,  neglected,  ragged,  and  filthy." 
But  yet  the  troubles  of  that  agitated  period 
would  not  allow  him  to  continue  his  benevolent 
labors.  Already,  in  1799,  the  orphan  house  was 
converted  into  a  military  hospital,  and  Festalozzi 
left  Stanz.  A  vacancy  in  a  school  at  Burgdorf, 
in  the  canton  of  Berne,  was  offered  him  shortly 
after,  and  he  promptly  engaged  to  fill  it,  though 
a  very  inferior  position  for  a  man  who  had  made 
all  Europe  talk  about  his  theory  of  education. 
But,  even  from  this  humble  position,  he  was  dis- 
missed in  a  very  short  time,  the  head-master  per- 
ceiving that  Festalozzi  had  succeeded  in  gaining 
the  attention  and  affection  of  the  children  in  a 
higher  degree  than  he  himself.  Fortunately, 
another  school  in  the  town,  taught  by  an  old 
dame,  made  room  for  him;  and,  in  this  obscure 
place,  he  taught  until  the  vacant  chateau  was 
placed  at  his  disposal  for  the  establishment  of  a 
normal  school.  Several  well-known  educators, 
Kriisi.  Tobler.  and  Buss,  joined  him  in  the  en- 
terprise; and  it  was  not  long  before  the  celebrity 
and  success  of  the  school  led  the  government  to 
adopt  and  support  it.  In  1803,  when  the  castle 
was  needed  by  the  Hernese  authorities.  Festalozzi 
was  assigned  a  deserted  monastery  in  Munchen- 
Buchsee,  near  Hofwyl,  and  was  invited  to  co- 
operate with  Fellenberg  (q.  v.),  who  had  sus- 
tained a  similar  establishment  at  that  place  for 
nearly  'H>  years.  The  two  educational  reform- 
ers failed,  however,  to  agree  in  plans:  and  Festa- 
lozzi was.  in  ISO.",,  permitted  to  occupy  the  va- 
cant castle  of  Yverdun,  canton  of  Vaucl.  There 
he  met  with  his  greatest  success.  Celebrated 
men  and  women  of  the  refined  nations  of  the 
world  visited  the  institution,  and  went  away 
speaking.only  words  of  praise.  I  lis  corps  of  in- 
structors had  been  strengthened,  from  time  to 
time,  until  it  contained  22.  Among  the  pupils 
of  Yverdun,  nearly  every  nation  of  Europe  was 
represented.  Many  of  the  students  were  of 
mature  mind,  and  were  graduates  of  other 
schools.  The  school  was,  of  course,  a  home. 
The  pupils  were  made  to  rise  early,  their  food 
was  good  but  plain,  and  special  attention  was 
paid  to  physical  exercise.  The  contemplation  of 
nature  and  her  laws  was  regarded  as  first  in  the 


PESTAL02ZI 

•curriculum  of  study,  and  from  it  a  basis  was 
secured  for  formal  exercises  in  language  and 
composition.  According  to  Pestalozzi's  plan, 
composition  comes  licfoiv  analysis,  and  the  use 
of  language  before  rules.  Mathematics  was  the 
branch  in  which  the  pupils  made  the  greatest 
progress;  and  that  because  the  science  of  num- 
bers could  be  must  easily  brought  within  the 
laws  of  progressive  development,  which  form 
the  basis  of  the  I'cstalozzian  philosophy.  His 
principle  was:  "The  organism  of  the  human 
mind  is  subject  to  the  same  laws  that  nature 
universally  observes  in  the  development  of  her 

edge  on  perception,  and  demanded  that,  by  a 
progress  as  uninterrupted  as  possible,  and  with  a 
constant  incitement  lit'  the  pupil  to  self-activity, 
he  should  be  made  to  advance  from  what  had 
been  already  acquired  by  him  to  higher  results, 
these  results  being  arrived  at  as  consequences 
following  from  what  had  been  previously  estab- 
lished. Objects  themselves  became,  in  Pesta- 
lozzi's hands,  the  subjects  of  lessons  tending  to 
the  development  of  the  observing  and  reasoning 


ijeets.  For  the  sue- 
s  pm  pose,  he  classi- 
to  the  work  of  in- 
lalogy  from  nature 


powers — not  lessons 
cessful  accomplishing 
lie.l  all  science  in  its 
struction,  and  adopt 
the  doctrine  of  farm  and  number  as  universal 
educational  means,  and  to  these  added,  ultimately, 
that  of  sound.  'Phis  continues,  to  our  day.  the 
guide  of  objective  teaching,  though  improve- 
ment has  been  made  in  classification.  He  as- 
signed to  form  the  subjects  drawing,  writing. 

and  g oetry  :  to  number,  arithmetic,  in  all  its 

departments;  and  to  sound,  speaking,  reading, 
singing,  and  all  the  possible  exercises  of  the 
organs  of  speech.  He  placed  under  sound, 
geography,  history,  and  natural  science;  but 
modern  object  teachers  have  provided  a  special 
class,  called  that  of  place.  Special  attention, 
however,  was  directed  by  Pestalozzi  to  moral 
and  religious  training  as  distinct  from  mere  in- 
struction. His  object  was  to  lead  the  pupil  to 
the  living  source  from  which  spring  humility, 
self-devotion,  and  tin  active  striving  for  perfec- 
tion of  character.  And  here,  too,  gradation  and 
a  regard  to  the  nature  and  susceptibilities  of 
children  were  conspicuous  features  of  his  sys- 
tem.    The  one  great    fundamental  principle  of 

.  is  thi!  natural,  progres- 
di  r'  lopment  of  all  the 

•'  the  human  being.   This 

listed   as  an  intellectual 
of  philosophers,  and  had 

proverbs  and  apothegms; 
,  showed,  by  nat- 


ms  pe  lagugicai  sysueii 
sive,  ■      ■'  symmetrica 

Power. a  fa    ilti  - 

great  truth  ha  1  long  i 
conviction  in  the  mind 
even  been  expressed  in 
but  it  was  Pestalozzi 


ural  experiment,  how  n  might  be  made 
basis  ot  universal  education,  and  the  means  by 
which  humanity  might  be  elevated.  (For  a  crit- 
icism on  Pestalozzi's  system,  see  Kruesi,  Pes- 
ialozzi:  His  Life,  Work,  and  Influence) 

Unfortunately  for  the  material  success  of 
Pestalozzi.  dissensions  arose  among  his  teachers, 
in  which  he  himself  became  implicated.  The  num- 
ber of  his  pupils  rapidly  diminished,  the  estab- 


PHARMACEUTICAL   SCHOOLS     695 

lishment  became  a  losing  concern,  and  Pestalozzi 
was  again  involved  in  debt,  which  even  the  pub- 
lication of  his  works  in  a  collected  form  (Stutt- 
gart and  Tubingen.  15  vols.,  1819— 26)  failed 
to  liquidate.  In  lsi'.'i,  he  retired  from  his 
laborious  duties  to  Neuhof,  where  his  grandson 

then  resided.  His  good  wife  had  died  in  1815; 
and,  in  great  despondency  and  mortification,  he 
spent  his  remaining  days.  A  gnat  many  insti- 
tutions bear  his  name  ;  and  the  first  centennial 
anniversary  of  his  birth  was  celebrated,  in  L846, 
with  appropriate  ceremonies,  not  only  in  Switzer- 
land but  till  over  Germany.  At  his  grave,  a 
monument  was  erected  by  the  canton  of  Aargau, 
The  best  biography  of  Pestalozzi  in  German  is 
that  by  l.loeliinann  (1846  .  the  latest  by  Morf 
(1864).  In  French,  the  most  complete  is  by 
(  havanne  (1853).     In   I  nglish,  the  latest  is  by 


York, 


PHARMACEUTICAL    SCHOOLS.      The 

healing  art  has,  for  ages,  embraced  both  the  ap- 
plication of  therapeutical  knowledge  and  the 
supply  and  preparation  of  remedial  agents;  and, 
until  the  separation  of  these  branches  as  the  arts 
of  medicine  and  of  pharmacy,  at  a  comparatively 
recent  time,  the  history  of  medicine,  and  of  med- 
ical Bchools  and  literature,  embodied  that  of 
pharmacy;  while,  on  the  other  hand. at  an  earlier 
period,  both  medicine  and  pharmacy  were 
merged,  to  a  large  extent,  in  the  pursuits  and 
history  of  alchemy.  Aside  from  the  earliest 
traditionsof  the  first  crude  stages  of  medical  and 
pharmaceutical  science  in  Egypt.at  so  remote  an 
age  as  the  I  nth  century  1!.  (J.,  as  recorded  in  the 
Papyrus  Ebers,  the  art  of  pharmacy,  as  a  spe- 
cial branch  of  that  of  medicine,  seems  to  have 
been  first  practiced  among  the  Arabs;  and 
establishments,  recognized  for  the  supply  of  re- 
medial agents,  are  said  to  have  been  tirst  insti- 
tuted in  Bagdad,   in    the   year  754  A.  D.     The 

tion  and  classification  of  recognized  f.rmnla-  is 


cian  and 


Sabor 


latter  part  of  the  9th  century.  In  conjunction 
with  medicine,  pharmacy  was  first  taught,  as  a 
branch  of  university  instruction  at  the  celebrated 
scl I  at  Salerno.  During  the  following  cent- 
uries, the  establishing  of  pharmacies  and  meas- 
ures for  a  legal  regulation  of  the  art.  of  pharma- 
cy extended  into  western  Europe;  and  the 
new  lv  established  universities  became  centers  of 
research  and  learning.  Yet  the  absorbing  prob- 
lems of  the  transmutation  of  base  metals  into 
gold,  and  of  the  existence  of  a  universal  remedj  . 
potent  to  avert  disease,  to  heal  sickness,  to  main- 
tain or  restore  youth,  and  to  prolong  life,  for 
centuries  engaged  the  aims  and  inspired  the  ef- 
forts of  the  wisest  and  most  learned  men,  in  a 
search  throughout  nature  for  the  "  philosopher's 
stone"  and  the  "  elixir  of  life."  The  long  pur- 
suit of  these  phantoms,  and  the  visionary  but 
most  productive  speculations  of  alchemy,  re- 
sulted in  the  accumulation  of  a  vast   amount  of 


PHARMACEUTICAL   SCHOOLS 


chemical  and  physical  knowledge,  and  in  the  most 
important  discoveries  in  the  domain  of  chem- 
ical operations,  processes,  and  products.  These 
added  largely  to  the  compass  of  the  materia 
mediau  and  contributed  much  to  prepare  that 
revolution  in  the  intellectual  world,  no  less  than 
in  the  material  resources  of  men,  which,  at  the 
close  of  the  last  century,  culminated  in  the  over- 
throw of  old  ideas  ami  systems. and  laid  a  foun- 
dation for  the  modern  theories  of  chemical  philos- 
ophy, for  the  subsequent  wonderful  strides  in 
their  practical  applications  to  all  the  affairs  of 
industrial  and  social  life. and  for  their  productive 
influence  upon  the  advanceinc.it of  physiological, 
pharmaceutical,  and  analytical  chemistry.  -Dur- 
ing the  struggles  of  this  remarkable  revolution, 
which,  among  its  other  results,  separated  medi- 
cine and  pharmacy  as  independent  correlative 
branches,  the  latter  was  the  leading  and  most 
successful  cultivator  of  chemistry,  and  attained 
at  that  time,  and  especially  at  the  close  of  the 
last  and  the  first  half  of  the  present  century,  in 
continental  Europe,  its  culmination.  It  supplied 
from  among  its  ranks  the  newly-created  chairs 
both  of  chemistry  and  of  pharmacy,  and  fre- 
quently of  botany  also,  at  the  universities  and 
special  schools  for  medicine,  pharmacy,  agri- 
culture, and  kindred  arts;  the  increasing 
branches  of  chemical  industry  and  manufacture, 
too,  were  largely  and  successfully  occupied  and 
cultivated  by  pharmacists.  Pharmacy  emanci- 
pated itself  more  and  more,  in  the  civilized  coun- 
tries, from  co-education  with,  and  subordination 
to,  medicine ;  special  schools,  or  at  the  univer- 
sities, special  chairs,  for  instruction  in  pharma- 
ceutical chemistry  and  pharmacognosy,  were  es- 
tablished ;  and  both  the  standard  of  qualification 
and  the  practice  of  pharmacy,  like  that  of  med- 
icine, were  restricted  and  controlled  by  the 
state.  Since  the  middle  of  the  present  century, 
by  the  rapid  strides  in  the  progress  and  applica- 
tion of  the  physical  sciences,  particularly  of 
chemistry  in  its  various  relations,  the  position 
of  pharmacy  has  somewhat  changed.  <  Ihemistry 
has  risen  to  a  commanding  station  among  the 
physical  sciences,  and  in  the  industry  and  wealth 
of  nations  ;  its  application  in  the  manufacture 
and  supply  of  all  chemical  products  cheaply  on 
a  commercial  scale,  has  largely  deprived  the 
pharmacist  of  one  of  the  original  and  most  im- 
portant and  instructive  objects  of  his  pursuit,  -  - 
the  preparation  of  medicinal  chemicals  and  many 
of  the  pharmaceutical  products.  On  the  other 
hand,  pharmacy  is  losing  scope  by  the  decrease 
in  the  use  of  medicines,  in  consequence  of  the 
general  increase  of  hygienic  knowledge,  and  the 
progress  of  medical  science.  The  former  pre- 
eminently professional  character  of  pharmacy 
has,  in  consequence,  gradually  given  way  to  a 
more  mercantile  and  trade  aspect.  Hut.  notwith- 
standing the  diminution  of  its  resources  and  of 
its  former  scope  of  application,  the  requisite 
standard  of  proficiency  is,  as  yet,  every-where 
maintained  ;  and.  in  countries  of  a  growing  civi- 
lization, pharmaceutical  education  is  continually 
and  correspondingly  raised.  Most  countries,  there- 


fore, at  present,  cither  have  special  schools  for  the 
higher  education  of  pharmacists,  or  else  afford 
instruction  in  the  pharmaceutical  branches  at 
universities,  or  medical  or  technical  institutions. 
In  the  amount  of  the  preparatory  education 
required,  the  high  standard  of  scientific  and 
practical  qualification,  and  the  restrictions  en- 
forced by  law  and  controlled  by  the  government, 
Germany  ranks  highest.  The  candidate  for 
apprenticeship  must  have  attained  maturity  for 
the  second  class  ( <)ln-r-Se<:nti<lti)  of  the  gymna- 
sium, or  must  have  passed  through  a  real  school. 
The  apprenticeship  must  last  three  years:  during 
which  time  the  pupil's  progress,  and  the  obliga- 
tory instruction  by  his  master,  are  controlled 
by  annual  examinations  by  a  delegate  of  the 
district  government.  At  the  close  of  the  appren- 
ticeship, and  after  successfully  pa.-singan  exami- 
nation before  a  board,  also  appointed  by  the 
district  government,  the  candidate  has  to  com- 
plete his  practical  experience  by  serving  for  three 
years  more  as  clerk  ;  and  he  is  then  entitled  to 
enter  upon  the  obligatory  course  of  university 
study  at  any  one  of  the  20  German  universities. 
He  is  free  to  attend  such  lectures  as  he  may 
choose ;  and,  at  the  close  of  each  lecture  term, 
he  may  select  another  university,  according  to 
his  option  ;  while  the  state  requires,  with  un- 
compromising severity,  the  satisfactory  passage 
of  a  comprehensive  final  examination.  To  this 
the  student  is  only  admitted  after  having  at- 
tended the  lectures  and  laboratory  instruction 
for  at  least  three  lecture  terms  (H  years)  ;  and, 
upon  passing  it.  the  state  grants  him  a  license  for 
the  practice  of  pharmacy  throughout  the  empire. 
Many  graduates  choose  to  acquire,  by  a  continu- 
ation of  university  and  laboratory  studies,  and 
b\  the  sul  si  quent  passage  of  an  examination  be- 
fore the  J  hili >.-i, pineal  fat  ulty  of  a  university. the 
degree  of  Ph.  D.-  Similar,  and  nearly  equally 
strict,  is  the  course  of  pharmaceutical  education 
and  qualification  in  Austria.  Hungary,  Russia, 
Switzerland,  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark; 
but  somewhat  less  strict  in  Roumania,  Italy,  and 
Greece.  In  France,  pharmaceutical  education  is 
controlled  by  the  state  so  far  that  students,  after 
a  more  or  less  brief  experience  in  drug-stores, 
have  to  attend,  for  one  or  two  years,  the  lectures 
at  one  of  the  pharmaceutical  schools  at  Paris, 
Nancy,  or  Montpellier,  or  at  the  medical  and 
pharmaceutical  schools  at  Nantes  or  Marseilles, 
and  subsequently  must  pass  an  examination. 
Upon  the  satisfactory  passage  of  this. the  student, 
receives,  according  to  the  time  of  his  study  and 
the  price  he  is  able  to  pay.  the  diploma  as  a. 
pharmacien  of  the  first,  or  of  the  second  class. 
The  former  is  entitled  to  establish  himself  indis- 
criminately, while  the  latter  is  allowed  to  do  so- 
only  in  small  cities.  The  standard  of  pharma- 
ceutical education  is  somewhat  higher  in  Rel- 
giuiu  and  the  Netherlands. but  perhaps  less  strict 
in   practical   proficiency.     The  student   has  first 

to  examination  ami  subsequently  to  practice.    In 
Spain  and  Portugal, the  course  of  pharmaceutical 


PHARMACEUTICAL   SCHOOLS 

education,  ami  the  qualification  required  on  the 
part  of  the  state,  seem  to  be  similar  to  those  in 
France.  'The  three  Spanish  universities  in  Mad- 
rid, Barcelona,  and  Granada,  and  the  medical 
schools  at  Lisbon,  Oporto,  and  Coimbra,  in  Port- 
ugal, afford  lectures  to  pharmaceutical  students. 
Education  in  this  department,  in  Turkey,  while 
it  is  not  uniformly  obligatory,  embraces  an  ap- 
prenticeship of  ihi'"e  yeais,  and  a  subsequent 
attendance  upon  the  lectures  at  the  Imperial 
Institute,  in  Constantinople,  which  also  lias 
the  direction  of  the  examination,  and  grants 
licenses  to  those  who  apply  for  and  pass  it  suc- 
cessfully. In  Great  Britain,  the  state  has  exert- 
ed an  obligatory  influence  on  the  qualification 
of  pharmacists  since  1868;  but  it  leaves  this 
control  to  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Great 
Britain,  and  to  the  Privy  Council.  The  only  re- 
striction consists  in  a  registry  statute,  requiring 
two  successive  examinations:  a  preliminary  one 
for  registration  as  "  apprentice  or  student",  and  a 
minor  examination,  for  a  license  as  "chemist  and 
druggist",  or  a  major  examination  for  a  license 
as  "  pharmaceutical  chemist."  The  state  of 
pharmacy,  and  the  standard  of  pharmaceutical 
education,  in  the  various  countries  of  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  America,  is  comparatively  little 
known.  In  several  of  them,  as  for  instance,  in 
Mexico.  Brazil,  Peru,  and  others,  the  state  exer- 
cises a  more  or  less  strict,  although  not  uniform- 
ly efficient,  control;  while,  in  other  states,  either 
the  qualification  for  the  practice  of  pharmacy  is 
not  restricted,  or  the  control  is  more  nominal 
than  real.  Pharmaceutical  education  and  prac- 
tice in  Canada  stand  in  close  relation  to  those  of 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States. 

The  standard  of  pharmacy  and  pharmaceu- 
tical education  in  the  United  States  is  not  uni- 
form, because  it  is  not  obligatory;  and  until 
recently  it  has  been  left  entirely  to  individual 
option  and  efforts.  While  sporadic  attempts  to- 
ward some  kind  of  legal  regulation  have  mostly 
failed  of  virtual  effect,  yet  a  strong  and  increas- 
ing body  of  accomplished  pharmacists,  largely 
strengthened  by  the  immigrated  <  iennan  element, 
has  grown  up  ;  and,  by  its  influence  ami  efforts. 
has  contributed  gradually  to  raise  the  standard 
of  pharmacy,  and  to  attain,  in  several  states,  and 
in  a  number  of  the  largest  cities,  some  authori- 
tative control  of  the  qualification  of  pharma- 
cists. Chartered  local  associations  (colleges  of 
pharmacy)  have  been  established  in  these  cities 
and  states,  and  they  have,  in  pursuit  of  their 
aims  and  objects,  founded  schools  of  pharmacy. 
Chartered  schools  of  pharmacy  were  in  existence. 
in  1876,  in  the  following  cities :  Philadelphia 
(founded  in  1821);  New  York  (1831);  Balti- 
more (1855) ;  Chicago  L859);  Boston  (1867); 
Ann  Arbor  il.-ii.-i;  Cincinnati  1870);  St.  Louis 
(1871);  Louisville  (1871  |;  San  Francisco  (1872); 
Washington.  D.  C.  (1873);  Nashville  (1873). 
These  institutions  grant,  upon  their  own  mutual- 
ly recognized  authority,  diplomas  with  the  de- 
gree of  Graduate  of  Pharmacy,  to  those  candi- 
dates, without  regard  as  yet  to  their  preliminary 
education,   who   have   had   experience  in  drug- 


stores for  four  years,  have  attended  at  least  two 
courses  of  lectures  at  one  of  the  pharmaceutical 
schools,  or   at   some   medical  or  kindred  college, 


College  of  Pharmacy.  The  colleges  and  schools 
of  pharmacy  in  the  United  States  have  thus  far 
acted  harmoniously  in  their  voluntary  and  suc- 
cessful efforts  for  a  gradual  and  uniform  eleva- 
tion of  the  scope  and  the  standard  of  education 
and  proficiency  among  pharmacists.  The  most 
serious  drawback  to  general  and  permanent  re- 
sults consists  in  the  absence  of  any  authoritative 
national  or  state  restriction  and  control  of  the 
practice  of  pharmacy,  and  in  a  consequent  excess- 
ive and  detrimental  overcrowding  of  the  pro- 
fession, and  for  causes  previously  stated,  in  a 
general  decrease  in  the  compass  of  legitimate  ap- 
plication, and  in  the  resources  and  material  pros- 
perity of  the  art  of  pharmacy. 

PHILADELPHIA,  the  chief  city  of  the 
state  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  second  in  popu- 
lation in  the  United  States,  the  number  of  its 
inhabitants,  in  1870,  being  674,022,  and  the  es- 
timated number,  in  1876,  750,000. 

Educational  History.— The  first  school  opened 
in  the  city  of  Philadelphia  was  the  private  En- 
glish school  of  Enoch  Flower,  in  1(183.  Recom- 
mendations in  favor  of  education  had  been  pre- 
viously made  by  William  Penn,  but  bad  not 
been  acted  on.  In  1(189,  the  Society  of  Friends 
established  a  pubKc  school — not  public,  however, 
in  the  modern  acceptation  of  the  word,  since  it 
was  founded  "at  the  request,  costs,  and  charges, 

of  the  people  called  Quakers."     This  scl I   is 

still  in  existence.  In  1750,  a  charitable  school 
for  young  men  was  founded  by  Franklin  :  and, 
by  1752,  the  number  of  schools  in  the  colony  of 
Pennsylvania— and  probably,  therefore,  in  Phil- 
adelphia— must  have  considerably  increased,  as 
the  legislature,  in  that  year,  found  it  expedient 
to  appoint  trustees  and  managers  for  them.  The 
provisional  constitution  of  the  state,  adopted  in 
1776,  declares,  iii  its  4  1th  section,  that  "  a  school 
shall  be  established  in  each  county  by  the  legis- 
lature, for  the  convenient  instruction  of  youth, 
with  such  salaries  to  the  masters,  paid  by  the 
public,  as  may  enable  them  to  instruct  youth  at 
low  prices ;"  but  no  immediate  steps  appear  to 
have  been  taken  to  make  this  provision  of  any 
practical  value.  In  1786,  a  tract  of  60,000  acres 
of  land  was  set  apart  by  the  legislature  for  the 
public  schools  of  the  state:  and  the  7th  section  of 
the  constitution  of  1790  provides  that  "the  legis- 
lature shall,  as  conveniently  as  may  be,]  in  ivide  by 
law  for  the  establishment  of  schools  throughout 
the  state,  in  such  manner  that  the  poor  may  be 
taught  gratis."  The  dissatisfaction,  however, 
caused  by  this  law,  rendered  it  inoperative  for 
several  years.  In  1809,  another  act  for  the  free 
education  of  the  poor  was  passed;  but  the  same 
dissatisfaction  caused  the  law  to  remain  a  dead 
letter,  the  rich  objecting  to  being  taxed  in  behalf 
of  the  poor,  and  the  poor  being  too  proud  to  ac- 


PHILADELPHIA 


cept  as  a  gift  the  education  of  their  children. 
These  objections  on  the  part  of  the  two  classes 
appear  frequently  in  the  early  legislation  of  the 
colonies  in  regard  to  free  public  schools.  \\  hen 
it  became  apparent  that  the  law  of  1809  was  of 
no  practical  value,  a  supplement  was  procured  in 
favor  of  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  by  which  the 
commissioners  of  Philadelphia  County,  with  the 
approval  of  the  councils  and  commissioners  of 
districts,  were  directed  to  establish  public 
schools.  Under  this  system,  2,000  children  re- 
ceived instruction  in  L816,  at  an  expense  of 
$23,000.  Serious  objections  to  this  system, 
however,  were  made,  on  account  of  its  class  dis- 
tinctions, and  its  want  of  economy,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  the  Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Public  Economy,  of  which  Rob- 
erts Vaux  was  chairman.  In  1818,  this  society, 
both  composed  of,  and  aided  by,  the  ablest 
and  most  influential  citizens  of  Philadelphia, 
procured  the  passage  of  an  act  which  provided 
for  the  free  education  of  all  the  children  of  the 
city,  and  which  did  not  contain  the  objectionable 
features  of  previous  acts.  This  erected  the  city 
and  county  of  Philadelphia  into  a  separate 
school-district,  each  district  of  the  city  being  de- 
nominated a  section.  Sectional  directors  were 
appointed  by  the  several  councils,  as  well  as  con- 
trollers, one  from  each  section,  to  be  known  as 
the  Board  of  School  Controllers.  Of  this  board, 
Roberts  Vaux  was  the  first  president.  This  act 
is  generally  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  the 
present  common-school  system  of  Philadelphia. 
It  applied,  however,  to  that  city  alone  ;  and  the 
people,  failing  to  discriminate  between  its  pro- 
visions and  those  of  the  law  of  1809,  which  was 
still  in  force  in  the  remainder  of  the  state,  in- 
cluded them  all  in  their  condemnation.  The 
friends  of  the  Philadelphia  law,  therefore,  formed 
an  association  known  as  the  Pennsylvania 
Society  for  Promoting  Public  Schools,  with 
branches  in  various  parts  of  ihs  state  ;  and  de- 
termined, if  possible,  to  procure  the  passage  of 
a  new  common-school  law,  which  should  extend 
the  advantages  of  the  local  law  over  the  state. 
This  was  accomplished  in  1834,  when  a  general 
law  was  passed  providing  for  the  free  education 
of  all  persons  in  the  state  between  the  ages  of  6 
and  21  years.  Faults  were  soon  found,  hi  iwever, 
with  the  practical  operation  of  this  measure-,  and 
attempts  were  made  to  repeal  it.  but  failed, 
owing  largely  to  its  able  advocacy  by  Thaddeus 
Stevens,  then  a  member  of  the  legislature.  In 
the  session  of  L835— 6,  an  improved  law  was 
passed,  after  an  animated  contest  in  the  legis- 
lature, and  remained  in  force  substantially  till 
1854.  Shortly  after  the  establishment  of  the 
schools  on  a  permanent  basis,  it  was  discovered 
that  the  elementary  character  of  the  instruction 
given  was  inadequate  to  the  wants  of  the  city. 
In  1838,  accordingly,  the  Central  High  School 
was  opened,  with  4  teachers  and  63  pupils. 
Tliis  was  followed. in  1840,  by  the  establishment 
of  the  Girls'  High  and  Normal  School,  an  in- 
stitution which,  in  1875,  reported  an  average 
attendance  of  641  students.     The  growth  of  the 


schools  is  best  shown  by  the  following  figures: 
attendance  in  1820,  5,309  ;  in  1830,  5,371  ;  in 
1840,  23,192  ;  in  1850,  48,056  ;  in  1860,  63,530; 
in  1870,  82,891 ;  in  1875,  95,552. 

School  System. — The  city  constitutes  one  school 
district,  known  as  the  First  School- District  of 
Pennsylvania.  The  control  and  management  of 
the  public  schools  is  intrusted  to  a  board  of 
public  education  consisting  of  31  members,  one 
from  each  ward,  with  a  subordinate  board  for 
each  ward.  The  members  of  the  board  are  ap- 
pointed for  3  years  by  the  judges  of  the  court  of 
common  pleas,  and  of  the  district  court.  They 
exercise  a  general  supervision  over  the  common 
schools,  making  such  rules  for  their  own  govern- 
ment and  for  that  of  the  schools,  as  they  deem 
expedient.  They  appoint  a  secretary  and  an 
assistant  secretary,  whose  powers  are  limited. 
There  is  no  city  superintendent.  The  schools  are 
supported  by  a  city  tax.  T  hey  are  divided  into 
primary,  secondary,  grammar,  and  high  schools; 
audit  is  claimed  that  this  distinction  was  first 
made  in  Philadelphia.  There  are.  also,  consol- 
idated schools  and  night  schools.  The  number  of 
the  schools,  in  1875.  was  224  primary,  127  sec- 
ondary, 29  consolidated,  63  grammar,  and  2  high 


The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  are  ax 
follows  : 

Total  attendance  in  1875 95,552 

Average     "  "     "    &2,'J75 

"  teachers,  males 77 

"  females 1,£01 


Number  i 


T"tal. 


The  studies,  taught  in  the  primary  schools,  are, 
reading,  spelling,  penmanship,  arithmetic— -men- 
tal and  practical  —  and  music,  accompanied  by 
exercises  in  dictation,  object  lessons,  and  gymnas- 
tics, and  by  instruction  in  morals  and  manners. 
To  these  are  added,  in  the  secondary  schools,  ar- 
ticulation and  pronunciation,  drawing,  composi- 
tion, definitions,  and  geography,  and  a  general 
review  of  the  studies  pursued  in  the  previous 
grade.  The  studies  peculiar  to  the  grammar 
schools,  are  grammar  and  history,  with  instruc- 
tion in,  and  reviews  of,  previous  studies.  Pupils 
from  the  grammar  si  hools  are  admitted  to  the 
Central  High  School  and  to  the  Girls'  Normal 
School  semi-annually,  upon  a  satisfactory  ex- 
amination by  a  committee  of  principals  of  the 
boys'  and  girls'  grammar  schools.  '1  he  Central 
High  School,  in  addition  to  the  studies  usually 
pursued  in  schools  of  this  class,  gives  instruction 
in  Latin,  German,  the  natural  sciences, the  higher 
mathematics,  and  mental  and  moral  philosophy. 
It  is  authorized  to  confer  upon  all  students  who 
complete  the  4  years'  course,  the  degree  of  Bach- 
elor of  Arts,  and  that  of  Master  of  Arts  upon 
till  graduates  of  not  less  than  5  years' standing 
who  shall  be  entitled  to  it.  The  number  of  stu- 
dents in  attendance,  in  1875,  was  601.  The  Girls' 
Normal  School  grants  diplomas  to  its  pupils  at 
graduation.  The  average  number  of  students  in 
attendance,  in  1875,  has  been  previously  stated 


PHILADELPHIA 

to  be  641  ;  the  number  in  its  graduating  class  I 
was  L35.  Annual  examinations  of  applicants  for 
the  position  of  teacher,  <>r  special  examinations, 


I  .mini, 


Central  High  School,  luo  grades  nl  ecrtihcates 
— principals'  certificates  and  assistants'  certifi- 
cates— are  issued,  the  first,  to  persons  not  under 
-i)  years  of  age  who  pa  s  a  satisfactory  exam- 
ination in  the  studies  prescribed  by  the  board; 
the  second,  to  persons  not  under  17  years  of 
age  who  obtain,  in  the  same  studies,  a  stated 
average  somewhat  less  than  that  necessary  for 
the  position  of  principal.      I  he  holder  of  a  prin- 


PHONETICS  699 

ant  Episcopal  Church  ;  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Theological  Seminary ;  the  Jefferson,  the  Eclec- 
tic, the  Hahnemann,  and  the  Women's  .Medical 
colleges;  the  Pennsylvania  College  of  Dental 
Surgery;  the  Philadelphia  Dental  College ;  and 
the  Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy.  There 
arc  also,  a  philosophical  and  a  historical  society, 
academies  for  science  and  art,  and  many  libraries. 
PHILANTHROPIN,  or  Philantbropi- 
num,  the  name  of  an  educational  institution, 
founded  in  1774.  by  Basedow  (q.  v.).  It  soon 
became  so  famous  that  its  admirers,  who  were 
called    I'hilanthropinists,   expected   from   it   an 


year's  teaching,  is  eligil 
cipal  of  a  primary  schoi 
to  that  of  a  secondary  ( 
teaching,  to  that  of  a  gr 
of  an  assistant's  certific 
of  assistant  in  any  pul 
years'  teaching,  may  bi 
mary  or  secondary  schc 
ants'  certificates  are  alt 
of  the  < iirls'  Normal 
public  evening  schools  i 
20  for  males,  11  for  fei 
and  6  for  colored  peopl 
mainedopen  4  months, 


lis  and  assist- 
the  graduates 
e  number  of 


}f 

ischools. 


Educational  Reform, 
PHILOLOGY.  : 
PHONETICS     (( 


14). 


from  <purr/, 
ut    only   the 

but  the  arts 
leir  sounds), 
heir  sounds). 


the  city,  may  be  mentioned.  The  first  was  the 
offer  of  the  trustees  of  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania to  receive  into  its  scientific  department 

annually,  for  a  four  years'  course.  II)  pupils  from 
the  public  schools  free  of  expense,  i  he  second 
was  a  similar  offer  from  the  directors  of  the 
Philadelphia  School  of  Design  -10  female  pupils 
being  offered  free  instruction  in  art  for  the  pre- 
scribed course,  of  4  years.  The  third  event  of  im- 
portance was  the  examination  made,  during  the 
summer,  by  a  committee  of  the  board  of  educa- 
tion anil  a  corps  of  scientists,  into  the  sanitary 
condition  of  the  schools  of  the  city.  The  results 
of  their  inquiries  have  been  arranged  ill  tabular 


form,  and  publish 
upon  the  schools  of  c 
not  fail  to  be  of  pe 
The   number  of  pri 


,nd, 


lg  as  they  do 
nd  states,  can- 
■est  and  value. 
inational,   and 


on  tin 
by  thi 
very  : 
much 
graph 
besl  p 
from 


plioneti 


c.  I  'honology  is  related, 
'ogy,  as  far  as  the  organs 

i.  are  concerned  ;  and, 
being  now  recognized 
jlogists  as  lying  at  the 
science,  and  hence  of 
than  any  mere  ortho- 


are,  also,  numerous,  chief  among  which  may  be 
enumerated,  in  addition  to  those  given  under 
the  title  Pennsylvania  (q.  v.),   Girard    College, 

which,  though  not.  strictly  speaking,  an  educa- 
tional institution  of  a  superior  grade,  but  an  or- 
phan asylum,  provides  an  8j  years'  course  of  study 
for  the  children  and  youth  under  its  care  ;  the 
Polytechnic  College,  incorporated  in  1853;  the 
Franklin  Institute ;  the  Wagner  Free  Institute 
of  Science  ;  the  Divinity  School  of  the  Protest- 


presented.  The  Knglish  language  contains  nearly 
all  the  sounds  needed  for  a  full  outline  of  pho- 
nology; and,  moreover,  in  Webster's  and  Worces- 
ter's dictionaries  mow  very  generally  accepted  as 
standards  of  reference.— in  the  United  States. 
universally  adopted  as  such),  there  is  to  be  found 
a  complete  analysis  of  these  sounds— one  in 
which  they  fully  agree,  though  neither  presents 

them  in  their  natural  order,  giving  then irely 

■as  the  particular  sounds  of  the  letters.     In  ar- 


700  PHONETICS 

ranging  them  according  to  the  latest  results  of  \  the  order  of  the  sounds  as  judged  by  the  ear, 
phonetic  science,  we  may  take  these  distinctions  corresponds  to  that  of  the  movements  of  the 
we  find  them  in  the  dictionaries,  where  they  ;  tongue,  as  perceived  by  the  muscular  sense.  The 


ectly  made  :  ( 1 )  the  sixteen  simple  vowel 
sounds  heard  in  the  following  words  :  fate  (same 
as  ei  in  veil),  fat,  care,  far,  ask,  all,  what  (same 
as  o  in  not)  ;  mete  (same  as  i  in  pique),  met,  fin, 
note,  whole  [recognized  as  an  English  sound,  but 
not  sanctioned  in  orthoepy],  rude,  pull,  ua,  teen. 
These  naturally  arrange  themselves  in  the  fol- 
lowing order,  with  the  addition  of  ii  and  ii  from 
the  German  to  complete  the  scale  : 

VOWELS. 
Full  Vowels.  Stopped  Vowels. 

Long,  when  accented.  St<ura/<>  or  exploded. 

Brief,  when  unaccented.      Always  short  in  English. 

FRONT      MIDDLE       BACK 


pull 


Goethe      note 


care    her     all 


Boecke     whole 


The  full  and  stopped  vowels  occur  in  pairs, 
and  in  three  corresponding  series,  as  shown  in 
the  following  table  : 


kuhn  Kunste 

rude  pu] 

It     It 

U      U 

Goethe  Boecke 

note  whole 

0     0 

e      0 

fat        her  us 

all 

what 

j  a     od 

e 

V 

No  distinction  is  made  in  these  tables  between 
the  sound  of  e  in  term  or  i  in  girl,  and  that  of 
u  in  urn  or  in  furl.  These  sounds,  however, 
though  kindred,  are  distinguishable,  and  are  so 
marked  by  Webster,  who  says,  "The  vulgar  uni- 
versally, and  many  cultivated  speakers  both  in 
England  and  America,  give  the  e  in  such  words 
the  full  sound  of  u  in  urge,  as  murcy  for  mercy, 
turm  for  term,  etc.  But,  in  the  most  approved 
style  of  pronunciation,  the  organs  are  placed  in 
a  position  intermediate  between  that  requisite 
for  sounding  u  in  furl  and  that  for  sounding  e 
in  met,  thus  making  (as  Smart  observes)  'a  com- 
promise between  the  two'."  The  vowel  sounds, 
as  arranged  in  the  above  tables,  may  be  thus  de- 
scribed. Starting  from  the  fundamental  sound, 
a  in  far  (or  a  in  ask),  they  branch  upward  in 
(1)  a  front  series,  with  the  tongue  rising  upward 
and  forward,  to  i  in  pique;  (2)  a  middle  series, 
with  the  tongue  rising  to  it,  directly  upward, 
and  not  pushed  forward  or  backward  ;  and 
(3)  a  back  series,  with  the  tongue  rising  upward 
and  backward  to  U  in  rude.     The  succession  in 


diphthongs  are  arranged  below  the  simple  vowels 
according  as  they  terminate  in  the  upper  front 
vowel  i  or  the  upper  back  vowel  it.  The  rela- 
tions of  the  full  and  corresponding  stopped  vow- 
els to  each  other,  as  affected  by  quantity,  may 
be  further  studied  by  the  aid  of  the  following 
arrangement  of  words,  in  which  they  respective- 
ly occur  in  accented  and  unaccented  syllables 
(the  double  letters  indicating  prolonged  sounds): 
eat  I  eternal        kiiin    Kunste        prude  I  prudentia 


it 

wood 

ii 

* 

uu 

11. 

mate 

maternal 

Goethe 

Bocke 

oak 

location 

ee 

e 

0 

0 

00 

0 

met 

spoken 

ee 

e 

00 

0 

care 

clairvoyant 

cur 

curtail 

aught 

authentic 

a?  a? 

ae 

QZ 

8 

vv 

V 

carry 

curry 

not 

13 1? 

I! 

99 

a 

■oo 

V 

part 

partak 

(1(1 

* 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  stopped  vowels 
do  not,  aud  cannot,  rise  quite  so  high  in  the 
scale  as  their  corresponding  full  vowels;  but 
this  difference  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  in  the 
fundamental  pair,  a  a,  and  in  the  lower  front 
pair,  a?  13- 

The  following  is  a  synoptical  arrangement  of 
consonant  sounds,  the  German  guttural   ich  be- 
ing added.   [",  indicates  aspirates ;  ^.subtonics; 
«,  nasals ;  /,  liquids  ;  v,  vowel  consonants]  : 
CONSONANTS. 


LIP 

LIP- 

TONGtlE- 

TIP- 

TOP- 

ROOT 

TEETH 

»P 

(one 

clim 

cat 

(a) 

P 

be 

t 

ch 

jar 

get 

W. 

b 

d 

j 

g 

V 

thin 

us 

she 

ich 

(a) 

f 

th 

S 

sh 

I'll 

ueil 

this 

zone 

usual 

Ta„ 

(0 

V 

till 

Z 

zh 

0 

me 

no 

serior 

eing 

(») 

m 

11 

Jet  rare 

n 

ng 

(0 

1  rj 

wAat 

he 

(a) 

h\v 

h 

For  an  account  of  the  development  of  th& 
present  method  of  indicating  theses  mnds  in  the 


PHOXKTirs 


English  language,  tlio   reader  is  referred  to  the 
article  on  Orthography. 

II.  Phonetic  Print.— The  elementary  sounds 
of  the  English  language  are  usually  represented 
in  dictionaries  bj  diacritical  marks";  but  various 
methods  of  phonotypic notation, other  than  this, 
have  been  employed.  That  of  Dr.  Edwin  Leigh 
has  been  extensively  used  for  school  purposes, 
and  hits  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  pop- 
ularity. An  ingenious  system  of  representation 
approximating  to  the  diacritical,  is  used  in 
Shearers  ( bmbtnation  8p>  ■  ■  r  I  New  York,  1>7I. 
The  notation  employed  in  the  above  vowel  and 
consonant  scales,  using  only  the  common  letters 
of  the  alphabet  for  temporary  and  critical  use, 
is  in  substantial  accordance  with  the  plans  of 
Dr.  Thornton  (1790),  of  the  Dutch  alphabet,  of 
Mr.  Ellis  in  the  Alph  ibetqf  Mature  1844),  and 
Palceolupe  (1868),  of  Prof.  Haldeman  (1860), 
and  of  S.  P.  Andrews  (1876  .  It  is  not  incon- 
sistent with  those  of  Pickering,  Lepsius,  and 
others,  which  have  been  used  in  printing  Asiatic 
and  new  languages.  It  harmonizes  these  various 
plans,  and  is  in  very  exact  accordance  with  a 
phonotypic  plan  that  is.  perhaps,  as  good  as  any 
yet  proposed,  and  has.  moreover,  a  good  and 
facile  script  corresponding  to  both. 

III.  Phonography,  or  phonetic  writing,  in  its 
more  general  sense,  would  include  any  script  in 
which  the  letters  are  used  to  denote  sounds  ;  but 
it  is  now  appropriated,  in  a  special  sense,  to  Pit- 
man's particular  system  of  phonetic  short-hand. 
For  an  account  of  various  efforts  to  construct  a 
phonetic  long-hand  script,  for  the  English  and 
other  languages,  see  the  publications  of  Isaac 
Pitman  and  Elias  Loyly.  For  a  history  of 
short-hand  (>/■  /<,<//■,</, //vi.  see  a  valuable  treatise 
by  Mr.  Pitman  published  in  connection  with  his 
" Fonotypic  Journal,"  in  1847,  in  which  he 
describes  120  systems,  and  gives  the  alphabets 
of  86  A-B-0  systems,  from  that  of  Tyro — 
Cicero's  freedman — ( I!.  ( '.  60),  down  to  those  of 
Gurney  (1753),  Byrom  (1767),  Taylor  (1786), 
Mayor  (1789),  Lewis  (1815),  and  Floyd  (1818) ; 
giving,  also,  specimens  of  passages  written  in  the 
seven  most  successful  systems,  and  adding  the 
alphabets  and  specimens  of  the  seven  phonetic 
systems  from  Tiffin  (1750)  to  Sproat  (1846).— 
Pitman's  phonography  was  invented  in  1837, 
and  so  thoroughly  matured  by  its  author  before 
bst4,  that  its  main  features  remain  unchanged; 
though,  with  the  co-operation  of  leading  phonog- 
raphers  in  England  and  America,  some  of  its 
minor  details  have  been  improved  or  modified. 
It  can  be  studied  in  Pitman's  manuals, especially 
those  of  I860  and  L865  ;  or  as  it  appears  in  the 
text-books  of  Andrews  and  I'.oyle  (Boston,  1846); 
Longley  (Cincinnati.  1851),  Graham  (N.  Y., 
1858),  Ben  Pitman  (Cincinnati,  1-55),  Marsh 
(San  Francisco.  1868),  Munson  (N.  Y„  1866), 
and  E.  V.  Burns  (X.  Y.,  1872).  In  connection 
with  any  of  these  (especially  those  prior  to  1  Still), 
Parkhurst's  Slenophonographer  (N.  Y„  1852— 
76)  can  be  used,  and  will  give  to  the  investigator, 
teacher,  or  practical  reporter,  the  history  and 
discussion  of  the  various  improvements,  proposed 


or  made,  since  1852. — Phonography,  notwith- 
standing its  many  advantages  over  the  ordinary 
script,  has  made  but  little  progress  since  that 


schools,  or  for  the  special  purposes  of  preparing 
for  the  occupation  of  the  reporter. 

IV.  Phonetic  teaching  now  quite  generally 
constitutes  a  part  of  the  lowest  grade  of  ele- 
mentary instruction,  its  object  being  to  facilitate 
the  teaching  of  children  to  read.  (See  Phonic 
Minion,  By  means  of  phonetic  exercises,  the 
vocal  organs  of  children  are  trained  to  clearness 
and  correctness  of  enunciation,  while  the  ear  is 
cultivated  so  as  to  be  able  readily  to  distinguish 
sounds.  At  the  same  time,  children  necessarily 
acquire  a  better  idea  of  the  use  of  letters  and  of 
the  sounds  which  they  are  employed  to  denote. 
.Most  educators,  at  the  present  time,  recommend 
this  mode  of  teaching :  although  there  is  some 
diversity  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is  applied. 
Mcgimiing  with  simple  words  in  which  single 
letters  are  used  to  denote  simple  sounds,  and  in 
which  no  silent  letters  occur,  the  child  is  led  to 
perceive  the  use  of  the  letters,  and  to  associate 
with  them  their  proper  sounds,  the  teacher 
passes  progressively  to  more  complex  and  ir- 
regular combinations,  until  the  pupil  is  able  to 
analyze  words  into  their  component  sounds,  and 
state  how  these  sounds  are  represented.  After 
such  preliminary  exercises,  in  order  that  the 
pupil  may  fully  understand  the  relations  of  the 
sounds  to  each  other,  and  be  systematically 
drilled  in  their  utterance,  all  the  elementary 
sounds  must  be  presented  synoptically.  This  is 
done  by  phonetic  charts,  which  should  exhibit. 
(1)  a  logical  enumeration  of  the  elementary 
sounds,  illustrated  by  their  use  in  well  chosen 
words;  and  (2)  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  with 
their  various  sounds,  and  diphthongal  combina- 
tions. Very  many  of  the  faults  in  articulation 
so  frequently  met  with  may  be  prevented  or  re- 
moved by  persistent  drilling  in  the  elementary 
sounds.  These  phonetic  drills  may  comprise 
exercises  in  the  vowel  sounds  by  themselves; 
but  the  consonant  sounds  are  often  most  effect- 
ively practised  in  combinations  with  vowels.  In 
teaching  persons,  whether  children  or  adults,  to 
pronounce  a  foreign  language,  this  training  is  in- 
dispensable. Of  course.it  should  be  preceded 
by  a  careful  investigation  into  the  particular 
defects  which  constitute  what  is  called  the 
"foreign  accent."  so  that  the  elementary  sounds 
involved  may  be  made  the  special  subject  of  the 
drill.  Phonetic  analysis  should  not  cease  in  the 
lower  grades,  but  should,  at  every  stage,  consti- 
tute a  part  of  the  regular  reading  or  eloeution- 

i  ary  exercises.     Like  the  fingers  of  the  pianist  or 
violinist,  the  vocal  organs  need  constant   tech- 

:  meal  exercise  in  order  that   they  may  perform 
their  office  most  effectively.     The   enunciation 

J  of   the   open  vowel  sounds   constitutes  a  most 
important  part  of  vocal  training.     (See  Voice, 

I  Culture  of  the.) 


PHONIC  METHOD 


PHYSICAL    KIH'CATION 


PHONIC  METHOD,  a  term  applied  to  a  \  in  any  given  direction  becomes  almost  automatic, 
method  of  teaching  reading,  in  accordance  with  !  as  is  seen  in  the  case  of  the  skillful  oarsman, 
which  pupils  are  taught,  in  pronouncing  words,    rider,  or  swordsman ;  or  in  adepts  in  athletic 
games,  such  as  those  of  ball  and  cricket.     All 
such  means  of  physical  culture  become  of  special 


to  use  the  sounds  of  the  letters,  instead  of  their 
names,  so  that  they  may  at  once  perceive  the 
result  of  the  combination,  and  thus  without  dif- 
ficulty give  the  correct  pronunciation.  For  ex- 
ample, when  the  pupil  ' 
the  word 

gives  to  each"  letter  the  proper  sound,  phoneti- 
cally, and  thus  at  once  pronounces  the  word  dog 
as  the  necessary  product  of  the  elements  thus 
combined.  This  method  is  considered  by  teach- 
ers to  possess  many  advantages  over  the  old- 
fashioned  way  of  compelling  the  pupils  to  learn 
the  names  of  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and 
then  teaching  them  to  read  by  spelling  exercises. 
(See  Orthography.) 

PHONICS.  See  Orthography,  and  Phonet- 
ics. 

PHRENOLOGY.    See  Character,  DISCERN- 
MENT OK. 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  may  be  defined 

as  that  systematic  training  of  the  bodily  powers 
which  tends  to  render  them,  in  the  highest  pos- 
sible degree,  efficient  in  their  several  functions. 
The  necessity  for  this  training  is  generally  ac- 
knowledged, as  a  basis  for  the  higher  depart- 
ments of  education.  Among  the  ancients — the 
Persians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  especially, 
the  highest  respect  was  accorded  to  physical  cult- 
ure ;  and  the  means  employed  were  generally 
well  adapted  to  the  purpose,  although  merely 
empirical ;    but,   at   the   present  time,   the  re- 


value, as  bringing  the  powers  of  the  body  under 
the  immediate  control  of  the  will ;  and,  hence, 


2  pupil  is  required  to  pronounce  under  the  name  itthlrtics,  they  have  been  gener- 
he  does  not  say  de-o-ge,  dog,  but  j  ally  encouraged  by  those  who  have  the  direction 
of  superior  education.  In  the  same  category,  are 
to  be  placed  the  exercises  which  regard  the  due 
development  of  other  physical  powers,  as  the 
senses,  the  vocal  organs,  the  lungs,  and.  in  a  closer 
relation  to  intellectual  education,  the  brain. 
Kducators  err  greatly  in  forgetting  that  the 
brain  is  a  physical  organ,  and  that  its  exercise  is 
subject  to  the  same  laws  and  to  the  same  limita- 
tions as  other  bodilv  organs  ;  and  that,  therefore, 
physical  considerations  should  have  a  controlling 
weight  in  determining  the  means  and,  to  some 
extent,  the  methods  of  intellectual  training.  (See 
Brain.)— Many  are  inclined  to  regard  the  direc- 
tion of  physical  training  as  unnecessary.  They 
think  that  the  physical  powers  of  children  and 
youth  receive,  in  the  instinctive  and  irrepressible 
exercises  natural  to  that  age,  a  sufficient  educa- 
tion for  ordinary  purposes.  From  this  view 
arises  a  neglect  which  is  fraught  with  serious 
injury.  Not  only  does  the  individual  fail  to  act 
appropriately  and  energetically  at  every  trying 
period  of  his  life ;  but,  in  most  cases,  his  action 
falls  somewhat  below  what  is  required  for  effect- 
ive results,  through  want  of  the  full  co  operation 
of  the  bodily  powers!  and,  toward  the  close  of  life, 

5-  a  far  better    decrepitude  is  accelerated  by  the  partial  atrophy 
ective  system  ■  occasioned   by   imperfect   development  and  by 


searches  of  science  ought  to  ! 
and  more  accurate  basis  for  an  i 


of  bodily  training. —  Physical  education  looks  to  disuse, 
two  objects  :  (1)  to  encourage  a  normal  devel-  CI)  To  check  morbid  growth  or  to  prevent  dis- 
opment  of  bodilvpowers  ;  and  (2)  to  check  mor-  i  ease,  careful  attention  must  be  given  to  the  sur- 
bid  growth.  Incidentally  to  these,  of  course,  roundings  of  the  child,  particularly  in  school: 
the  preservation  of  health,  that  is,  protection  ,  as  there  he  is  subjected  to  constant  restraint, 
against  disease,  is  an  important  object ;  since  a  and,  hence,  cannot  exercise  his  natural  instincts 
condition  of  health  is  the  foundation  upon  which  which  would  prompt  him  to  escape  from  such 
all  physical  culture  must  rest ;  indeed,  if  chil-  '  surroundings.  The  preservation  of  children 
dren  are  successfully  protected  from  morbid  in-  >  from  morbid  influences  in  school  depends  upon 
fluences  and  disturbances,  normal  development  a  great  variety  of  circumstances,  for  a  full  enu- 
must  result.  meration  of  which,  see  Hygiene,  School. — The 

(1)  The  application  of  appropriate  means  to  |  practical  aim  of  physical  education,  under  the  in- 
stimulate  or  guide  the  development  of  the  bod-  fluence  of  modern  fife,  is  almost  always  intellect- 
'  ual.  (lymnastics  and  calisthenics,  however,  in- 
directly exert  a  moral  influence  which,  of  itself,, 
makes  their  practice  desirable.  This  is  that 
magnanimity  which  is  produced  in  generous 
minds  by  the  consciousness  of  bodily  health  and 
power,  and  a  disposition  to  use  that  power 
worthily.  A  feeling  of  inferiority  has  always 
associated  with  it  an  element  of  immorality, 
which  leads  its  possessor  to  acts  of  duplicity  and 
meanness  to  preserve  his  equality.  There  is  still 
another  phase  of  physical  education  to  be  con- 
sidered— that  which  relates  to  the  joint  action 
of  the  mind  and  body  through  the  medium  of 
the  senses.  (See  Bar,  Bye,  and  Senses,  Kdica- 
tion  of.)  The  minute  subdivision  of  labor  char- 
acteristic of  the  age  in  which  we  live,  by  giving 
a   utilitarian   value   to   the   cultivation   of  the 


ily  powers  constitutes  what  is  called  j>lit/sic<il 
training.  This  training  maybe  (1)  general,  or 
(2)  special.  Up  to  a  certain  age,  all  physical 
exercise  must  have  for  its  object  general  develop- 
ment ;  beyond  that,  the  special  purpose  of  the 
training  must  dictate  the  nature  of  the  exercise 
to  be  employed.  Military  drill,  it  is  true,  is 
often  employed  in  schools  to  promote  general 
development,  but  there  is  very  much  required  in 
military  discipline  that  is  quite  unnecessary  for 
ordinary  physical  culture.  The  importance  of 
systematic  exercise  has  been  considered  in  the 
articles  calisthenics  and  gymnastics  (q.  v.).  Such 
exercise,  however,  must  not  look  exclusively  to 
muscular  development ;  but  to  the  prompt  use 
of  muscular  power  in  obedience  to  the  dictates 
of  mind.     Such  power  systematically  exercised 


PHYSICS 

senses  is  rapidly  constituting  tins  an  element  of 
increasing  importance.  Already,  the  Buccess  of 
numerous  trades  and  employments  is  dependent 
upon  a  nicety  of  discrimination  by  means  of  the 
eye,  the  ear,  the  taste,  or  the  touch;  and  the  number 
of  these  is  steadily  increasing.  The  cultivation 
of  the  senses,  therefore,  is  desirable  from  a  merely 
utilitarian  point  of  view  ;  while  for  general  cult- 
ure, such  as  is  required  in  many  of  the  arts,  its 
absolute  necessity  is  manifest.  Many  considera- 
tions aud  interests,  therefore,  conspire  to  make 
the  subject  of  physical  education  one  of  con- 
stantly increasing  importance. 

PHYSICS.     Sec  Science. 

PHYSIOLOGY  (Gr kc,  nature,  and  A<Syoc, 

discourse',  the  science  which  treats  of  vital 
phenomena — as  contradistinguished  from  anato- 
my, which  treats  of  the  structure  of  living 
bodies  and  the  materials  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. In  the  course. if  education,  it  presup- 
poses some  preliminary  knowledge  of  chemistry, 
physics,  anatomy,  and  especially  of  microscopic 
anatomy,  or  hist cilngy:  and.  in  tuni.it  precedes  the 
study  of  hygiene,  or  the  laws  of  health,  and  that 
of  pathology,  or  the  science  of  abnormal  function. 
As  a  science,  physiology  is  of  recent  origin ;  though 
the  name  has  been  inuse  from  antiquity.  Like  all 
other  natural  sciences,  as  Dalton  observes,  ■■there 
is  only  one  means  by  which  physiology  can  be 
studied  ;  that  is,  by  the  observation  of  nature." 
It  has  been  built  up  by  experiment :  and  many 
of  its  most  essential  truths,  and  these  in  their 
practical  results  the  most  important  to  man- 
kind, have  been  gained  through  vivisection.  As 
the  principal  foundation  of  hygiene,  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  its  principles  should  be  so  far  made  an 
element  of  general  education  as  may  conduce  to 
a  just  appreciation  of  nature's  sanitary  code. 
How  this  may  best  be  accomplished  is  a  question 
that  has  hardly  received  the  attention  it  deserves. 
School  physiology,  in  many  cases,  consists  of  a 
smattering  of  anatomy:  in  others,  of  a  still  more 
unsubstantial  fabric  'of  information  regarding 
function  ;  or.  in  still  others,  of  a  blending  of  the 
two  with  hygienic  doctrines,  often  based  not  on 
a  wide  conception  of  biological  truths,  but  on 
the  meager  knowledge  gained  by  personal  ex- 
perience. The  difficulty  has  always  consisted  in 
attempting  to  build  upon  too  narrow  a  founda- 
tion, and  that  by  means  of  an  erroneous  method. 
Thus,  the  attempt  is  made  to  teach  the  elements 
of  physiology  without  a  sufficient  groundwork 
of  chemistry  and  physics,  and  exclusively  from 
books,  instead  of  from  practical  experience  in 
the  laboratory.  The  results  have  been— as  those 
of  book  learning  and  lecture  teaching  in  natural 
science,  without  observation  and  experiment, 
always  must  be — unreal  and  evanescent ;  hence, 
by  such  instruction  the  true  nature  of  vital 
phenomena  is  never  clearly  apprehended;  and 
the  hygienic  deductions  are,  of  course,  corre- 
spondingly illogical.  Doubtless,  a  great  amount 
of  knowledge  has  been  imparted,  in  these  later 
days,  to  the  people  in  general  on  this  subject; 
but  the  advance  that  has  been  made  in  sanitary 
practice  is.  probably,  due  not  so  much  to  the 


rnYSIOLOGY  703 

results  of  school   education,  as  to  the   improved 

education  of  1 lical  men.  and  to  their  advice 

spoken  and  written  to  communities,  learning  by 
practical  experience  the  penalty  of  infringing 
hygienic  laws.  The  real  requisite  in  general 
education  on  this  subject,  appears  to  lie.  that, 
when  a  sufficient  foundation  has  been  laid,  a 
practical  course  of  biology  should  be  employed 
to  elucidate  the  general  laws  of  life  :  and  then 
the  habit  of  scientific  thought  and  reasoning, 
formed  by  such  training,  will  lead  to  a  coiTect 
application  of  general  principles  to  the  special 
conditions  of  human  life.  Some  such  course  of 
liinliigical  study  as  .1  '  'uursr  if  I'rarlual  fiislr ac- 
tion in  Elementary  Biology,  by  Huxley  and  Mar- 
tin, might  properly  form  a  part  of  the  curriculum 
of  cveiv  e.illegiate  institution:  and.  in  all  schools 
of  a  lower  grade,  as  much  preparation  should  be 
made  for  Mich  a  course  as  is  practicable.    Ob- 


disse 


such  simple  practical  suggestions  as  arise  tr.nn 
the  interpretation  of  the  mechanical  arrange- 
ments of  the  body,  may  be  early  commenced ; 
but,  in  all  cases,  this  foundation  should  be  laid 
systematically,  with  a  definite  end  in  view,  and 
by  instructors  who  have  qualified  themselves  to 
teach,  by  following  a  complete  practical  course, 
such  as  is  above  suggested,  'leaching  merely  frem 
text-books  and  by  pictures,  will  be  almost  useless, 
because  superficial ;  and  no  demonstrations,  even 
from  the  best  models,  can  ever  be  so  effective 
as  those  from  actual  dissections  of  the  lower  ani- 
mals. A  pupil  will  gain  a  better  idea  of  the 
appearances  presented  by  his  own  organs,  and  of 
their  own  relations  to  one  another,  from  seeing 
a  demonstration  of  those  of  a  rabbit  or  a  dog, 
for  example,  than  from  any  rigid,  and  necessarily 
unreal,  model,  however  skillfully  constructed  and 
colored.  Such  models,  however,  admirably  sub- 
serve secondary  demonstrations.  The  educator 
who  contemplates  laying  a  foundation  for  physi- 
ology should  refer  to  A  Course  of  Elementary 
Practical  Physiology,  by  Foster  and  Langley — a 
work  intended  to  succed  that  of  Huxley  and 
Martin,  above  mentioned.  From  this  guide  to 
laboratory  work,  he  will  learn  what  physiological 
investigation  implies  and  requires;  and  he  will 
realize  upon  what  basis  rests  the  information 
contained  in  the  re-organized  physiological  text- 
books; such  as  Dalton 's  Treatise  on  Human 
Physiology,    Flint's    Physiology  of  Man.   and 


the-  m. 
lluxk 
Daltoi 
and   I 

aid  hi 


cllool 


I 'hi 


i    Anatomy   and   Physiology.     To 

lemonstrations  of  the  dissections  of 
the  lower  animals,  he  should  have  at  hand  a 
trustworthy  treatise  on  human  anatomy,  such 
as  Monvlls  S/m/,;,r.<  Manual  of  Comparative 
Anatomy  ami  Guide  t<>  Dissection,  and  Mivart's 
Lessonsin  Elementary  Anatomy.  Every  teacher 
should.alsn.be  familiar  with  Carpenter's  Prin- 


ciples of  Mental 
thor.  Principles 
Principles  of  H 


/7///s 


lso.lc 


lie  sameau- 


rc  I'hysioloi/i/.nml 
ogy.  (See  Science.) 


704 


PIABISTS 


Fathers    of    the    Pious 


PIARISTS, 

Schools,  a  religions  order  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  members  of  which  are  specially  de- 
voted to  tlie  gratuitous  instruction  of  youth.  This 
order  was  founded  by  Joseph  of  Calasanza,  or 
< 'alasantius.  a  Spanish  priest,  by  the  opening  of 
a  free  school,  at  Koine,  in  1597.  A  large  Dumber 
of  children  were  soon  gathered  in  this  school, 
under  the  instruct  ion  of  Calasanza  and  his  asso- 
ciates; and,  by  a  decree  of  Paul  V.,  the  association 
assumed  the  rank  of  a  religious  congregation. 
Soon  afterward  (1622),  it  was  made  a  religious 
order.  Calasanza  being  its  first  general,  and 
soon  spread  through  Germany,  Poland,  Italy, 
and  some  other  countries.  In  I860,  the  Piarists 
had  33  houses  in  Germany,  28  in  Italy,  32  in 
Hungary,  14  in  Poland,  and  at  least  30  in  Spain. 
In  Italy,  thsy  have  since  been  suppressed  ;  and 

the   only   country   in  which    they    c luct,  at 

present,  educational  institutions  of  note,  is  the 
Austro  -  Hungarian  .Monarchy.  In  Oisleithan 
Austria,  in  1870,  th  -y  had  29  houses,  with  2!)7 
members;  include  I  in  which  were  4  under-gym- 
nasia.     (Se  ■  Roman  Cmimijc  Ciiitroh.) 

PICTURE 3.  One  of  the  earliest  efforts  of 
the  human  mind,  after  spoken  language,  appears 
to  be  the  communication  of  ideas  by  tangible  ob- 
jects. The  use  of  pictures  and  images  is  com- 
mon among  savages  every-where.  It  is  no  less 
characteristic  of  the  infant  mind  among  civilized 
races,  chililren  being  not  only  interested  in  look- 
ing at  pictures,  but,  by  a  natural  prompting,  at- 
tempting to  imitate  them.  The  first  ideas  which 
the  child  takes  from  objects  being  concrete, 
its  means  of  expressing  them  takes  the  concrete 
form— its  first  effort  being,  as  near  as  possible,  a 
reproduction  of  the  objects  themselves.  Not  till 
a  higher  development  has  been  reached,  is  it 
fitted  to  make  use  of  a  system  in  which  purely 
arbitrary  forms  are  employed.  This  early  and 
almost  universal  instinct,  therefore,  involving,  as 
it  must,  th-3  ability  to  understand  ideas  so  com- 
municated, suggests  the  peculiar  fitness  of  this 
method  for  use  in  the  instruction  of  children. 
This  form  of  expression  being  attended  with  so 
much  pleasure,  it  finds  its  natural  place  in  the 
kindergarten  system  ;  and  we  find,  accordingly, 
various  exercises  there  for  the  employment  of  it. 
It  is  even  extended  into  the  ordinary  school  sys- 
tem   in    the    sua] f  object   lessons.      (Jut  this 

method,  useful  as  it  is  at  certain  stages,  has  its 
limitations.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that, 
with  children,  the  object  itself,  for  purposes  of 
instruction,  is  always  better  than  any  represen- 
tation of  it.  As  the  picture  of  an  animal,  for 
instance,  is  only  one  phase  of  the  form  of  that 
animal,  and  docs  not  usually  take  into  con- 
sideration size,  color,  and  many  other  essentia] 
qualities,  only  a  very  imperfect  impression  can 
be  gained  from  it.  This  fact  should  suggest  the 
limitations  mentioned.  These  have  reference 
principally  to  the  end  to  be  attained,  to  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  picture,  and  the  number  and 
nature  of  the  objects  represented.  As  to  the 
correctness  of  the  picture,  little  need  be  said;  as 
modern   publications,    in   this   respect,   show  a 


PIO  NONO  COLLEGE 

1  constant  improvement,  and  leave  little  to  be  de- 
sired. The  number  of  objects  represented  in 
each  picture  should  be  limited,  single  figures 
being,  at  first,  given  ;  afterwards  two  or  three. 
The  objects  represented,  also,  should  be  familiar 
things,  and  several  of  a  kind,  inasmuch  as,  by 
the  contemplation  of  these,  the  child's  conceptive 
faculty,  or  imagination,  and  powers  of  general- 
ization are  exercised.  In  this  respect,  also,  the 
right  method  in  primers  and  elementary  books, 
is,  as  a  rule,  instinctively  taken — though  not  al- 
ways. The  value  of  this  last  restriction,  at  a 
later  period,  may  be  easily  illustrated.  If  the 
object  be  to  give  an  idea  of  seme  animal  never 
seen — the  camel,  for  instance — the  task  is  made 
comparatively  easy  from  the  child's  having  seen 
illustrations  of  somewhat  similar  objects  with 
which  it  is  familiar  ;  as  the  horse,  cow.  etc.  It 
seizes  at  once  upon  the  points  of  resemblance, 
and,  immediately  after,  upon  the  points  of  dif- 
ference, and  thus  makes  a  positive  addition  to 
its  knowledge.  But  let  the  same  child  be  con- 
fronted with  a  picture  of  a  star-fish,  or  a  print- 
ing press,  and  the  probability  is,  if  it  has  never 
seen  these  or  any  similar  objects,  that  it  will 
get  only  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  either.  The 
reason  is  obvious.  With  no  previous  prepara- 
tion, it  is  called  upon  to  establish  in  its  mind  an 
entirely  new  conception,  solely  from  the  picture, 
without  any  corresponding  tangible  basis  in  its 
experience.  The  result  is  a  thwarting  of  the 
tendency  to  generalization — so  strong  with  chil- 
dren always — and  a  confusing  of  the  mind  by 
an  indistinct  conception,  invariably  accompanied 
with  a  loss  of  interest.  The  special  uses  to 
which  pictures  are  put,  whether  as  diagrams  in 
illustration  of  particular  studies,  or  as  part 
of  a  higher,  artistic  education,  need  not  here  be 
considered.  'I  he  publication  of  the  Oi-bis  Sen- 
sualium  Pictus,  by  Comenius,  was,  probably, 
the  earliest  attempt  to  use  pictures  as  a  direct 
and  systematic  means  of  instructing  children. 
(See  Comenius.) 

PIO  NONO  COLLEGE,  at  St.  Francis  Sta- 
tion on  Chicago  and  North-western  Railroad,  4 
m.  from  Milwaukee.  Wis.,  was  founded  in  1871. 
It  is  under  Roman  Catholic  control,  and  admits 
none  but  Catholics.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees,  which,  including  board,  tuition, etc.,  are  $55 
per  quarter  of  21  months.  For  music,  telegraphy, 
and  phonography  there  is  an  extra  charge.  The 
course  of  study  embraces  thorough  instruction 
in  the  English,  German,  and  French  languages, 
mathematics  in  all  its  branches,  book-keeping 
and  history.  The  number  of  pupils,  in  1875 — 6, 
was  about  60.  The  firs!  president  was  the  Rev. 
Joseph  Salzinann,  D.  D.,  who  was  succeeded  by 
the  present  incumbent  (1876),  the  Rev.  Theo- 
dore Bruner.  The  normal  school  at  the  same 
place,  for  the  education  of  teachers  and  organ- 
ists for  » 'atholic  schools  and  churches,  has  been, 
since  the  organization  of  the  institution,  under 

I  the  same  presidency  as  the  college.  In  1876, 
this  school  had  70  pupils.  A  Catholic  deaf  and 
dumb  institution,  in  connection  with  the  normal 

I  school,  was  founded  in  1876. 


PITTSBURGH 


PITTSBURGH,  a  large  and  important  city 

of  Pennsylvania,  having  a  population,  in  l^iO, 
of  121,215,  which,  in  1876,  was  estimated  to 
have  increased  to  130,000.  The  town  was  laid 
out  in  17(14,  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  171)4, 
and  as  a  cit v  in  L816.  Since  thattime, its  bound- 


an 


ih.,  i 


drawing,  music,  and  calisthenics.     In    order  to 
succeed  in  this  examination   they  must   give,  on 


law  of  1834  (see  Pennsylvania  ;  and.  the  next 
year,  a  public  school  was  opened,  which  com- 
menced with  an  enrollment  of  only  5  pupils. 
From  that  time  till  1855,  the  Pittsburgh  schools 

were  under  the  control  of  the  state,  and  each 
ward  board  had  full  control  of  the  educational 
and  financial  interests  of  its  own  school ;  but,  at 
the  latter  date,  the  legislature,  by  a  special  act, 
consolidated  the  several  wards  into  one  school- 
district,  placing  the  management  of  the  schools 
under  the  control  of  a  central  board  of  educa- 
tion, composed  of  one  member  from  each  ward. 
or  sub-district,  to  be  electe  1  by  the  ward  board. 
The  following  year,  the  first  public  high  school 
was  established.  In  1868,  in  pursuance  of  an  act 
establishing  the  office  of  city  superintendent  of 
schools,  George  J.  Luckey  was  elected  to  that 
office,  to  which  he  has  several  times  been  re- 
elected, his  fourth  term  expiring  in  May,  11 
Previous  to  his  election,  there  was  great  diversity 
in  school  management  and  methods  ;  but,  under 
his  earnest  and  efficient  administration,  a  good 
degree  of  uniformity  has  been  established.  The 
following  shows  the  growth  of  the  public  schools 
since  their  consolidation  in  one  school-district,  in 
1855.  In  1856,  the  enrollment  of  pupils  was 
6,724  :  in  I860,  it  was  7,608  ;  in  1865,  it  had  in- 
creased to  8,743;  in  1870.  to  12,883  ;  in  1875,  to 
20,483;  and,  in  1876,  to  21,488. 

School  System. — The  general  management  of 
the  system  is  vested  in  the  Central  Board  of 
Education,  consisting  of  36  members,  one  from 
each  district,  and  holding  office  for  three  years, 
one-third  of  the  board  being  changed  each  year. 
There  are,  besides,  sub-district  boards,  one  in 
each  ward,  each  consisting  of  6  members,  having 
the  same  tenn  of  office  as  the  members  of  the 
central  board,  and  one-third  retiring  annually. 
Each  of  these  ward  boards  appoints  its  own 
teachers,  and  levies  the  tax  necessary  for  the 
payment  of  janitors  and  other  expenses  ;  but  the 
central  board  appoints  the  teachers  of  the  high 
school,  fixes  the  salaries  of  all  the  teachers  em- 
ployed in  the  city,  and  levies  the  tax  necessary 
for  their  payment.  It  has  the  exclusive  control 
of  the  high  school,  and  prescribes  the  text-books 
to  be  used  in  all  the  schools. — The  course  of  in- 
struction prescribed  for  the  ward  schools  com- 
prises the  usual  common-school  branches,  in- 
cluding music  and  drawing.  There  are  I  3  grades, 
embracing  a  7  years'  course.  Pupils,  in  passing 
from  the  ward  schools  to  the  Central  High 
School  are  required  to  pass  an  examination  in 
reading,  spelling,  grammar,  composition,  arith- 
metic, algebra,  geography,  history,  and  the  ele- 
ments of  natural   philosophy,  besides  writing, 


,,gy.  p 


zoology,  geology,  general  history, 
and  rhetoric,  mental  and  moral 
mechanical  and   free  hand  drawing. 


philo 

elocu 

the  course  consists  of  arithmetic  and"  algebra ; 

English  gra ar,  literature,  and  composition  ; 

L'nited  States;  drawing  and  music;  physiology 
(by  lectures);  elements  of  chemistry, geology,  and 
physics  ;  theory  of  teaching,  and  two  or  more 
weeks'  practice  in  the  same.  The  commercial 
course  includes  the  department  of  theory  (3 
months  i.  the  intermediate  department  (3  months), 
and  the  department  of  practice  (4  months). — 
The  superintendent  has  authority  by  law  to  call 
teachers'  institutes,  and.  like  the  county  super- 
intendents, to  draw  from  the  county  treasury 
moneys  for  their  support;  also  to  elect  a  com- 
mittee on  permanent  certificates  for  the  city  of 
Pittsburgh.  Four  stated  sessions  of  the  teachers' 
institute  are  held  annually  in  the  city  ;  namely, 
on  the  third  Friday  evening  and  the  following 
Saturday  forenoon  of  the  months  of  January, 
March,  May,  and  October  ;  and  a  three  days' 
session  during  the  week  preceding  the  annual 
opening  of  the  schools.  The  stated  meetings  are 
devoted  to  professional  lectures  and  discussions, 
and  practical  exemplifications  of  methods  by  the 
introduction  of  actual  classes  of  pupils,  who  re- 
ceive lessons  in  the  presence  of  the  institute. — 
Examinations  for  teachers'  licenses  are  held  by 
the  superintendent,  assisted  by  a  board  of  ex- 
aminers, in  accordance  with  the  general  law  of 
the  state. 

School  Statistics. — Besides  the  Central  High 
School,  there  are  39  ward  schools,  each  of  which, 
in  pursuance  of  the  law  of  1869  consolidating 
the  wards,  is  known  by  a  distinctive  name,  in- 
stead of  a  numerical  designation.  There  are  also 
evening  schools.  The  other  items  of  importance, 
for  1876,  are  as  follows  : 

Number  of  pupils  enrolled 21,488 

Average  monthly  enrollment 17,180 

Average  daily  attendance 14,50] 

1 : 1 1 r. j  1 1 1 1 n-ii t  in  evening  tchools 4.0m; 

Attendance  in  evening  schools 1,769 

Number  oi  teachers  in  day  schools.        419 

Total  tax  levied  lor  seliooi  purposes $602,941.37 

Total  valuation  of  school  property $1,904,500.00 

Cost  per  pupil,  on  annual  enrollment $16.00 

There  are  9  secondary  schools,  including  2 
commercial  colleges,  and  1  school  of  design,  em- 
ploying 4."i  teachers,  and  attended  by  2,297  pu- 
pils. The  Roman  Catholic  parochial  schools  are 
attended  by  8,073  pupils. — For  information  in 
regard  to  higher  institutions  of  learning,  see  the 
article  on  Pennsylvania. 


706 


PLATO 


PLATO,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Greek 
philosophers,  was  born  at  Athens,  42!)  or  430 
B.  0.,  and  died  about  348.  lie  was  of  illustrious 
descent,  on  both  his  father's  and  his  mother's  side; 
but  very  little  is  definitely  known  regarding  his 
early  life.  From  his  own  writings,  we  learn  that 
he  intended  to  enter  public  life,  but  became  dis- 
gusted with  the  corruption  and  general  depravi- 
ty of  the  times,  and  turned  his  attention  to  the 
study  of  philosophy.  When  he  was  twenty  years 
old.  he  became  a  pupil  of  Socrates;  and,  for  eight 
years,  he  constantly  attended  his  great  teacher. 
After  the  death  of  Socrates,  Plato  made  ex- 
tended journeys,  and,  about  Ms!),  spent  a  short 
time  at  the  court  of  the  tyrant  Dionysius,  in 
Syracuse.  After  an  absence  of  twelve  years,  he 
returned  to  Athens,  and  founded  a  school  for  the 
instruction  of  youth  in  the  principles  of  philos- 
ophy, hi  a  small  garden  in  the  Acadt  mia,  a  pub- 
lic grove  or  park  which  Academus  had  given 

for  gymnastic  exercises;  and  hence, Plato's  scl 1 

w;i-  called  the  Academy.  Adorned  with  statues. 
temples,  and  sepulchers,  surrounded  with  high 
trees,  and  intersected  by  a  gentle  stream,  it  af- 
forded a  delightful  retreat  for  contemplation. 
How  much  Plato  valued  mathematical  studies. 
as  a  preparation  for  higher  speculations,  appears 
from  the  inscription  he  put  over  the  entrance  of 
his  private  house,  in  which  he  gave  instruction  to 
a  few  select  disciples:  Let  no  one  ignorant  of 
geometry  enter  here.  He  was  attended  by  a  crowd 
of  hearers  of  every  description.  Among  them 
were  many  who  became  celebrated  as  statesmen 
or  as  philosophers.  Even  women  attended,  and 
people  of  distinction  did  not  hesitate  to  be  his 
hearers.  (See  Athens,  and  Academy.)  He  was 
surnamed  the  Divine,  because  of  his  wisdom  and 
learning.  Statues  and  altars  were  erected  to  his 
memory,  and  the  day  of  his  birth  was  long  cele- 
brated as  a  festival.  Under  his  name  we  have  41 
dialogues,  13  letters,  and  a  collection  of  philo- 
sophical definitions  ;  but  only  the  dialogues  have 
been  positively  ascertained  to  be  genuine.  Plato, 
alone  among  the  pupils  of  Socrates,  had  carefully 
studied  all  the  philosophical  systems  of  antiquity 
as  far  as  they  were  accessible  to  at  J  reek  inquirer; 
and,  in  his  dialogues,  he  considers  the  various 
theories  in  turn,  and  develops  his  own  system 
only  in  his  strictures  in  relation  to  them.  As 
with  Socrates,  so  with  Plato,  ethics,  i.  e.,  the 
metaphysical  idea  of  the  good,  is  the  principal 
subject  of  philosophy.  The  highest  good  is  not 
pleasure,  nor  knowledge  alone,  but  the  greatest 
possible  likeness  to  the  Divinity,  as  the  absolute 

g 1.    Virtue  is  the  imitation  of  God,  or  the  free 

effort  of  man  to  attain  to  a  resemblance  to  his 
original,  or,  in  other  words,  a  unison  and  har- 
mony of  all  our  principles  and  actions,  according 
to  reason,  whence  residts  the  highest  degree  of 
happiness.  Virtue  is  one,  but  compounded  of 
four  elements:  wisdom,  coinage  or  constancy, 
temperance,  and  justice;  these  are  otherwise 
termed  the  four  cardinal  virtues.  They  arise 
out  of  an  independence  of,  and  superiority  to, 
the  influence  of  the  senses;  they  are  the  product 
of  the  health  and  beauty  of  the  soul. —  The  state, 


POETRY 

being  a  society  of  individuals,  is,  therefore,  sub- 
ject to  the  same  obligations  on  a  large  scale. 
Its  end  should  be  liberty  and  concord;  its  highest 
mission,  the  training  of  the  citizens  to  virtue. 
The  education  of  youth  should  be  regulated  by  a 
consideration  of  the  duties  which  they  are  ex- 
pected to  perform  in  the  state.  In  the  ideal 
state,  each  of  the  three  principal  functions  and 
corresponding  virtues  of  the  sold  is  represented 
by  a  particular  class  of  citizens:  (1)  the  rulers, 
whose  virtue  is  wisdom;  (2)  the  guardians  or  war- 
riors,  whose  virtue  is  valor;  and  (.'!)  the  manual 
laborers  and  tradesmen,  whose  virtue  is  obedience 
and  self-restraint,  and  whose  training  should  be 
only  in  their  particular  trades.  The  education 
of  the  other  or  higher  classes  is  to  begin  as  early 
as  the  third  year  of  age,  and  to  continue  until 
the  sixth,  by  the  narration  of  myths  ;  to  be  fol- 
lowed, from  1  to  10,  by  gymnastics  ;  from  10  to 
13,  by  reading  and  writing;  from  14  to  16,  by 
poetry  and  music;  from  10  to  18,  by  mathe- 
matical sciences;  and  from  18  to  20,  by  mili- 
tary exercises.  At  this  last  age,  the  first  sifting 
takes  place — those  of  inferior  mental  capacity 
but  valorous,  to  become  warriors;  the  rest  to 
continue  until  the  age  of  30,  learning  the 
sciences  in  the  more  exact  and  general  form 
becoming  their  maturity.  Next,  the  talent  for 
dialectics  is  tested ;  and  then  follows  a  second 
sifting.  The  less  promising  are  given  practical 
public  offices  ;  the  rest  pm-sue  the  study  of  dia- 
lectics until  the  age  of  35,  and  are  then  intrusted 
with  positions  of  authority,  continuing  in  the 
study  of  philosophy,  so  as  to  become,  finally,  the 
best  fitted  in  the  state  for  its  highest  offices. 
Regarding  a  good  teacher  as  one  of  the  agents 
most  essential  for  the  formation  of  good  pupils, 
Plato  lavs  down  rules  by  which  to  distinguish 
between  a  good  and  a  bad  teacher,  and  recom- 
mends those  in  power  to  exercise  the  utmost  scru- 
tiny and  care  in  the  selection  of  instructors  to  be 
employed  by  the  state. — This  theory  of  educa- 
tion, principally  set  forth  in  his  Republic  and  in 
his  Laws,  was  probably  never  fully  reduced  to 
practice;  yet  the  spirit  of  all  his  doctrines  seems  to 
have  exerted  a  powerful  influence  over  his  coun- 
trymen for  centuries.  For  an  account  of  Plato's 
attempt  to  establish  a  model  government  in  Syr- 
acuse, sec  (irotk,  Uistnri/  </  '•'/'<,  c,\ vols.  x. and 
xi.  The  best  English  edition  of  ['hita's  Dialogues 
is  by  Jowbtt  (Oxf.  and  N.T.,  1871).  For  litera- 
ture on  Plato's  Philosophy,  and  the  different 
editions  of  his  writings, we  must  refer  i 

weg,  Histon  of  Philosophy ;  on  his  a 


Ueber- 
anal 
qUc, 


vol.  i.;  \\\vi;l'l.tt,,„s  I .,:,■/, imgslehre  IMinden, 

1S33-;  1Im«i:m  k.  f-:„t „■;■■/.■■■/ I'.l.rl'hil.nasrhea 

Erziehungslehr,  (Rottweil,  L854J  :  Wittmaiw, 
/_',■  iehung  und  Unterricht  bet  Plato  Giessen, 
L868);  Cramer,  Gesckichte  der  Erziehi  ng  im 
Alterihum  (Elbert'.,  L838) ;  Draper,  Intellectual 
"Development  of  TEurope  (rev.  edit.,  1876). 

POETRY,'  or  the  written  expression  of 
beauty,  is  an  important  instrument  in  certain 
departments  of  intellectual  culture,  besides  aid- 
ing in  the  education  of  the  emotions  and  l 


ities,  and  in  the  cultivation  of  taste.  (See  Esthete 
Culture.) — The  pupil's  first  knowledge  of  writ- 
ten poetry  is  usually  obtained  from  the  school 
reader.  The  manner  of  its  presentation  there. 
however,  is  susceptible  of  improvement.  The 
free  use  of  figures  of  rhetoric,  and  of  obsolete  or 
unusual  words  and  phrases,  renders  poetry  in- 
appropriate to  the  minds  of  children  till  after 
the  usual  modes  of  expression  have  become 
familiar.  Its  proper  time  for  presentation,  there- 
fore, is  when  rhetoric  is  studied — that  is.  during 
the  latter  part  of  a  high-school  course,  or  in 
the  college.  Yet  nothing  is  more  common  than 
to  find  a  highly-involved  passage  from  Shake- 
speare, or  an  abstruse  paragraph  from  Words- 
worth, in  a  reader  intended  for  pupils  of  from 
ten  to  fifteen  years  of  age. — Some  vague  or  half- 
considered  idea  that  these  passages  are.  in  some 
way.  to  serve  as  models,  by  being  thus  presented, 
or  are  necessary  for  elocutionary  purposes,  is 
|      probably  in  the  mind  of  the  compiler.    But  \\  li.it 

I  should  we  think  of  the  music  teacher  who  should 
present  a  symphony  of  Beethoven,  as  a  model,  to 
a  beginner  practicing  the  scales?  The  parallel 
case  is  quite  as  absurd.  The  result  is  bad  in 
two  ways:  (1)  the  unintelligibility,  to  the  child, 
of  such  a  poetical  selection  deprives  it  of  all 
use  as  a  model ;  and  (2)  the  disgust  thus  occa- 
sioned becomes  permanent,  and  leads  the  pupil, 
even  in  manhood,  to  avoid  a  reperusal  of  the 
author  thus  used.  How  many  persons,  of  mature 
years,  date  their  dislike  to  Milton,  for  instance, 
from  an  enforced  use  of  his  works  as  reading  or 
parsing  exercises  in  early  youth  !    The  introduc- 

I  tion  of  poetry  into  the  school  curriculum  should 
follow  the  natural  plan,  the  first  poems  used 
being  exceedingly  simple,  containing  no  words 

II  beyond  the  vocabulary  of  the  child,  and  treating 
I      of  subjects  and  objects  of  every-day  familiarity. 

I  An  excellent  plan  would  be  to  place,  as  an  intro- 
ductory lesson  in  reading,  a  paraphrase  in  prose 
of  the  poem  to  be  used.     In  this  way,  the  pupil. 

[  being  possessed  beforehand  of  the  meaning  of 
wdiat  he  is  approaching,  is  at  liberty  to  give  more 
attention  to  the  poetical  mode  of  expression, 

'  this  being  the  principal  thing  to  be  considered  : 
for,  if  the  meaning   were   the   principal  thing, 

•I     prose  would  be  preferable — it  being  more  direct 

j     and  in  more  familiar  language. — The  fact  that 

rhythmical  language  is,  in  many  cases,  of  assist- 

I       ance  to  the  memory,  indicates  its  peculiar  fitness 

I  for  certain  educational  purposes.  By  its  aid. 
abstract  truths  and  arbitrary  rules  may  often  be 
fixed  in  the  mind,  in  a  way  not  possible  by  any 
other.     Moral  truths,  also,  may  often  be  better 

■  retained  in  the  memory  by  their  expression  in 
rhythmical  form.  The  experience  of  most 
persons  will  probably  furnish  illustrations  of  this 
fact.  There  appears  to  be  a  limit  to  this  use  of 
rhyme,  however,  determined  partly  by  the  nat- 
ure of  the  things  to  be  remembered,  and  partly 
by  the  esthetic  effect  produced  by  such  use.  It 
may  be  said,  in  general,  that  all  concrete  ideas 

■  and  relations.  —  those  which,  upon  suggestion, 
call  up  in  the  mind  material  images — do  not 
require  the  aid  of  rhyme  to  fix  them  in  the  | 


TOY  70T 

memory;  while  ideas  and  relations  of  an  es- 
sentially abstract  c,r  arbitrary  nature,  are  more 
easily  retained  in  the  memory  by  a  rhythmical 
expression  of  them.  As  an  illustration  of  a  vio- 
lation of  the  first  proposition,  may  In-  mentioned 
a  rhymed  text-book  on  geography.  In  the  study 
of  geography,  the  definitions,  descriptions,  etc., 
bring  always  accompanied  by  pictures  and  maps, 
are  firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  by  the  eye— the 
iii''-'  effective  of  all  the  agents  used  in  acquir- 
ing knowledge.  To  call  in  the  aid  of  the  ear, 
therefore,  is  superfluous,  and  tends,  rather,  to 
distraction.  If  there  had  been  originally  any 
vagueness  of  conception  left  by  the  image  ad- 
dressed to  the  eye.  the  ear  might,  with  propriety, 
be  called  in  to  aid  it  ;  but.  from  the  nature  of 
things,  this  is  impossible.  The  picture  of  a 
material  object  will  always  present  to  the  mind 
a  clearer  idea  of  it.  than  any  verbal  description. 
A  further  objection,  in  this  case.  is.  that  the 
rhymed  version,  degenerating,  as  it  is  almost  sure 
to  do.  into  grotesque  doggerel,  familiarizes  the 
mind  of  the  pupil  with  the  most  degraded  form 
of  poetry,  and  tends  to  unfit  it  for  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  higher.  In  regard  to  the  second 
proposition  mentioned  above,  it  may  be  said  that 
we  naturally  seek  some  short,  succinct  form  for 
expressing  generalizations,  and  abstract  and  ar- 
bitrary relations,  which  shall  make  them  conve- 
nient for  use  ;  and  that  form  is  often  found.  If 
the  poetic  form  would  enable  us  to  remember 
them  more  distinctly,  and  if  no  objection  to  its 
use  could  be  raised,  it  would  be  allowable  ;  but 
if  this  form,  besides  adding  little  to  our  ability  to 
remember,  is  open  to  the  additional  objection 
that  it  presents  to  the  undiscriminating  mind  of 
the  pupil  a  bad  poetical  model,  it  would  seem 
that  it  ought  not  to  be  used.  It  can  hardly  be 
claimed  that  rhymed  versions  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  or  of  the"  Proverbs,  for  instance— of  the 
propositions  of  geometry,  or  of  the  rules  of 
arithmetic,  have  helped  us  materially  to  learn 
more  readily  or  appreciate  more  fully  the  truths 
contained  in  them.  The  very  nature  of  some 
truths  is  averse  to  ornament:  arid  the  use  of  it,  in 
such  cases  should  be  discountenanced. — A  fre- 
quent result  of  the  appreciation  of  the  beautiful, 
which  underlies  all  poetry,  is  the  attempt  of 
youth  sooner  or  later  to  write  poetry.  Every 
teacher's  experience  will  supply  instances  of  this. 
This  inclination  usually  makes  its  appearance 
between  the  ages  of  15  and  20.  in  minds  that 
have  a  natural  taste  for  beautiful  objects,  after 
a  considerable  command  of  language  has  been 
obtained,  and  before  the  realities  of  life  have 
come  to  darken,  with  their  shadows,  the  bright 
sky  of  youth.  As  not  one  in  a  hundred,  how- 
ever, of  those  who  write  verses,  at  this  age,  will 
become  a  poet,  the  teacher's  course  is  plain.  His 
method  of  cure  should  be,  unsparing  criticism, 
but  applied  in  a  kindly  spirit.  It  will  require  only 
a  few  exposures  of  bad  rhymes,  false  similes  and 
metaphors — and  of  these,  the  most  preposterous 
will  generally  be  found  to  be  the  most  cherished 
by  the  writer — to  recall  the  woidd-be  poet  to  a 
more  sober  and  useful  pursuit. 


708  POLITENESS 

POLITENESS.     See  Manners. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMT.  See  Social 
Economy. 

POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOLS.  See  Scien- 
tific Schools. 

POPULAR  EDUCATION.  See  Educa- 
tion, and  National  Education. 

PORTUGAL,  a  country  in  the  south-west  of 
Europe,  having  an  area  of  35,813  square  miles, 
and  a  population,  in  1872,  of  4,367,o82,  nearly 
all  of  whom  belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  speak  the  Portuguese  language. 

Educational  History. — The  first  ruler  in 
Portugal  to  exert  himself  actively  in  behalf  of 
education  wasP/om  Diniz,  in  the  13th  century. 
In  1290,  he  founded  the  University  of  Lisbon, 
■which,  after  several  changes  of  locality,  was 
finally  settled  at  Coimbra;  he  also  established 
elementary  schools  for  the  poorer  classes.  In 
1540,  the  Jesuits  were  called  to  Portugal,  and 
gradually  obtained  an  almost  complete  control  of 
secondary  instruction  ;  but,  in  the  18th  century, 
they  were  expelled  from  the  country  byPombal. 
At  the  same  time,  a  decree  was  issued  to  secu- 
larize instruction,  and  faculties  of  philosophy 
aud  mathematics  were  added  to  the  University 
of  Coimbra.  No  record  in  relation  to  elementary 
instruction  is  found  until  the  18th  century;  and 
the  number  of  primary  schools,  previous  to  L772, 
was  only  about  400,  while  Creek  and  Latin  were 
taught  only  iu  convent  schools.  Pombal  estab- 
lished 257  Latin  primary  schools,  and  founded 
and  provided  for  21  professorship  of  rhetoric 
and  history,  besides  schools  of  philosophy,  logic, 
metaphysics,  and  the  moral  sciences.  He  also 
gave  his  attention  to  the  endowment  and  super- 
vision of  seminaries  for  the  priesthood,  and  re- 
organized the  University  of  Coimbra  after  the 
model  of  the  Italian  universities.  With  the 
overthrow  of  Pombal,  the  clergy  and  nobility 
again  resumed  control  of  public  education.  Dur- 
ing the  wars  and  revolutions  of  the  first  half  of 
the  present  century,  education  was  necessarily 
neglected.  In  1836,  a  general  system  for  the 
re-organization  of  the  public  schools  of  all  grades 
was  prepared  by  I>e  Compos,  vice-rector  of  the 
Coimbra  University.  This  was  modified  by  the 
regulations  of  1844.  In  1875,  a  new  law  was 
prepared  by  the  minister  of  the  interior,  which 
is  now  in  force. 

Primary  Instruction. — According  to  the  law 
of  1875,  there  must  be  two  classes  of  primary 
schools, — the  elementary,  and  the  higher  element- 
ary schools.  Instruction  is  free  only  in  the 
former.  Every  parish  must  have  separate  ele- 
mentary schools  for  boys  and  for  girls;  but,  in 
very  small  parishes,  mixed  schools  are  allowed. 
Every  nrrondissemi'id  must  have  a  higher  ele- 
mentary school.  Teachers  are  appointed  by  the 
communal  council,  upon  the  nomination  of  a 
school  commission.  This  commission  consists  of 
three  members  of  the  communal  council,  a  rep- 
resentative of  the  charitable  institutions  of  the 
commune,  and  the  sub-inspector  of  the  arron- 
dissement.  The  communal  council  can  remove 
teachers,  but  only  in  connection  with  the  signer 


PORTUGAL 

of  the  contract  of  appointment,  after  a  trial  of 
the  accused,  and  after  the  school  commission 
has  passed  a  unanimous  resolution  to  that  effect. 
At  the  head  of  the  educational  system,  is  the 
supii'ine  council  of  studies;  with  the  minister  of 
the  interior  a-  president,  aud  the  rector  of  the 
university  of  Coimbra,  or  his  delegate,  as  vice- 
president.  It  is,  furthermore,  composed  of  eight 
regular  judges  aud  a  large  number  of  irregular 
judges.  The  regular  judges  are  men  distinguished 
for  learning  and  good  character;  while  the  irreg- 
ular judges  are  professors  at  Coimbra.  or  grad- 
uates from  that  university.  Candidates  for  the 
position  of  teacher  must  be  twenty-one  years  of 
age,  and  possess  a  certificate  of  health  and  mor- 
als, signed  by  the  pastor  of  their  place  of  resi- 
dence. They  must  pass  a  public  examination, 
which  is  intended  to  ascertain  their  maturity  of 
mind,  rather  than  their  actual  acquirements. 
Teachers  are  of  two  degrees.  Those  of  the  first 
degree  are  appointed  either  for  life  or  for  three 
years;  those  of  the  second  degree,  for  life  only. 
Instruction  is  given  in  the  primary  schools  daily, 
except  on  Sundays  and  holidays;  but  when  there 
is  no  holiday  during  the  week,  Thursday  is  free. 
The  daily  sessions  are  from  8  to  11  o'clock  in  the 
forenoon,  and  2  to  5  in  the  afternoon,  from  Oc- 
tober till  Easter;  the  rest  of  the  year,  from  7  to 
It)  A.  M.  and  from  3  to  (i  P.  M.  The  study  com- 
missioners may  also  authorize  teachers  to  form 
evening  classes  for  adults.  Every  year  the  study 
commission  publishes   a  list  of  all  children  of 

scl 1  age.     The  names  of  those  parents  who  fail 

to  have  their  children  registered,  are  read  by  the 
minister  from  the  pulpit,  and  a  list  of  them  is 
nailed  to  the  church  door.  Upon  repeated  of- 
fenses, fines  are  imposed.  In  the  same  manner, 
regular  attendance  is  enforced.  The  branches  of 
instruction  in  the  elementary  schools  comprise 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  language,  mi  irals,  and, 
for  girls,  sewing.  In  the  higher  elementary  schools, 
there  are  taught,  in  addition  to  these  branches, 
linear  drawing,  history,  the  elements  of  the  nat- 
ural sciences,  and  agriculture.  Five  seminaries 
are  to  be  established  for  male,  and  two  for  female 
teachers.  In  1869,  there  were,  1,997  schools  for 
boys  and  3G2  for  girls,  making  a  total  of  2,359. 
The  number  of  pupils  enrolled  was  117,305,  of 
whom  99,358  were  boys,  and  17.947  girls.  The 
number  of  pupils  attending  the  schools  was 
C2.937,  of  whom  52,720  were  boys,  and  10,217 
were  girls.  Resides  these,  there  are  many  ex- 
cellent private  schools  in  the  principal  cities. 
There  were  also  5  normal  schools  for  males,  with 
1110  students,  and  one  for  females,  with  20 
students. 

Secondary  Instruction.- — Secondary  instruc- 
tion is  imparted  in  lyceums,  which  correspond 
pretty  much  to  the  French  institutions  of  that 
name.  At  some  of  the  lyceums,  agriculture  and 
rural  economy  are  taught;  and,  at  Funchal, 
Madeira,  and  other  places  on  the  islands  belong- 
ing to  Portugal,  French  and  English;  while,  in 
other  places,  the  course  of  studies  comprises 
chemistry,  natural  history,  mechanics. book-keep- 
ing, trigonometry,  mathematical  geography,  and 


other  branches.  Greek,  German,  and  English  are 

not  obligatory;  but  a  knowledge  of  these  lan- 
guages is  advantageous  at  the  final  examination. 
Candidates  for  the  appointment  of  professor  in 
a  lyceum  must  he  at  least  '-'.">  years  of  age.  The 
examination  is  both  oral  and  written.  Graduates 
of  the  Coimbra  university  are  preferred,  and  tin' 
appointments  are  made  for  life,  and  in  the  name 
of  the  king.  Besides  the  lyceums  of  the  state, 
there  are  private  colleges,  the  teachers  of  which 
must  also  possess  a  license  to  teach.  They  are 
likewise  subject  to  inspection  by  the  government. 
Teachers  in  the  lyceums.  as  well  as  in  the  pri- 
mary schools,  are  exempt  from  taxation  and  mil- 
itary duty.  Independently  of  the  lyceums.  the 
government  may  establish  Latin  classes  in  120 
of  the  most  important  places  near  the  capitals 
of  the  several  districts.  These  classes  are  in- 
structed in  public  buildings,  have  each  a  library, 
and  are  provided  with  the  necessary  books  of 
instruction.  The  number  of  lyceums,  in  1869, 
was  21,  with  3,744  students. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  Superior  instruction 
is  afforded  in  the  University  of  Coimbra,  which 
has  five  faculties  :  theology,  medicine,  math- 
ematics, and  philosophy.  In  1859,  Dom  Pedro  V.. 
in  order  to  excite  a  greater  interest  in  education, 
opened,  at  his  own  expense,  a  faculty  of  helles- 
hares,  with  five  professorships,  which  hold  the 
same  rank  as  those  of  the  university.  The  Univer- 
sity of  Coimbra  has  from  900  to  1,000  students. 

Special  Instruction. — Special  instruction  is 
given  in  the  following  schools:  19  theological 
schools  and  courses,  one  polytechnic  school  at  Lis- 
bon, and  one  at  Oporto,  3  medico-surgical  schools, 
one  school  of  veterinary  surgery,  one  general 
agricultural  institute,  one  commercial  school,  five 
industrial  schools,  two  academies  of  fine  arts,  one 
conservatory  of  music,  an  army  school,  a  navy 
school,  and  a  military  college,  in  Lisbon. — See 
Schmid,  Padagogische  Encyi  lopadii  .art.  Portu- 
gal- Bkachei.i.i.  Die  Staaten  Europa's;  Ghronik 
'lies  Vblksschvlwesens,  L875;  Report  of  the  U.S. 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1873. 

POTTER,  Alonzo,  an  American  educator. 
born  in  Beekman.  N.  V..  duly  6.,  L800;  died  in 
San  Francisco,  Feb.  4.,  1'865.  He  graduated 
with  first  honors  at  Union  College  in  1818,  be- 
came a  tutor  there  in  1819,  and.  in  1821,  was 
made  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy. While  holding  the  latter  position,  he 
declined  the  presidency  of  (  ieneva  College.  He 
was  rector  of  St.  Paul's  church.  Boston,  from 
1826  to  1831,  which  position  he  resigned  in  the 
latter  year  to  accept  that  of  professor  of  moral 
philosophy  in  Union  College,  of  which  institu- 
tion he  became  vice-president  in  1838.  He  was 
made  bishop  of  Pennsylvania  in  1845,  which  po- 
sition he  held  till  his  death.  He  was  the  author 
of  a  treatise  on  logarithms,  and  one  on  descrip- 
tive geometry,  both  prepared  for  the  use  of  his 
classes  while  professor  in  Union  College,  but  not 
published.  His  most  noted  educational  work 
was  that  published  in  connection  with  <i.  B. 
Emerson,  entitled  The  School  and  the  School- 
master  (1842).     Besides  this,  he  was  the  author 


PRECEPTORS,  COLLEGE  OF      709 

of  many  addresses,  discourses,  etc..  upon  subjects 
connected  with  education.  Interesting  notices 
of  his    life  and    works  may  be  found   in  Bishop 

Stevens's  funeral  sermon  (Oct.  19.,  1865),  and  in 
1/.  moirs  of  the  Life  and  Services  of  the  Rl.  Rev. 
A.  Potter,   It.  D.,  1. 1..  !>..  by  the  Rev.   Dr.  M. 


w 


See   Ti 


PRACTICE,    Schools  of. 

Seminaries. 

PRAXIS  ((Jr.  -paii,-,  from  -r,,m:,r.  to  do), 
a  particular  form  of  exercise  designed  to  afford 
practice  to  the  pupils  ;  as  a  praxis  for  parsing  or 
analv.-is.  in  teadiinir  grammar. 

PRECEPTORS,  College  of  (London),  is  a 
body  founded  in  1846  to  enable  teachers,  partic- 
ularly in  private  schools,  to  acquire  a  sound 
knowledge  of  their  profession,  and  to  give 
them  the  opportunity  of  obtaining  certificates 
attesting  their  attainments  and  fitn.-.-s  to  teach. 
The  first  promoters  of  the  college,  deploring 
the  incompetency  of  so  many  teachers,  desired 
that  every  one  entering  the  profession  should 
provide  himself  with  such  a  certificate,  as  a 
guarantee  to  the  public  and  to  his  fellow- 
teachers.  The  movement  (which  had  originated 
at  Brighton)  spread  rapidly:  and,  within  a  year, 
there  were  1(100  members.  (As  to  the  qualifica- 
tion for  membership,  see  below.)  These  were 
formed  into  a  corporate  body,  in  1849.  The 
lowest  diploma  which  the  college  grants  is 
that  of  Associate,  next  come  those  of  Licen- 
tiate and  Fellow.  Candidates  for  all  these 
diplomas  are  examined  in  the  science  and  art  of 
education;  and  are  excused  the  other  subjects,  if 
they  have  previously  passed  elsewhere  what  is 
recognized  as  an  equivalent  examination.  One 
peculiarity  of  the  examination  for  those  who 
have  to  pass  in  all  the  subjects,  is.  that  each  sub- 
ject may  be  taken  up  separately,  and  the  rest 
when  the  candidate  pleases.  This  is  very  con- 
venient for  hard-worked  teachers  who  have 
little  leisure.  There  is  not,  however,  a  very 
large  demand  for  these  diplomas.  The  number 
of  pel-sons,  male  and  female,  at  present  holding 
them  is  338.  of  whom  49  are  Fellows,  130 
Licentiates, and  159  Associates.  Unfortunately, 
in  regard  to  the  membership,  the  very  error, 
for  many  years,  was  committed  which  the 
college  was  founded  to  do  battle  against.  The 
promoters  intended  to  include  among  the  first 
members  all  persons  of  respectability,  both  males 
and  females,  who  were  at  the  time  engaged 
in  teaching,  and  paid  a  yearly  subscription  of 
one  guinea.  But  they  also  intended,  at  no 
distant  date,  but  a  date  not  assigned,  to  sub- 
ject all  candidates  for  membership  to  examina- 
tion. Amid  the  pressure  of  other  business, 
however,  and  of  crippled  resources,  the  latter 
intention  was  lost  sight  of.  It  would  seem,  also, 
that  there  had  been  some  laxity  in  the  grant- 
ing of  diplomas.  The  consequence  was  that 
A.  C  P.,L.C.P.,F.C.P.  with  M.C.P.  became 
involved  in  one  common  depreciation.  It  must 
be  understood  that  the  college,  in  its  documents, 
had  always  drawn  a  clear  distinction  between 
examined  and  unexamined  members  —  a  distinc- 


HO      PRECEPTORS,  COLLEGE  OP 

tion  which  the  general  public  could  not  be  ex- 
pected to  bear  in  mind  or  even  to  apprehend. 

The  investigations  of  the  Schools  inquiry 
Commission,  along  with  a  general  movement  on 
the  part  of  various  learned  bodies  for  stricter 
conditions  of  membership,  drew  the  attention  of 
the  more  active  members  of  the  college  to  the 
necessity  of  reform  ;  and,  since  the  spring  of  1 870. 
no  member  has  been  admitted  without  either  be- 
ing examined  by  the  college,  or  showing  that  he 
has  passed,  elsewhere,  one  of  the  examinations 
specified  in  the  regulations.  The  college,  there- 
fore, was  never  in  a  more  healthful  and  hopeful 
state  than  at  the  present  time.  The  stricter  reg- 
ulations have  not  diminished  the  number  of 
applications  for  membership,  there  being  976 
members  in  Nov.,  1876.  Of  these,  243  are  also 
holders  of  diplomas.  The  remaining  95  holders 
of  diplomas  are  not  members,  and  do  not  share 
in  the  government  of  the  college.  —  The  journal 
of  the  college,  which  publishes  reports  of  its 
proceedings,  is  the  Educational  Times,  which 
was  commenced  in  Oct.,  1847,  and  is  published 
monthly ;  but,  though  the  official  organ,  it  is  not 
the  property  of  the  college. 

In  1K72,  a  professorship  of  education  was 
instituted ;  and  the  late  Joseph  Payne  was 
appointed  to  the  chair.  He  commenced  his  first 
course,  at  the  beginning  of  1873,  to  a  class  of 
about  70  teachers,  most  of  whom  wn-e  ladies. 
The  office  has  since  been  held  by  the  Rev.  R. 
II.  Quick,  author  of  Essays  on  Educational 
Reformers  (London  ami  Cincinnati);  by  Mr. 
Meiklejohn,  lately  appointed  to  the  new  chair 
of  education  at  St.  Andrews,  Scotland;  and  by 
Mr.  ( 'room  Robertson,  professor  of  logic  at  Uni- 
versity College,  London. 

There  are  other  kindred  duties,  in  addition  to 
those  at  first  contemplated,  which  the  college  has 
undertaken.  At  Christmas,  1850,  it  conducted 
its  first  examination  of  schools;  and  the  system 
was  in  full  operation  in  1854,  two  years  before  the 
scheme  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  four  years  be- 
fore that  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  These 
examinations  are  held  every  half  year  at  various 
centers,  simultaneously ;  and  certificates,  with 
prizes  for  the  most  distinguished,  are  bestowed 
upon  the  successful  boys  and  girls.  The  number 
of  candidates  at  these  examinations,  in  1875,  was 
about  2,800,  coming  from  about  150  schools. 

There  is  also  a  system  in  operation  for  the 
examination  of  schools  by  visiting  examiners ; 
under  which  the  examiner  makes  an  official 
report  of  the  state  of  tin.' school,  but  no  certifi- 
cates are  granted.  The  College,  moreover,  con- 
ducts the  preliminary  examinations  in  arts,  for 
various  medical  corporations.  The  number  of  pu- 
pils at  these  examinations  is  about  5,800  a  year. 

In  June  1801,  were  commenced  the  monthly 
meetings  of  members  and  their  friends,  at  which 
papers  on  educational  subjects  are  read  and  dis- 
cussed. These  meetings  tend  to  "corporate  feel- 
ing and  helpful  union,"  for  those  members,  at 
least,  who  live  in  London  or  its  vicinity.  The 
papers,  many  of  them  of  great  value,  are  gener- 
ally reported  at  length  in  the  next  number  of  the 


PRESBYTERIANS 

Educational  Times.  There  is  an  educational 
library  of  nearly  4,000  volumes,  to  which  con- 
stant additions  are  made,  mostly  by  gift.  — 
The  college  is  managed  by  a  council  of  48 
members,  twelve  of  whom  retire  every  year. 
They  are  elected  at  a  general  meeting  of  mem- 
bers. In  addition  to  these  48,  all  ex-presidents 
of  council  become  members  of  it  for  life.  Among 
the  presidents  .if  the  council,  have  been  Dr. 
Jacob,  late  of  Christ's  Hospital:  Dr.  Kennedy, 
late  of  Shrewsbury;  and  Dr.  Haig-Brown,  of 
the  Charterhouse.  At  present  Dr.  J  ex- Blake,  of 
liughv.  is  the  president. 

The  college  is  doing  a  good  and  useful  work 
for  middle-class  schools,  and  its  further  useful- 
ness is  hindered  only  by  its  want  of  funds.  It 
needs  a  more  complete  educational  library,  a 
more  commodious  home  than  its  present  one  (at 
42  Queen  Square,  Bloomsbury),  and  an  endow- 
ment for  its  professorship,  for  this  last  purpose 
between  £400  and  £500  has  been  contributed  up 
to  the  present  time.  In  1875,  the  members'  sub- 
scriptions yielded  £521;  the  net  profits  from  the 
examinations  produced  a  sum  perhaps  somewhat 
larger  than  this  ;  and  there  seem  to  be  no  other 
sources  of  income. — Sec  a  paper  by  J.  Payne  on 
the  history  of  the  college  in  the  Educational 
Times,  July,  1868;  Th&Charter,Begulations,aaA 
other  documents  of  the  College;  Speech  of  Dr. 
Jex-Blake,  in  the  Educational  Tunes  for  Feb., 
1876;  Demojkst  and  Montucci,  De  I'Enseiijne- 
ment  Seconduire  en  FAngleterre,  vol.  i ;  Schools 
Inquiry  Commission,  vols.  i„  iv.,  vn.,  ix.  (1868). 

PREPARATORY  SCHOOLS,  schools  for 

pared  for  admission  to  the  college  or  university. 

PRESBYTERIANS,  a  denomination  of 
<  'hristiaiis  distinguished  by  their  support  of  asys- 
teniof  church  government  by  presbyters, in  oppo- 
sition, on  the  one  hand,  to  Episcopalians  (q.  v.), 
and,  on  the  other,  to  Congregationalists  (q.  v.). 
The  Presbyterians,  in  this  respect,  agree  with 
the  Reformed  churches  (q.  v.),  and  were,  like 
them,  modeled  after  the  plan  laid  down  by  Cal- 
vin, in  his  Institutes.  The  Presbyterians  con- 
stitute the  established  church  in  Scotland,  and 
are  a  numerous  body  in  all  other  parts  of  the 
British  Empire,  as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 
Both  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States,  they 
are  divided  into  a  number  of  independent  or- 
ganizations. In  1875.  delegates  from  a  large 
number  of  Presbyterian  and  Reformed  churches 
met  in  London,  England,  to  form  an  Alliance  of 
Reformed  Churches  throughout  the  World, 
which  is  to  be  a  voluntary  and  co-operative,  but 
not  an  organic  union.  We  treat  in  this  article 
(I)  of  the  Presbyterians  in  the  British  Empire; 
and  (II)  of  the  Presbyterians  in  the  United 
States. 

I.  Presbyterians  in  the  British  Empire. — 
(1)  The  bulk  of  the  population  of  Scotland  has 
been  I'resbytcrian  since  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century  ;  and,  at  present,  the  aggregate  number 
of  the  different  Presbyterian  bodies  exceeds  85 
per  cent  of  the  total  population.  The  established 
church,  called  the  Church  of  Scotland,  has  about 


PRESBYTERIANS 


1.300  congregations  ;  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land (organized  in  1843),  900;  the  United 
Presbyterians,  000;  ami,  besides  these,  there  are 
several  smaller  bodies.  The  progress  of  edu- 
cational institutions  of  all  classes  has,  therefore, 
been,  to  a  great  extent,  under  the  influence  of 
the  Presbyterian  Churches.  (See  Scotland.) 
No  church  in  Europe  has  taken  more  prompt 
and  energetic  steps  for  the  general  diffusion  of 
school  education  than  the  Presbyterians  of  Scot- 
land. As  early  as  1695,  it  was  enacted  "that 
there  be  a  school  founded  and  a  school-master 
appointed  in  every  parish  by  advice  of  the  pres- 
byteries, and  to  this  purpose  that  the  heritors 
do,  in  every  congregation,  inert  among  them- 
selves, and  provide  a  commodious  house  for  a 
school,  and  modify  a  stipend  to  the  school- 
master, which  shall  not  be  under  10  merks 
(£6  13  s.  4d.)  nor  above  20  merks".  As  almost 
all  the  population  of  the  country  is  Presbyterian, 
the  common-school  system  has  preserved  a  pa- 
rochial character.  When,  in  1843,  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland  was  organized,  it  was  re- 
solved to  erect  schools  in  connection  with  the 
congregations  of  the  Free  Church,  and  the  edu- 
cational scheme  which,  in  consequence,  has 
sprung  up,  is  co-extensive  with  the  parochial 
system  of  the  Established  Church.  In  1873,  of 
2,108  schools  inspected  by  the  government  in- 
spectors, 1,379  belonged  to  the  Established  and 
577  to  the  Free  Church  ;  while,  of  non-Presby- 
terian schools,  there  were  86  belonging  to  the 
Episcopal,  and  00  to  the  Catholic  Church. — The 
Scottish  universities  of  Edinburgh,  Glasgow, 
and  Aberdeen  are  in  organic  connection  with 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  by  means  of  theological 
professorships  ;  while,  at  St.  Andrews,  an  entire 
college,  St.  Mary's,  is  appointed  solely  to   the 

teachingof  theology  and  the  languages mecte  1 

with  it.  The  Free  Church  lias  established  a 
divinity  school  in  Edinburgh,  c.dle  1  the  Xew 
College  of  the  Free  Church.  This  college,  which 
was  complete!  at  a  cost  approaching  £40,000,  is 
provided  with  a  more  complete  staff  of  profess- 
ors than  any  similar  institution  in  Scotland, 
and  with  more  effectual  means  of  training  an 
educated  ministry  than  is  to  be  found  elsewhere 
in  Great  Britain.  The  Free  Church  has  also  built 
a  divinity  hall  in  Aberdeen.  It  has  also  two 
normal  schools,  —  one  in  Edinburgh  and  one  in 
Glasgow,  for  the  training  of  school-masters.  The 
teachers  receive  a  salary  from  a  general  fund, 
which  is  raised  by  monthly  contributions  in  all 
the  congregations,  and  which  is  divided,  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  according  to  a  certain  scale, 
proportioned  to  the  qualifications  of  the  re- 
spective teachers. — The  United  Presbyterians 
have  likewise  a  divinity  hall.  The  number  of 
their  Sunday-schools  is  12,129,  with  92,502 
scholars. 

(2)  In  Ireland,  the  Presbyterians  constitute 
about  8  per  cent  of  the  total  population,  and  are 
almost  confined  to  the  province  of  Ulster.  In 
the  schools  of  the  National  Board  of  Education, 
the  Presbyterian  children,  in  1S74,  numbered 
115,258,  equal  to  about  11  per  cent. — A  Pres- 


byterian college  (Magee  College)  was  opened 
at  Londonderry,  Oct.  10.,  1865.  In  1846,  Mrs. 
Magee,  widow  of  the  Rev.  William  Magee,  a  Pres- 


authorized,  by  a  decree  of  the  Lord  Chancellor, 
to  M-lect  a  veiiient  site  at  or  near  L Ion- 
deny.  The  Irish  Society  have  granted  an  an- 
nual endowment  of  £250  to  the  chair  of  natural 
philosophy  and  mathematics,  and  £250  for  five 
years  toward  the  general  expenses  of  the  col- 
lege. The  Rev.  RichardDill,  who  died  in  L858, 
bequeathed  £5,000,  to  establish  two  professor- 
ships. The  appointment  of  the  trustees  is  vested 
in  the  General  Assembly.  The  professors  are 
required  to  sign  the  Westminster  Confession  of 


Faith,  but  no  religious  test  is  prescribed  for 
students. — The  majority  of  the  Irish  Presby- 
terian ministers  are  educated  in  the  General  As- 
sembly's '1  heological  ( 'ollege.  at  I'elfiist.  Previous 
to  the  passing  of  the  Irish  (  lunch  Act,  in  1  869,  a 
parliamentary  grant  of  £1.750  per  annum  suf- 
ficed for  the  maintenance  of  six  professors,  at 
£250  each,  leaving  £250  to  defray  the  expense  of 
management.  The  government,  on  the  passing 
of  the  act.  granted  a  sum  of  £43,970  as  compen- 
sation; and  the  interest  of  this  sum,  together 
with  that  on  £5.000  subscribed  by  frieiidsof  the 
institution, and  the  fees  of  the  students,  makeup 
the  annual  income.  Patronsdiave  recently  adcl- 
ed  prizes,  worth  from  £20  to  £50  per   annum. 

(3)  In  EitylaHil,  the  first  presbytery  was 
formed  in  1572;  and,  for  a  time,  the  Presby- 
terians formed  the  leading  Puritan  element  in 
the  Church  oi  England.  At  the  time  of  the  "West- 
minster Assembly,  Presbyterianism  was,  for  a 
short  time,  even  raised  to  the  position  of  the 
established  religion  of  England.  The  Presby- 
terians having  been  overthrown  politically  at  the 
Restoration,  and  crushed  ecclesiastically  by 
their  ejection  from  the  national  church,  a  large 
portion  gradually  merged  into  Congregationalism 
or  Unitarianism.  The  scattered  fragments  of  the 
old  orthodox  Presbyterianism  of  England  form- 
ed, in  1836,  the  English  Presbyterian  Church, 
which,  in  1870,  numbered  157  congregations, 
and  29,045  communicants.  It  had  also  2,920 
Sunday-schools,  with  27.(100  scholars.  By  a  union 
with  the  United  Presbyterians  of  England,  con- 
summated in  1.-70.  the  number  of  the  Congre- 
gations was  raised  to  203.  and  that  of  members. 
to  50,000.  The  I  'lunch  has  a  theological  college 
at  London,  which  is  partially  endowed,  and  is 
under  the  charge  of  three  professors. 

(4)  liritixli  Dependencies. — In  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  the  Presbyterians  are,  in  point  of 
numbers,  the  third  among  the  religious  denom- 
inations, being  only  exceeded  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  and  the  ('hurch  of  England.  The  four 
provinces  of  Ontario,  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and 
New  Brunswick,  had,  in  1871.  a  population  of 
107,259  connected  with  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
and  437,439  persons  connected  with  various 
Presbyterian  bodies.  Ontario  has  a  Presbyterian 


712 


PRESBYTERIANS 


university  at  Kingston,  called  Queen's  University 
and  College,  which  received  a  royal  charter  in 
1841,  and  contains  the  four  faculties  of  theology, 

law,  medicine,  and  arts,  hi  Quebec,  there  is 
McGill  University,  at  Montreal,  with  several 
affiliated  colleges,  and,  in  Nova  Scotia,  a  Pres- 
byterian college,  at  Halifax.  In  Australia,  the 
colony  of  Victoria  had,  in  1876,  3  Presbyterian 
colleges  —Scotch  College  at  Melbourne,  Geelong 
College,  and  Ballarat  College. 

II.  The  Presbyterians  in  the  United  States  in- 
clude several  bodies,  here  considered  separately. 

(1)  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  Suites 
of  America. — Presbyterian  churches  had  been 
established  in  Maryland  before  the  close  of  the 
17th  century.  In  171(i,  the  first  synod  was 
formed,  and  in  1788  the  General  Assembly  was 
organized.  The  Cumberland  Presbyterians  se- 
ceded in  1810;  and,  in  1838,  the  Church  divided 
into  the  Old  School  and  the  New  School,  which 
reunited  in  1871.  The  churches  in  the  South- 
ern States  withdrew  in  1861,  and  have  since 
maintained  a  separate  organization.  In  1876, 
there  were  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  General 
Assembly  4,744  ministers,  5,077  churches,  and 
535,210  members.  The  Presbyterian  Church, 
from  the  earliest  period,  has  been  .an  earnest 
Worker  and  strenuous  advocate  for  education  : 
and  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  secession  of 
the  Cumberland  branch  was  the  tenacity  with 
which  the  General  Assembly  insisted  on  high 
educational  qualifications  for  ministers.  As 
early  as  173!).  a  proposition  was  brought  before 
the  Synod  of  Philadelphia  for  the  erection  of  a 
school  or  seminary  of  learning.  The  synod  ap- 
proved of  the  design  and  appointed  a 
committee  to  carry  it  into  effect,  and  in 
1744,  a  synodal  school  was  established.  The 
<  'olli-ge  of  New  Jersey,  at  Princeton,  chartered 
in  174(i  and  opened  in  1747,  was  founded 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Synod  of  New 
York.  Other  institutions  have  been  organ- 
ized under  Presbyterian  auspices,  as  follows  : 
Washington  and  .Jefferson  College.  Washington. 
Pa.,  1802;  Hamilton  College,  Clinton,  N.  Y., 
1815;  Maryville  College.  Marvville,  Tenn.,  1819; 
Centre  College,  Danville,  Ky.,  1823;  Hanover 
College,  Hanover,  hid.,  1827;  Lafayette  College. 
Easton,  Pa.,  1831;  Wabash  College,  Crawfords- 
ville,  hid..  1832  ;  Lincoln  University,  Oxford, 
Pa.,  1853;  University  College,  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  1859;  Blackburn  University,  Carlinville, 
111.,  1867;  King  College,  Bristol,' Tenn.,  1868 ; 
University  of  Wooster,  Wooster,  O.,  1870; 
Evans  University.  Evans,  Col.,  1874  ;  and  Par- 
sons College.  Fairfield,  Iowa,  1875.  Three  colleges 
are  jointly  under  Presbyterian  and  Congrega- 
tional control;  namelv.  Knox,  at  Galesburg.  111., 
1841  ;  Beloit,  at  Beloit.  Wis ,  1847  ;  and  Olivet, 
at  Olivet,  Mich..  1  828.  The  academies  and  female 
colleges  under  the  auspices  of  the  denomination 
are  numerous.  The  Church  has  13  theological 
seminaries,  as  follows  :  at  Princeton,  X.  .T., 
1812  ;  at  Auburn.  X.  Y ..  1820;  Western,  Alle- 

fheny  City,  Pa.,1825;  Lane.  ( 'incinnati.  O.,  1832; 
inion,N.  Y.  City,  1836;  at  Danville,  Ky.,  1853; 


Hie  l,:;  ,,1-  •,  nrivoftb:  Xorthvast  Chicago, 
111.,    h-59:     Blackburn     I  "ni\ >-i.-itv     (theological 

department  .  L867;  at  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  1869; 

l  ninian.  Newark.  N..I..  Im'i'.I;  German,  Dubuque, 
la.,  187(1;  Lincoln  University  (theological  de- 
partment), 1871;  and  Biddle  Memorial  Institute 
(theological  department),  Charlotte.  X.  C.  1867. 
Of  these,  the  last  two  are  for  colored  people,  and 
the  two  immediately  preceding  them,  for  Ger- 
mans. In  1875 — 6,  they  had.  in  all.  56  professors 
and  578  students.  The  number  graduating  that 
year  was  134.  The  board  of  education  of  the 
Church,  in  1876,  received  872,040,  and  gave 
financial  aid  to  458  students  (222  theological.  21 8 
collegiate,  and  18  academical).  In  the  same  year, 
the  Church  maintained,  for  freedmen,  39  day 
schools,  with  65  teachers  and  3.176  pupils,  and 
5  higher  schools,  with  903  students,  of  whom 
43  were  preparing  for  the  ministry.  The  foreign 
mission  field  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  embraces 
— besides  several  Indian  tribes  in  the  United 
States — Mexico,  the  United  States  of  Colombia, 
Brazil,  Chili.  Liberia  and  Gaboon  (Africa), 
India,  Siam,  China.  Japan.  Persia,  and  Syria. 
The  mission  schools  had  13,501  pupils  in  1876. 

(2)  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States,  frequently,  also,  called  The  Presbyterian 
Chvrch  South.— Oa  the  1th  of  December  1861, 
commissioners  from  all  the  presbyteries  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  within  the  Confederate 
States  met  in  Augusta,  Ga.,  and  organized  as  a 
Genera]  Assembly.  The  style  and  title  chosen 
for  the  Church  was.   The    Prestniterimi    I'lmreh 


of  the  Confederate  States  of  America;  but  after, 
the  capitulation  of  the  Confederate  armies,  the 
name  was  changed  as  above.  After  the  close 
of  the  war.  the  presbyteries  in  Kentucky  and 
Missouri,  with  a  large  majority  of  the  con- 
gregations and  people,  united  themselves  with 
the' Southern  Church.  'I  his  Church  now  (1876) 
consists  of  12  synods,  62  presbyteries,  1.821 
churches,  1,079  ministers,  and  112,183  commu- 
nicants. The  moneys  contributed  for  all  the  pur- 
poses in  the  last  ecclesiastical  year  amounted  to 
|1,138,681.  The  General  Assembly,  through 
committees  of  its  appointment,  maintains  for- 
eign missions  in  the  Indian  Territory,  Mexico, 
South  America,  Greece.  Italy.  India,  and  China; 
and  domestic  missions  in  new  and  destitute 
localities  in  the  South.  It  also  aids  in  the  educa- 
tion for  the  ministry  of  young  men  of  limited 
means. and  in  the  publication  and  dissemination 
of  a  religious  and  doctrinal  literature.  It  has  a 
publishing  house  in  Richmond,  Va.  The  Pres- 
byterian Church  declares,  in  its  constitution,  that 
"  because  it  is  highly  reproachful  to  religion, 
and  dangerous  to  the  Church,  to  intrust  the  holy 
ministry  to  weak  and  ignorant  men,  the  presby- 
tery shall  try  each  candidate,  as  to  his  know  ledge 
of  the  Latin  language,  and  the  original  languages 
in  which  the  Holy  Scriptures  were  written. 
They  shall  also  examine  him  in  the  arts  and 
sciences."  The  first  written  text  required  of  the 
candidate  is  "a  Latin  e.rnjesis  on  some  common 
head  in  divinity."  The  common  requirement  in 
its  presbyteries  is  equal  to  the  curriculum  in 


PRKSBYTKKIAXS 


713 


most  American  colleges.  The  demands  of  the 
Church  for  the  education  of  its  ministry  and  its 
own  youth  have  every-wherc  made  it  the  patron- 
ess of  learning  and  engaged  it  in  the  founding  of 
institutions  for  higher  education.  It  has  been 
the  pioneer  of  education  in  nearly  all  the  older 
Southern  communities.  During  the  civil  war, 
many  of  the  institutions  of  learning  founded 
and  endowed  by  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
South,  perished  by  the  loss  of  endowments  in  the 
general  financial  wreck.  Among  them,  were 
Oglethorpe  University,  <ia.,  Oakland  College 
Miss..  La  Grange  College,  Tenn.,  and  other 
valuable  institutions  of  1  'ss  prominence.  Centre 
College,  Ky.,  was  lost  through  decisions  of  the 
United  States  courts  in  favor  of  a  minority  ad- 
hering to  the  old  Assembly.  Others  were  sus- 
pended by  the  enlistment  of  the  students  in  the 
armies,  and  were  crippled  by  the  partial  loss  of 
endowments.  The  following,  founded  and  en- 
dowed by  Presbyterians,  survived  the  disasters 
of  the  war,  and  now.  under  Presbyterian  control 
or  auspices,  are  rendering  valuable  service  to  the 
country:  Hampden  Sidney  College,  Va.,  David- 
son College,  N.  C,  Stewart  College,  Term.,  West- 
minster College,  Mo.,  King  College,  Tenn.,  and 
Austin  College.  Texas.     Central  University,  at 

fully  opened  since  the  war.  The  synods  of  Nash- 
ville, Memphis,  Alabama.  Mississippi.  Arkansas, 
and  Texas,  conjointly,  have  also  projected  a  uni- 
versity (the  South-Western)  to  be  strictly  under 
Presbyterian  control,  for  which  they  are  now 
soliciting  an  endowment  It  has  been  located 
at  ( 'larkesville.  Tenn.  Stewart  ( 'ollege  has  been 
merged  in  it.  The  financial  prostration  of  the 
South  since  the  war,  has  rendered  the  endow- 
ment of  its  institutions  of  learning  slow  and  dif- 
ficult.— Of  academies  and  schools,  competent  to 
prepare  boys  for  college,  or  young  men  for  the 
university,  or  to  give  a  good  mathematical  and 
classical  education,  thorough  as  far  as  it  goes,  to 
those  whose  means  do  not  admit  of  more  elaborate 
courses,  there  is  a  great  insufficiency  throughout 
the  South.  Those  which  had  previously  ac- 
quired success  and  reputation,  were  generally 
broken  up  through  the  disastrous  effects  of  the 
war,  and  the  poverty  and  depression  of  the  people 
have  operated  to  the  discouragement  of  efforts 
to  establish  others.  Of  such  institutions,  there 
are  some  of  a  high  character,  maintained  under 
Presbyterian  allspices  ;  as.  the  Bingham  School, 
Mebanesville,  N.  C,  Pleasant  Ridge  Academy. 
Green  Co.,  Ala.,  Edgar  Institute,  Paris.  Ky., 
Military  and  Classical  Institute,  Danville,  Ky„ 
Finlay  High  School,  Lenoir.  N.  C  and  Kemper 
•Institute,  Booneville,  Mo. — The  Southern  Pres- 
byterian Church  has  two  theological  seminaries. 
each  endowed  and  furnished  with  buildings, 
libraries,  and  four  professors  of  eminent  ability 
and  learning:  Union  Seminary,  at  Hampden 
Sidney,  Va..  and  Columbia  Seminary,  at  Colum- 
bia, S.  C.  It  has  recently  established  a  third,  at 
Tuscaloosa,  Ala.,  for  the  education  and  training 
of  colored  men  for  the  ministry;  and  for  this,  it 
is  now  gathering  an  endowment.     There  are  no 


Presbyterian  schools  or  colleges  for  girls  in  the 
South  endowed  bey I  the  provision  of  build- 
ing.-, apparatus,  and  librarii  s;  but  there  are  many 


are  many  female  colleges,  collegiate  institutes, 
and  seminaries  which  afford  a  high  grade  of  in- 
struction, and   are  widely  esteemed  for  general 

The  work  of  education  for  the  ministry  is  con- 
ducted by  the  General  Assembly,  through  an 
executive  committee  located  at  Memphis.  Tenn. 
In  the  last  ecclesiastical  year,  the  committee 
received  from  the  churches,  for  this  purpose, 
$15,131,  from  which  '.)■<  young  men,  prosecuting 
their  studies  at  various  colleges  and  theological 


(3)  The  Cumin 

•land  Presbyterian  Church. — 

This  Church  was 

organized   February  4.,  1810, 

in  a  log  cabin,  in 

Dickson  Co..  Tenn..  by  three 

Presbyterian  min 

-tei>.     It  grew  out  of  the  cou- 

troversies incident 

rt  to  the  <  ireat  Western  Revival 

of  1  SOU.  which  is 

■egarded  by  many  as  oneofthe 

most  important  n 

ligious  movements  in  the  his- 

tory  of  the   Prot 

estant   Church  of  the  Tinted 

Slates,  as  it  firmh 

fixed  the  people  of  the  Valley 

of  the  Mississippi  in  the  <  hristiaii  faith.  After 
ten  years  of  anxiety  and  distress,  the  new  Pres- 
byterian Church  was  organized  upon  what  is 
claimed  to  be  a  medium  ilieology,a&  between  the 


feel   at  home.     The 

'I  he  Minutes  of  the 

My,  1876,  show  26 


ico,  and  reaching  from 
ns  on  the  east,  to  the 
t.  The  following  sta- 
imately  correct:  minis- 
80;    candidates,  220; 


the 


■lull  ■  1. 


S.'ifill.dOO.  The  following  are  the  principal  institu- 
tions of  learning  under  the  control  of  this  ( 'hurch: 
Cumberland  College,  Princeton, Ky.,  founded  in 
1829. discontinued  in  1861;  Cumberland  Univer- 
sity, Lebanon,  Tenn.,  founded  in  1842,  which  has 
the  leading  law  school  in  the  South  ;  Bethel  Col- 
lege, McKenzie,  Tenn.,  1S47;  Waynesburg  Col- 
lege, Waynesburg,  Pa.,  1850;  McGee  (ollege. 
College    Mound.    Mo.,    1853,   now   suspended; 

I.i iln   University,   Lincoln.  111..  1866;   Trini- 

tv  I'nivei>itv.  Tehuacana.  Texas.  1876:  Cane 
llill  College.' Uoonshoro.  Ark.ls.VJ.  TheOeneral 


.Use 


■lit 


of  a  Union  Medical  College,  in  connection  with 
the  three  universities  of  the  Chinch,  namely, 
Cumberland,  Lincoln,  and  Trinity.  It  is  to  be 
located   at  St.  Louis,  or  some  other  large  city. 


714 


PRESBYTERIANS 


Waynesburg,  Lincoln,  and  Trinity,  admit  young 
ladies  on  equal  terms  with  young  men.  There 
are  also  several  institutions  exclusively  for  girls, 
owned  by,  or  under  the  patronage  of,  the  <  hutch. 

(4)  Tin-  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  North 
America  was  founded,  in  1858,by  the  Union  of 
the  Associate,  commonly  called  Sivrtlrr,  Church 
(which  originated  in  the  secession  of  the  Erskincs 
and  others  from  the  established  church  of  Scot- 
land, in  1733.  and  sent  its  first  missionaries  to 
America,  in  1753),  and  the  Associate  Reformed 
Church,  which  was  formed,  in  1782,  by  the 
union  of  part  of  the  Associate  Church  and  part 
of  the  Reformed,  or  Cnrniuulrr.  Church,  which 
organized  its  first  presbytery  in  America  in 
1770.  The  Church,  in  1870,  had  8  synods,  57 
presbyteries,  77,414  members,  and  638  Sabbath 
schools  with  53,364  scholars. 

Previous  to  the  Revolutionary  war.  the  As- 
sociate ( 'hurch  in  Scotland,  and  that  in  America, 
were  not  two  churches  but  one;  and  its  ministers 
"were  educated  in  Scotland.  Erom  the  first,  the 
ministers  wen;  well  educated,  most  of  them  hav- 
ing received  university  degrees.  Even  when  the 
churches  in  the  colonies  suffered  from  a  scarcity 
of  clergymen,  they  did  not  propose  to  license  the 
uneducated,  but  in  provide  for  an  education  as 
thorough  as  that  of  a  So  ittish  university.  In  1704, 
the  Presbytery  (organized  in  1754)  made  a  re- 
quest for  more  ministers,  and  for  one  able  to  teach 
"the  languages  and  philosophy",  which  brought 
from  Scotland,  the  Rev.  John  Smith,  who,  for  the 
next  four  years  (177s — 1782),  by  appointment 
of  the  Presbytery,  "directed  the  studies  of  such 
as  were  pursuing  a  c<  mrse  with  a  view  to  the  holy 
ministry."  The  way  was  prepared  for  ecclesi- 
astical as  well  as  for  political  independence.  The 
reception  of  a  minister  from  a  division  of  the 
Seceder  Church  (Burgher),  different  from  that 
(Anti-Burgher)  by  which  the  ministers  of  the 
American  Presbytery  had  been  sent  out,  pre- 
pared the  way  for  a  separation,  which  was  prac- 
tically effected  in  17s  1.  when  the  Presbytery  of 
Pennsylvania  prepared  and  adopted  a  "Narra- 
tive and  Testimony"  in  addition  to  the  Confes- 
sion of  Faith,  without  consultation  with  the 
home  synod.  Although,  after  this,  many  of  its 
ministers  came  from  Scotland  and  Ireland,  often 
with  a  formal  appointment,  yet  from  this  date, 
more  than  before,  the  (.'hutch  proposed  to  edu- 
cate its  own  clergy.  In  1702,  a  log-house  was 
built  for  a  theological  seminary;  a  good  num- 
ber of  books,  contributed  largely  by  friends  in 
Scotland,  w.re  place,  1  in  Eudolpha  Hall ;  and 
the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Anderson  was  elected  pro- 
fessor. The  first  of  its  ministers  educated  in  the 
United  States  was  licensed  in  1  795.  At  the  time 
of  the  union,  the  \  sociate  Church  had  253  min- 
isters, almost  all  educated  in  its  own  seminaries. 
The  Associate  Reformed  Church  was  independ- 
ent of  the  mother  churches  from  the  beginning. 
In  1790.  its  synod  resolved  to  establish  a  fund 
to  sustain  a  professor  of  theologv.  and  to  assist 
students.  The  fund  (85,000),  with  avaluable  li- 
brary, was  collected,  for  the  most  part,  by  the 
Rev.  J.  M.  Mason,  D.D.,  in  Scotland  and  England. 


The  seminary  was  established  in  New  York  City 
in  1804.  At  the  time  of  the  union,  it  had  231 
ministers,  almost  all  American  by  birth  and  edu- 
cation. Now  (187(5)  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church  has  three  theological  seminaries:  one  at 
Xenia,  Ohio  (1855).  the  legal  successor  of  those 
at  Service,  Pa.  (1792—1819),  at  Philadelphia 
(1821— d),  at  Canonsburg  (1821—55),  at  Ox- 
ford. Ohio  (1839—58),  at  Monmouth,  111.  (1858 
-74);  a  second  at  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  which  was 
at  first  in  New  York  City  [1804 — 21),  and  was 
removed  to  its  present  location  in  1829,  where, 
except  an  interval  of  9  years  (1858 — 67),  it  has 
continued  in  operation  ;  and  a  third  at  Alle- 
gheny <  'it y,  Pa.,  which  has  received  students  every 
year  since  its  establishment,  in  1825.  Over  500 
students  have  been  educated  in  the  third,  and 
j  over  800.  in  the  others.  The  endowment  fund 
of  Xenia  is  $30,000;  of  Newburg,  $50,000;  and 
of  Alleghenv,  Smi.ooo.  All  have  good  buildings 
and  libraries,  numbering  6  000,  5,000,  and  8,000 
volumes,  respectively.  Previous  to  1852,  the  As- 
sociate and  Associate  Reformed  churches  made 
no  attempt  to  found  independent  colleges.  Their 
members  joined  with  other  Presbyterians  in 
establishing  and  endowing  colleges,  as  in  the 
case  of  Jefferson.  Canonsburg.  Pa.  (1802 — 65), 
often  taking  a  leading  part  in  the  enterprise, 
and  frequently  furnishing  the  presidents,  most 
of  the  professors  and  students,  and  the  largest 
share  of  the  funds.  A  Presbyterian  College  was 
started  in  Washington,  Iowa  (1855 — 64),  but  was 
soon  abandoned.  Ohio  Central,  at  Iberia,  Ohio, 
was,  for  a  time  (1867 — 75),  under  the  control  of  a 
presbytery  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church; 
and,  under  another  presbytery,  was  placed  Lin- 
coln College  |L*72i.  Creenwood.  Mo.,  Westmin- 
ster ( 'ollcge.  New  Wilmington,  Pa.  (1852),  estab- 
lished by  the  Associate  Church,  and  Monmouth 
College,'  Monmouth,  111.  (1855),  by  the  Associate 
Reformed  Church,  became  the  property  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  in  1858.  These  in- 
stitutions have  been  open,  from  the  first,  to  both 
sexes,  as  Well  as  to  colored  students.  Knoxville 
(Tenn.j  ( lollege  (1876),  costing  §20,000,  is  for  the 
education  of  colored  students.  The  Ereedman's 
Board  of  the  U.  P.  ( 'hurch.  organized  soon  after 
the  slaves  were  emancipated,  reported,  in  1876, 
its  receipts  for  the  previous  year  as  amounting 
to  S 1  2,388.  The  cc  illege  at  Knoxville  is  sustained 
by  this  board,  and  is  designed  to  furnish  teach- 
ers and  preachers  for  the  l'reednien.  In  the  U.  P. 
foreign  mission  stations,  a  large  number  of  boys 
and  girls  (about  3.0IHii  are  under  instruction 
every  day.  The  Training  College.  Osiout,  Upper 
Epypt,  in  1874,  had  an  attendance  of  84  art 
students  and  10  theological  students,  the  whole 
number  being  237.  It  has  also  a  building  and 
an  endowment  fund.— No  ladies'  seminary  has 
been  endowed  in  the  U.  P.  ( 'hurch.  but  many 
excellent  schools  have  been  conducted  and 
patronized  by  the  members.  The  Church  has  a 
board  of  education,  which  reported  to  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  in  1876,  that  its  total  receipts 
for  the  year  had  been  §2,673.  This  board  aided 
20  young  men  in  preparing  for  the  ministry. 


PRIMARY    INSTRCCTION 


PRIMARY  INSTRUCTION.     See  Bdu- 


PTJBLIC  SCHOOLS 


:i5 


PRIMER 1 1 


ittle  book 


Church,  bo  called  because  used  at  prime  prima 
Tiara  the  first  hour),  originally  a  small  book  of 
prayers,  or  for  elementarj  religious  instruction, 
but,  at  the  present  time,  an  elementary  reading- 
book  of  the  lowest  grade,  The  literature  relating 
to  primers,  or  A-B-C  books,  is  very  curious  and 

interesting,  s e  of  these  books  having  had  great 

fame  on  account  of  their  lung  and  extensive  use. 
One  of  the  very  earliest  vras  Luther's  (or  Melanch- 
thon's)  Child's  Little  Primer,  containing  the 
Lord's  Prayer,  etc.  (See  Luther.)  In  L534,  a 
Prymer  in  Englyske  with  certain  prayers,  etc., 
was  printed  by  John  Byddell;  and.  in  L545,  King 
Henry  Vni.  ordered  an  English  Form  of  Public 
Prayer,  or  Prymer,  to  be  printed;  and  to  be 
••taught,  lerned,  and  red''  throughout  his  domin- 
ions. Bienrod's  primer,  containing  an  illustrated 
alphabet,  was  the  earliest  publication  of  this  kind 
in  German,  dating  back  to  the  middle  of  the 
Kith  century.  The  horn-book  was  the  simplest 
and  most  Doted  of  primers.  (See  Horn-Book, 
and  Christ  Cross  Row.)  The  Royal  Primer 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  New  England  Primer 
also  had  great  fame.— See  Barnard's  Journal, 
vol.  xii.,  art.  A-B-C  Books  and  Primers. 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND,  a  British 
province  of  North  America, formerly  (until  17!)*.)) 
called  St.  John,  having  an  area  of  2.1 7">  square 
miles,  and  a  population,  according  to  the  census 
of  1871,  of  !)4,0'21.  It  was  under  French  rule 
until  1 7 < i 3 ,  when  it  was  ceded,  by  the  treat)  of 
Paris,  to  the  British.  In  1873,  it  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

The  free-school  system  dates  from  1853;  but 
the  existing  law  went  into  operation  in  1868.  The 
lieutenant-governor  appoints  a  board  of  educa- 
tion, consisting  of  11  members,  including  the 
two  provincial  examiners.  This  board  may  can- 
cel a  teachers  license  on  proof  of  misconduct, 
may  alter  a  school  site  on  the  requisition  of  two- 
thirds  of  the  householders,  and  may  also  alter 
district  boundaries.  There  are  five  trustees  for 
each  district,  elected  by  the  resident  householders. 
Two  trustees  are  elected  and  two  retire  annually. 
The  trustees  may  allow  the  schooUiouse  to  be 
used  as  a  place  of  worship,  and  may  also  permit 
the  teacher  to  hold  an  evening  school  therein. 
Exclusive  of  grammar-school  masters,  there  are 
two  classes  or  grades  of  teachers.  Those  of  the 
lower  grade  must  be  qualified  to  teach  book- 
keeping, English  grammar,  reading,  arithmetic, 
and  geography;  while  those  of  the  higher  grade 
are  expected  to  be  proficient  in  algebra,  geom- 
etry, trigonometry,  mensuration,  surveying,  nav- 
igation, and  the  use  of  the  globes.  If  the 
school  of  his  own  district  is  not  in  operation,  a 
child  may  attend  the  nearest  school,  unless  the 
attendance  there  exceeds  f>0.  All  residents  from 
5  to  17  years  of  age  are  entitled  to  attend  the 
district  school.  The  normal  school  is  under  the 
control  of  the  board.  A  grammar  school  may  be 
■established  for  two  adjoining  districts,  instead 


I  of  district  schools  ;  but  the  teacher  must  be 
competent  to  teach  Latin.  Greek,  and  French. 
The  salaries  of  the  teachers  range  from  £40  to 
£100  a  year,  paid  from  the  provincial  treasury. 
In  L874,  there  were  355  schools  in  operation,  of 
which  l>  wei-e  grammar  schools.  The  number 
of  pupils  was  111, LI!):;,  and  of  teachers  453.  The 
number  of  teachers  licensed  during  the  year  was 
46.  besides  whom  the  normal  school  had  27  pupil- 
teachers.  In  addition  to  the  public  schools,  there 
are  several  private  institutions.  A  higher  educa- 
tion is  provided  fo.iutu lieges,     Prince  of 

Wales  College  (Protestant    Episcopal),  and  St. 
Dunstan's    (Roman  Catholic).  —  Sec  Marling, 
Canada    Educational    Directory    for    1876 ; 
Lovell's  Gazetteer  of  British  North  America. 
|       PRIZES.     Sec  Kmi  i.ation. 

PROGRAMME.    See  Si  hool  M  in  -.cement. 

PROMOTION.  See  School  Management. 

PRUSSIA.     See  Germany. 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,  Free  Schools,  or 
Common  Schools,  are  designations  applied  to 
schools  established  for  the  free  elementary  edu- 
cation of  all  the  children  in  a  community  or  state. 
The  support  of  such  schools,  either  wholly  or  in 
part,  by  the  stall',  presupposes  that  it  is  for  the 
general  interest  of  every  community  to  promote 
the  diffusion  of  education  among  all  classes.  (See 
National  Education.)  In  ancient  times,  this 
principle  was  recognized  by  free  or  democratic 
states.  Sparta  based  her  safety  and  prosperity 
upon  the  proper  education  of  every  child  in  the 
community  :  and  Athens  had  public  schools  for 
all  classes  of  he?  free  citizens.  It  was,  however, 
reserved  for  modern  times,and  for  the  free  states 
of  the  American  1'nioii  to  carry  out  this  principle 
to  the  fullest  extent,  providing  gratuitous  edu- 
cation, of  every  grade,  for  all  classes— making 
common  schools  not  eleemosynary  institutions, 
but  seminaries  in  which  the  children  of  the  rich 
and  the  poor  might  meet  together  in  common. 
and  share  alike  in  the  blessings  and  advantages 
of  education.  Free  schools,  so  called,  that  is, 
"schools  for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  poor 
children  can  be  traced  back,"  says  Barnard,  "to 
the  early  ages  of  the  Christian  Church.  Wher- 
ever a  missionary  station  was  set  up,  or  the 
bishop's  residence,  or  seat  [cathedra,  hence 
cathedral)  was  fixed,  there  gradually  grew  up  a 
large  ecclesiastical  establishment,  in  which  were 
concentrated  the  means  of  hospitality  for  all  the 
clergy,  and  all  the  humanizing  influences  of 
learning  and  religion  for  that  diocese  or  district.'' 
Connected  with  these,  were  the  song  scoles, 
where  poor  1  n  lys  were  taught  to  chant,  and  lecture 
scoles,  where  clerks  were  instructed  in  reading, 
and  subsequently,  grammar  schools,  for  classical 
instruction.  Convent  schools,  connected  with  the 
monasteries,  were  the  germs  of  the  universities; 
and  the  endowments  which  these  schools  received 
from  princes  and  prelates  enabled  them  to  afford 
an  education  to  the  children  of  the  indigent  as 
well  as  to  those  of  the  wealthy.  (See  Cathedral 
Schools.)  Royal  grammar  schools  were  founded 
out  of  the  old  endowments  by  Henry  YHI. 
(See  Grammar  Schools.)     "  The  free  schools  in 


716  PUBLIC   SCHOOLS 

England,"  says  Barnard,  "were  originally  estab- 
lished in  towns  where  there  was  no  old  convent- 
ual, cathedral,  royal,  or  endowed  grammar  schools. 
With  very  few  exceptions,  these  schools  were 
founded  and  endowed  by  individuals,  for  the 
teaching  of  Creek  and  Latin,  and  for  no  other 
gratuitous  teaching.  The  gratuitous  instruction 
was  sometimes  extended  to  all  the  children  born 
or  living  in  a  particular  parish,  or  of  a  particular 
name.  All  not  specified  and  provided  for  in 
the  instruments  of  endowment  paid  tuition  to 
the  master."  (See  England.)  For  the  history 
of  public  or  free  schools  in  other  countries,  and 
in  the  several  states  of  the  American  Union,  see 
under  the  respective  titles. — One  of  the  most  im- 
portant questions  in  regard  to  public  schools  is. 
whether  the  education  afforded  should  be  wholly 
free,  or  whether,  in  the  case  of  all  children  whose 
parents  are  able  to  pay,  a  tuition  fee  should 
be  demanded,  gratuitous  instruction  being  given 
to  those  only  who  are  in  indigent  circumstances. 
In  many  countries,  the  latter  system  is  in  oper- 
ation. The  arguments  against  it  were  clearly 
and  forcibly  summarized  at  a  meeting  of  the 
Birmingham  (England)  school  board,  in  June, 
1875,  acting  in  behalf  of  the  free  system: 
"(1)  Because  compulsory  education  is  enforced 
in  the  interest  of  the  whole  community,  and  will 
be  most  effectually  and  economically  carried  out 
under  a  free  system;  (2)  because  the  cost  of  this 
education  is  unfairly  distributed  by  any  other 
plan  ;  (3)  because  the  fees  act  as  a  direct  tax 
upon  attendance,  and  tend  accordingly  to  prevent 
the  result  for  which  the  schools  are  established, 
the  expense  incurred,  and  the  compulsory  laws 
enforced;  (  I)  because  the  alternative  practice  of 
partial  exemption  is  calculated  to  pauperize  great 
numbers  of  persons  who  have  hitherto  escaped 
any  form  of  charitable  relief."  In  defense  of  a 
free  system,  many  citations,  both  of  opinion  and 
fact  may  be  made.  Talleyrand  said  :  "The  chief 
object  of  the  state  is  to  teach  children  to  become 
one  day  its  citizens.  It  initiates  them,  in  a  man- 
ner, into  the  social  order  by  showing  them  the 
laws  by  which  it  is  governed,  and  giving  them 
the  first  of  their  means  of  existence.  Is  it  not 
just.  then,  that  all  should  learn  gratuitously  what 
ought  to  be  regarded  as  the  necessary  condition 
of  the  association  of  which  they  are  to  become 
members?  This  elementary  instruction  seems  to 
be  a  debt  which  society  owes  to  all,  and  which 
it  must  pay  without  the  slightest  deduction." 
This  sentiment  has  been  repeated  by  scores  of 
the  best  and  most  liberal  thinkers.  It  is  con- 
tended that  the  establishment  of  free  schools  by 
the  state  is  not  only  proper  as  an  act  of  justice, 
but  expedient  as  a  measure  of  policy.  England, 
it  has  been  said,  pays  for  pauperism  and  crime 
five  times  as  much  as  for  education;  while 
Switzerland  pays  seven  times  as  much  for  edu- 
cation as  for  pauperism  and  crime;  and,  it  is 
contended  that  wherever  free  education  prevails, 
there  is  more  freedom,  more  public  and  private 
virtue,  and  more  social  and  political  stability. — 
It  has  been  said,  on  the  other  hand,  that  uni- 
versal education  unfits  the  members  of  a  com- 


PUPIL  TEACHER 

munity  for  the  lower  and  more  laborious  pur- 
suits of  life;  at  any  rate,  that  it  reduces  the 
ranks  of  the  mechanic  and  day-laborer,  and  in- 
ordinately increases  those  of  the  professions,  and 
of  those  connected  with  commercial  life,  thus 
diminishing  the  producers  and  increasing  the 
non -producers.     But  to  this,  it  is   replied  that 

(1)  the  education  of  the  masses  will,  under  all 
circumstances,  not  extend  beyond  elementary  in- 
struction, which  will  be  beneficial  in  every  pur- 
suit, however  humble;  (2)  those  who  from  lowly 
stations  rise  to  positions  of  eminence  by  means 
of  free  education,  must  do  so  by  means  of  talents 
the  proper  exercise  of  which  must  be  beneficial 
to  the  community;  and  (3)  many  of  those  who 
are  denominated  non-producers  are  often  the 
persons  who,  by  their  inventions  and  discoveries, 
increase  the  producing  power  of  labor  sometimes 
a  hundred-fold.  The  inventorof  the  steam-engine, 
the  cotton-gin.  or  the  sewing-machine,  might 
never  have  done  »  day's  labor  in  his  life;  but  he 
certainly  would  not  have  been  a  non-producer 
on  that  account.  Scotland  offers  an  instructive 
example  of  the  effects  of  a  free  system  of  edu- 
cation. Dr.  I,.  Playfair,  in  a  speech  delivered 
June  20.,  1870,  said  :  "Every  peasant  in  Scotland 
knows  that  it  is  his  own  fault  if  he  does  not  ac- 
quire such  knowledge  in  his  own  school  as  will 
enable  him  to  aspire  to  the  university.  Out  of 
3,500  students  at  the  Scotch  universities,  about 
500  are  the  sons  of  wage-making  artisans  or 
peasants."  A  similar  state  of  things  exists 
in  nearly  all  of  the  United  States.  There  is, 
however,  no  lack  of  peasants  or  farmers  in  either 
country.  (See  Mopley.  TI/rS/ni,/,//r/or  National 
Education,  London.  1873.)  The  educated  intel- 
ligence and  industrial  skill,  not  merely  the  mus- 
cular power  of  its  people,  constitute  the  most  im- 
portant and  most  productive  part  of  a  nation's 
capital;  and  this  the  free  school  is  the  most 
effective  instrumentality  in  maintaining  and  en- 
larging.    (See  Crime  and  Education.) 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS,  English.    See  Eno- 

LAND. 

PUNISHMENT.  See  Corporal  Punish- 
ment, and  Fear. 

PUPIL-TEACHER,  a  term  used,  chiefly 
in  England,  to  designate  a  boy  or  a  girl  employed 
to  perform  certain  duties  connected  with  the 
teaching  and  management  of  a  school.  The 
English  Elementary  Education  Art  of  i -v 7 ' > .  re- 
quires that  "pupil-teachers  (1)  be  not  less  than 
13  years  of  age,  at  the  date  of  theirengagement; 

(2)  be  of  the  same  sex  as  the  certificated  teacher 
under  whom  they  serve,  except  that,  in  a  mixed 
school,  female  pupil-teachers  may  serve  under  a 
master,  and  may  receive  instruction  from  him 
out  of  school  hours,  on  condition  that  some  re- 
spectable woman,  approved  by  the  managers,  be 
invariably  present  during  the  whole  time  that 
such  instruction  is  being  given;  (3)  be  presented 
to  the  inspector  for  examination  at  the  time  and 
place  fixed  by  his  notice;  (4)  pass  the  required 
examinations  anil  produce  the  proper  certificates; 
(5)  that  not  more  than  four  pupil-teachers  are 
engaged   in   the   school    for  every    certificated 


PYTHAGORAS 

teacher  serving  in  it. — Such  a  system  is  favorable 
to  economy,  hut  cannot  be  productive  of  the 
best,  results  in  the  teaching  of  the  school.     It  is 

an  offshoot  of  the dtorial  system  (q.v.)i  and, 

to  some  extent,  is  Bubiect  to  the  same  obiections. 


the  system,  that ''pupil-teachers  are  regarded  too 
much  as  teachers,  and  too  little  as  pupils."     A 

correspondent  of  the  Schoolmaster  i  London.July 
17.,  1875).  writing  from  personal  experience, 
says:  "Schools  can  frequently  be  found  where  90 
or  100  children  are  placed  under  a  master,  who. 
instead  of  being  supplied  with  teachers  compe- 
tent to  instruct  the  several  classes  into  which  the 
scholars  must  necessarily  be  divided,  is  only 
furnished  with  one.  or  perhaps  two  lads,  whom 
he  is  expected  to  instruct  in  the  art  of  teaching, 
in  addition  to  the  ordinary  duties  of  the  school." 
Of  course,  the  pupils,  in  such  a  school,  must  be 
very  imperfectly  taught.  In  December,  1874, 
there  were  employed  in  the  public  schools  of 
England  and  Wales,  20,162  certificated  teachers, 
1,999  assistants,  and  27.321  pupil-teachers.  The 
engagement  of  pupil-teachers  is  for  five  years,  at 
the  end  of  which  time  they  may  be  admitted 
into  a  training  college,  on  passing  the  required 
examination. —  The  system  of  pupil-teachers 
formerly  prevailed  in  some  of  the  cities  of  the 
United  "States,  notably  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
in  which  it  was  continued,  in  the  schools  of  the 
Public  School  Suciety,  for  many  years.  These 
pupil-teachers,  called  monitors,  were,  as  in  the 
English  schools,  apprentices,  and  were  expected 
to  attend  a  Saturday  or  evening  normal  school  ; 
and,  on  passing  a  final  examination,  were  em- 
ployed as  full  teachers.  This  system  has  ceased 
to  exist  in  most  of  the  American  schools. 

PYTHAGORAS,  a  celebrated  Creek  philos- 
opher, born  on  the  island  of  Sanios,  in  580  B.C.; 
died  in  Metapontuni,  in  southern  Italy,  about 
500.  He  was  so  enthusiastic  in  his  search  for 
knowledge  that  he  spent  30  years  (as  is  said)  in 
travel,  in  order  to  obtain  it,  visiting  Egypt, 
Phoenicia,  Arabia,  Babylonia,  India,  and  even 
Gaul.  Too  modest  to  take  the  title  ompoc;  (wise 
man),  he  was  the  first  to  assume  that  of  <j>u.6aoi{>oc 


QUEBEC 


17 


(lover  of  wisdom).  "He  was. "says  Schmidt  (His- 
tory of  Education),  "  the  first  Greek  in  \\1 the 

spirit  of  the  East  was  united  with  that  of  the 
West,  and  in  whom  the  culture  of  Babylon, 
Egypt, and  westernmost  Asia  combined  to  de- 
velop that  of  the  Greeks  in  a  new  and  glorious 
form."  At  Croton,  in  southern  Italy,  whither 
he  emigrated  about  530  1!.  ( '..  he  established  his 
famous  school,  and  enunciated  the  doctrines  of 
his  peculiar  system,  the  fruit  of  his  researches 
and  contemplations.  Of  this  system,  the  metemp- 
sychosis was  a  cardinal  principle,  co-ordinate  with 
that  of  the  purification  of  the  soul  (nadapms), 
since  the  former  was  the  necessary  agency  for 
effecting  this  purification  ;  and  the  latter,  in  its 
ultimate  consummation,  was  designed  to  bring 
man  into  a  fit  condition  to  hold  communion  with 
the  Deity  (6fu7xlv  n.»  <>..,,;).  Self-knowledge 
he  regarded  as  the  indispensable  condition  for 
self-improvement  —  as  the  basis  of  all  culture, 
the  highest  aim  of  which  is  to  obtain  a  full 
understanding  of  the  essence  and  relations  of  the 
objects  around  us,  and  to  live  in  harmony  with 
them,  and  with  the  true  end  of  man's  being. 
Music  (/lovaiK)/  naiitia)  was  in  itself  one  of  the 
most  important  instruments  of  this  culture,  em- 
bodying and  typifying  the  harmony  of  the  uni- 
verse, as  well  as  aiding  the  soul  in  its  efforts  to 
bring  itself  into  the  same  harmony.  Religious 
devotion  was  an  important  means  to  consum- 
mate this  result  ;  and  hence  he  based  education 
upon  religion.  The  good  of  society  could  be  pro- 
moted only  by  such  education,  the  fruit  of 
which  would  necessarily  be  civil  and  political 
liberty,  because  it  would  produce  nobleness  of 
soul  in  every  citizen.  His  practical  system,  there- 
fore, comprehended  special  means  for  the  educa- 
tion of  children,  as  well  as  the  instruction  of 
adults.  His  school  at  Croton  was,  however, 
designed  only  for  the  latter ;  and  its  peculiar 
rules,  practices,  and  arrangements  deserve  a  care- 
ful study.  —  See  Schmidt,  History  of  Education 
(N.Y.,1872);Grote.  I Union/  <>f<!  recce;  Schmidt, 
Geschickte  der  Padagogik,  vol.  i.;  Zeller,  Die 
Pyihagorassage  (Lei'psic,  1865)  ;  Ueberweg, 
History  of  Philosophy,  trans,  from  the  Cerman 
(N.  Y.,  1872). 


aUADRXVITTM:.    See  Arts. 

QUEBEC,  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  having  an  area  of  193,355  sq.  miles; 
and  a  population,  in  1871,  of  1,191,516.  (See 
Ontario.) 

Educational  History. — The  first  school  in  the 
province  was  that  of  the  Franciscan  Father  Du- 
plessis.  at  Three  Pavers,  founded  in  1616.  In  1632, 
the  Jesuits,  who  afterward  exercised  great  in- 
fluence on  education,  opened  their  first  school  in 
Quebec  for  the  instruction  of  the  Indians;  and,  in 
1635,  they  founded  the  Seminary  of  Notre  Dame 
des  Anges.  which  afterward  became  the  Jesuit 
college  of  Quebec.  For  over  a  century,  education 
remained  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the 


Catholic  clergy.  Among  the  larger  schools  estab- 
lished during  this  period,  were  the  convent  of 
the  Ursulines,  founded  in  1639,  the  Seminary  of 
Quebec,  in  167s,  and  the  theological  seminary  in 
Montreal,  in  1647.  In  1653,  Sister  Margaret 
Bourgeois  founded  the  order  of  the  congregation 
of  Notre  Dame  at  Montreal,  an. 1  established  a 
number  of  schools.  The  Recollets  and  Jesuits 
also  supported  many  primary  schools.  In  1737, 
the  Christian  Brothers  undertook  the  task  of 
popular  instruction, but  were  unsuccessful,  owing 
to  the  apathy  of  the  government  and  of  the  set- 
tlers. In  1774,  the  order  of  Jesuits  was  sup- 
pressed in  Canada,  and  its  estates  vested  in  the 
Crown.     It  was  not,  however,  until   1831   that 


718 


QUEBEC 


these  estates  were  surrendered  to  the  provincial 
parliament  for  the  support  of  education.  In 
1801.  an  act  was  passed  providing  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  free  schools,  under  the  Royal  Insti- 
tution for  the  Advancement  of  Learning.  This 
act  produced  but  slight  results  :  and  the  Royal 
Institution,  at  present,  lias  charge  of  very  little 
else  than  of  the  McGill  institutions,  and  these 
only  by  the  special  desire  of  their  founder. 

ScL,, ,,!  l.nir. — The  principal  provisions  of  the 
present  school  law  are  as  follows :  The  estates 
of  the  Jesuits  form  the  so-called  Superior  Edu- 
cation Investment  Fund,  the  revenues  of  which, 
together  with  other  moneys  appropriated  for  the 
purpose,  form  an  income  fund,  to  be  distributed 
among  the  universities,  and  all  other  educational 
institutions,  except  the  elementary  schools.  To 
this  fund.  $20,000  is  annually  added  from  the 
revenue  of  the  province:  and  a  sufficient  amount 
must  be  added  from  the  common-school  fund, 
so  as  to  make  up  the  sum  of  $88,000.  The 
council  of  public  instruction  is  appointed  by 
the  lieutenant-governor,  consisting  of  16  Roman 
Catholics  and  8  Protestants.  The  superintend- 
ent is  president,  ex  officii),  and  a  member  of  both 
committees,  with  a  vote  in  that  of  his  own 
religion.  The  council  makes  rules  for  schools 
and  examiners,  and  selects,  or  causes  to  be  pub- 
lished, the  books  to  be  used,  except  those  on 
religion  and  morals ;  and  it  may  hold  the  copy- 
right thereof,  the  profits  accruing  from  which 
go  to  the  income  fund.  It  may,  also,  revoke  a 
teacher's  certificate  for  sufficient  cause.  Every 
municipality  elects  a  board  of  five  commission- 
ers, who  hold  office  for  five  years.  The  religious 
minority  in  any  municipality  may  dissent ;  and 
may  nominate,  in  writing,  to  the  chairman  of  the 
commissioners  three  trustees,  who  may  exercise, 
in  respect  to  the  dissentient  schools,  the  same 
powers  that  the  commissioners  have  in  regard 
to  the  common  schools.  The  commissioners  ap- 
point the  teachers,  and  regulate  the  studies,  fees. 
etc.  No  other  Looks  than  those  prescribed  by 
the  council  can  be  used  ;  but  the  run',  priest,  or 
officiating  minister  has  the  exclusive  right  to  des- 
ignate the  books  for  religious  instruction  to  lie 
used  in  the  schools  of  his  faith.  The  schools 
are  open  for  children  from  5  to  16  years  of  age; 
but  a  fee  may  lie  charged  only  for  those  from  7 
to  11.  Separate  schools  for  girls  may  be  estab- 
lished. Inspectors  are  appointed  by  the  lieuten- 
ant-governor :  and,  in  their  visits,  have  the  power 
of  the  superintendent,  from  whom  they  receive 

instructions.     The  resident  clergy  of  the  de - 

ination  to  which  the  school  belongs,  the  superior 
judges,  the  members  of  the  legislature,  resident 
justices  of  the  peace,  the  warden  or  mayor,  the 
senior  captain  and  superior  resident  officers  of 
militia  and  the  superintendent,  arc  school  visit- 
ors, and.  as  such,  may  take  part  in  the  exami- 
nations of  teachers,  and  have  access  to  all  docu- 
ments. In  Quebec  and  Montreal,  the  corporation 
appoints  six  Roman  Catholic,  and  six  Protestant 

commissioners,  one-half  to  be  renewed  rally. 

Otherwise,  the  same  law  applies  to  these  cities  as 
to  the  rest  of  the  province.     Any  fabrique,  i.  e. 


I  the  cure  and  church-wardens  of  a  parish,  may 
establish  one  school  for  every  hundred  families, 
and  acquire  and  hold,  for  each  school,  property 
not  exceeding  $400  in  value.  Such  schools  may 
be  placed  for  one  or  more  years  under  the  school 
laws,  if  the  fabrique  and  school  commissioners 
agree :  and  the  vinv  or  church-warden  of  any 
fabrique  contributing  not  less  than  $50  a  year 
to  a  school  under  commissioners,  may  hold  the 
office  of  commissioner  ;  but  no  fabrique  or 
school  can  be  united  with  the  schools  of  com- 
missioners of  another  faith. 

Primary  Schools. —  In  1873,  there  were  3,254 

elementary  schools  under  the  sel 1   laws,  with 

141,990  pupils;  4  normal  schools,  with  246  pu- 
pils; 156  independent  schools,  with  6,261  pupils; 
220  dissentient  schools,  with  7,665  pupils:  129 
teaching  convents,  with  24.236  pupils,  and  343 
model  schools,  with  28,588  pupils.  Of  the  dis- 
sentient schools,  186,  with  6,156  pupils,  were 
Protestant;  and  34.  with  1,509  pupils,  were 
Roman  Catholic.  During  the  same  year.  662 
candidates  for  teachers'  certificates  were  ex- 
amined, of  whom  58  were  rejected.  There 
were,  in  1874, three  normal  schools;  the  Jacques 
Carrier,  with  43  male  pupils,  and  the  McGill 
school,  with  6  male  and  106  female  pupils,  both 
in  Montreal;  and  the  Laval  school,  in  Quebec, 
with  43  male  and  56  female  pupils ;  making,  in 
all.  254  pupils  for  the  three  normal  schools. 

Secondary  Schools. — There  are  two  classes  of 
colleges. — classical  and  industrial,  which  occupy 
a  position  similar  to  the  high  schools  of  Ontario. 
They  are  chiefly  boarding-schools,  although  a 
few  day  scholars  are  also  admitted.  The  course 
of  studies  in  each  comprises  those  usually  taught 
in  high  schools  The  time  necessary  to  complete 
the  course,  varies  from  4  to  1(1  years.  The  total 
number  of  colleges,  in  1873,  was  37.  with  7,113 
students. 

1'niri-rsities. — There  are  three  universities. — 
McGill  College  and  University,  in  Montreal;  the 
University  of  Laval,  in  Quebec;  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bishop's  College,  in  Lennoxville. 
McGill  College  was  established  by  a  bequest  of 
James  McGill.  a  merchant  of  Montreal,  whodied 
in  1813.  By  royal  charter,  which  was  received 
in  1821,  and  amended  in  1852.  the  governors, 
principal,  and  fellows  of  McGill  College  con- 
stitute the  corporation  of  the  university;  and, 
!  under  the  statutes  framed  by  the  governors, 
!  have  the  power  of  granting  degrees  in  all  the 
arts  and  faculties  in  Met  iill  <  lollege,  and  colleges 
affiliated  with  it.  These  are  Morrin  College,  in 
Quebec:  the  Congregational  College  of  British 
North  America,  in  Montreal ;  and  the  Pres- 
bvterian  ( 'ollege  of  Montreal.  Teachers  trained 
in  the  McGill  Normal  School  are  entitled  to 
provincial  diplomas.  McGill  University  had.  in 
1ST::.  12  professors  and  42  students  in  the  legal 
faculty.  12  professors  and  130  students  in  the 
medical  faculty,  and  10  professors  and  290  stu- 
dents in  the  faculty  of  arts.  The  University  of 
Laval,  in  Quebec,  was  founded  in  1852,  and  re- 
ceived the  royal  charter  the  same  year.  It 
is  governed    by  the   Roman    Catholic  Church. 


QUESTIONING 


RAIKBS 


719 


the  collegiate  depart- 
The  university  had, 
:    the 

the 


The  Quebec  Seminary 
ment  of  Lava]  University, 
in  1873,  5  professors  and  54 
theological,  5  professors  and  37  studi 
legal,!*  professors  and  SS  students  in  the  niedical 
faculty,  and  19  professors  and  97  students  in 
the  faculty  of  arts.  The  University  of  Bishop's 
College,  in  Lennoxville,  is  governed  by  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church.  It  was  opened  in 
1845,  and.  in  1853,  received  the  royal  charter 
which  gave  it  university  powers.  It  had.  in 
187.3.  a  theological  faculty,  with  5  professors  and 
54  students,  and  a  faculty  of  arts,  with  9  pro- 
fessors and  88  students.  A  medical  faculty  has 
been  organized  since  that  time.  There  is  also  a 
large  number  of  professional  colleges  and  col- 
legiate schools. — See  Maeling,  Canada  Educa- 
tional Directory  and  Yearbook  for  1876; 
Lovelt.'s  Directory  of  British  North  America 
(1873)  ;  Chauveatj  (formerly  minister  of  public 
instruction  in  Quebec), in  Schmid's  Encyclopddie 
(2d  ed.,  1876),  art.  Canada. 

QUESTIONING.     See  Interrogation. 

QUINTILIAN  ( Quintilian  us),  Marcus  Fa- 
bius,  a  Roman  teacher  and  educational  writer, 


was  born  probably  in  Calagurris.  Spain,  in  40 
A.  D.;  died  about  118.  He  was  the  first 
public  teacher  of  oratory  at  Home,  receiving  a 
regular  salary  from  the  iuperia]  treasury,  and 


•t  p 


questions.  I  le  insisted 
child  should  begin  \\  itl 
teach  the  child  a  coi 
strongly  recommended  public  schools  in  prefer- 
ence to  private  schools.  The  study  of  Greet 
should  begin  before  that  of  the  native  language 
(Latin)  ;  and  the  course  of  instruction  should 
embrace  reading,  writing,  grammar,  music,  and 
geometry.  Elocution  should  be  taught  by  an 
actor.  The  educational  principles  commend.',!  by 
Quintilian,  have,  however,  only  the  training  of 
good  rhetoricians  in  view. — See  Ptlz,  Quintilian, 
ein  Lehrerleben  aus  der  rbmischen  Kaiserzeii 
(I.eipsic,  18(13);  Barnard's  Journal  of  Edu- 
cation, vol.  x.  and  xi. 


RABANUS  ( Hrahan  us  or  Rhaban  us)  Mau- 
rus,  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  the  middle 
ages,  born  about  776,  died  in  856.  He  re- 
ceived his  education  partly  in  the  monastery 
of  Fulda,  and  subsequently  studied  at  Tours, 
where  he  became  the  favorite  pupil  of  Alcuin. 
Having  returned  to  Fulda.  he  assumed  the  direc- 
tion of  the  convent  school.  When  he  was  elected 
abbot  of  Fulda,  in  822,  he  gave  up  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  non-clerical,  but  continued  that  of 
the  theological,  students.  The  school  of  Fulda 
became,  through  him,  one  of  the  most  famous 
of  the  age.  Young  men  from  Germany,  France, 
and  Italy  flocked  to  it  in  great  numbers,  and  its 
pupils  were  eagerly  sought  for  as  good  teachers. 
Rabanus  has  frequently  been  called  the  first 
teacher  of  Germany  (primus  praeceptor  Oer- 
ii  ion  oik  not  only  because  he  instructed  large 
numbers  of  young  men,  through  whom  learning 
was  spread  throughout  that  country,  but 
also  because  he  was  the  first  to  instruct  in  the 
German  language,  and  to  establish  a  school  for 
other  than  clerical  students.  Among  his  nu- 
merous works,  was  a  kind  of  encyclopedia  of 
knowledge,  entitled  Be  Universe,  which  exerted 
considerable  influence  upon  the  progress  of  edu- 
s.  —  See  Kunstmann, 
turns  (1841);  Bach, 
/ '*  >'  '  Sjifer  des  deut- 
Spengler,  Leben  des 


cation 

in   the   mi 

Raban 

r. '  ■■ 

is    Magna 
Rabanus  V 

he,:, 


Racine.    Wis.. 


RACINE  COLLEGE 
founded  in  1852,  is  under  Protestant  Episcopal 
control.  It  has  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course, 
with  a  classical  and  a  mathematical  school  as 
preparatory  institutions.  The  regular  charge  for 
tuition,    board,    etc.,  is  $400  per    year. 


The 


library  contains  3,000  volumes.  In  1874: — 5, 
there  were  18  instructors  and  180  students  (35 
classical,  10  scientific.  102  in  the  classical  school, 
and  33  in  the  mathematical  school).  The  Rev. 
James  De  Kovcn.  I>.1>„  is  (1877)  the  warden. 

RAGGED  SCHOOLS.  See  Reform 
Schools. 

RAISES,  Robert,  an  English  printer  and 
philanthropist,  born  at  Gloucester,  1735 ;  died 
April  5.,  1811.  His  attention  was  specially  di- 
rected to  the  condition  of  the  children  of  the 
poor,  on  taking  a  walk  one  Sunday  through  the 
suburbs  of  his  native  place.  He  engaged  four 
women,  keepers  of  dame  schools,  to  instruct  as 
many  children  as  he  should  send  to  them  on 
Sunday,  for  which  they  were  to  receive  a  shilling 
each.  The  children  came  in  large  numbers, caus- 
ing a  marked  improvement  in  the  manners  and 
morals  of  the  place.  In  these  efforts,  he  was  greatly 
aided  by  the  Rev.  T.  Stock.  This  was  the  origin  of 
our  present  Sunday-school.  By  means  of  publica- 
tions, notably  that  of  a  letter  of  Mr.  Raikes  in 
the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  in  1784,  public  at- 
tention was  called  to' his  scheme ;  and  the  system 
was  adopted  in  all  the  principal  towns  and  cities. 
and  spread  rapidly  through  Great  Britain,  even 
attracting  the  attention  of  the  queen,  who  ex- 
pressed her  approbation  to  Mr.  Raikes  in  person. 
The  first  obstacle  he  encountered  was  a  want  of 
funds  to  pay  the  teachers.  This  was  soon  over- 
come by  the  teachers'  offering  their  services 
gratuitously.  The  secular  teaching,  which  was  a 
part  of  the  original  Sunday-school  system,  was 
discontinued,  with  the  exception  of  reading  which, 
for  a  long  time, held  its  place.  In  course  of  time, 
however,  week-day  schools  becoming  general, 
this  was  given  up  ;  and  the  Sunday-school,  as  we 


720    RANDOLPH  MACON  COLLEGE 

now  know  it,  took  its  place  among  recognized  I 
educational  agencies.  From  that  time,  its  spread 
has  been  rapid  and  uninterrupted  :  and  through- 
out Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  the 
Sunday-school  is  now  the  constant  attendant 
of  the  church.  —  See  Sketch  of  the  Life  of 
Ruhert  Raikess  undthf  Ilistuni  of  Suiidiii/Schnuls 
(New  York)  ;  and  W.  M.  <  Iorneix,  Life  of  Rob- 
ert Raikes  (New  York,  1864).  (See  also  Sunday- 
Schools.) 

RANDOLPH  MACON  COLLEGE,  at 
Ashland,  Va.,  chartered  in  183-2  and  or- 
ganized in  1834,  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  South.  It  has 
productive  funds  to  the  amount  of  $25,000,  ex- 
tensive philosophical  and  chemical  apparatus,  a 
cabinet  of  minerals,  and  libraries  containing 
1 1 .000  volumes.  The  course  of  study  is  distributed 
into  separate  schools,  including  schools  of  Latin, 
Greek,  English.  French,  German,  pure  mathe- 
matics, applied  mathematics,  natural  science, 
chemistry,  physiology  and  hygiene,  moral  philos- 
ophy and  metaphysics,  Biblical  literature,  and 
oriental  languages.  The  degrees  conferred  are 
Graduate  in  a  school,  Bachelor  of  Science. 
Bachelor  of  Arts,  and  Master  of  Arts,  the  last 
three-  requiring  graduation  in  several  schools. 
A  handsome  new  lecture  hall  has  recently  been 
erected.  This,  with  the  other  buildings,  now 
planned,  and  an  additional  endowment  fund, 
will  considerably  increase  the  facilities  of  the  in- 
stitution. The  tuition  fee  for  three  or  more 
schools  is  $75  per  year.  Candidates  for  the 
ministry  are  exempt  from  the  payment  of 
tuition  fees.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  11  instruct- 
ors and  235  students.  The  Rev.  James  A. 
Duncan.  A.  M.,  D.  D.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

BATICH,  Wolfgang-,  a  distinguished  Ger- 
man educator,  was  born  in  1571,  at  Wilsten.  in 
Holstein,  and  died  in  1635,  at  Rudolstadt.  A 
difficulty  in  his  speech  compelling  him  to  give  up 
the  design  of  becoming  a  preacher,  he  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  the  Hebrew  and  Arabic 
languages,  and  mathematics.  He  claimed  to  be 
the  inventor  of  a  new  system  of  instruction, 
vastly  superior  to  the  prevailing  ones.  In  1612, 
he  addressed  a  memorial  to  the  Diet  at  Frank- 
fort in  behalf  of  his  system,  in  which,  he  as- 
serted, that  not  only  could  old  and  young  in  a 
short  time  easily  learn  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin.  Ger- 
man, philosophy,  theology,  and  the  arts  and  scien- 
ces, but  that  uniformity  of  language  and  religion 
coul  1  be  introduced  into  the  whole  empire.  Sev- 
eral princes  were  led  to  interest  themselves  in  his 
scheme.  Professors  Helwigand  Jung,  of  Giessen, 
and  Granger.  Brendel,  Walter,  and  Wolf,  of  Jena, 
were  invited  to  investigate  it.  They  judged  it 
excellent  in  theory,  and  made  a  favorable  report 
upon  it.  Ratich  agreed  with  Prince  Ludvvig.  of 
Anhalt-Kbthen,  and  Duke  John  Ernest,  of  Wei- 
mar, to  instruct  children  by  his  new  system,  and 
also  by  it  to  qualify  teachers  to  give  instruction 
in  any  language  in  less  time,  and  with  less  labor, 
than  by  any  other  method  uscil  in  Germany.  A 
printing-office  was  furnished  him  in  Kothen, 
and  bis  books  were  printed  in  six  languages.     A 


RAI7MER 

school  was  estabhshed  for  him,  with  135  schol- 
ars. But  Ratich  proved  incompetent  to  give 
practical  effect  to  his  theories.  He  became  un- 
popular, and,  being  an  earnest  Lutheran,  fell 
under  the  ban  of  the  religious  prejudices  of 
a  community  attached  to  the  Reformed  faith. 
His  school  failed,  in  a  short  time.  Prince  Lud- 
wig  quarreled  with  him,  and,  in  1619,  impris- 
oned him  ;  but  released  him  in  1020,  upon  his 
giving  a  written  declaration  that  "he  had 
claimed  and  promised  more  than  he  knew,  or 
could  bring  to  pass."  His  system  was  now 
attacked  by  some  who  had  been  his  friends. 
The  Countess  Anna  Sophia  von  Schwarzburg- 
Rudolstadt,  however,  recommended  him  to  the 
Swedish  chancellor  Oxenstiern  ;  and,  at  the  re- 
quest of  that  statesman.  Prs.  Bruckner,  Meyfart, 
and  Ziegler  having  examined  his  method,  made 
a  favorable  report  upon  it,  in  1634. — Katich, 
without  doubt,  had  a  practical  conception  of  the 
objects  of  education.  He  preferred  to  give  in- 
struction in  those  branches  which  could  be  made 
useful  in  life,  rather  than  to  pay  so  much  atten- 
tion to  the  dead  languages.  In  his  memorial  to 
the  Diet  at  Frankfort,  he  held  that  the  child 
should  first  learn  to  read  and  speak  the  mother- 
tongue  correctly,  so  as  to  be  able  to  use  the 
German  Bible.  Hebrew  and  Greek  should  then 
be  learned,  as  the  tongues  of  the  original  texts 
of  the  Bible,  after  which  Latin  might  be  studied. 
His  views  were  embodied  in  a  number  of  rules, 
or  principles,  the  chief  of  which  are  :  (1)  Every 
thing  should  be  presented  in  its  order,  a  due 
regard  being  always  had  to  the  course  of  nat- 
ure ;  (2)  Only  one  thing  should  be  presented  at 
a  time;  (3)  Each  thing  should  be  often  repeated; 
(4)  Every  thing  should  be  taught,  at  first,  in  the 
mother-tongue  ;  afterward,  other  languages  may 
be  taught;  (,"i)  Every  thing  should  be  done  with- 
out compulsion  ;  (6)  Nothing  should  be  learned 
by  rote;  (7)  There  should  be  mutual  conformity 
in  all  things;  (8)  First  the  thing  by  itself,  and 
afterward  the  explanation  of  it ;  that  is  to  say, 
a  basis  of  material  must  be  laid  in  the  mind  before 
any  rules  can  be  applied  to  it ;  thus,  in  teaching 
grammar,  he  gave  no  rules,  but  began  with  the 
reading  of  the  text,  and  required  that  the  rules 
should  be  deduced  from  it ;  (9)  Every  thing  by 
expression,  and  the  investigation  of  parts.  In 
his  Method  us,  he  has  left  minute  directions  to 
teachers  concerning  the  details  of  the  course,  and 
the  proper  methods  of  instruction  ;  but  they  are 
very  prolix,  and  impose  an  immense  amount  of 
labor  on  the  teacher,  without  seeming  to  call  for  a 
corresponding  degree  of  exertion  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil.  Comenius,  after  reading  his  book,  re- 
marked that  he  "  had  not  ill  displayed  the  faults 
of  the  schools,  but  that  his  remedies  were  not 
distinctly  shown."  Ratich  s  works  were  written 
in  Latin,  and  are  diffuse,  tedious,  and  some- 
what pedantic. 

RAUMER,  Karl  Georg  von,  a  German 
professor  and  author,  born  in  Worlitz,  April  '■>., 
1783  ;  died  in  Erlangen,  June  2.,  1 865.  1  le  was 
educated  at  Gottingen,  Halle,  and  Freiberg,  and 
was  appointed  to  a  position  in  the  mineralogical 


bureau  in  Rerlin.  in  1811  :  and.  shortly  after,  to 
that  of  professor  of  mineralogy  in  the  university 
uf  Breslau.    He  acted  as  aid  to  Gneisenau  in  the 


one  case,  the  mental  association  required  is  sim- 
ple and  direct  ;  in  the  other,  it  is  complex  and 
indirect.     It    is   true   that,   by  long  and  diligent 


fessor  of  natural  history  and  mineralogy  in  tin 
university  of  Krlangon.  lie  is  chiefly  known  b; 
his  geographical  and  theological  works:  but  hi; 


./-•/■  J'wh, 


Hi: 


[In- 


1  translation  of  the  larger  portion 
!  appeared  in  Barnard's  Journal 
of  Education;  also,  separately,  under  the  title 
German  Educators. 

READING,  as  the  basis  and  instrument  of 
all  literary  education,  is  the  most  important 
branch  of  school  instruction.  After  the  child 
has  learned  to  talk,  he  may  be  taught  to  under- 
stand, and  to  give  vocal  expression  to,  such  writ- 
ten language  as  is  adapted  to  his  degree  of  men- 
tal development.  To  do  this  involves  an  asso- 
ciation, in  the  mind,  of  the  printed  form  of  the 
word  1 1  )  with  its  proper  sound,  or  pronunciation, 
and  (2)  with  the  idea  which  it  is  intended  to 
express.  In  teaching  children  to  read,  the  first 
of  these  processes  requires  the  principal  atten- 
tion :  but,  as  progress  is  made,  the  second  con- 
stantly increases  in  importance.  The  word,  and 
not  the  letters  composing  it,  is  the  true  element 
in  reading.  No  one  can  be  said  to  know  how 
to  read  who  is  obliged  to  stop  at  the  word,  and 

study  its  composition,   before  he   can  pi unee 

it.  The  due  meaning  and  pronunciation  of  every 
word  must  be  immediately  recognized  by  the 
mind,  without  pause  or  hesitation,  in  the  act  of 
reading.  But  the  word  is  made  up  of  separate 
characters,  representing  elementary  sounds  ;  and 
hence  arises  a  diversity  of  methods  in  teaching 
children  to  pronounce  words.  The  alphabet 
method,  or  A-B-G  method  (q.  v.),  requires  that 
the  child  should  learn  the  names  of  all  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  and  then,  by  means  of  a  spelling 
process,  learn  the  proper  pronunciation  of  their 
combinations.  This  process  is  condemned  by 
most  teachers  of  the  present  time,  as  long  and 
tedious,  as  well  as  illogical ;  the  method  most 
generally  preferred  being  that  denominated  the 
icon/  method  (q.  v.),  by  which  the  child  learns 
at  once  to  pronounce  short  words,  and  is  taught 
the  sounds  and  names  of  the  letters,  by  an  anal- 
ysis of  them.  When  the  sounds  of  the  letters 
are  used  instead  of  the  names,  the  process  has 
been  called  the  phonic  method  (q.  v.),  which,  in 
modern  didactics,  is  most  generally  approved. 
Certainly,  it  is  more  rational  to  expect  that  a 
child  will  perceive  the  true  pronunciation  of  a 
word  through  an  analysis  of  the  sounds,  of  the 
letters,  than  by  using  their  names,  many  of  which 
afford  no  key  to  the  sound.  For  example,  if  the 
word  be  cat,  the  child  reaches  the  pronunciation 
at  once  by  enumerating  the  sounds  k-a-t ;  while 
by  spelling,  he  is  obliged  to  say  se-ri-te,  introdu- 
cing sounds  entirely  foreign  to  the  word.   In  the 


phonetic  m,th,.,l.  ill  which  the  ab.-.ir,l  contradic- 
tions of  the  alphabet  are  removed  by  using  the 
letters  slightly  modified,  so  as  to  have  a  character 
for  each  separate  sound,  and  each  sound  repre- 
sented by  one,  and  only  one,  character.  (See 
Orthography,  and  Phonetics.)  These  various 
methods  are  dictated  by  what  may  perhaps  be 
called  the  mechanics  of  reading ;  but.  in  con- 
nection with  that,  the  teacher  must  always  bear 
in  mind,  that  what  the  child  is  learning  to  pro- 
nounce is  a  symbol  of  thought:  and.  hence,  ai 
every  step,  the  pupil's  understanding  is  to  be  ad- 
dressed. Heading,  a.s  a  part  of  education,  has  a 
twofold  object :  (1)  to  understand  what  is  read  ; 
and  (2)  to  give  proper  oral  expression  to  it ; 
that  is  to  say.  reading  is  either  for  the  purpose 
of  gaining  information  for  one's  self,  or  for  im- 
parting information  to  others.  To  teach  a  pupil 
to  read  properly  implies  far  more  than  correct 
elocution.  It  implies  the  development  of  that 
judgment  and  spirit  which,  being  brought  to  the 
perusal  of  useful  books,  or  other  reading  matter. 
will  enable  the  student  to  gather  up  information, 
and,  in  every  available  manner,  make  the  realm 
of  books  tributary  to  his  own  mental  wants. 
Hence,  as  auxiliary  to  reading,  the  proper  mean- 
ing of  words,  phrases,  and  idioms  must  be  taught ; 
and  exercises  must  be  employed  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  to  what  extent  the  pupil  has  re- 
ceived correct  ideas  from  what  he  has  read. 
When  the  object  is  to  teach  the  pupils  elocution, 
the  exercises  should  be  specially  adapted  to  that 
end.  Thus,  the  pupil,  having  read  in  order  to 
understand  for  himself,  should  be  required  to 
read  the  same  passage  for  the  information  of  his 
fellow  pupils.  For  this  purpose,  it  has  been  rec- 
ommended, in  class  teaching,  to  permit  only 
the  pupil  reading  to  use  the  book,  all  the  others 
being  required  to  listen;  because,  in  this  way. 
the  pupils  will  be  on  the  alert  to  hear  and  know 
the  meaning  of  what  is  read,  and  will,  besides, 
better  appreciate  the  true  end  of  reading  ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  one  reading  will  endeavor 
to  pronounce  correctly,  enunciate  distinctly,  and 
emphasize  naturally.  1  leading-books  should  be 
ci  instructed  with  a  special  reference  to  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  object ;  and  hence,  the  lessons 
should  be  adapted,  at  each  stage,  to  the  mental 
status  of  the  pupils.  Moreover,  the  material 
should  not  consist  of  mere  fragments,  without 
any  logical  continuity;  but  should  be  of  Mich  a 
character  as  to  discipline  the  mind  in  connected 
thinking  upon  suitable  subjects,  and  to  awaken 
an  interest  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  Usually, 
this  essential  object  of  reading  in  schools  is  de- 
feated by  the  use  of  extracts  from  essays  on  dif- 
ficult, abstract  subjects,  or  from  authors  whose 
style  is  too  complex,  and  whose  vocabulary  is  too 


722 


REAL  SCHOOLS 


ponderous  for  children.  Simultaneous  reading 
is  commended  by  some  teachers  as  an  elocution- 
ary drill,  as  being  useful  (1)  to  impart  habits  of 
distinctness  of  enunciation,  (2)  to  remove  the 
habit  of  too  rapid  or  too  slow  a  style  of  reading, 
(3)  as  a  means  of  voice  culture  for  elocution. — 
See  (A'rrie,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Com- 
mon-School Eduratimi  ,■  AVickersham,  Methods 
of  Instruction;  How  to  Teach  (X.  V.,  1874). 
(See  also  Elocution,  and  Voice.) 

REAL  SCHOOL,  or  Real  Gymnasium, 
the  name  used  in  <  lerniany  to  designate  a  kind  of 
high  school.  This  term  was  used  as  early  as  1706; 
but  the  first  permanent  real  school  wa3  founded 
by  .1.  .1.  Hecker  in  1747.  (See  Germany,  and 
Becker.)  The  real  schools  are  utilitarian  in  char- 
acter, and  aim  to  teach,  like  the  scientific  depart- 
ments of  the  American  college,  only  those  branches 
designed  to  develop  the  practical  man.  They  are 
strictly  the  people's  schools,  and  aim  to  tit  espe- 
cially for  occupation  in  trade  and  industry.  Hence 
they  are  sometimes  called  higher  burgher  schools. 
Their  course  of  study  is  more  advanced  than  that 
of  the  elementary  and  common  schools  :  and  they 
should  always  bear  the  name,  as  they  do  in  some 
instances,  real  gymnasia,  because  they  are  the 
preparatory  schools  for  institutions  affording  to 
the  would-be  merchant,  artist,  artisan,  etc.,  ad- 
vantages like  those  offered  by  the  classical  gym- 
nasia to  the  future  theologian,  lawyer,  physician, 
etc.  The  realists  claim  that  the  gymnasium  is  a 
preparatory  school  for  the  patient  toiler  in  in- 
vestigation, giving  a  training  unfit  for  practical 
life  ;  but  that  the  real  schools  meet  this  want  by 
educating  the  boy  to  become  ^.practical  man,  not  a 
srlinlm:  They  pay  less  regard  to  verbal  knowl- 
edge, but  more  to  mathematics  and  its  appli- 
cation to  the  arts,  and  arrange  the  whole  course 
so  as  to  facilitate  the  development  of  those 
mental  habits  which  are  favorable  to  the  highest 
practical  success,  and  yet  provide  an  adequate 
intellectual  culture.  According  to  the  Prussian 
school  regulation,  their  purpose  is  to  afford  a 
scientific  preparatory  training  for  those  higher 
pursuits  which  do  not  absolutely  require  academ- 
ical studies  under  any  special  faculty.  The  Prus- 
sian government,  though  it  has  refused  to  sup- 
port these  schools,  obliging  the  towns  in  which 
they  are  located  to  maintain  them,  has  recog- 
nized their  efficiency  by  permitting,  since  1871, 
graduates  of  those  of  the  first  order  to  be  re- 
ceived into  the  different  branches  of  the  civil 
service,  and  to  be  relieved  from  military  duty, 
like  gymnasia  students,  after  one  year's  service, 
instead  of  three,  with  the  privilege  of  advance- 
ment to  the  commissioned  ranks  in  case  of  mobil- 
ization. Since  the  unification  of  the  German 
nation,  the  schools  of  this  order  in  the  different 
states  are  being  brought  to  a  standard  harmonious 
with  the  Prussian.  Those  of  northern  Germany 
are  quite  well  regulated  ;  those  of  southern  ( ler- 
many  are  slowly  but  steadily  improving. — The 
general  division  and  management  of  the  real 
schools  of  the  first  order  are  the  same  as  those  of 
the  gymnasia.  The  course  of  study  extends  over 
nine  years  and  through  six  classes.    The  average 


'  age  of  admission  is  nine  years,  and  of  discharge. 

'  eighteen.  The  attention  which  the  gymna- 
sium gives  to  the  elassieal  languages,  the  real 
school  pays  to  the  modern.  \\  bile  the  former 
schools  teach  only  French,  and  merely  enable 
the  learner  to  read  it  without  a  dictionary,  and 
to  compose  in  it  with  moderate  ease:  the  latter, 
substituting  English  for  'ireek.  give  the  learner 
a  good  knowledge  of  both  French  and  English. 
Thus,  the  same  familiarity  which  the  classical 
student  acquires  with  the  history  of  ancient  litera- 
ture, the  realist  acquires  with  modern  literature. 

I  AVhile  ancient  history  is  not  ignored,  the  events 
of  the  last  three  centuries,  and  the  political 
changes  which  brought  about  the  present  status 
of  civil  society  are  carefully  considered.  Far 
greater  attention,  also,  is  paid  to  the  exact  scien- 
ces. There  are  some  real  gymnasia  whose  students 

!  are  exempt  from  the  restrictions  put  upon  the 
graduates  of  the  real  school.  They  teach  Greek, 
though  less  of  it  than  the  classical  gymnasia, 
and  permit  the  substitution  of  a  modern  for  a 
classical  language,  in  the  last  two  years  of  the. 
course,  or,  at  least,  for  Hebrew,  which  is  an 
elective  study  in  all  the  Prussian  gymnasia.  Of 
the  real  schools  of  inferior  order,  the  so-called 
higher  burgher  school  has  a  course  extending 
through  only  seven  years,  the  prima,  or  highest 
class,  alone  requiring  two  years  ;  while  all  other 
classes  require  one  years  attendance.  The  real 
schools  of  the  second  grade  provide,  in  their 
lower  classes,  for  elementary  and  common- 
school  training.  They  also  permit  a  deviation 
from  the  regular  course,  ami  provide  for  elective 
studies,  among  which  is  Latin ;  but  some  ex- 
clude Latin  altogether.  These  schools  are 
certainly  misnamed ;  they  are,  really,  of  the 
third  grade,  and  the  higher  burgher  schools  are 
of  the  second  grade.  In  1875,  an  effort  was  be- 
gun to  modify  the  course  of  the  gymnasia  so  as 
to  admit,  of  a  choice  of  classical  or  scientific 
study,  in  order  to  do  away  with  the  real  schools; 
but  the  probability  is  that  the  last -named  schools 
will  continue  in  their  present  organic  form,  pos- 
sibly so  modifying  their  course  of  study  as  to 
ignore  the  wants  of  the  civil  service,  to  which 
hitherto  more  or  less  attention  has  been  paid, 
and  to  secure  greater  efficiency  of  training  for 
mechanical  and  commercial  pursuits.  In  Ger- 
many, there  are  now  about  Sou  real  schools  of 
the  first  order,  and  600  of  the  inferior  grade. 
In  the  German  provinces  of  Austria,  there  are 
37  of  the  first  grade,  and  about  loo  of  an  inferior 
grade.  Real  schools  have  been  generally  estab- 
lished in  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands,  and  very 
recently,  in  Russia,  where  they  are  rapidly  in- 
creasing.— See  Mager,  Diedeutsche  Burgerschule 
(Stuttgart,  1840)  ;  Loth,  Die  Reakchul-Frage 
(Leips.,  1870)  ;  Kreissio.  Ueher  h'ea/isinus  und 
Kealschulwesen  (Berl..  1872),  fair,  critical,  and 
complete;  Gaixenkamp,  Die  Reform  der  ho'he- 
ren  Lehranstatien  (Perl.,  1874)  ;  Schmidt,  Ge- 
schichte  der  P&dagogik,  vol.  n.;  and,  especially, 
Barnard,  Gerinan  Teachers  and  Educators. 
Against  their  maintenance,  see  Laas,  Gymna- 
sium und  Realschide  (Berl.,  1875). 


RECESSES 

RECESSES.      See  Hygiene,  School,  and 

Sc Management. 

RECITATION,  a  term  used  in   American 

colleges  and  win  mis,  to  denote  the  rehearsal  of  a 
lesson  by  pupils  before  their  instructor,  or  the 
repetition  of  something  committed  to  memory. 
The  maimer  in  which  the  teacher  should  con- 
duct the  daily  recitations  of  his  class  is  a  matter 
of  very  great  importance,  since  apparently  perfect 
recitations  may  be  gone  through  with  which  not 
only  have  little  educative  value,  but  may  even  be 
productive  of  positive  harm  to  the  mind  of  the 
pupil.  The  surest  guide,  in  this  respect,  is  that 
which  is  derived  from  a  consideration  of  the  es- 
sential meaning  of  the  word  education,  no  method 
of  recitation  having  any  value  which  does  not 
keep  constantly  in  view  the  development  of  the 
pupil's  mental  powers.  It  should  always  be  re- 
membered by  the  teacher  that  the  supreme  ob- 
ject of  the  recitation  is  to  accustom  the  pupil,  by 
daily  practice,  to  use  the  faculties  of  which  he 
is  possessed.  Many  a  so-called  recitation  results, 
by  too  much  explanation  on  the  part  of  the  teach- 
er, in  a  reversal  of  the  functions  of  the  teacher 
and  his  class — the  former  reciting  to  the  latter, 
instead  of  the  latter  to  the  former.  The  passive 
attitude  of  mind  in  which  pupils  listen  to  a  long 
explanation  is  the  very  attitude  from  which 
they  need  to  be  roused.  There  are  two  stages 
in  the  development  of  a  mental  power  as  pro- 
duced by  the  exercises  of  the  class  room:  (1)  the 
knowing  what  to  say;  and  (2)  the  saying  of  it. 
The  first  stage  the  pupil  is  supposed  to  have 
reached  by  the  study  of  the  lesson;  the  second, 
and  most  important  one.  is  not  passed  through 
by  the  pupil  in  the  case  above  supposed.  Of  far 
greater  service  is  it,  therefore,  to  the  pupil,  to  be 
allowed  to  state  the  result  of  his  study  in  his 
own  language,  halting  and  imperfect  though  it 
be,  than  to  compel  him  to  listen  to  an  exposition 
by  the  teacher.  Under  the  first  condition,  it  will 
be  apparent,  at  every  step,  whether  he  really 
understands  his  lesson;  and,  if  he  does,  everyday 
will  add  to  the  copiousness  of  his  vocabulary, 
and  his  ease  of  mental  action,  and  give  to  his 
recitation  its  highest  educative  result;  while, 
under  the  second — the  condition  of  a  "passive 
recipient'', — there  will  always  be  apparent  to 
every  discerning  person,  an  inexact  apprehension 
of  the  thought  presented,  a  certain  degree  of 
insincerity,  strengthened  into  a  mental  habit 
through  fear  of  ridicule,  and  mental  powers 
"rusting  in  disuse".  Even  apt  pupils,  under  such 
conditions,  will  become,  at  best,  theorists  or 
dreamers — critics,  ready  to  pass  judgment  upon 
others'  performances,  but  powerless  to  act  for 
themselves.  The  utmost  that  can  be  claimed  for 
this  method  is,  that  a  single  faculty,  that  of 
memory,  has  been  cultivated;  while  "this  culti- 
vation has  been  accomplished  not  only  by  the 
neglect,  for  the  time  being,  of  the  other  powers, 
but  at  their  expense;  since  the  pupil  is  daily  be- 
coming confirmed  in  the  idea  that  they  are 
properly  exercised,  and,  by  pursuing  all  future 
studies  in  the  same  way,  acts  to  their  permanent 
injury.     It  is  not  intended  by  this  to  diseouu- 


lUX'ITATION 


72:! 


tenance  the  explanation  of  those  difficult  points 
which  will  always  occur,  sometimes  through  a 
feebleness  of  the  pupils  understanding,  and  at. 
others  through  a  failure  of  the  textbook  to  sup- 
ply a  link  necessary  to  the  continuity  ofthought, 
Such  explanations  are  legitimate,  and  should  be 
made  in  language  suited  to  the  pupil's  compre- 
hension; the  most  thoughtful  educators  agreeing 
in  this,  that  one  of  the  gravest  errors  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  is  an  explanation  in  terms  so  un- 
familiar as  to  be  unintelligible,  or  so  as  to  leave 
on  the  mind  of  the  pupil  only  a  vague  and  un- 
satisfactory impression.  One  of  the  most  con- 
spicuous merits  of  an  able  teacher  is  his  ability 
to  explain,  in  concise  and  simple  language,  the 
difficulties  which  necessarily  beset  the  paths  of 
his  pupils.  But  it  must  always  be  borne  in 
mind  that  one  of  the  greatest  merits  of  a  recita- 
tion is  to  compel  the  pupil  to  discover  and  present 
for  himself  the  difficulties  which  he  has  encount- 
ered.— The  method  of  simultaneous  recitation  is 
open  to  the  objection  that  by  it  the  errors  of 
backward  pupils — and  those,  therefore,  who  are 
most  in  need  of  instruction — are  concealed  tinder 
the  readiness  of  the  more  forward.  The  result 
usually  anticipated  from  this  method,  i.  e.,  a 
quickening  of  the  mental  powers  of  backward 
pupils  under  the  spur  of  emulation,  does  not  ap- 
pear in  practice.  Says  an  eminent  teacher, 
"Simultaneous  recitation  may  sometimes  be  use- 
ful. A  few  questions  thus  answered  may  serve 
to  give  animation  to  a  class,  when  their  interest 
begins  to  flag;  but  that  which  may  serve  as  a 
stimulant  must  not  be  relied  on  for  nutrition. 
As  an  example  of  its  usefulness,  I  have  known  a 
rapid  reader  tamed  into  due  moderation  by 
being  put  in  companionship  with  others  of 
slower  speech,  just  as  we  tame  a  friskful  colt  by 
harnessing  him  into  a  team  of  grave  old  horses. 
I  !nt  aside  from  such  definite  purpose,  1  have  seen 
no  good  come  of  this  innovation."  Though  this 
method  is  resorted  to  often  from  necessity  in 
large  schools,  its  operation  should  be  carefully 
watched.  It  is  open.  also,  to  the  objections  com- 
mon to  all  rote  teaching,  the  answer  committed 
to  memory  from  the  book  being  never  so  sure  an 
indication  of  the  pupil's  apprehension  of  the 
meaning,  as  his  answer,  before  the  class,  in  his 
own  language.  This  latter  furnishes  not  only  an 
accurate  register  of  the  pupil's  real  progress,  but 
is  a  mental  exercise  of  the  highest  value,  since  it 
leads  to  accuracy  of  conception  and  expression, 
and  increases  the  power  of  continuous  thinking. 
(See  Concert  Teaching.) —  The  first  requisite 
for  skillfully  conducting  a  recitation  is  a  thor- 
ough preparation  by  the  teacher  for  the  partic- 
ular lesson  he  is  to  hear,  so  that  he  may  be  able 
to  follow  each  step  taken  by  the  pupil,  and  may 
stand  ready,  at  any  moment,  to  supply  the  needed 
word  in  which  the  pupil  is  striving  to  embody 
his  thought.  This  word,  in  case  the  pupil's  con- 
ception of  the  idea  is  correct,  but  its  expression 
unfamiliar,  will  usually  be  some  simple  generic 
one  for  which  the  special  or  technical  word  may. 
properly  be  substituted  by  the  teacher.  Another 
point  to  be  remembered  is  the  order  m  which  the 


i-l 


BECITATIONS 


different  parts  of  a  subject  are  presented.  Where 
these  parts  depend  upon  each  other  by  a  natural 
progression,  as  they  frequently  do,  a  skillful 
teacher  will  so  order  the  recitations  of  a  class 
that  those  parts  of  the  subject  which  are  the 
natural  stepping-stones  to  other  parts,  shall  be 
presented  first,  such  an  arrangement  conducing 
powerfully  to  a  correct  comprehension  of  the 
subject  as  a  whole.  In  some  studies — in  the 
natural  ami  exact  sciences,  almost  always — this 
method  is  absolutely  necessary;  but,  while  in 
other  branches  its  value  is  not  so  apparent,  the 
advantage  to  be  derived  from  its  adoption  is 
generally  considerable. — A  thorough  compre- 
hension by  the  pupils  of  the  subject  under  con- 
sideration will  insure  the  maintenance  of  three 
other  conditions  necessary  to  success  in  teaching, 
and  usually  quite  strenuously  insisted  on  by 
writers  on  the  subject;  namely,  animation,  at- 
tention, and  a  natural  tone.  When  pupils  under- 
stand what  they  are  reciting,  their  attention  and 
animation  are.  by  that  fact,  made  certain;  and  a 
natural  tone  is  instinctively  adopted.  In  youth, 
the  appetite  for  new  truths  is  so  eager,  the  ex- 
ultant feeling  which  accompanies  the  conquest  of 
difficulties  is  so  keen,  that  the  reflection  of  this 
in  the  voice  and  manner  of  the  pupil  is  a  matter 
of  certainty.  Indeed,  their  opposites,  —  inat- 
tention and  want  of  animation,  are  generally 
considered  by  educational  writers  as  an  indica- 
tion of  a  want  of  comprehension — as  the  sure 
test  by  which  the  teacher  may,  at  any  moment, 
judge  of  the  success  of  his  instruction.  The  length 
of  recitations  has  been  more  carefully  considered 
during  the  past  few  years  than  ever  before,  the 
weight  of  authority  having  constantly  inclined 
to  a  diminution  of  the  time  considered  proper 
for  this  purpose  only  a  generation  ago.  Currie, 
for  example,  considers  that  fifteen  minutes  is  the 
proper  medium  for  classes  of  very  young  children, 
twenty  being  the  maximum;  while  half  an  hour 
is  the  average  for  classes  generally,  the  fixing  of 
the  attention  for  a  longer  period  not  being  at- 
tended with  profit.  In  classes  of  older  children, 
ami  in  advanced  instruction,  the  time  of  recitation 
may,  of  course,  be  considerably  prolonged  beyond 
these  limits,  the  principle,  however,  being  still 
carefully  observed. — D.  P.  Page  says  on  this 
subject  :  "Asa  motive  for  every  teacher  to  study 
carefully  the  art  of  teaching  wellat  the  recitation, 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  then  and  there 
he  comes  before  his  pupils  in  a  peculiar  and 
prominent  manner;  it  is  there  his  mind  comes 
specially  in  contact  with  theirs,  and  there  that  he 
lays  in  them,  for  good  or  for  evil,  the  foundations 
of  their  mental  habits.  It  is  at  the  recitation  in 
a  peculiar  manner  that  he  makes  his  mark  upon 
their  minds;  and  as  tin-  seal  upon  the  wax,  so  his 
mental  character  upon  theirs  leaves  its  impress 
behind." — See  1).  P.  Page,  Theory  and  Practice 
of  Teaching  [N.  Y„  L854);  Currie,  Common 
School  Education,  and  Ear/i/  and.  Infant  School 
Education  (Edinburgh,  18'57);  l.t'Vu-x.  The 
Science  and  Art  of  Teaching  (Toronto,  1875); 
and  J.  P.  WickershaMj  School  Economy  (l'hila.. 
1868). 


REFORM    SCHOOLS 


REFORM  SCHOOLS,  or  Reformatories, 


claim 


of: 


ilrcn  wlio.  tnmi  various  causes — 
neglect,  early  subjection  to  evil  influences,  innate 
depravity,  etc.,  —  have  entered  upon  a  career 
of  vice  or  crime.  Such  schools  strive  not  only 
to  prevent  the  youth  from  committing  offenses 
which  must  be  dealt  with  by  law,  but  to  edu- 
cate him  so  that  his  influence  shall  be  active 
for  good.  Though  the  name  reform  school  has 
been  somewhat  loosely  applied  to  various  houses 
or  institutions  for  reclaiming  children  or  youth 
from  evil  courses, an  important  distinction  exists 
between  such  institutions  and  the  reform  school 
proper.  Notwithstanding  this  strict  definition, 
however,  the  term  will  be  used  in  this  article  to 
designate  all  institutions  whose  object  is.  In- 
active educational  means,   to  reclaim   their    in- 


this 


tmg  ( 


■ity 


and  philanthropy.   The  history  of  refi 

in  Germany  begins  with  the  iielonii.it ion,  when 
work-houses  were  established  in  Amsterdam.  Ley- 
den,  Hamburg.  Lubeck.and  other  cities,  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  occupation  to  those  who  were 
prohibited  from  vagrancy  by  laws  then  first  en- 
acted. Young  thieves  were  placed  in  the  care  of 
the  magistrate  to  receive  religious  instruction, 
and  every  work -house  was  provided  with  a  special 
department  in  which  refractory  children  were 
placed  for  discipline.  Parents  were  permitted 
to  send  there  obstinate  or  froward  children  to 
undergo  treatment,  either  gratuitously  or  for  a 
small  charge,  which  entitled  them  to  certain  priv- 
ileges. The  benevolent  movement  thus  begun 
soon  led  to  the  establishment  of  houses  of  correc- 
tion, industrial  schools,  orphan  houses,  and  kin- 
dred institutions. all  differing  somewhat  from  the 
reform  school  and  from  each  other,  but  all  spring- 
ing from  substantially  the  same  idea — the  rescue 
of  children  from  a  condition,  actual  or  prospect- 
ive, of  vice  or  crime.  The  originator  of  the  mod- 
ern reform  school  in  Germany  was  J.  1).  Falk, 
who  formed  a  society,  called  Friends  in  Need, 
which,  in  1818,  had  found  homes  for  300  chil- 
dren, to  whom  elementary  instruction  was 
given  in  religion  and  industrial  branches.  The 
institution  thus  founded  at  Weimar  was  named 
Lutherhof,  and  was  followed  by  the  establish- 
ment of  similar  ones  in  Erfurt,  Goldberg,  and 
Liiben.  Contemporaneous  with  the  institution  of 
Falk  were  those  of  ( Iverdyk  and  Diisselthal, 
founded  by  Counts  Adalbert  and  Werner  von 
der  Bicke,  which  are  still  in  existence,  and  have 
an  average  attendance  of  300  children.  There- 
form  school  of  Kcuggen.  in  the  southern  part  of 
Baden,  was  founded  in  181  (i.  It  was  the  first 
school  of  the  kind  in  southern  Germany,  and  was 
followed  by  one  in  Neuhof,  and  a  reform  school 
for  girls  in  Erlangen.  The  first  reform  school 
in  Berlin  was  opened  in  1 825,  and  has  recently 
been  very  much  enlarged.  It  is  the  model  on 
which  similar  institutions  have  been  organized  at 
Memel,  Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  Posen,  Konigs- 


REFORM    SCHOOLS 


725 


berg,  and  Stettin.  The  foundation  of  bouses  of 
correction,  however,  by  the  government,  has 
caused  the  disappearance  of  all  these  later  in- 
stitutions except  that  at  Stettin.  A  house  of 
correction  was  founded  in  Hamburg,  in  1829. 
At  the  present  time,  there  are  L2  houses  of  this 
class  in  Prussia,  3  in  Saxony.  1  in  Wurtemberg, 
1  in  Hamburg,  and  1  in  Bremen.  A  reform 
school  was  established  in  I.ichtenstein,  in  1830, 
and  another  in  Tempelhof,  in  1843 — both  in 
connection  with  the  normal  schools  iu  those 
places.  There  is  also  a  central  school  of  this 
class  at  Reutlingen.  with  7  associated  schools  or 
branches.  It  appears  that  Wiirtemberg  has 
done  more  in  this  direction  than  any  other  Ger- 
man state.  In  1867,  it  contained  32  reform 
schools :  2(i  Protestant,  5  Catholic,  and  1  Jew- 
ish, with  accommodations  for  1,067  children,  and 
an  actual  attendance  of  1,269.  Many  societies 
exist  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  neglected  chil- 
dren into  homes  and  schools,  all  of  which  work 
under  the  direction  of  a  central  coinmitl if  char- 
ity. In  Switzerland,  7  farm  and  reform  schools 
were  established  between  1810  and  1830;  from 
1830  to  1840,  L2  more  were  founded:  from  1841 
to  1846,  10  more  :  and  from  that  to  the  present 
time,  15;  so  that  now  Switzerland  lias  44  schools 
of  this  kind,  with  1,543  pupils.  In  Baden,  in 
1843,  a  Protestant  school  was  founded  at  Dur- 
lach,  and  a  Catholic  one  at  Mariahof,  the  pupils 
in  each  numbering  about  50.  The  most  cel- 
ebrated of  these  reform  schools,  however,  was 
the  Rauhes  llaus.  formed  in  Hamburg  by  J.  H. 
Wichern.  in  1833.  As  this  has  been  for  a  long 
time  a  model  for  schools  of  the  kind,  a  short  ac- 
count of  its  organization  and  management  will 
not  be  out  of  place.  In  1833,  . I.  11.  Wichern 
went,  with  his  mother,  to  live  on  a  small,  rude- 
ly cultivated  farm  near  Hamburg,  taking  with 
him,  in  accordance  with  a  vow  made  to  compan- 
ions in  a  home  missionary  society,  12  boys  gath- 


was  their  lot,  and  devotion  to  duty  their  only 
reward,  went  out  into  the  world   as  missionaries, 

particularly  among  thej r.  From  its  foundation 

to  1867,  the  Rauhes  llaus  had  received  and  edu- 
cated nearly  800  children,  the  average  annual 
attendance  being  about  120.  The  numberof  per- 
sons connected  with  the  establishment,  in  the 
year  mentioned,  was  450.  The  whole  number  of 
reform  schools  in  Germany,  in  1867,  was  354. 
The  influence  of  the  Rauhes  llaus  has  been  very 
great,  reformatory  institutions  on  the  family  plan 
having  been  established   in  Russia.  Switzerland, 

i  France,  Belgium,  Sweden,  England, and  in  many 
of  the  states  of  the  American  Union  —The  first 
reform  school-in  England  was  founded  near  Lon- 
don by  the  Philanthropic  Society,  in  1  7,«s.  This 
was  followed  by  one  in  Warwickshire,  in  1818. 
in  which  outdoor  labor  was  first  made  a  part  of 
the  training.  In  1830,  another  school  was  estab- 
lished by  Captain  i'renton,  who  believed  that  no 
person  under  the  age  of  16  should  be  sent  to 
prison.  His  institution,  however,  and  that  in 
Warwickshire  were  closed  for  want  of  support. 
In  1834,  a  reformatory  school  for  girls  was  estab- 
lished at  Chiswick,  to  which  the  name  of  The 
Victoria  Asylum  was  given.   In  1 838,  a  separate 

j  prison  was  established  at  Parkhurst  for  prisoners 
under  the  age  of  16,  the  discipline  in  which  was 
reformatory  rather  than  penal.  The  institution 
founded   by   the    Philanthropic    Society    at    St. 

G ■ge'sin  the  Fields  became,  through  lack  of 

interest  in  its  success,  ai    first  a  poor  house,  and 


aft 


Ilardw 
Saltley. 
was  pas 
in  it   to 


ercd  from  the  worst  haunts  of  vice  and  misery  in 
the  city.  The  organization  naturally  suggested 
to  him  by  the  circumstances,  was  that  of  the 
family;  his  mother  personating  the  mother  of  the 
family,  and  himself  the  father.  Here  the  boys 
r< ived  elementary  instruction,  mental  and  re- 
ligious, and  were  trained  to  labor  on  the  farm. 
The  project  attracted  general  attention;  and, from 
time  to  time,  other  cheap  houses  were  built, some 
for  boys,  and  some  for  girls,  each  to  accommodate 
about  the  same  number  of  inmates,  till,  in  time. 
the  rough  farm  was  converted  into  a  little  village 
with  its  church,  school-house,  workshops,  and 
gardens.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  "family  plan." 
since  adopted  in  reformatory  institutions  in  many 
parts  of  the  civilized  world.  The  fundamental 
idea  of  the  Rauhes  llaus.  however,  originally  pro- 
claimed and  never  lost  sight  of.  was  that  of  mis- 
sionary work  among  poor  ami  neglected  children. 
It  became  at  once  a  training  school  for  mission- 
aries. The  heads  of  families,  teachers,  overseers 
of  workshops,  deformed  a  religious  brotherhood 
known  as  the  Brotherhood  of  the  Rauhes  Haus, 
the  members  of  which,  after  serving  an  apprentice- 
ship in  this  simple  community,  where  poverty 


the  largest  reformatory  in  England. 
at  time,  schools  have  been  established  at 
•ke  Court.  Kingswood.  Stoke  harm,  and 
Iii  1854,  the  Reformatory  Schools  Act 
sed,  magistrates  being  authorized  to  corn- 
reform  schools  youths  under  16  years  of 


age,  for  not  less  than  2  nor  more  than  5  years, 
making  an  allowance  in  each  case  for  their  main- 
tenance. In  Scotland,  industrial  schools  were  es- 
tablished, at  the  same  time,  for  destitute  and 
vagrant  children  under  14  years  of  age.  In  1856, 
there  were  34  reform  schools  in  existence  in 
Great  Britain;  and.  in  I  si;;',,  then-  wen'  111  in  ex- 
istence, with  an  attendance  of  4,677,  of  whom 
1,000  were  girls.  The  English  law  divides  reform 
schools  into  two  kinds:  reform  schools  proper, 
intended  for  correction;  and  industrial  schools, 
intended  for  prevention,  admission  to  one  or  the 
other  being  determined  by  differences  in  age  and 
previous  condition  in  regard  to  crime.  In  ]>',:',, 
there  were  in  Great  Britain  45  reformatories  for 
boys,  and  20  for  girls,  with  4.424  inmates  in  the 
former,  and  1,15]  in  the  latter.  The  number  of 
industrial  schools  at  the  same  time  was  100,  with 
an  attendance  of  7,598  boys,  and  2,587  -iris.  - 
In  England  and  Scotland,  there  is  another  class 
ed  raqqedsch 's,  designed 


children  generally  boys,  and  thus  prevent  them 
from  falling  into  vice  and  crime.  The  idea  of 
such  schools  is  attributed  to  John    Pounds,  a 


7 '26 


REFORM   SCHOOLS 


poor  shoe-maker  of  Portsmouth,  who.  in  1819, 
commenced  to  gather  around  him  the  ragged 
children  of  his  district,  in  order  that  he  might 
instruct  them  as  he  sat  at  work;  and  in  this 
benevolent  task,  he  continued  till  his  death,  in 
1839.  A  mure  effective  movement  in  that  direc- 
tion was  commenced  by  Sheriff  Watson,  of  Aber- 
deen, in  which  city  a  ragged  school  was  opened 
in  1 841 :  but  there  was  a  large  Sunday-school  of 
this  kind  in  London,  in  1838;  and  the  Field 
Lane  school  was  opened  in  1843.  Through  the 
Systematic  efforts  of  the  Ragged  School  Union 
of  London,  a  large  number  of  such  schools  have 
been  established.  These  include  day  and  evening 
schools  and  Sunday-schools.  Similar  schools 
under  different  names  have  been  organized  in 
other  countries. 

In  France,  reform  schools  are  known  as  cor- 
rectional and  penitentiary  colonies.  Some  are 
founded  and  supported  entirely  by  the  state. 
others,  by  individuals,  under  government  sanction. 
The  maximum  age  is  16.  The  penitentiary  colony 
receives  children  who  have  committed  crime 
through  ignorance,  and  who  are  acquitted,  there- 
fore, from  want  of  evidence  of  criminal  intent, 
but  are  thought  to  require  special  training,  and 
young  prisoners  sentenced  for  more  than  6  months 
but  not  more  than  2  years.  The  correctional  colony 
receives  prisoners  sentenced  for  more  than  2  years, 
and  insubordinates  from  the  penitentiary  colony. 
In  L862,  there  were  36  colonies  for  boys,  and  25 
for  girls ;  the  number  of  inmates  being  6,604 
boys,  and  1,878  girls.  The  most  successful  of 
the  French  reform  schools  is  that  at  Mettray, 
founded  by  Demetz,  in  1839.  The  inmates 
are  divided  into  families  of  50;  the  average 
number  in  the  school  or  colony   being,  at  the 


present  time,  700.  Agricultural  and  mechanical 
labor  is  carried  on,  the  colony  Vicing,  in  large 
measure,  self-supporting.  Less  than  4  per  cent  of 
those  who  have  left  the  colony  have  relapsed  into 
crime.  The  success  of  the  school  is  largely  attrib- 
uted to  the  correspondence  and  supervision  kept 
up  between  it  and  the  pupils  after  they  have  left. 
The  number  of  similar  organizations  founded 
afterthe  example  of  Mettray  is  411. — In  Belgium, 
agricultural  reform  schools  exist  at  Ruysselede, 
Wynghene,  and  Beernem.  They  form  practically 
one  institution,  the  object  of  which  is  the  rec- 
lamation of  juvenile  delinquents  of  both  sexes, 
who  are  not  criminals.  —  In  the  United  States, 
the  name  usually  given  to  the  reform  school  is 
house  of  ref  ufii'.  The  oldest  institution  of  the  kind 
is  that  on  Randall's  Island.  X.Y.,  which  wasfound- 
ed  in  1825.  It  isthe  largest  reformatory  of  its  class 
in  the  United  States,  the  average  number  of  its  in- 
mates being  800.  They  are  of  both  sexes,  and  are 
sent  to  the  institution  upon  conviction  for  petty 
offenses.  Their  discipline  consists  of  daily  labor 
for  6  or  8  hours,  and  study  for  about  3  hours. 
The  period  of  detention  depends  upon  their  con- 
duct; and.  on  their  discharge,  homes  are  found  for 
the  more  deserving.  The  house  of  refuge  in  Boston 
was  opened  in  1827;  that  in  Philadelphia,  in 
the  following  year;  and  that  in  New  Orleans,  in 
1847.  The  establishment  of  reformatories  as 
state  institutions  was  first  made  in  Massachusetts, 
in  1848,  the  state  reform  school  at  Westborough 
being  then  established.  Since  that  time,  individ- 
uals, cities,  and  several  of  the  states,  have  estab- 
lished schools,  many  of  them  on  the  family  plan. 
A  list  of  such  institutions  existing  at  the  present 
time  in  the  United  States,  is  given  in  the  sub- 
joined table  : 


Reform  Schools  in  the  United  States. 


NAME 

Nation 

When 

1'nuinied 

Control 

O't         d  ('             1  ldu  trial  School 

Sa     K  an-  9co   Cal 

1858 
1870 
1854 
1863 
1871 
1874 

18(18 

1805 
1850 
Is;,  2 
1 855 
1873 
1866 
1856 
1827 

Is  74 
1851 
I860 
1870 
1848 
1863 
1861 
1856 

1 854 

Corporate 

^:,;:1::,ik,1;:;::' '^ 

Municipal 
Municipal 

n.iltiiuoiv.  Mil 

Municipal 
Corporate 

C|ty"n|    lln-tnli      VltM-ll ■    -•■-,    „  i| 

Municipal 
Municipal 

Ilmisr  til  K.'h.niKih „i  .1  u\  mil.;  Utimd./]  ^ 

Municipal 
Municipal 

Hi,::,:,     T     |-  ..HM   >■  h::Cl 

s.i Lin,  Mass 

Private 

Municipal 
Municipal 

Detroit,  Mich 

Liui-iii!.',  M icli 

St.  Paul.  Minn 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

House  oi  Refuge  

REFORMED  CHURCHES 

Reform  Schools  in  the  United  States  (continued). 


NAME. 

Location 

When 
founded 

Control 

New  Hampshire  State  [tetotin  School      

Manchester.  N.  II. 

1855 
18G7 
1871 
1857 
18G8 
18(58 
1870 
1854 
1867 
1857 
1866 
1825 
1845 
1867 
1846 
1863 
1850 
1868 
1870 
1869 
1857 
1869 

Is:,  4 
1826 
1850 
1854 
1st:: 
1S50 
1865 

stall- 

State  Industrial  School  (girls) 

l:i >Imi.  -N.  V. 

E.  New  York,  N.Y 

N.-w  York.N.  V 

Municipal 
Municipal 
Municipal 

'House  of  the  Holy  Family   ^.ssociatiou  etc.  .  .  . 

Trustees 

House  ,.f  tile  (inuil  Shepherd 

Ti.iith-  for  Fallen  and  Friendless  Girls. 

Randall's  Island,  X.  Y. '.'.'.'. 

Managers 
Corporate 

Rochester,  N.  Y 

Westchester,  N.  Y 

Municipal 
Municipal 

Cleveland,  0 

Municipal 

State 

Municipal 

Philadelphia,  Pa 

Pittsburg,  Pa..    .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.". 

Managers 

W    te,     II  ,,-.■...  Refuge 

Managers 

Municipal 

Reform  School  ol  the  District  ol  Columbia.. 

Washington,  D.C 1^7:: 

••     1869 

Trustees 

Ten  id. rial 

REFORMED  CHURCHES.— After  the  j  Olevianus.  n  disciple  of  Calvin,  and  Ursimis.  a 
rise  i  if  the  Reformation,  in  the  1 6th  century,  it  disciple  of  Melanchthon.  The  tenets  of  the  Re- 
was  for  a  time  common  to  divide  the  Protestants  formed  Church  were  also  accepted  in  Bremen, 
of  Europe  into  two  large  bodies,  the  Lutheran  '  Nassau.  Anhalt,  Lippe,  Hesse.  Cassel,  and  by  the 
Church  (q.  v.)  and  the  Reformed  Church.  The  Elector  of  Brandenburg;  but  were  never  enter- 
latter  included  all  the  ecclesiastical  organizations  tained  by  more  than  a  small  minority  oi  Ihe  ( Ser- 
which  regarded  Zwingli  and  Calvin  as  their  man  I'rotestants.  'I'hev  are  elo.-elv  allied  to  what 
earliest  and  foremost  leaders.  In  the  liriti.-h  has  been  called,  in  history.  Melanclithonian  I.u- 
Isles,  these  churches  assumed  the  name  Presby-  theranism.  The  university  of  Heidelberg  was  the 
terians  (q.v.);  and  the  name  Reformed  Churches  most  famous  school  connected  with  the  German 
was  henceforth  only  applied  to  the  churches  of  Reformed  Church.  (2)  In  Holland,  the  Reformed 
this  type  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  When  Church  became  early  the  prevailing  religion,  and 
the  Evangelical  Church  was  formed,  by  the  union  greatly  distinguished  itself  by  its  interest  in  both 
of  the  two  sister  churches  in  Prussia,  in  1817,  popular  and  university  education.  The  eager 
and  afterward  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  the  He-  choice  of  a  university,  in  preference  to  a  perpet- 
formed  Church  entered  heartily  into  the  union,  ual  annual  fair,  by  the  people  of  Leyden,  in 
ceasing  to  exist  in  name,  but  not  in  spirit  or  life.  1574,  is  a  well-known  incident.  A  free  univer- 
In  Switzerland,  the  Netherlands,  Austria,  Hun-  sity  was  also  established  at  Franeker,  in  1585. 
gary,  France,  and  Russia,  the  Reformed  Church  The  universities  of  Groningen  and  Utrecht  were 


•r  its  old  na In  the 

of  the  German  Reformed 


founded, 


continues  to  exist  un 

United  States,  offshoot 

and  Dutch  Reformed 

inent  place  among  the 

This  subject  will  'be  distributed  under  the  folio 

ing  heads:    (I)  The    Reformed    Churches  of   K 

rope;   (II)  The  Reformed  Churches  in  the  Nt 

World. 

I.  The  Reformed  Churches  of  Europe.- 
(1)  The  Reformed  Church  of  Germany  proper 
commenced  its  history  in  the  Palatinate  in  tl 
year  1563,  when  the  Elector  Frederick  publish,- 

for  the  use  of  his  scl Is  and  churches,  the  lb 

delberg  Catechism,  which  had  been  prepared  by    found  the  system 
two  professors  of  the  university  of  Heidelberg—  I  lished  in   Holland 


in    1614   and    1636.     In 
f  the  ante  Revolu 


tl,.    h: 


cause  of  education  in  Holland  was  identified 
with  that  of  Protestantism.  At  the  Synod 
of  Port  (1618 — 19),  decrees  were  passed  in 
behalf  of  education,  and  parochial  schools  were 
established  throughout  Holland.  Intelligence 
so  rapidly  increased  in  this  little  state  that  she 
was  called  compendium  orbis.  Motley  says  thai 
the  New  England  pilgrims  had  previously 
free  schools  already  estah- 
The  Reformed   Church,  as 


T-JS 


REFORMED   CHURCHES 


the  church  of  the  majority  of  the  people  and  of 
the  government,  has  exerted,  and  still  exerts,  a 
considerable  influence  upon  the  entire  educational 
system  of  the  country,  although  the  school  law 
sanctions  the  principle  of  unsectarian  instruction. 
A  theological  faculty  is  connected  with  each  of 
the  universities  of  Leyden.  I'trecht.  and  Gron- 
ingen,  which,  in  1874,  had  an  aggregate  of  10 
professors  and  about  300  students.  The  Church, 
in  1875,  had  1,340  congregations,  1, GOO  clergy- 
men, and,  in  1869,  a  population  of  1,956,593 
souls.  The  Christian  Reformed  Church,  which 
separated  from  the  state  church,  on  the  ground 
that  the  latter  was  subject  to  Rationalistic  in- 
fluences, in  1875,  had  3  in  congregations  and  240 
ministers;  and,  in  18159,  a  population  of  107,123 
souls.  This  Church  has  a  theological  seminary 
at  Kampen.  (See  Netherlands.)  (3)  InSwitz- 
erland,  the  Reformed  Church  is  still,  as  in  the 
Netherlands,  the  church  of  the  majority  of  the 
people  (about  1,500,000,  or  58  per  cent  of  the 
population),  and  is  the  state  or  national  church  in 
all  the  Protestant  cantons.  As  such,  it  is  directly 
or  indirectly  connected  with  educational  institu- 
tions of  all  grades.  (See  Switzerland.)  The- 
ological faculties  are  connected  with  the  univer- 
sities of  Zurich,  Hern.  Basel,  and  <  ieneva.  As  the 
church  is  without  self-government,  but  is  entirely 
ruled  by  the  state  authorities,  Free  Churches 
have  been  organized  in  a  number  of  cantons, 
which  have  established  theological  schools  at 
Geneva,  Lausanne,  and  Neufehatel.  (4)  In 
Austria  proper,  Hungary,  France,  and  Russia, 
the  Reformed  Church  constitutes  only  a  small 
minority  of  the  population',  but  has  been  re- 
organized and  supported  by  the  state  govern- 
ments. In  Austria  proper,  the  Reformed  popula- 
tion amounts  to  112,000  (0.51  percent);  in  Hun- 
gary, to  2,143,000  (13  per  cent);  in  France,  to 
4()7,II0(I  (1.29  percent);  and,  in  Russia,  to  about 
260,000  (0.3  per  cent).  The  school  laws  of  these 
countries  provide  for  some  kind  of  co-operation 
by  the  clergy  of  the  recognized  religions  in  all 
schools  supported  by  the  state;  and  the  theolog- 
ical schools  are,  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in 
Switzerland,  under  the  control  of  church  boards. 
The  church  of  Austria  has,  in  common  with  the 
Lutheran  Church,  an  evangelical  theological  fac- 
ulty at  Vienna;  Hungary  has  Reformed  colleges 
at  Pesth,  Saros-l'atak.  Kecskemet,  Debreczin, 
and  Nagy-Euyed  ;  France  has  a  Reformed  fac- 
ulty of  theology  at  Moutauban. 

II.  Reformed  Churches  in  the  New  World- 
There  are  two  branches  of  the  Reformed  Church 
in  the  United  States.  After  the  nationality  of 
the  colonies  in  which  they  originated,  they  were 
formerly  called  the  I  hitch  Reformed  Chureh  and 
the  German  Reformed  Church;  but,  of  late, 
both  have  changed  their  official  names,  and  the 
former  now  calls  itself  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America;  the  latter,  the  Reformed  Church  in  the 
United  States.  The  former,  in  1876,  consisted  of 
506  churches,  546  ministers,  and  about  75,000 
communicants,  anil  represented  a  population  of 
about  a  quarter  of  a  million.  The  latter  had  650 
ministers,    1.350  congregations,   and  a  member- 


ship of  150,(100,  representing  a  population  of 
about  250,000  souls,  in  the  former,  the  Dutch 
language  has.  in  all  the  old  congregations,  given 
way  to  the  English;  in  the  latter,  the  same  is  the 
case,  in  a  majority  of  the  congregations,  in  respect 
to  the  German  ;  though,  owing  to  the  extensive 
immigration  of  Germans,  the  number  of  Ger- 
man-speaking congregations  is  still  on  the  in- 
crease, and  2  of  the  6  synods  into  which  the 
church  is  divided,  4  of  the  16  periodicals,  and  2  of 
the  literary  institutions,  are  exclusively  German. 
(1)  The  Reformed  Church  in  America,  for- 
merly known  as  the  Rcformnl  Dutch  Church,  is 
the  oldest  body  of  the  Presbyterian  form  of  gov- 
ernment and  doctrine  in  the  United  States.  This 
denomination  consisted  originally  of  the  Dutch 
and  Walloon  colonies,  planted  by  the  'West  India 
Company  on  the  Hudson  and  Delaware  rivers, 
and  on  Long  Island.  The  West  India  Company 
repeatedly  promised  to  provide  and  support  min- 
isters and  school-masters  in  New  Netherlands, 
though  these  promises  were  often  forgotten.  The 
people,  at  such  times,  though  poor,  taxed  them- 
selves. School-masters  were  obliged  to  undergo 
an  examination  before  the  classes;  and  the  office 
could  not  be  assumed  voluntarily.  The  yet  un- 
published voluminous  correspondence  between 
the  Dutch  churches  in  America  and  the  parent 
church  in  Holland,  has  frequent  references  to  the 
subject  of  schools.  While  parochial  schools  in  con- 
nection with  the  Dutch  <  Lurch  have  not  become 
genera]  in  America,  nevertheless  the  church  of 
New  York  has  maintained  such  a  school  from 
1633  to  the  present  time.  (See  Dunshee,  His- 
tory of  the  School  of  the  Hutch  Reformed  Church 
of  New  York.)  A  Latin  or  high  school  was. 
also  founded  as  early  as  1659. — The  English  gov- 
ernors were  naturally  opposed  to  the  Dutch 
schools,  and  sought  to  anglicize  the  whole  popula- 
tion. It  became  increasingly  difficult,  to  secure 
ministers  from  Holland.  This  fact  forced  the 
subject  of  American  institutions  and  the  need  of 
an  American  trained  ministry  upon  the  attention 
of  the  people.  Those  who  had  been  trained  in 
the  universities  of  Europe,  thought  that  no  ade- 
quate education  could  be  provided  in  America; 
but  the  churches  must  nevertheless  be  supplied 
with  ministers.  The  debate  grew  very  warm,  and 
divided  the  church  into  parties  for  17  years.  In 
the  mean  time,  about  a  dozen  American  youths 
were  sent  to  Holland  for  education;  and  about 
as  many  were  trained  by  pastors  in  this  country 
before  1771,  when  the  denomination  became  ec- 
clesiastically independent  of  Holland.  An  effort 
was  made  (1755)  to  found  a  theological  chair  for 
the  Dutch  in  King's  (Columbia)  College,  by  an 
amendment  to  the  charter  of  that  institution} 

but  the  plan  was  not  acceptable  to  the  , pie 

A  charter  was  secured,  in  1766,  for  a  distinctive- 
ly Dutch  institution  in  New  .Jersey,  but  this  was. 
thought  to  be  un-American.  A  charter  upon 
the  most  liberal  principles,  and  capable  of  in- 
definite expansion,  was  finally  secured  (in  1771) 
for  Queen's  (Rutgers)  College,  situated  at  New 
Brunswick.  Union  College,  at  Schenectady,  was. 
also  organized,  largely  under  Dutch  patronage, 


REFORMED   CHURCHES 


729 


i  may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that  it  has  given 
ore  than  1  DO  ministers  to  the  Reformed  ( I  »utch) 
brarch.    Hope   College  was  organized  in  L863, 

Holland,  Michigan,  t.i  meet   the  necessities  of 


the 


the  college.— Efforts  were  made  ^immediately 
after  ecclesiastical  independence  I  771  i.  to  found 
a  theological  seminary.    The  Revolution  delayed 

ston,  a  graduate  of  the  University  of  (Jtrecht, 
and  the  last  of   the  American  youths  who  had 

gone  to  Holland  for  education,  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology:  and  Dr.  H.  Meyer  was 
appointed,  at  the  same  time,  professor  of  the 
sacred  languages.  In  I  si  0,  this  seminary  was  lo- 
cated permanently  at  New  Brunswick,  and  was 
united  with  Rutgers  College  until  1864.  It  has 
sent  forth  (1784—1876)  (157  ministers.  If  to 
these  be  added  27  American  youths,  educated 
here  or  elsewhere  before  1784,  and  about  50  in 
Hope  College,  we  li:i\ .  .i  total  of  7.'U  persons  edu- 
cated directly  by  this  church  for  her  own  min- 
istry, besides  those  educated  for  other  professions. 
The  Theological  Seminary  now  has  property  at 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  amounting  to  almost 
9350,000,  and  four  well-endowed  professorships. 
Hertzog  Hall  is  a  spacious  residence  for  students  : 
Suydam  Hall  contains  lecture  rooms  and  a  fully 
equipped  gymnasium  ;  and  Sage  Hall  contains  a 
library  of  about  '27.0011  volumes,  and  is  receiving 
constant  additions,  A  board  of  education  (or- 
ganized in  L828)  affords  aid  to  needy  students. 
Its  own  and  other  educational  funds  under 
the  control  of  the  denomination,  amount  to 
$160,000,  with  direct  yearly  contributions,  from 
the  churches,  of  from  $10,000  to  $15,000  more. 
(2)  The  Reformed  Church  in  live.  VhitedSt  Ut  s, 
originally  called  the  Herman  Reformed  Church. 
was  founded  by  emigrants  from  Switzerland.  Hol- 
land, and  the  Palatinate,  iu  Germany,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  last  century.     As  the  fathers  of  the 

Reformed  Church  were  accustoi 1  to  parochial 

schools  in  Germany,  when  they  emigrated  to 
this  country,  they  sought,  at  an  early  day,  to  es- 
tablish such  schools  in  connection  with  their  con- 
gregations. The  school  and  the  church  belonged 
together;  and  the  teacher,  accustomed  to  play  the 
organ  and  to  ci  induct  the  singing  in  the  sanctuary, 
was  next  in  rank  to  the  minister  in  public  esti- 
mation. The  schools,  of  course,  were  all  religious 
and  Christian,  and  in  them  the  New  Testament, 
the  psalter,  and  the  Heidelberg  catechism  were 
used  as  text-books.  This  was  generally  the  case  in 
both  branches  of  the  German  Church.  Reformed 
and  Lutheran;  but.  as  the  country  was  new  and 
many  of  the  people  poor  and  scattered,  they  were 
often  unable  to  sen  re  even  the  services  of  the 
ministers  of  the  gospel,  much  less  school-masters 
to  instruct  their  children.  Then-  was.  therefore. 
a  sad  decline,  for  a  time,  both  in  religious  and 
educational  interests.  Rutin  1746,  Rev.  Michael 
Schlatter  came  to  Pennsylvania  as  a  missionary 
under  the  direction  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
Holland,  and  proceeded  not  only  to  organize 
churches,  but  also  to  establish  schools.     He  was 


shocked  at  the  ignorance  prevailing  among  the 
young  people,  and  did  much  to  improve  their 
con.  li  l  ion,  I  lc  collected  money  in  ( Germany,  Hol- 
land, and  England  for  the  establishment  of 
schools  and  the  support  of  teachers,  in  which 
good  work  he  was  assisted  by  the  authorities  of 
the  province  and  many  patriotic  citizens.  In  many 
places  he  succeded  in  building  up  schools  which 
continued  to  nourish  for  a  long  time,  and  hence 
may  be  regarded  as  the  first  superintendent  of 
public  instruction  in  the  state.  In  1787,  the 
legislature  of  Pennsylvania  granted  a  charter  for 
the  establishment  of  Franklin  College,  at  Lan- 
caster. Pa.,  and,  in  addition,  made  a  grant  of 
10.000  acres  for  this  object  from  the  public 
domain;  which  grant,  although  at  tirst  more  ex- 
pensive than  profitable,  became  in  the  course  of 
time  valuable.  The  project  originated  with  a  num- 
ber of  reputable  citizens  of  Herman  extraction  ; 
and.  as  it  was  intended  more  particularly  for  the 
benefit  of  the  Herman  population,  "through  whose 
industry  and  patriotic  services  the  state  had 
arisen  to  such  a  high  degree  of  prosperity, "  it  was 
in  effect  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  people.  It  excited  considerable  in- 
terest at  the  time  and  enlisted  the  warmest 
sympathies  of  such  patriots  as  Rush  and  Frank- 
lin, of  Philadelphia.  It  received  its  name  from 
the  latter,  who  was  president  of  the  state.  In- 
tended from  the  tirst  to  be  an  institution  of  a 
high  order,  .something  like  a  German  university. 


the  free-school  system  when  it  was  tirst  broached 
in  Pennsylvania,  because  it  did  not  make  ad- 
equate provision  for  the  religious  education  of 
youth,  seeming  to  eliminate  the  religious  ele- 
ment altogether.  They  were,  from  the  beginning, 
supporters  of  parochial  schools,  and  were  then, 
as  they  are  still,  wedded  to  the  idea  that  educa- 
tion and  religion  ought  to  go  together.  They 
yielded  at  last  in  their  opposition,  because  com- 
mon schools  seemed  to  be  the  best  that  could  be 
had  under  the  circumstances.  Their  German  gov- 
ernors, Wolf  and  Ritner,  the  one  of  Lutheran  and 
the  other  of  Reformed  persuasion,  under  whose 
administration,  and  by  whose  support,  the  pres- 
ent free-school  system  was  introduced  into  the 
state,  had  much  to  do  in  reconciling  them  to  the 
new  order  of  things.  With  the  consolidation  of 
this  system,  the  old  parochial  schools,  in  a  gnat 
measure,  passed  away.  As  far  as  the  Reformed 
Church  is  concerned,  however,  it  may  be  said. 
that  while  it  supports  public  schools  as  a  ne- 
cessity and  a  great  public  benefit,  it  would  gener- 
ally p refer  a  system  of  parochial  schools,  if  they 
could  be  maintained  in  a  flourishing  condition. 
It  may  also  he  said,  judging  from  some  of  the 
recent  ecclesiastical  utterances,  that  it  is  probable 
the  church  will  yet  revive  these  schools  in  some 
degree,  not  iii  opposition  to  the  public  schools, 
but  to  serve  as  their  proper  supplement,  and  as 
a  vindication  of  the  theory  of  Christian  edu- 
cation. 


730         REFORMED    CHURCHES 

In  the  year  1825,  the  Synod  of  the  German 
Reformed  Church,  in  order  to  increase  and  im- 
prove the  character  of  its  ministry,  established 
a  theological  seminary  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  under  the 
charge  of  Dr.  Lewis  Mayer,  in  close  connection 
with  hii'kinson  College:  but.  as  the  seminary 
was  removed  to  York,  Pa.,  in  1829,  it  soon  be- 
came evident,  that,  in  order  to  give  it  the  neces- 
sary efficiency,  a  classical  school  was  needed.  Such 
a  school  was,  therefore,  established  in  connec- 
tion with  the  seminary  ;  and,  under  the  care  of 
Dr.  Frederick  Augustus  Rauch.  a  ripe  scholar 
from  the  father-land,  who  took  charge  of  it  in 
1832,  and  Prof.  Samuel  \V.  Budd,a  graduate  of 
Princeton  College,  it  flourished,  and  accomplished, 
for  the  time  being,  the  work  of  a  college  for  the 
Church.  In  the  fall  of  1835,  it  was  removed  to 
Mercersburg,  Pa.,  where,  having  received  a  charter 
from  the  legislature,  it  was  converted  into  a  reg- 
ular college,  under  the  name  and  title  of  Mar- 
shall College.  Dr.  Rauch  was  its  first  president; 
and  to  him  it  owes  its  German- American  charac- 
ter, that  of  an  American  institution  pervaded  with 
the  spirit  of  German  science  and  literature.  In 
the  year  1841,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-five,  he 
died,  in  the  midst  of  his  rising  fame,  deeply  la- 
mented by  all  who  knew  him.  Dr.  Ranch's  place 
in  the  college  was  ably  filled  by  the  Rev.  John 
Williamson  Xevin,  from  the  year  1841  to  1853, 
■who  during  the  same  time  served  as  the  regular 
professor  of  theology  in  the  seminary,  which  had 
been  removed  to  Mercersburg  soon  after  the  re- 
moval of  the  high  school.  Dr.  Nevin  labored  to 
promote  the  interests  of  the  college  with  much 
energy  and  self-sacrifice,  and  gave  it  a  national 
reputation;  but,  whilst  it  flourished  internally, 
and  performed  important  service  in  the  cans,.. 
of  education,  letters,  and  sound  learning,  it  suf- 
fered from  the  want  of  an  adequate  endow- 
ment, which  at  times  made  even  its  permanence  as 
an  institution  problematical.  Accordingly,  when 
the  trustees  of  old  Franklin  College,  at  Lancaster, 
which  had  an  endowment  of  over  $50,000,  but 
was  without  college  classes  or  college  arrange- 
ments, proposed  to  unite  the  two  institutions, the 
proposition  was  favorably  received;  and  they 
were  consolidated  by  an  act  of  the  legislature, 
under  the  name  of  Franklin  and  Marshall  Col- 
lege. This  arrangement  went  into  operation  iu 
1853,  since  which  time  the  college  has  pursued 
a  successful  career  in  the  midst  of  a  large  ( lerman- 
American  population,  upon  whom  it  has  acted  as 
an  educational  stimulant  with  greater  influence, 
perhaps,  than  any  purely  American  institution 
could  have  exerted.  The  German  language  is  a 
regular  branch  of  study,  as  much  so  as  Latin  and 
Greek.  In  its  philosophical  course.the  college  seeks, 
in  accordance  with  the  idea  of  its  first  president. 
Dr.  Rauch,  to  unite  the  practical  spirit  of  this 
country  and  England  with  the  speculative  and 
idealistic  tendencies  of  the  father-laud.  At  the 
same  time,  much  stress  is  laid  on  the  religious 
training  of  the  students.  To  accomplish  this  ob- 
ject, the  students  and  the  families  of  the  professors, 
in  the  seminary  and  college,  are  organized  into  a 
regular  congregation  under  the  direction  of  classes. 


REGENTS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY 

The  students  serve  as  deacons  and  elders;  and  the 
professors — such  as  are  clergymen,  as  pastors. 
Collections  are  taken  up  for  benevolent  purposes 
every  Sabbath,  and  students  are  prepared  for 
confirmation  yearly  by  a  course  of  catechetical 
lectures.  The  college  has,  thus  far,  performed  a 
very  important  service  for  the  cause  of  education 
among  a  large  and  intelligent  class  of  people.  1  're- 
vious  to  its  organization,  in  1835,  comparatively 
few  young  men  of  German  extraction  went  to 
college  at  all;  and  but  few  of  the  German-Amer- 
icans, even  in  the  ministry,  had  enjoyed  the  ben- 
efit of  a  classical  training.  Now  college  graduates 
from  this  source,  filling  important  positions  in 
society,  are  counted  by  scores  or  hundreds.  Many 
of  them,  in  turn,  have  been  active  in  founding 
other  colleges  and  classical  schools  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  'I  he  Reformed  Synod  of  ( Uiio 
has  a  flourishing  literary  (Heidi  /'■■  rg  '  Megt  ,q.v.) 
and  theological  institution  at  Tiffin,  I  Ihio.  Mer- 
cersburg College,  which  grew  out  of  a  high  school 
that  was  established  after  the  removal  of  Mar- 
shall College  to  Lancaster,  is  a  young  and  vigor- 
ous institution.  Jt  is  the  child  of  the  Mercersburg 
Classis.  Catawba  College. at  New  ton,  N.<  '..under 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  North  Carolina  Classis, 
although  it  suffered  ninth  in  the  loss  of  its  en- 
dowment during  the  war.  has  been  revived,  and 
shows  signs  of  returning  prosperity.  Palatinate 
College,  at  Myerstown.  Pa.,  carries  its  students 
as  far  as  the  junior  class.  It  is  located  in  a 
populous  German  section  of  the  state,  and  is  per- 
i.,i  ming  a  good  work.  It  is  also  a  church  insti- 
tution, and  is  owned  by  the  I  ebanon  Classis. 
Ursinus  College  (q.  v.),  at  Collegeville,  Mont- 
gomery Co.,  Pa.,  was  opened  a  few  years  ago.  by 
the  Rev.  J.  II.  A.  Boinberger,  and  others  who 
sympathized  with  him  in  his  theological  tenden- 
cies. It  has  manifest.. I  considerable  energy,  but 
is  not  under  any  direct  ecclesiastical  control. 
Clarion  Collegiate  Institute,  at  Rimersburg.  Pa., 
and  Blairstown  Academy.  Blairstown,  Iowa,  are 
classical  high  schools,  established  by  the  classes 
within  whose  bounds  they  are  located.  The  for- 
eign German  population  of  the  Church  have  two 
institutions  under  their  care  :  Calvin  Institute, 
at  Cleveland.  Ohio:  and  the  Mission  House,  at 
Howard's  Grove.  Wis.  The  one  is  a  classical 
school ;  and  the  other,  a  theological  seminary. — 
While  the  growth  of  institutions  for  the  educa- 
tion of  young  men  has  been  encouraged,  female 
education  has  not  been  overlooked  in  the  Re- 
formed Church.  The  East  Pennsylvania  <  lassifl 
has  established  the  Allentown  Female  Seminary, 
at  Allentown,  Pa.,  under  the  presidency  of 
Rev.  W.  R.  Hofford,  A.  M.  In  the  Maryland 
Classis,  Rev.  Geo.  I,.  Staley  has  a  seminary  of 
a  high  order,  for  females,  at  Knoxville,  Md. ; 
Rev.  J.  Hassler  A.  \L.  has  another  at  Mercers- 
burg, Pa.;  and  Lev.  Lucian  Cort,  A.  M..  has  also 
the  management  of  one  at  Greensburg,  Pa.  These 
institutions  are.  at  present,  in  a  thriving  condition 
and  give  promise  of  being  well  patronized  by  the 
people  of  the  Reformed  Church. 

REGENTS     OF    THE    UNIVERSITY. 
See   New   York. 


RELIGIOUS   EDUCATION 

RELIGIOUS  EDUCATION  is  that  which 
as  for  its  special  object  the  cultivation  of  that 
iculty  of  the  human  soul  by  means  of  which  it 

enabled  to  realize  the  existence  and  constant 
resence  of  the  Deity.to  know  Him,  and  to  com- 
iune  with  llim  in  worship  and  prayer.  Some 
live  designated  this  tin-  rrli./intis  sat'/i/io'iit ;  but 


degrees  of  culture,  shows  that  there  are  what 
may  be  called  religious  intuitions,  common  to  all 
minds  of  whatever  grade  of  development  ;  but 
that  while  these  may  prompt  to  worship,  yet, 
without  religious  instruction,  they  can  lead  only 
fci  superstitious  and  debasing  practices.  The  re- 
ligious or  spiritual  instinct  does  not  necessarily 
involve  any  act  of  the  intellect ;  for  those  whose 
intellectual  education  and  endowments  are  quite 
inferior,  often  show  a  surprising  degree  of  spirit- 
ual insight  and  religious  fervor.  This  fact,  how- 
ever, does  not  supersede  the  necessity  of  appeal- 
ing to  the  understanding  in  imparting  a  knowl- 
edge of  those  religious  "truths  which  have  been 
communicated  by  divine  revelation  ;  but,  in  re- 
ceiving these  truths,  the  intellect  assumes  the 
attitude  of  faith  rather  than  of  inquiry  ;  that  is 
to  say.  having  become  satisfied  of  the  authentici- 
ty, or  the  authority,  of  the  source  whence  these 
truths,  or  dogmatic  teachings  emanate,  it  does 
not  exercise  its  powers  to  establish  their  validity. 
but  only  to  conceive  them  in  their  true  import 
ami  relations.  Hence,  the  intellect,  is  not  to  be 
cultivated  by  means  of  religious  instruction;  al- 
though its  exercise  cannot  wholly  be  dispensed 
with.  The  specific  office  of  religious  education 
is  thus  twofold:  (1)  to  cultivate  the  religious 
instincts;  and  (2)  to  impart  religious  truth.  The 
one  is  acconi] dishc.  1  by  means  of  devotional  exer- 
cises ;  the  other,  by  dogmatic  teachings.  —In  the 
first  stages  of  religious  education,  appropriate 
exercises  constitute  almost  the  only  agency 
needed,  nothing  but  the  simplest  religious  truths 
being  requisite  (such  as  are  usually  contained  in 
the  catechism);  but,  in  the  more  advanced  period 
of  culture,  the  importance  of  dogmatic  instruction 
increases.  Simple  prayers  and  hymns,  with  just 
enough  teaching  to  enable  the  child  to  realize 
their"  full  significance,  are  the  usual  and  the 
most  effective  means  of  exercising  the  religious 
faculty.  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind, 
that  the  mere  saying  of  a  prayer,  or  the  singing 
of  a  hymn,  will  not  necessarily  give  this  exercise. 
any  more  than  merely  committing  to  memory  a 
definition  or  a  rule  will  exercise  the  intellect.  The 
mechanical  repetition  of  prayers,  in  religious 
education,  is  just  as  useless  as  rote-teaching  in 
intellectual  education.  By  an  inattention  to  this 
principle  on  the  part  of  parents  and  religious 
teachers,  no  doubt,  many  children  become  dis- 
gusted with  religious  devotion,  while  others 
imbibe  the  notion  that  religion  is  only  a  matter 
of  forms  and  ceremonies,  or  the  repeating  of 
the  catechism.  In  either  case,  the  religious  in- 
stinct becomes   dormant   for  the  want  of  due 


KKICIII.IN 


Vol 


The  relation  of  moral  and  religious  education 
should  be  carefully  studied.  In  brief,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  former  deals  with  the  relations 
which  mankind  sustain  to  each  other;  and  the 
latter,  with  those  which  man  as  a  spiritual  being 
sustains  to  the  Infinite  Spirit,  the  Creator  and 
Preserver  of  all  things.  In  the  one,  the  principle 
addressed  is  thai  of  conscience  (q.  v.),  the  sense 
of  right  ;  in  the  otlier.it  is  the  religious  principle, 
the  spiritual  instinct,  by  which  man  is  brought 
into  communion  with  his  Maker.  (See  Moral 
Eoucation.)  In  a  certain  sense,  these  two  de- 
partments of  education  are  independent;  for 
conscience  operates  independently  of  religion  ; 
but  a  religious  sanction  is  the  strongest  founda- 
tion for  moral  precepts.  For  this,  the  Christian 
revelation  affords  the  fullest  authority,  the  "first 
and  great  commandment"  being  to  love  God ; 
and  the  second,  "to  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself." 
The  several  departments  of  education  are  not  to 
be  divorced  from  one  another,  but  all  are  to  be 
carried  on  together,  so  as  to  produce  a  harmonious 
development  of  character.  (See  Harmony  of  De- 
velopment.)—In  imparting  religious  instruction, 
the  same  principles  arc  to  be  applied  as  in  intel- 
lectual education,  as  far  as  language  is  the  vehicle 
of  the  instruction.  Very  much  of  the  religious 
teaching  given  in  the  Sunday-school  is  of  no 
value,  because  of  the  neglect  to  observe  these  prin- 
ciples. Committing  to  memory  formulated  dog- 
mas, verses  from  the  Kiblc. doctrinal  Ic.-m.iis.  etc.. 


most  important  part  m  this  kind  of  teaching; 
and  Bible  expositions,  when  clear,  definite,  and 
illustrative,  always  prove  the  most  effective  as 
well  as  the  most  attractive  means  of  instruction. 
— The  questions  as  to  the  relation  of  religious  and 
secular  instruction  are  considered  in  the  article 
on  Denominational  Schools. — (See  also  Bible. 

REUCHLIN,    John,  one  of  the  foremost 

representatives  ami  promoters  of  classical  studies 
in  the  1  :~>th  and  Kith  centuries,  was  born  at  Pforz- 
heim, in  I4.">5,  and  died  at  Stuttgart,  June  30., 
1522.  His  lectures  on  Greek  authors,  delivered 
at  the  university  of  Basel,  are  regarded  as 
the  first  of  the  kind.  He  disagreed  with  Eras- 
mus in  regard  to  the  true  pronounciation  of 
Greek,  and  those  who  adopted  his  views,  were 
called  Iteuchlinists.  (See  Greek  Language.)  The 
Hebrew  grammar,  published  l>v  him  in  1506,, 
under  the  title  Rudimenta  Hebraicce  Linguae, 
was  largely  instrumental  in  introducing  the 
study  of  this  language  into  the  sphere  ol  ordi- 


titioncl  to  order  all  the  books  of  the  .lews  de- 
stroyed except  the  Old  Testament.  Ileuehliii  was 
directed  by  the  Elector  of  Mayence  to  declare 
what  should  be  done  in  the  matter.  He  decided 
that  only  those  books  that  directly  attacked 
Christianity  should  be  destroyed.  He  was  now 
subjected  to  active  persecutions.    His  enemies 


732 


REWARDS 


declared  him  to  be  a  heretic,  and  accused  him  of 
being  secretly  inclined  to  Judaism.  He  was  tried 
by  Hoogstraaten,  at  Mayence,  and  his  writings 
were  condemned  to  the  flames.  He  appealed  to 
the  Pope;  and  the  case  was  referred  to  the  Bishop 
of  Spiic,  who  decided  in  Reuchlin's  favor.  Au 
appeal  from  this  decision  was  taken  to  Hume. 
but  was  never  directly  acted  upon.  A  league  of 
Reuchliuists  (so  called)  was  formed  to  take  the 
part  of  Reuchlin.  It  assumed  the  champion- 
ship of  the  cause  of  classical  learning,  as  opposed 
to  the  scholasticism  which  had  prevailed,  and  en- 
listed the  co-operation  of  many  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished men  <>f  Germany.  In  1519,  Franz 
von  Sickingen  ordered  the  Dominicans  to  make 
good  to  Reuchlin  all  the  costs  of  court  which 
lie  had  incurred  in  consequence  of  their  pro- 
ceedings against  him,  and  to  give  security 
against  his  further  prosecution ;  and  they  did 
so.  In  1520.  Reuchlin  read  lectures  at  Ingol- 
stadt,  under  the  patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Ba- 
varia, on  Hebrew  grammar  and  the  /'/»/«.<  of 
Aristophanes,  to  more  than  three  hundred  hear- 
ers. A  few  months  before  his  death,  he  was 
invited  to  teach  Hebrew  and  the  <! reek  gram- 
mar in  the  university  of  Tubingen. 

REWAUDS,  as  an  instrument  of  family  or 
school  discipline,  are  benefits  or  privileges  con- 
ferred to  incite  children  to  well-doing.  Primarily, 
the  offer  of  a  reward,  as  an  incitement  to  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  pupil,  appeals  to  hqir,  as  pun- 
ishment does  to/ear  (q.  v.):  but  there  are  other 
elements  of  individual  character  also  addressed. 
depending  on  (1)  the  nature  of  the  reward  of- 
fered, and  ('_')  the  individuality  of  the  pupil. 
Thus,  the  pupil  who  is  particularly  fond  of  praise, 
if  offered  a  valuable  gift  as  an  inducement  to  do 
right,  would  strive  to  obtain  it  as  a  striking 
token  of  his  teacher's  approval:  while  one  who 
was  naturally  acquisitive,  or  eager  for  gain, 
would  regard  only  the  intrinsic  value  of  the 
reward.  Hence,  in  one  ea-e.  the  pupil's  approba- 
tiveness  would  be  stimulated;  and.  in  the  other, 
his  acquisitiveness;  but  in  neither  would  the 
sense  of  duty  be  cultivated.  The  necessity  of  ex- 
ercising great  care  in  offering  rewards  will, 
therefore,  be  obvious.  While  an  appeal  to  hope 
as  an  incentive  to  do  right,  is  in  most  cases,  if 
not  always,  preferable  to  an  appeal  to  fear:  yet, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  rewards  as  well  as 
punishments  constitute  only  a  temporary  expe- 
dient in  the  discipline  of  children,  and  should,  as 
soon  as  possible,  give  place  to  a  direct  appeal  to 
conscience,  or  the  sense  of  right.  [See  Con- 
science.) When  rewards  are  offered  to  a  number 
of  pupils,  to  be  conferred  upon  those  who  excel 
all  the  others,  they  become  /irizes,  and  are  liable 
to  all  the  objections  which  have  been  urged 
against  the  prize  system  ;  but  when  rewards 
[premiums),  whether  gifts  of  money, books, pict- 
ures, or  other  articles  of  value,  or  merely  tickets 
or  certificates  <>f  merit,  are  offered  to  all  who 
reach  a  certain  specified  standard  of  merit,  either 
in  study  or  behavior,  these  objections  are  ob- 
viated; as,  although  the  mercenary  spirit  may 
still  be  addressed,  there  is  not  the  same  liability 


to  injustice,  or  the  same  cause  of  envy  and 
jealousy.  Rewards  may.  however,  consist  merely 
of  special  privileges  conferred  upon  meritorious 
pupils:  such  as  dismissal  before  the  usual  time 
for  closing  school,  permission  to  occupy  some  post 
of  honor  or  authority  in  connection  with  the 
management  of  the  school  or  class,  or  to  engage 
in  some  special  sport  or  recreation  planned  by  the 
teacher,  as  a  means  of  encouraging  well-doing. 
All  these,  doubtless,  have  their  place  in  a  proper 
scheme  of  school  discipline ;  and,  when  used 
with  discrimination,  are  beneficial. — A  system  of 
rewards  has  been  objected  to  as  appealing  to  the 
lower,  rather  than  to  the  higher,  motives;  but  an 
educator  must  not  be  led  astray  by  any  tran- 
scendental view  of  human  nature.  He  must  rec- 
ognize the  moral  imperfections  of  his  pupil,  and 

i  strive  to  lift  him  gradually  to  a  higher  plane  of 
thought  and  action.  In  this  connection,  it  has 
been  properly  remarked,  "whatever  may  be  pos- 
sible in  the  mature  man,  in  the  line  of  that  sub- 
lime abstraction,  virtue  is  its  own  reward,  the 
child  is  neither  equal  to  such  abstractions,  nor 
are  they  demanded  of  him.  They  may,  it  is  true, 
be  gradually  wrought  by  instruction  into  the 
body  of  his  thought,  for  the  sake  of  their  ulti- 
mate effect  on  his  principles  as  a  man:  but.  em- 
braced, as  he  is.  in  a  world  of  perceived  realities, 
and  only  capable  of  attaining  the  subtler  ideals 
by  passing  to  them  through  the  fine  gradations 
of  a  progressively  reducei  I  and  sublimated  reality, 
it  is  absurd  and  tyrannous  to  rob  him  of  the 
stimulus,  guidance,  and  aid  of  proper  rewards  as 
outward  realities  foreshadowing  the  ideal  of 
absolute  virtue,  ami  rendering  possible  both  its 
conception  and  attainment.''  —  See  Jewell, 
School  Government  (New  York.  1866);  Mor- 
rison,  Manual  of  School  Management,  s.  v. 
Disri iilii ,<•  1 5th  eii.,  (ilasgow,  1874). 

RHETORIC  (Gr.  faropin^,  art  of  oratory) 
was  originally  applied  to  that  branch  of  study  in 
which  students  were   trained   for  public  speak- 

,  ing.  In  Greece  and  Rome,  the  orator  was  di- 
rectly the  most  powerful  exponent  of  truth  and 
opinion.  As  a  teacher,  as  well  as  a  persuader, 
his  influence  was.  to  a  great  extent,  confined  to 
his  hearers;  and  eloquence  was.  therefore,  in  the 
greatest  request.  But.  even  in  the  writings  of 
the  three  greatest  of  the  ancient  rhetoricians, — 
Aristotle,  Cicero,  Quintilian,  there  is  evidence 
that  rhetoric  embraced  compositions  not  intended 
for  delivery  in  public.  In  modem  times,  rhet- 
oric as  an  art  treats  of  all  composition,  whether 
spoken  or  written.  It  has  been  well  defined  as 
the  art  of  discourse,  and  discourse  itself  as  "  the 
capacity  in  man  of  communicating  his  mental 
states  to  other  minds  by  means  of  language."  It 
embraces  poetry  as  well  as  prose  "  because."  as 
Campbell  says,  "the  same  medium,  language, 
is  made  use  of;  the  same  general  rules  of  com- 
position, in  narration,  description,  and  argumen- 
tation, are  observed;  and  the  same  tropes  and 
figures,  either  for  beautifying  or  invigorating 
the  diction,  are  employed  by  both.  The  versifi- 
cation is  to  be  considered  as  an  appendage  rather 
than   a   constituent  of  poetry."     In   the  most 


■cent  treatises  on  rhetoric1,  elocution,  or  the  art 
5  delivery,  has  been  omitted.  Day  very  justly 
ivs,  "thai  this  mode  of  communication  is  not 


pressioii  of  thought,  is  imt,  ao-ordinglv,  a  ne.vs- 
Sary  part  of  rhetoric."  In  Whately's  treatise 
[Elements  of  Rhetoric),  however,  a  work  con- 
siderably used  by  students,  a  large  part  is  de- 
voted to  elocution. — It  has  often  been  observed 
that  there  must  have  been  orators  before  there 
were  rules  in  oratory  ;  and  this  is  often  used  as 
an  argument  for  undervaluing  the  study  of  rhet- 
oric, just  as  kindred  arguments  are  advanced 
against  the  study  of  logic  and  grammar.  But 
there  can  be  no  question  that  immense  progress 
has  been  made  through  the  critical   study   of 


OBIC  733 

these  two  divisions,  the  second  is  dependent  on 
the  first.  In  a  cyclopaedia,  where  the  span'  is 
necessarily  limited,  it  will  not  be  expected  that 


ire  is  ii"  dispute  as 
hetoric  as  an  art,  it 
whether  it  ran  be 


wit- 


to  emulate.  In  its  best  sense,  rhetoric  presup- 
poses an  acquaintance  with  logic — the  science 
anil  art  of  reasoning:  because  conviction  and 
persuasion  are  two  of  the  great  objects  present 
in  the  minds  of  speakers  and  writers.   It  also  re- 

ing  the  proper  arrangement  of  words  and  sen- 
tences. Rhetoric  may  be  regarded  from  two  points 
of  view:  (1)  as  a  purely  critical  study;  and 
(2)  as  the  constant  practice  of  an  art.  To  the 
extent  that  either  of  these  views  becomes  more 
prominent  in  the  teacher's  mind,  will  the 
character  of  his  instruction  be  affected.  It  is 
quite  possible  to  prepare  students  to  recite  well 
in  the  statement  of  principles  ami  definitions; 
and  yet  the  same  students  may  be  veiy  deficient 
in  the  development  or  expression  of  spoken  or 
written  thought.  The  condition  of  such  stu- 
dents may  lead  us  to  say  with  Butler : 


In  the  celebrated  treatise  of  Blair,  Lectures  on 
Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lett  res,  taste  and  style  arc- 
so  treated  as  to  occupy  a  very  large  part  of 
the  subject.  It  is  largely  so  with  Campbell's 
Philosophy  of  Rhetoric.  Whately  drew  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  subject  of  invention  ; 
but  he  follows  style  with  a  chapter  on  elocution. 
The  practice,  at  present,  which  seems  to  be  in- 
creasing in  favor  with  teachers,  is  to  omit  elocu- 
tion, or  the  trainiug  in  mere  delivery,  and  to  ex- 
tend the  importance  of  invention  even  beyond 
that  assigned  to  it  by  Whately.  The  two  great 
divisions  of  rhetoric  are  thus  invention  and 
style.  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  im- 
portance of  invention  in  rhetoric.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  thoughts  according  to  their  logical 
dependence  must  be  the  foundation  of  the 
art  of  discourse.  Good  thinking  must  always 
precede  good  writing.  The  office  of  invention 
is  to  train  the  pupil  to  habits  of  correct  think- 
ing. It  does  more  than  this ;  it  seeks  to  sup- 
ply the  thought.  Thus,  invention  is  naturally 
divided  into  two  parts, — the  supplying  of  the 
thought,   aud  its  proper  arrangement  ;    and  of 


this  again  dc 
of  mind.  T 
art   of   influ 


truths 
insist) 
alwav. 


Hands  some   considerable  maturity 

ic  preparation  of  argu nts,  or  the 

nc  ing  the  will  by  discourse,  is  a 
ivelopmenf  of  which  goes  on  past 
but  it   is  a   power  that  cannot  be 

rai 1   in   very   early    years.     The 

in  teaching  this  particular  division 
that  it  may  be  made  too  ,-ciciil  ilic. 
r  young  minds  so  trained,  or  of  such 
as  to  be  capable  of  dwelling  long, 
ic-tit,  upon  even  well  enunciated 
lefiiiitions;  but.  even  where  it  is 
ind  continued,  the  results  are  not 
rial. 


Pe 


d  division  of  rhetoric — style 
larly  with  the  form  of  the 
no  word  has  given  more  dif- 
ficulty to  define.  Without  speech,  "  thought  is 
not  possible  in  reality."  Though  so  endlessly 
variable  in  its  form,  so  subtle  as  almost  to  defy 
minute  analysis,  so  subject  to  the  moods  of 
thought,  and  yet  so  plastic  as  to  conform  to  its 
most  sinuous  and  involved  movements,  we  soon 
realize  by  a  little  study,  how  completely  it  is  a 
part  of  the  thinking.  The  thought  and  the 
style  are  thus  seen  to  be  one  living  body.  Asa 
subject  of  study,  it  is  that  part  of  rhetoric  which 
has  always  created  and  maintained  the  gn  atesl 
interest  in  the  minds  of  young  students.  Treat- 
ing of  the  form  of  the  sentence,  and  also  of  its 
component  words,  it  depends,  to  some  extent,  on 
grammar,  and  may  be  said  to  follow  it.  in  a  nat- 
ural order  of  study.  It  is,  therefore,  to  young 
minds  more  suitable  than  the  other  division — 
invention.  The  practice  which  it  requires  in 
the  substitution  of  words,  the  inversion  of  sen- 
tences from  grammatical  to  rhetorical  forms, 
the  use  of  rhetorical  figures,  the  expansion  and 
contraction  of  language,  furnishes  a  constant 
stimulus  to  mental  exertion.  Such  exercises  in 
style  show  the  student  how  powerfully  the  thought 
is"  influenced  by  the  vehicle  of  thought,  how  it 
may  be  modified  by  the  substitution  of  a  clearer 
word,  or  remarkably  affected  by  a  different 
position  of  the  same  words. 

The  advantage  of  sentential  analysis  in  the 
careful  study  of  style  can  scarcely  be  overrated. 
The  arrangement  of  words,  phrases,  and  clauses, 
peculiar  to  the  great  English  writers,  affect  most 
powerfully  the  turn  of  the  thought,  and  are  open 
to  investigation  through  this  analysis.  The 
kind  of  sentences  they  use,  aud  the  variety  iu 


734 


RHETORIC 


which  they  indulge,  give  that  harmony  of  move- 
ment »i  indescribably  pleasing.  We.  thus,  av 
from  what  arise  the  clearness  and  greatness  of 
Hume,  the  energy  and  brilliancy  of  Macaulay, 
the  L'nice  of  Irving,  the  manly  vigor  of  Sydney 
Smith,  the  philosophic  calmness  of  Helps,  the 
incomparable  plasticity  and  fire  of  Byron's  prose. 
Perhaps  no  part  of  rhetoric  offers  a  finer  field 
for  both  teacher  and  student  than  the  application 
of  sentential  analysis  to  an  investigation  of  the 
striking  peculiarities  in  the  style  of  great -writers. 
■  — In  no  branch  of  study,  is  there  greater  necessity 
for  abundance  of  practice  on  the  part  of  the 
student.  In  none  is  there  greater  necessity  that 
the  student,  and  not  the  teacher,  should  do  the 
chief  part  of  the  work.  The  value  of  rhetoric, 
as  a  branch  of  study,  is  to  be  tested  by  its  prac- 
tical utility,  by  what  it  contributes  towards  de- 
veloping clearness,  force,  and  beauty  of  expression 
in  language.  Any  tiling  els-,  however  scientific. 
in  this  branch  must  prove  to  the  young  student 
a  comparatively  barren  and  irksome  task.  In 
this  light,  the  constant  application  of  a  few 
simple  principles  to  the  criticism  of  great  writers 
is  an  admirable  part  of  the  training.  In  Blair's 
Lectures  on  Rhetoric,  there  is  a  series  of  papers 
from  Addison  illustrating  this  view;  and  it  is  to 
be  doubted  whether  mo  lent  treatises  on  rhetoric, 
aiming  at  a  more  philosophic  treatment  of  the 
subject,  while  they  have  gained  in  scientific  ar- 
rangement, may  not  have  lost  some  of  this  crit- 
ical training.  Accuracy,  as  well  as  force  of  ex- 
pression, purity,  propriety,  grace,  are,  to  most 
students,  the  result  of  constant,  careful  practice', 
combined  with  criticisms  on  distinguished  writ- 
ers. Franklin,  in  his  autobiography,  gives  a 
most  interesting  account  of  what  can  be  accom- 
plish'd  under  limited  opportunities,  without  a 
teacher,  by  careful  criticism  and  revision.  The 
various  steps,  related  in  his  remarkably  simple 
English,  are  worthy  of  the  notice  of  those  en- 
gaged in  the  instruction  of  youth. —  In  the  two 
leading  American  colleges.  Harvard  and  Yale, 
the  time  allotted  to  the  study  of  rhetoric  is.  in 
the  former,  a  part  of  the  sophomore  and  junior 
years;  in  the  latter,  the  senior  year,  although 
lectures  on  rhetoric  arc  delivered  to  the  sopho- 
more clas3.  Supposing  the  average  age  of  stu- 
dents, at  the  time  of  admission,  to  be  17 — and 
this  is.  probably,  below  the  true  average — it 
may  be  said  that  rhetoric,  as  a  distinct  branch  of 
study,  is  pursued  by  the  students  in  their  twen- 
tieth year.  This  age  gives  some  degree  of  ma- 
turity. By  a  thorough  course  in  the  classical  or 
modern  languages,  students  are,  to  a  certain  ex- 
tent, prepared  to  enter  upon  the  study  of  inven- 
tion and  the  criticism  of  style. —  See  K  iMES,  Ele- 
ments of  Criticism;  A  1 1  ms, «,  Essays  on  Paradise 
L«t  inthe.s/.ee/,,/.,,-..  p.,  uR.Lectures on  Rhetoric 

ilml     />'e'/e.s- />/OVS  ;       (  '  \  M  I'BKI.L.     /'// ilnsi i/i/i If    i if 

Rhetoric;  Whatelt,  Elements  of  Rhetoric;  De 
Quincey,  Rhetorical  and  Critical   Essays,  art. 

*(,,!,■:  Herbert  ScRxoer.  K.<s,n/s.  Moral,  Polit- 
ical, and  /Esthetic,  art.  Stole;  II.  X.  Day,  The 
Art  of  Discourse  (N.  Y.,  1869).  (See  also 
Bei.i.es-Lettres.) 


RHODE   ISLAND 

RHODE  ISLAND,  one  of  the  original 
states  of  the  American  Union,  and  the  smallest 
of  all  now  composing  it.  having  an  area  of  1,306 
sq.  m.,  and  a  population,  according  to  the  cen- 
sus of  1870,  of  217,358. 

Educational  History. — It  is  claimed  by  Rhode- 
Islauders  that  the  first  school  established  by 
public  vote  in  New  England,  was  at  Newport, 
R,  I.,  in  1(140.  The  early  town  records  are  very 
defective:  but  it  appears,  from  CaUender's  His- 
torical Discourse  (1738),  that,  in  1640,  Mr. 
Robert  Leuthal  was,  by  vote.  "  called  to  keep  a 
public  school  for  the  learning  of  youth,"  and, 
further,  that  an  appropriation  of  one  hundred 
acres  of  land  was  made  for  the  permanent  sup- 
port of  a  school.  "  for  encouragement  of  the 
poorer  sort,  to  train  up  their  youth  in  learning." 
This  school  tract  of  100  acres  was  allotted  in 
what  is  now  the  town  of  Middletown;  but,  in 
1661,  was  exchanged  for  a  tract  afterwards 
known  as  Newtown,  or  School-land.  In 
1 663,  this  tract  was  ordered  to  be  divided  into 
lots  ;  and  the  income  arising  from  the  sale  or 
lease  of  them  was  to  constitute  a  fund  for  the 
"schooling  and  educating  of  poor  children.'  — 
The  first  public  act  in  behalf  of  education  in 
Providence  was  in  May.  1663,  when  the  pro- 
prietors voted  that  100  acres  of  upland  and 
0  acres  of  meadow  should  be  laid  out  as  school 
lands,  and  "  reserved  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
school  in  this  town.''  The  earliest  allusion  to  a 
school-house  is  made  in  17o2  :  and  it  is  probable 
that  the  town  simply  allowed  the  school-master 
the  use  of  the  building,  at  a  fixed  rent,  the  pu- 
pils paying  him  for  his  services.  At  a  town 
meeting  held  Dec.  2.,  1767.  the  citizens  voted  to 
build  -three  school-houses  for  small  children 
and  one  for  youth,  to  provide  instructions,  and 
pay  the  expense  from  the  treasury,  and  these 
schools  to  be  under  the  supervision  of  the  school 
committee."  A  plan  for  the  organization  of 
the  schools  was  reported  by  the  committee, 
through  Governor  Jabez  Bowen,  and  may  be 
found  in  the  pages  of  Staples  s  Annals  if  l' roe- 
idence.  It  is  an  admirable  report,  and  is  based 
upon  this  wide  provision:  -  I  hat  every  inhabi- 
tant of  this  town,  whether  they  be  free  of  the 
town  or  not,  shall  have  and  enjoy  an  equal  right 
and  privilege  of  sending  their  own  children,  and 
the  children  of  others  that  may  be  under  their 
care,  for  instruction  and  bringing  up.  to  any  or 
all  of  said  schools."  This  beneficent  plan  was, 
however,  defeated ,  on  grounds  thus  stated  by- 
Moses  Brown,  another  member  of  the  com- 
mittee : 

"  1768.  Laid  before  the  town  by  the  committee, 
but  a  number  of  the  inhabitant  (and  wliat  is  must 
surprising  and  remarkable  the  plan  of  a  Free  School, 
supported  bv  a  tax,  was  rejected  by  the  Poorer  sort 
of  the  people,)  being  straneely  led  away  not  to  see 
their  own  as  well  a>  the  public  interest  therein,  (by  a 
few  objectors  at  first.)  either  because  they  were  not 
the  projectors,  or  had  not  public  spirit  te  execute  so 
laudable  a  design,  and  which  was  tirst  voted  by  the 
town  with  great  freedom.     M.  II." 

The  town,  at  last,  built  a  school-house,  con- 
jointly with  private  proprietors,  the  town  owning 
only  the  lower  story,  but  having  the  supervision  of 


RIIOllK   ISLAND 


private  and  public  schools,  through  a  school 


In  Bristol,  the   original   proprietors,   in    1680, 


a  dozen  scholars  in  each.  Their  books  were  the  Dibit' . 
spelling-book,   and  primer.    One  was  kept  by  John 

Foster,  Esq.,  in  liisi.llice,  one   bv  Dr.  P.enjaniin  West. 


recorded  act  of  the  citizens  of  Bristol  in  regard 
to  schools  is  dated  in   September,  1682,  when 


in  town  ready 
the  week  for 
isler,  and  the 
e  estate  shall 
ie  year.     The 


■hoolmaster  and 
the  cape  money 
ber,  Ids  l,  voted 
fticiating  in  the 


use  their  endeavor  to  obta 
granted  for  such  an  end." 
£24  the   year  for  Mr.  Cobl 
place  of  n  schoolmaster  in  tl 

These  seem  to  have  been  the  main  attempts 
at  popular  education  in  this  state,  before 
the  Revolution.  There  were,  also,  some  local 
efforts  for  the  instruction  of  the  Indians, 
beginning  with  a  gift  of  land  made  by  .fudge 
Sewall,  of  Massachusetts,  for  that  purpose.  In 
regard  to  the  colored  population,  then  quite 
numerous  in  Rhode  Island,  the  Newport  Mer- 
cury, of  March  29.,  1773,  had  the  following  : 

"Whereas  a  school  was  established,  several  years 
past,  in  the  town  of  Newport,  by  a  society  of  benev- 
olent clergymen  of  the  church  of  England,  in  Lon- 
don, wilh  a  handsome  fund  for  a  mistress  to  instruct 
thirty  negro  children  in  reading,  sewing,  etc.  And 
when-.,,  it  has  hitherto  been  fonnd  difficnll  to  supply 


in  the  town,  to  send  their  young  blacks,  to  the  num- 
ber of  thirty;  And,  provided,  that  the  number  can- 
not be  nearly  kept  up  for  the  future,  the  gentlemen  to 
whose  care  ai  tl  direction  the  said  school  has  been  en- 
trusted will  be  obliged  to  give  it  up  entirely  at  the  ex- 
piration of  six  months." 

There  were  many  reasons  why  popular  edu- 
cation met  with  less  general  support  in  Rhode 
Island  than  in  Massachusetts.  The  population 
was  far  more  scanty — not  exceeding  7, nun.  in 
1680,  and  being  only  17,935  in  1730.  Over 
much  of  the  territory,  there  was  no  settled  gov- 
ernment, there  being  boundary  disputes  in  sev- 
eral directions.  Rhode  Island  was  a  peculiar 
sufferer  by  the  Indian  wars,  and  the  continued 
existence  of  slavery  was  a  fatal  obstacle  to  pub- 
lic schools.  Finally,  there  was  no  such  power- 
ful body  of  clergymen  as  existed  in  Massachu- 
setts, sustaining  by  potent  influence  the  whole 
system  of  schools.  There  was,  on  the  contrary, 
a  strong  reaction  against  this  clerical  influence, 
anil  against  the  traditional  institutions  of  Mas- 
sachusetts and  Connecticut.  It  was  due  to  all 
these  reasons  that  public  schools, though  planted 
so  early  in  Rhode  Island,  flourished  less  than  in 
these  other  states.  The  reminiscences  of  Samuel 
Thurber,  an  aged  citizen  of  Providence,  record 
the  general  condition  of  education,  before  the 
Revolution : 

"As  respects  schools,  previous  to  about  the  year 
1770,  they  were  but  little  thought  of;  there  were  in 
my  neighborhood  three  small  schools  perhaps  about 


Manning  did  great    things  in  the  waj    "I  enlightening 

and  informing  the  | pie.    Schools  revii     Ibyi - 

of  his  advice  and  assistance.  Previous  to  him  it  was 
not  uncommon  to  meet  with  those  who  could  not 
write  their  names." 

This  testimony  links  Brown  University  with 
the  history  of  common-school  education  in  Rhode 
Island.  I  ir.  .Manning  was  president  of  what  was 
then  Rhode  Island  College,  when  it  was  removed 
to  Providence,  in  1770;  and  the  impetus  given 
by  him  would,  doubtless,  have  borne  more  im- 
mediate fruit,  but  for  the  absorbing  excitement 
of  the  Revolution.  A  colony  which  saw  one  of 
its  chief  towns  long  held  by  the  enemy,  could 
not  give  much  attention  to  schools.  The  con- 
flict left  the  young  state  terribly  depleted  and 
impoverished.  It  had  hardly  recovered  itself, 
when  it  was  urged  on  to  the  adoption  of  a  pub- 
lic-school system,  through  the  far-seeing  energy^ 
of  one  man.  The  real  founder  of  public  schools 
in  Rhode  Island  was  John  Howland,  who  was 
born  in  Newport,  in  1753,  and  was  sent  to  Prov- 
idence at  thirteen,  to  be  a  barber's  apprentice. 
ile  was  afterwards  a  soldier  of  the  Revolution, 
and  was  then  for  many  years  a  barber  in  Prov- 
idence. He  was  also  a  member  of  the  Me- 
chanics'Association,  founded  in  17S9.  Mr.  How- 
land  has  left  fully  on  record  the  successive  steps 
in  the  agitation  which  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment of  public  schools:  and  it  is  a  curious  fact 
that,  by  his  showing,  it  met  with  no  opposition 
from  the  wealthy,  but  only  from  the  very  class 
it  was  especially  designed  to  benefit,  it  was 
warmly  approved  in  Providence,  and  was  en- 
dorsed in  Newport,  but  was  regarded  with  in- 
difference in  the  country  towns.  In  these,  in- 
deed, it  had  been  but  little  agitated,  a  fact  to 
which  the  early  repeal  of  the  measure  was  mainly 
due.  The  bill  establishing  public  schools  was 
enacted  in  the  February  session,  1800.  Its  vital 
provisions  were  as  follows  : 

"  Section  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assem- 
bly, andtlie  avthorities  tJiereof,  and  it  is  hereby  en- 
acted;— That  each  and  every  town  in  the  State  shall 
annually  cause  to  be  established  and  kept,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  such  town,  one  or  more  free  schools,  for  the 
instruction  of  all  the  white  inhabitants  of  said  town, 
between  the  ages  of  six  and  twenty  years,  in  reading, 
writing,  and  common  arithmetic,  who  may  stand  in 
need  of  such  instruction,  and  apply  therefor." 

"Sec.  2.  And  be  it  further  en, tried.  That  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  Town  Council  of  e\evy  town,  to  divide 
said  town  into  so  many  school-districts  as  they  shall 
judge  necessary  and  convenient." 

It  was  further  provided  that  each  town  might 
retain,  for  school  purposes,  twenty  per  cent  of 
its  state  taxes,  so  long  as  the  sum  thus  retained 
did  not  exceed  $6,000.  In  case  any  town  failed 
to  establish  the  schools  required,  this  allowance 
was  to  be  forfeited  ;  but  there  was  no  other 
penalty  imposed,  nor   was  action  made  obliga- 


736 


RHODE   ISLAND 


tory.  As  a  result,  the  law  was  an  absolute  fail-  j 
Tire,  except  as  regarded  the  city  of  Providence,  j 
No  other  community  carried  it  into  effect,  and  j 
the  law  itself  was  rejected  in  1803. 

In  organizing  the  schools  of  Providence,  John 
(lowland  was  made  one  of  the  committee  ;  and 
so  thoroughly  was  his  work  done  in  his  own 
city,  that  the  school  system  was  there  sustained 
after  the  repeal  of  the  general  law,  and  the 
schools  of  Providence  remained,  until  within  a 
few  years,  far  in  advance  of  all  the  rest  of  the 
state.— For  twenty-five  years  after  the  repeal  of 
John  Howland's  law,  there  was  in  Rhode  Island 
no  slate  system  of  schools,  even  on  paper; 
though  the  local  schools  of  Providence  were  well 
sustained  at  the  public  expense,  and  there  were, 
at  Newport  and  elsewhere,  some  endowed  schools, 
most  of  them  established  by  lottery-  In  1827, there 
were  petitions  for  a  school  system  ;  and.  in  1 828, 
a  law  was  passed,  authorizing  towns  to  appoint 
school  committees,  and  to  tax  themselves  for 
schools;  and  providing  that  sums  paid  into  the  • 
general  treasury  by  lottery  dealers  and  auction- 
eers should  be  appropriate!  to  the  support  of 
public  schools,  to  an  amount  not  exceeding 
$10,000.  This  act  was  the  foundation  of  the 
present  school  system  of  the  state ;  and  though 
its  provisions  seemed  in  some  respects  unsatis- 
factory, it  was  yet  a  great  step  forward.  During 
the  next  fifteen  years,  the  system  underwent 
some  important  modifications,  especially  as  to 
the  plan  of  distribution  of  the  school  money, 
which  was  at  first  allotted  to  each  town  in  pro- 
portion to  the  number  of  inhabitants  below  the 
age  of  sixteen;  but.  afterwards,  according  to 
(f)  the  number  of  white  persons  under  sixteen, 

(2)  the  number  of  colored  persons  under  ten, 

(3)  five-fourteenths  of  the  colored  persons  be- 
tween ten  and  twenty-four.  This  complicated 
method  remained  in  force  from  1832  to  1845. — 
The  first  document  answering  to  a  general  school 
report  was  prepared  by  Oliver  Angel,  a  veteran 
teacher,  in  behalf  of  a  committee  appointed  at  a 
public  meeting  in  Providence.  It  was  printed  in 
pamphlet  form,  and  dated  .May  17.,  1832.  The 
most  important  statistical  facts  contained  m 
this  report  were  the  following  : 

Whole  number  of  public  schools  in  the  state.. .        323 

Whole  number  of  scholars  taught  in  them 17,034 

Number  of  male  teachers  employed 31s 

Number  of  female  teachers  employed 147 

Number  of  srhoolsoontinucd  through  the  year  20 

Average  time  of  the  others 3  months. 

Whole  amount   appropriated  by  the  towns  for 

the  support  of  schools $11,490 

Amount  drawn  from  school  fund $10,000 

Whole  amount  expended   for  support  of  public 

schools $21,490 

Number  of  private  schools  continued  through 

the  year,  under  male  teachers 30 

Number  of  private   schools  continued  through 

the  year,  under  female  teachers 88 

(In  Tuarlv  .ill  the  country  towns,  the  private  schools 
may  be  considered  as  the  public  schools  continued  by 
individual  subscription,  from  three  to  six  months.) 
Whole  number  of  scholars  taught  in  them   (ex- 
clusive   of    the    Friend's    Hoarding- School, 

Providence) 3,403 

Total  estimated  expense  of  private  schools,  .  .  .$<<1,375 
Expended  for  support  of  schools  for  one  year.  $102,865 


Some  strange  facts  may  be  gathered  from 
these  statistics.  It  appears  that,  in  1832,  Prov- 
idence had  five  times  as  many  public  schools  as 
private;  Newport. sixteen  times  as  many:  and  the 
amount  expended  on  private  schools  throughout 
the  state  was  four  times  that  spent  on  public 
schools.  Only  twenty  public  schools  were  con- 
tinued through  the  year,  the  average  time  of  the 
others  being  but  three  months;  and  men  out- 
numbered women,  as  teachers,  almost  two  to  one. 
In  1843,  a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  Rhode 
Island  assembly,  by  William  Updike,  of  South 
Kingston,  to  authorize  the  governor  of  the  state 
"to  employ  some  suitable  person  as  agent;"  and, 
in  advocating  its  passage,  he  boldly  declared  the 
school  system,  as  it  then  existed,  to  be  "not  a 
blessing,  except  in  the  city  of  Providence,  and 
possibly,  a  few  other  towns."  He  asserted  that 
Khode  Island  was  behind  the  other  New  England 
states,  and  that  the  remedy  for  this  was  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  commissioner  to  revise  the  whole 
system,  to  codify  the  laws,  and  to  visit  and  ex- 
amine the  schools  throughout  the  state.  The 
bill  was  passed,  and  Henry  Barnard  was  ap- 
pointed the  school  agent,  in  December,  1843.  In 
May.  the  following  year,  he  made  his  report  of  a 
school  law,  which  was  passed  June  27.,  1845. 
This  law  created  the  office  of  commissioner  of 
pulic  schools,  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor, 
made  provision  for  the  financial  support  of  the 
schools,  defined  the  powers  and  duties  of  towns 
in  regard  to  public  education,  provided  for  school- 
districts,  and  trustees  of  schools  therein,  and  also 
for  the  examination  and  legal  certification  of 
teachers.  Mr.  Barnard's  labors  and  services  were 
very  great;  and  he  must  stand  second  only  to 
1 1  in  ace  Mann  among  the  school  reformers  of  New 
England.  In  his  very  first  report,  for  1845,  lie 
made  a  searching  review  of  the  school  buildings 
and  school  methods  prevailing  in  the  state.  Like 
Horace  Mann,  he  strongly  urged  the  employment 
of  women  as  teachers,  and  spoke  with  satisfaction 
of  the  fact  that  he  had  caused  the  employment 
of  more  than  fifty  additional  female  teachers 
during  the  past  year.  He  had  also,  he  reported, 
seen  more  than  fifty  new  school-houses  built, 
mostly  on  plans  furnished  by  himself.  It  was 
declared  by  the  teachers  of  the  state,  on  his  retire- 
ment from  office  in  184!).  that  he  had  effected  a 
"revolution"  in  school  architecture;  and  the 
amount  of  printed  matter  circulated  by  him,  was 
very  great.  More  than  16,000  educational  pam- 
phlets were  distributed  by  him  gratuitously,  ex- 
clusive of  the  official  documents  of  the  state,  and 
the  Journal  of  the  Institute  of  Education.  Dur- 
ing one  year,  not  an  almanac  was  published  in 
Rhode  Island  without  at  least  sixteen  pages  of 
educational  matter,  added  to  it.  During  his  five 
yearsof  administration,  more  than  eleven  hundred 
educational  meetings  were  held,  at  which  more 
than  fifteen  hundred  addresses  were  made.  These 
facts  are  stated  by  Rev.  Edwin  M,  Stone  in  his 
history  of  the  Rhode  Island  Institute  of  Instruc- 
tion, an  organization  which  was  formed  in  Jan- 
nary.  L845,  and  rendered  the  most  important  aid 
to  the  labors  of  the  commissioner.     Mr.  Barnard 


RHODE   ISLAND 


retired  in  1840,  on  account  of  ill  health,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Elisha  R.  Potter,  now  Judge  Totter,    purpose";  (3)  that 
This  gentleman's  legal   experience    was   of   the    of  public  schools  o 
greatest  benefit  to  the  school  legislation  of  the 
^tate.     He  secured  the  gradual  abolition  of  the 
rate-bill  system,  which  in  many  towns  assessed 


vested   and   remain  a  perpetual   fund   for  that 
'all  donations  for  the  support 


the 


idle 


ih- 


position  that,  under  the  Rhode  Wand  constitu- 
tion, the  school  committees  had  no  right  to  pre- 
scribe religious  exercises  for  a  school ".  Mi,,  matter 
was  to  be  settled  by  general  consent:  but  no  child 
could  be  compelled  to  take  part  in  any  religious 
exercise,  in  opposition  to  lie  wishes  of  his  par- 
ents. Accordingly,  in  the  local  school  laws  of 
this  state,  the  school  committees  usually  "recom- 
mend" that  the  schools  be  opened  with 'the  read- 
ing of  the  Bible,  but  do  not  require  it.  Other  im- 
portant services  rendered  by  Mr.  Totter  were  the 
recommendation  (in  1850)  of  a  state  board  of 
education,  and  the  persistent  advocacy  of  a  nor- 
mal school.  Through  his  efforts,  a  normal  depart- 
ment was  first  established  (1850)  in  Brown  I'ni- 
versity.  and  was  placed  underthe  charge  of  Prof. 
S.  S.  Greene,  then  superintendent  of  the  Provi- 
dence schools,  but  whose  title  in  the  university 
was  Professor  of  Didactics.  To  this  arrangement, 

•sue, led    ,in    }-:<■    a   private  normal   sel 1.  in 

Providence,  tan-lit  by  Messrs.  Creene.  Russell. 
Colburn.and  Ouyot:  and  finally  mi  ls.Mi.a  state 
normal  school,  under  Dana  T.  Colburn.  This 
school  was  afterward  removed  to  Bristol,  and, 
after  Mr.  Oolburn's  death,  was  placed  under 
Joshua  Kendall's  charge.  It  was,  however,  abol- 
ished in  1865,  but  was  re-established  at  Provi- 
dence in  1871,  under  the  care  of  J.  C.  Green- 
ough.  who  still  remains  its  principal.  The  suc- 
cessors of  Mr.  Potter  in  the  office  of  school  com- 
missioner have  been  Robert  Allyn  (1854 — 7), 
John  Kingsbury  (1857—9),  Joshua  B.  Chapiu 
h.859 — 61,  and'  again  1863—9),  Henry  Rous- 
manicre  (1861—3),  T.  W.  Bicknell  (1869—75), 
and  Thomas  B.  Stockwell,  the  present  incumbent, 
elected  in  ls7:>. 

A  state  board  of  education  was  created  in 
1870;  and  there  have  been  various  improvements 
in  organization  since  that  time,  including  the 
extension  of  the  term  of  school  committees  from 
one  to  three  years,  and  the  authorization  of  a 
school  superintendent  in  every  town.  Women 
have  also  been  occasionally  elected  members  of 
school  committees,  ami  have  performed  their 
duties  with  marked  success.  Evening  schools 
have  also  received  particular  attention,  being 
especially  important  in  a  manufacturing  state 
like  Rhode  Island. 

School  System. — The  constitution  of  the  state 
provides  (1)  that  "it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
general  assembly  to  promote  public  schooLs,  and 
to  adopt  all  means  which  they  may  deem  neces- 
sary and  proper  to  secure  to  the  people  the 
advantages  and  opportunities  of  education"; 
(2)  that  "the  money  appropriated  by  law  for 
the  establishment  of  a  permanent  fund  for  the 
support  of  public  schools  shall  be  securely  in- 


missioner  of  public  schools,  (3)  trustees  of  the 
state  normal  school,  ii)  town  school  committees, 
(5)  town  superintendents,  (6)  district  trustees, 
and  (7)  district  clerks,  treasurers, and  collectors. — 
The  state  board  of  education  is  composed  of  eight 
members,  the  governor  and  the  lieutenant-gov- 
ernor being  members,  ex  officio,  and  each  of  the 
five  counties  of  the  state  being  entitled  to  one 
member,  except  Providence,  which  is  entitled  to 
two.  The  members  are  elected  by  the  general 
mbly    for  three  yt 


general   supen 


id   control  of   the  public 


schools,  its  particular  duties  being  to  hold  quar- 
terly meetings,  to  prescribe  and  enforce  general 
regulations,  and  to  make  an  annual  report  to  tin- 
general  assembly.  The  governor  of  the  state  is 
the  president  of  the  board,  and  the  commissioner, 
secretary. — The  commissioner  of  public  schools 
is  elected  annually  by  the  board  of  education, 
and  is  the  chief  executive  officer  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  system.  His  duties  are  to  advise 
with  school  officers  and  teachers  in  all  matter's 
pertaining  to  education;  to  visit  and  inspect  the 
schools;  to  deliver  addresses  in  the  several  towns 
on  subjects  pertaining  to  the  progress  of  the 
schools;  to  arrange  for  and  conduct  teat  hers'  in- 
stitutes; to  secure,  as  far  as  is  desirable,  a  uni- 
formity of  text-books;  to  assist  in  the  establish- 
ment of  school  libraries:  to  draw  orders  on  the 
treasurer  for  the  school  moneys  to  which  the 
towns  are  entitled;  and  to  make  an  annual  report 
to  the  board  of  education  on  the  last  Monday  in 
I  lee.  lnl.er  of  each  year,  lie  also  decides  disputes 
and  controversies  arising  in  the  administration 
of  the  school  laws;  but,  if  requested,  he  must  lay 
a  statement  ot  the  facts  of  the  ease  before  one 
of  the  justices  of  the  supreme  court,  whose  de- 
cision is  tinah  The  trustees  of  the  normal  school 
consist  of  the  members  of  the  board  of  education 
and  the  commissioner  of  the  public  schools,  and 
have  the  control,  management,  and  general  super- 
vision of  the nial  school.     They  also  examine 

candidates  for  teachers'  licenses,  and  give  certifi- 
cates to  such  as  are  found  qualified. — School  com- 
mittees, each  composed  of  not  less  than  three 
members,  are  elected  in  the  towns  for  the  term 
of  three  years,  one  retiring  annually.  Their  duties 
are  to  meet  for  consultation  at  least  four  times  a 
year,  to  fix  the  boundaries  of  school-districts,  to 
locate  school-houses,  to  examine  and  license  ap- 
plicants to  teach,  and  to  revoke  licenses  when 
necessary;  to  visit,  by  one  or  more  of  their  num- 
ber, every  public  school  in  the  town  at  least 
twice  during  each  term,  to  make  rules  for  the 
management  and  instruction  of  the  schools,  and 
to  draw  all  orders  for  the  payment  of  the  school 
moneys.  They  are  at  all  times  subject  to  the 
supervision  of  the  commissioner.  In  towns  under 
the  district  system,  the  trustees  have  the  care  of 
the  district-school  property,  and  make  contracts 


RHODE   ISLAND 


with  teachers;  while  the  school  committee  exer- 
cises all  other  authority  over  the  schools.  School 
superintendents,  elected  by  the  voters  of  the 
towns,  or,  upon  their  failure  to  do  so,  by  the 
school  committees,  perform  such  duties  and  ex- 
ercise  such  powers  as  may  be  assigned  to  them 
by  the  school  committees.  District  trustees,  one 
or  three  for  each  district,  as  the  latter  may  de- 
cide, are  annually  elected  by  the  voters  of  the 
districts,  but  receive  no  compensation  unless  the 
district  vote  to  levy  a  special  tax  for  that  pur- 
pose. They  have  the  custody  of  the  school  prop- 
erty, and  employ  the  teachers;  and  they  are  re- 
quired to  \ isit  the  schools  twice  each  term,  and 
to  report  to  the  school  committee. — District 
clerks,  one  for  each  district,  are  elected  by  the 
voters  of  the  district  to  keep  the  records  of  all 
meetings  in  tin-  district,  and  of  the  boundaries  of 
the  school-districts. — District  treasurers  keep 
the  school  moneys,  pay  it  out  on  proper  orders, 
etc.;  and  district  collectors  are  appointed  to  col- 
lect the  taxes  levied  in  the  district  for  the  sup- 
port of  schools.—  The  permanent  school  fund  of 
the  state,  in  1875,  amounted  to  $265,142.51, 
only  the  income  of  which  may  be  appropriated 
to  public  schools.  The  annual  fund  for  distri- 
bution among  the  schools,  arising  from  state  and 
local  taxation,  interest  on  permanent  fund,  and 
other  sources,  amounted  to  $761,796.92.  The 
state  appropriates  annually  8:10,000  for  the  sup- 
port of  public  schools — $03,000  to  the  several 
towns  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  children 
under  the  age  of  15;  and  $27,000  according  to 
the  number  of  school-districts  in  each  town.  The 
money  thus  appropriated — called  teachers'  money 
— can  be  used  only  for  the  payment  of  teachers' 
salaries.  No  town  can  receive  any  part  of  such 
state  appropriation,  unless  it  raise  by  tax.  for  the 
support  of  schools,  an  amount  equal  to  what  it  is 
entitled  to  receive  from  the  state.  There  is  also  a 
special  state  appropriation  for  evening  schools. — 
Kvery  district  is  required  to  maintain  a  school: 
and,  if  it  neglect  for  seven  months  to  open  one, 
the  town  committee  may  establish  a  school,  and 
employ  a  teacher.  Two  or  more  districts  may 
unite  to  maintain  a  school  for  older  children. — 
No  minor  under  1 5  years  of  age  may  be  employed, 
under  a  penalty  of  $20.  in  any  manufacturing 
establishment,  unless  he  has  attended  school  at 
least  three  months  during  the  preceding  year, 
nor  may  any  such  minor  be  employed  for  more 
than  nine  months  in  any  year.  Towns  may 
enact  truant  laws. 

Educational  <  'ondilion. — The  number  of  pub- 
lic day  schools  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was  737  (grad- 
ed. 436;  ungraded.  3(11);  of  evening  schools,  39; 
and  the  number  of  school-houses,  426,  the  esti- 
mated value  of  which  was$2,360,017.  The  receipts 
for  the  support  of  the  schools  were  as  follows: 
From  state  appropriation  for 

day  schools $90,000.00 

From  state  appropriation  for 

evening  schools 2,495.00 

From  town  appropriations..  .    6GG.75G  II 

"      district  taxes 47,626.43 

"      other  sources 54,919.35 

Total. '.    $761,796.92 


The  expenditures  for  the  same  year  were  as 
follows  : 

Fur  teachers'  salaries. clay  schools  $3*3 .284.14 
"        "  "     evening    "         15,350.50 

"    sites,  buildings,  and  furniture  27l.32U.41 

'•    school  supervision 11,681.02 

"    other  purposes 80,001.07 

Total $764,643.74 

The  school  statistics,  for  the  year  ending  April 
30.,  1875,  are  the  following : 

No.  of  children  of  school  age  (4—16) 53,316 

"     "  different  pupils  enrolled  in  day  schools.  .  38,5.54 

Average  number  belonging 30,102 

Average  daily  attendance 26,163 

Number  enrolled  in  evening  schools 4,600 

Average  attendance      "              "            2,256 

Number  of  teachers  employed,  males 195 

"       "         "  "       females..     861 

Total 1,056 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers,  males $85.18 


Average  length  of  school  term 9.38  mo. 

In  the  following  cities  and  towns,  the  town 
system  of  school  management  has  been  adopted 
wholly  or  in  part  :  Providence,  Bristol,  East 
l'rovidence,  Newport,  Warren,  Woonsocket, 
I'awtucket.  Harrington,  and  North  Providence. 
— The  commissioner's  annual  report  for  1875 
gives  the  following  brief  summary  of  what  is 
now  attempted  in  the  public  elementary  schools: 
"An  examination  of  our  scl Is  shows  that  read- 
ing, spelling,  penmanship,  arithmetic  (mental  and 
written),  and  geography  are  taught  in  all  the 
schools  of  the  state  of  an  intermediate  and  gram- 
mar grade.  United  States  history  and  English 
grammar  are  taught  in  most  of'  our  grammar 
schools.  Vocal  music  is  practiced  in  many  of  our 
schools,  and  taught  in  a  few,  particularly  in  those 
of  all  grades  in  Providence  and  Newport.  Draw- 
ing is  taught  in  the  intermediate  and  grammar 
grades  of  Providence  and  Newport.  Sewing  is 
taught  in  a  few  of  the  schools  in  Providence." 

Normal  Instruction. — The  Rhode  Island  State 
Normal  School,  at  Providence,  from  its  opening, 
September  1871.  to  January,  1876.  gave  instruc- 
tion to  521  pupils,  of  whom  184  graduated  from 
the  institution.  While  fitting  teachers  for  schools 
of  a  higher  grade,  it  especially  aims  to  prepare 
for  teaching  elementary  schools, — primary,  inter- 
mediate, and  grammar.  The  whole  number  of 
pupils  taught,  during  the  year  1875,  was  159. 
Three  teachers'  institutes  were  held  under  the 
direction  of  the  state  commissioner. 

Secondary  Instruction. — There  are  13  cities 
and  towns  which  have  separate  high  schools,  or 
schools  of  that  grade,  either  public  or  private,  as 
follows :  Providence,  Newport.  Woonsocket, 
I'awtucket.  Hopkinton,  Bristol,  Warren,  West- 
erly, Lincoln.  Last  Greenwich.  Barrington,  Scit- 
uate,  and  East  Providence.  In  his  report  for 
1875,  the  commissioner  remarks:  "In  the  high 
schools,  we  find  the  pupils  pursuing  the  studies 
of  natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  astronomy, 
botany,  algebra,  trigonometry,  book-keeping, 
general  history,  mental  and  moral  philosophy, 
English  literature,  and  Latin  and  Greek."  Three 
private  academies  anil  seminaries  reported  to  the 
U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  in  1875.  a  total  of 


RHODE   ISLAND 

269  students,  of  whom  130  were  pursuing  a  clas- 
sical course;  4(i,  a  course  in  modern  languages; 
and  32  were  preparing  for  colleee.     The  whole 


It  was  the  germ  of  Brown  University,  under 
whose  control  it  still  is,  and  for  which  it  has 
prepared  nearly  300  students.  The  East  Green- 
wich Academy  is  connected  with  Boston  Uni- 
versity. The  Friends'  Academy,  Mowry  and 
Goff's  English  and  classical  school,  and  Dr.  Stock- 
bridges  school  for  v.  .mi" -ladies,  all  in  Providence, 
arc  scl Is  of  hi  h    repute   for   efficiency.      It 


i;iciiTi:ir 


739 


Shoul 

Sc 

of  th 
in  its 
to  tin 


Nc- 


conditions,  tor  the  establishment,,!  a  hi._di.-cl 1. 

Four  schools  in  the  state  for  the  preparation  of 
students  for  college,  in  1875,  reported  33  teach- 
ers and  465  pupils.  Two  business  colleges  reported 
to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  L9  teachers  and  605  pupils 
— tllo  day  scholars  and  200  evening  scholars. 

Superior  Instruction. — This  grade  of  education 
is  represented  by  Brown  University  (q.  v.),  first 
established  at  Warren,  but,  in  L770,  removed  to 
1'rovi  lence.  This  institution  contains  an  agricult- 
ural and  scientific  department. 

Special  Instruction. — The  onlv  institution  of 
this  character  in  th,.  state  is  the  Reform  School, 
at  Providence,  in  which  both  boys  and  girls  are 
well  cared  for,  being  provided  with  the  means 
for  acquiring  a  common-school  education,  and 
trained  ill  habits  of  neatness,  order. and  industry. 
In  L875,  the  whole  number  of  inmates  was  197, 
—boys,  102;  girls,  35. 

Teachers'  Associations.— The  Rhode  Island 
Institute  of  Instruction  held  its  thirtieth  annual 
session  at  Providence,  in  January,  1875.  This 
association,  during  its  long  career,  has  numbered 
among  its  members  the  must  distinguished  edu- 
cators of  the  state,  anil  lias  exerted  a  most  im- 
portant influence  upon  the  progress  of  every  de- 
partment of  education. 

Educational  Journals. — The  first  educational 
journal  published  in  the  state  was  the  Journal 
of  the  Rhode  Island  Institute  of  Instruction, 
which  was  continued  about  three  years,  till  1849. 
Under  the  administration  of  commissioner  Pot- 
ter, the  Rhode    Island  Educational    Maaazine 


,/■■  /, 


».  England 
in  Boston, 


II,. 


Publ 


/■:,/„ 


Rhode  Island  fn 
authority  of  the  Hoard  of  Education,  and  edited 
by  Thomas  B.  Stockwell.  ( 'ommissioncr  of  Public 
Schools  (Providence,  1876).  This  volume  includes 


A  History  of  the  Public  School  System  of  Rhode 
Island,  by  Thomas  Wentworth  Higginson. 

RICHARDSON,  Charles,  an  English  lexi- 
cographer, born  in  duly.  1775  ;  died  at  Kcltham 
Middlesex,  Oct.  6.,  1865.  Little  is  recorded  of 
his  early  life  or  education.    After  some  study  of 


business  ot  his  lite.  Ills  prin. 
Illustrations  of  English  Phi 
1815);  ZVeui  Dictionary  of  the  E 
(1837);  and  On  the  Study  of  La 
It  is  on  his  dictionary  that   his 


ter  and    Webster    its  reception  at   the  time  of 
its  publication  was  remarkably  cordial  ;  and  crit- 
ical notices, almosl  without  exception, mentioned 
it  with  praise.     (See  Dictionary.) 
RICHMOND   COLLEGE,    at     Richmond, 

1*44.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and  the 
income  of  an  endowment  of  $100,000.  The  value 
of  its   buildings  and  grounds   is  $150,000.  Its 


is  reipur 
lg  degrees 


,ls; 


-e  any  of 
to  attend 
are   con- 


libraries  contain  abou 
lege  is  composed  of  , 
namely,  of  Latin.  (Jr. 
glish.  mathematics,  ph 
ophy.  The  students 
these  schools,  but  eve 
at  least  three.    The    i 

ferred,  according  to  the  number  and  character  of 
the  schools  attended:  B.  L.  B.  8.,  A.  P...  and 
A.  M.  The  tuition  fee  varies  from  #50  per  an- 
num upward,  according  to  the  number  of  schools 
attended.  In  1875 — (i,  there  were  7  instructors 
and  150  students.  The  presidents  have  been  as 
follows:  the  Rev.  R.  Kyiand.  D.  D..  1844—66; 
the  Rev.  Tiberius  G.  Jones,  D.  D..  1866—9; 
and  B.  Puryear.  A.  M.  (chairman  of  the  faculty), 
from  1869  to  the  present  time  (1876). 

RICHTER,   Johann   Paul  Friedrich,  an 
illustrious  German   author,  popularly  known  as 


life  as  a  private  tutor,  his  condition,  during 
much  of  that  time,  being  one  of  extreme 
poverty.  While  occupied  as  a  teacher,  he 
wrote  several  works ;  but.  for  a  long  time, 
was  unsuccessful  in  finding  a  publisher,  and  was 
still  longer  in  finding  readers,  the  extravagance 
and  oddity  of  his  thought  and  style  baffling 
popular  comprehension, and  d,-],ri\  ing  his  genius 
of  that  recognition  which  it  afterwards  secured. 
The  turning-point  in  his  fortunes  came  at  last, 
however;  and.  from  L793  to  L798,  he  published 
several  ,,f  his  best  works,  which    rapid!]   raised 

him  to  a  position   ai _   the   mosl   celebrated 

authors  ,,f  his  day.  His  view-  on  education  are 
embodied  chiefly  iii  his  Levana,  oder  Erzieh- 
lehre,  published  in  Brunswick,  in  1807,  and  in 
Stuttgart,  in   1861;  an   English   translation  of 


740 


RIDGEVILLE    COLLEGE 


which  was  issued  in  Boston,  in  1863.  It  is 
characterized  by  just  and  profound  views  ex- 
pressed in  striking  language;  and  many  of  its 
aphoristic  sayings  have  long  since  passed  un- 
questioned into  the  literature  of  education. 

RIDGEVILLE  COLLEGE,  in  Ridgeville, 
Ind„  under  the  patronage  of  the  Freewill  Bap- 
tist denomination,  was  founded  in  1867.  for  the 
education  of  both  sexes.  It  is  supported  by  the 
income  of  a  small  endowment  and  by  tuition 
fees,  varying  from  $18  to  $30  a  year.  It  pro- 
vides the  following  courses  :  classical,  scientific, 
practical  (of  3  years,  intended  to  be  equivalent  to 
an  ordinary  high-school  course),  classical  prepar- 
atory, and  a  general  preparatory  course.  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  5  instructors  and  111*  stu- 
dents: classical,  1;  scientific.  14:  practical  course, 
5;  classical  preparatory,  1  ;  general  preparatory, 
85;  in  instrumental  music.  0.  The  Rev.  Samuel 
D.  Bates,  A.  M.,  is  (18711)  the  president. 

RIPON  COLLEGE,  at  Kipon,  Wis.,  was 
founded  in  1851,  and  organized  as  a  college  in 
1863.  It  is  non-sectarian.  It  has  an  endowment  of 
about  $50,000,  a  library  of  over  3.800  volumes.a 
cabinet  of  minerals,  and  chemical  and  physical 
apparatus.  The  regular  tuition  fees  vary  from 
$21  to  $24  a  year.  There  is  a  collegiate  de- 
partment (with  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course) . 
a  preparatory,  and  a  musical  department.  Both  i 
sexes  are  admitted.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  13 
instructors,  and  358  students  (165  male  and  193 
female),  of  whom  69  were  of  collegiate  grade, 
241  preparatory,  and  45  were  studying  music 
only.  The  Rev.  William  E.  Merriman,  D.  D.,  was 
president  of  the  college  from  1863  to  1876, 
when  he  was  succeeded  bv  the  Rev.  Edward  II. 
Merrell,  A.  M. 

ROANOKE  COLLEGE,  at  Salem.  Va., 
founded  in  L852,  is  under  the  patronage  of  the 
Lutheran  ( 'hurch,  though  not  by  its  charter  de- 
nominational. It  derives  its  support  from  the 
fees  of  students  ($50  a  year).  The  college 
has  a  library  of  14,000  volumes,  extensive  chem- 
ical and  philosophical  apparatus,  a  mineral 
cabinet  containing  over  11,000  specimens,  and  a 
museum  of  curiosities.  There  is  a  collegiate,  a  i 
normal,  and  a  preparatory  department,  besides  a 
select  course  designed  to  afford  a  good  business 
education.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  7  instructors 
and  171  students  (4)3  collegiate, 31  select,  and  47  , 
preparatory).  The  Rev.  1).  F.  Bittle,  D.  D.,  has 
beeu  the  president  from  the  opening  of  the 
college. 

ROCHESTER,  University  of,  at  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y.,  under  Baptist  control,  was  founded 
in  1850.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  and 
the  income  of  an  endowment  of  $212,000.  Its 
unproductive  property  (land,  buildings,  etc.)  is 
valued  at  $378,662.  It  has  extensive  collections 
in  geology  aud  mineralogy,  and  a  library  of 
12,500  volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $75  a 
year ;  but  there  are  fifty  scholarships  affording 
free  tuition.  The  university  has  a  classical  and 
a  scientific  course,  each  of  four  years,  leading 
respectively  to  the  degrees  of  A."  B.  and  B.  S. 
Eclectic  courses  are  provided  for  those  not  can- 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 

didates  for  a  degree.  In  1876 — 7,  there  were  8 
professors  and  1 63  students.  Martin  Brewer 
Anderson.  LL.  P.,  elected  in  1853.  has  been  the 
only  president. 

ROCK  HILL  COLLEGE,  a  Boman  Catho- 
lic institution  at  Ellicott  City,  Md.,  under  the 
direction  of  the  <  Ihristian  Brothers,  was  organ- 
ized in  1857.  and  chartered  in  1865.  It  has  a 
geological  and  mineralogical  cabinet,  containing 
about  1,000  specimens;  a  herbarium,  containing 
about  2.500  specimens  ;  aud  a  library  of  6,500 
volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition,  board,  etc.,  is  $260 
a  year ;  of  tuition  alone,  $80.  The  college 
comprises  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  depart- 
ment, the  latter  having  a  commercial  course 
(2  years),  a  scientific  course  (4  years),  and  a 
classical  course  (4  years).  In  1875 — 6,  there  were 
29  professors  and  other  instructors  and  165  stu- 
dents (137  preparatory  and  28  collegiate).  The 
presidents  have  been  as  follows:  liro.  Aphraates, 
Bro.  Tobias,  Bro.  Lucian,  and  Bro.  Bettelin  (for 
the  last  12  years). 

ROD.     See  Corporal  Punishment. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  is  the 
name  popularly  given  to  the  body  of  Christians 
who  are  in  communion  with  the  bishop  of  Rome 
and  recognize  him  as  their  spiritual  head.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  is  by  far  the  most 
numerous  division  of  Christendom.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  an  estimate  of  the  proportion,  at 
present  (1877),  of  Roman  Catholics  to  the  Prot- 
estants and  to  the  total  population  of  the  world: 


Europe  

Australia  and  Poly- 


S.-...VJII.1 

:lii'.i.isu.(iim 

SJ.V  ,-,.-,il.  mm 


Total 1,423,920,000  200,900 

It  will  be  seen,  from  this  table,  that  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  embraces  a  majority  of  the  total 
population  of  America,  and  nearly  one-half  of 
that  of  Europe ;  and  that  it  exceeds  the  Prot- 
estant population  in  Asia,  but  is  exceeded  by 
it  in  Africa,  and  in  Australia  and  Polynesia. 
France,  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Belgium,  the 
larger  portion  of  Austria  and  Ireland,  the  Polish 
districts  of  Germany  and  Russia,  a  number  of 
Swiss  cantons,  all  the  states  of  South  and  Cen- 
tral America  and  .Mexico,  are  almost  wholly  in- 
habited by  Roman  Catholics. — From  the  down- 
fall of  the  Western  Roman  empire  toward  the 
close  of  the  5th  century,  down  to  the  16th,  the 
progress  of  education  in  all  the  western  states 
of  Europe  was  chiefly  controlled  by  the  Catholic 
Church.  For  a  long  time,  the  schools  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, the  convent,  and  the  cathedral  and  col- 
legiate schools,  all  of  -which  were  not  only  found- 
ed, but  exclusively  conducted,  by  priests,  were 
the  only  institutions  to  which  the  rising  genera- 
tion of  the  new  European  states  were  indebted 
for  their  education.  Charlemagne  was  the  first 
monarch  who  conceived  the  idea  of  organizing 
a  system  of  popular  education ;  but  he  was  so 


ROMAN   CATHOLIC  CIH'P.CH 


far  from  anticipating  any  conflict  of  jurisdiction 
between  state  and  church  that  he  spent  his  ener- 


in  most  states,  Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic, 
the   authorities  of   the   Catholic    Church   have 


town  and  burgher  schools,  which  assumed  large 
dimensions  after  the  L2th  century,  and,  later, 
the  rise  of  the  universities,  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  organization  of  schools  which,  though  they 
had  to  conform  their  teaching  strictly  to  the 
creed  of  the  church,  were  partly  or  wholly  man- 
aged by  boards  not  exclusively  consisting  of 
church  functionaries.   The  separation  of  a  large 

portion  of  Europe  fr the  Catholic  Church,  tit 

the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  led,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  the  establishment  of  Lutheran  and 
Reformed,  and  later  of  Congregational,  Baptist, 

and  other  denominational  scl Is.  and,  on  the 

other  hand,  caused  even  the  government  in  <  !ath- 
olic  countries,  to  take  a  more  direct  part  in  edu- 
cational matters.  The  Jesuits  hoped,  by  means 
of  superior  schools,  to  preserve  the  Catholic 
Church  from  further  losses  and  to  recover  the 
lost  ground:  and  the  extraordinary  efforts  made 
by  them  in  this  direction,  led  to' the  establish- 
ment of  numerous  colleges  which  excited  the 
admiration  of  many  patrons  of  education,  even 
among  Protestants,  and  which  occupy  a  con- 
spicuous place  in  the  annals  of  education.  The 
laurels  won  by  the  Jesuits  as  e  lueators.  proved 
a  spur  for  the  other  religious  orders  of  this 
Church;  and  not  only  did  the  Benedictines,  I'ia- 
rists,  and  other  orders,  vie  with  the  Jesuits  in 
the  establishment  of  learned  institutions,  but  a 
large  number  of  orders  and  congregations  spe- 
cially devoted  to  teaching  arose,  which,  from  that 
time  until  the  present  day.  have  constituted  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  instructors  of  Cath- 
olic schools  of  all  grades.— In  the  course  of  the 
18th  century,  the  government  in  many  countries 
began  to  look  upon  the  general  introduction  and 
popular  education,  as  a  state 
■st  importance.     Special  state 


pears,  how." 

toward  a  \\  i 

diet;  since 

olieaswell  , 


01  legislation.  ine  prog- 
tion  litis  led  to  numerous  con- 
governments  and  the  Cath- 
articles    in  this  work  on  the 


n    have    been 
i   Europe  ap- 


IVtilll 


■h  that  extensive  control  over 

the    schools    supported    bv  the    state,    whiell    she 

claims  as  belonging  to  her  by  divine  right.  No- 
where litis  the  conflict  between  the  state  and  the 
t  Jatholic  I  Lurch  assumed  Buch  proportions  as  in 
Germany,  and  especially  in  Prussia.   (See  Falk, 


SO    tl 


d  al 


onty 

llees- 

tsof 


portant  demands  of  the  <  lunch. 
of  the.  Reicksratk,  however,  viewe 
sions  thus  made  as  derogatory  to 

passed  which  did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of 
the  Catholic  bishops.— In  the  Syllabus  of  the 
Principal  Errors  if  our  Time,  which  Pope 
Pius   IX.,  in  his   Encyclical    Letter  of  Pec.  8., 


•y  of  making 
in  the  state 
an    essential 


organization  ot  | 
affair  of  the  high 
boards  were  intrui 
seminaries  for  the 
lished;  and.  from 
necessity  of  elemt 
European  states  ; 
the  instruction  of 
obligatory.  As  i 
part  of  the  course  of  instruction  in  every  coun- 
try, the  government  generally  endeavored  to 
Secure  the  co-operation  of  the  church  author- 
ities in  the  management  of  the  elementary 
schools.  In  some  cases,  severe  conflicts  arose. 
a.-  in  Austria  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Joseph  II..  against  whose  educational  reforms 
the  Catholic  Church  entered  an  earnest  protest: 

church  authorities  in  the  instruction  and  man- 
agement of  the  state  schools  was  secured.  During 
the  19th  century,  the  government  of  nearly 
every  European  country  has  endeavored,  more 
and  mole,  to  centralize  in  its  own  hands  the  [ 
direction  of  schools  of  every  kind;  and  though,  ! 


1867,  communicated  to  till  the  Catholic  bishops 
of  the  world,  the  following  theories  are  stigma- 
tized as  contrary  to  the  teaching  of  the  Catholic 
Church:  "(45)  The  entire  direction  of  public 
schools,  in  which  the  youth  of  the  Christian 
states  are  educated,  except  (to  a  certain  extent) 
in  the  case  of  episcopal  seminaries,  may  and 
must  appertain  to  the  civil  power,  and  belong 
to  it  so  far,  that  no  other  authority  whatever 
shall  be  recognized  as  having  any  right  to  inter- 
fere in  the  discipline  of  the  schools,  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  studies,  the  taking  of  degrees,  or 
the  choice  or  approval  of  the  teachers.  (46)  .Much 
more,  even  in  clerical  seminaries,  is  the  course 
of  study  to  be  adopted  subject  to  the  civil 
authority.     I  17)   'I  he  best  theory  of  civil  society 


c,pn 


open    to   ,|„ 

ally,  all  nubl 


and  the  prevalent  opinions  of  the  age,  (48)  This 
system  of  instructing  youth,  which  consists  in 
separating  them  from  the  Catholic  faith,  and 
from  the  power  of  the  church,  and  teaching  ex- 
clusively, or  at  least  primarily,  the  knowledge  of 
natural  things  and  the  earthly  ends  of  social  life, 
alone  may  be  approved  bv  Catholics.  ' 


742 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 


In  opposition  to  the  theories  stigmatized  in  the 
papal  syllabus  as  the  fundamental  errors  of  our 
time,  the  Catholic  bishops  in  all  countries  ad- 
here to  the  following  principles.  <  'atholic  youth, 
in  schools  of   all    grades,    from    the   primary 

school  to  the  university,  should  l.c  brought  up  in 
conformity  with  the  teaching  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  The  Church  should  not  be  hindered 
in  establishing  free  schools  of  all  grades.  When 
a  state  government  organizes  a  system  of  public 
instruction,  separate  schools  for  Catholic  youth 
should  be  establishe  1  ;  and.  in  the  Catholic 
schools,  the  Catholic  Church  should  concur  in 
the  management  and  superintendence,  in  order 
to  exclude  or  keep  off  all  influences  not  in  full 
accordance  with  the  ( 'atholic  religion  ;  and  the 
religious  instruction  and  education  of  the  pupils 
should  be  placed  under  her  control.  As  the 
school  regulations  relate  chiefly  to  the  primary 
schools,  the  negotiations  between  state  govern- 
ments and  the  Catholic  Church  aiming  to  bring 
about  an  amicable  co-operation  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  schools,  concern  chiefly  schools  of 
that  grade.  In  many  countries,  a  co-operation  of 
this  kind  exists  ;  although,  in  but  few  countries 
has  a  perfect  and  lasting  understanding,  as  in 
Belgium,  been  attained.  (For  information  on 
this  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  articles 
on  the  several  large  countries.)  Where  the  t  'lunch 
has  found  it  impossible  to  secure  the  establish- 
ment by  the  state  of  separate  schools  for  ('atholic 
children,  it  has  endeavored  to  supply  the  want 
by  opening  free  parochial  schools.  (Sec  I  ^nomina- 
tion u,  Schools.) 

As  the  establishment  of  colleges,  gymnasia, 
academies,  and  other  institutions  of  this  grade 
liv  the  state  is  far  from  being  so  general  as  that  of 
primary  schools,  the  attention  of  the  <  'huivh.  in 
this  field,  has  been  less  directed  to  a  co-opera- 
tion with  the  state  authorities  than  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  free  secondary  schools.  Among  the 
Catholic  schools  of  this  class,  the  colleges  of 
the  Jesuits  occupy  the  first  rank.  (See  Jescits.) 
Numerous  colleges  and  academies  are  also  con- 
ducted by  other  religious  orders  ;  and  the  higher 
education,  especially  of  ( 'atholic  girls,  is,  in  many 
countries,  to  a  great  extent,  carried  on  in  con- 
vent schools,  many  of  which  have  also  a  con- 
siderable number  of  Protestant  pupils.  The 
Catholic  Directory  of  England  for  1877,  men- 
tions 22    Roman  Catholic  colleges  in   England, 

for  the    univer.-itics    and    public    examinations. 


'athi. 


the 

Tuam,  Clane,  Armagh,  Carlow,  Athlone,  Tulla- 

more,  Thurles,  Castlek k.  Kilkenny,  Fermoy, 

Longford,  and  Ennis.— In  the  United  States. 
there  were,  in  1875,  according  to  the  Report  of 
the  Commissioner  of   Education,  .j2  chartered 


Catholic  colleges  or  universities,  situated  in  the 
following  states  and  territories :  Alabama,  1 ; 
California,  5;  Illinois.  4:  Indiana,.'!;  Kansas,  1; 
Kentucky,  2;  Louisiana.  2;  Maryland.  3;  Mas- 
sachusetts, 2;  Minnesota,  L;  Mississippi,  1;  Mis- 
souri. 1;  New  Jersey,  1;  New  York,  7:  Ohio,  2; 
Pennsylvania,  5;  Tennessee.  1 :  Texas,  2;  Wis- 
consin, 2;  District  of  Columbia,  2;  Washington 
Territory,  1 . 

The  (  hurch  has  now  but  little  influence  upon 
the  great  universities  of  Europe,  which,  in  the 
middle  ages,  were  almost  entirely  under  her 
control.  '1  he  factdties  of  Catholic  theology,  have, 
however,  remained  so  far  under  her  direction  that 
the  bishops  may  forbid  the  attendance  of  the 
students  at  any  lectures  which  appear  unsound 
in  faith.  The  total  abolition  of  the  theological 
faculties  in  Italy  and  Spain,  which  may  ere  long 
be  imitated  in  other  countries,  indicated  a  tend- 
ency to  disconnect  still  more  the  university  from 
the  Church.  In  order  to  afford  to  Catholic  stu- 
dents, in  high  schools  purely  Catholic,  the  same 
facilities  for  study  which  are  afforded  by  the 
state  universities,  the  Catholic  Church,  in  several 
of  the  countries  of  Europe,  has  begun  to  estab- 
lish free  Catholic  universities.  The  lead  in  this 
movement  was  taken  by  the  bishops  of  Belgium, 
who  founded,  in  lH35,the  university  of  Louvain. 
Following  then-  example,  the  Irish  bishops 
founded,  in  L854,  the  Catholic  University  of 
Dublin:  and  the  English  bishops,  in  1875,  the 
Catholic  University  College,  at  Kensington.  A 
grand  movement  of  this  kind  has  taken  place  in 
France,  where,  up  to  the  close  of  1876,  three 
( 'atholic  universities  had  beeu  organized.  The 
I  kiininion  of  ( 'anada  possesses  a  similar  institu- 
tion in  the  University  of  Laval,  at  Quebec. 

In  addition  to  the  theological  faculties  of  the 
universities,  there  are  schools  of  theology  con- 
nected with  most  of  the  episcopal  sees.  More- 
over, every  male  religious  order  supports  schools 
of  theology  for  its  own  members.  (For  a  fuller 
account  of  these  institutions,  see  Tiieolooical 
Schools.)  The  Council  of  Trent  enjoined  upon 
all  bishops  to  establish  special  preparatory 
schools  for  such  boys  as  intended  to  devote 
themselves  to  the  study  of  theology.  In  many 
countries,  these  semitiaria  puerortim  (boys' 
seminaries)  are  in  successful  operation,  and 
educate  almost  the  entire  clergy  :  in  others, 
they  are  almost  unknown.  In  addition  to  the 
priests'     and     boys'    seminaries,     the     Catholic 

( 'hureh  possesses  a  number  of  missionary  scl Is, 

for  educating  Catholic  missionaries  for  pagan 
and  non-Catholic  countries.  'I  he  most  famous 
of  these  i  tfa  Coll  ge  i  I  the  Propaganda  [Col- 
legium d    propaganda  fidi   .in  Rome.    During 

collc-,.>  h.ivcheeii  toimdo.1  a- All  Hallows,  near 
Dublin,  and  St.  Josephs  College,  of  the  Sacred 
Beart,  for  Foreign  Missions,  in  England.  The 
missionaries,  in  their  turn,  have  established,  in 
connection  with  their  missions,  a  large  number 
of  colleges  and  schools,  in  pagan  and  uncivilized 
countries,  many  of  which  have  gained,  to  a  high 
degree,  the  confidence  of  the  native  population 


ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH 

and  the  admiration  of  tourists. — In  England, 
the  United  States,  and  Belgium,  the  Catholic 
Church  has  established  a  number  of  teachers' 
seminaries,  independent  of  all  state  control: 
while,  in  other  countries,  as  in  Germany,  the 
state  concedes  to  the  Catholic  Church  some  de- 
gree of  co-operation  in  the  control  of  Catholic 
institutions  of   this   class.      In  the  schools  which 

are  under  the  absolute ntrol  of  the  Church,  a 

very  large  proportion  of  the  teachers  are  mem- 
bers of  religious  orders.  The  educational  efforts 
of  the  Benedictines,  Hieronymians,  Jesuits,  and 
Piarists  have  already  been  referred  to.  When 
the  organization  of  elementary  schools,  in  all  the 
communities  of  civilized  countries,  assumed  larger 
dimensions,  La  Salle  (KI70)  founded  the  first 
organization  of  school  brothers,  called  the 
Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools.  (See  La 
Salle.)  None  of  this  order  are  allowed  to  en- 
ter the  priesthood,  or  to  hold  any  ecclesiastical 


ROMANIC   LANGUAGES 


r48 


who 


congregation.  How  rapidly  this  congregation 
has  grown,  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that, 
while,  at  the  death  of  the  founder  (1719),  the 
congregation  had  27  houses,  '271  brethren,  122 
classes,  and  9.885  pupils,  in  1869,  it  had  1.117 
houses.  9,930  brethren,  7,435  class  s,  and  395,458 
pupils.  In  the  United  State-.  323  brethren  gave 
instruction  to  about  15,000  pupils.  The  congre- 
gation of  La  Salle  was  followed  by  a  number  of 
similar  congregations,  most  of  which  have  houses 
in  the  Unite!  States.  The  majority  of  these  con- 
gregations arose  like  the  Brethren  of  the  Chris- 
tian Schools  in  France.  As  the  school  regula- 
tions drawn  up  by  La  Salle  provide  that  at  least 
two  brethren  must  be  sent  to  any  locality  in 
which  there  is  a  desire  to  intrust  to  them  the 
elementary  schools,  many  small  pla  les  were  un- 
able to  obtain  their  services.  For  the  purpose  of 
providing  schools  for  such  places.  Abbe  dean  de 
la  Mcnnais  founded,  in  1820,  in  Brittany,  a  con- 
gregation which,  in  1822,  was  sanctioned  by  the 
French  government  under  the  name  of  the  Con- 
gregation of  Christian  Instruction.  The  Supreme 
Council  of  Instruction  authorizes  every  member 
who  holds  a  certificate  from  the  Superior  <  reneral 
of  the  congregation,  to  give  instruction.  The 
congregation,  in  1*75,  hail  15(1  houses,  with  about 
800  members.    The  chief  seat  of  the  congrega- 

congregation  of  Xaverian  Brothers  was  founded 
at  Bruges,  in  L839,byTh  odore  Sacques  Ryken, 
with  tiie  special  view  to  establish  and  conduct 

schools  in  the  United  Mate,.  They  had.  in  1>7">. 
several  houses  in  Kentucky  and  Maryland.  In 
Ireland,  the  liev.  K.  Rice,  of  Waterford, founded 
the  order  of  the  School  Brothers  of  Ireland,  whirl, 
closely  resembles  the  Brethren  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  and  which  has  spread  from  Ireland  to 
England,  as  well  as  to  several  of  the  English 
colonies.  The  female  congregations  which  devote 
themselves  to  instruction  are  even  more  numer- 
ous than  those  of   the   School  Brothers.     The 


earliest,  and  still  one  of  the  largest,  is  that  of  the 
Ursulines.  which  was  founded,  in  the  Kith  cent 
ury,  by  Angela  Merici,  of  Brescia  (died  1540, 
canonized  1807),  and  the  members  of  which,  at 
the  beginning  of  the  1 7th  century,  assumed,  in 
addition  to  the  three  usual  monastic  vows,  a 
fourth  vow  to  instruct  young  girls  gratuitously. 
The  Ursulines  spread  from  France  into  many 
countries  of  Europe  and  America,  and.  in  1875, 
had,  in  the  United  States,  houses  in  New  York. 
Ohio,  Illinois.  Georgia,  Louisiana.  Texas.  Ken- 
tucky, and  Missouri.  The  order  of  the  Sisters  of 
Notre  Dame,  or  the  School  Sisters  of  the  Blessed 
Pierre  Fourier,  was  founded  in  France  by  Pierre 
Fourier  (q.  v.),  at  the  close  of  the  16th  century. 
I  he  largest  number  of  their  houses  is  still  found 
in  France,  but  they  have  also  spread  to  many 
other  countries,  and  were,  in  1875,  represented 
in  nine  states  of  the  American  Union. — The 
Ladies  of  tiie  Sacred  I  leart.  an  order  founded  in 

France  in  lsoo.are  chiefly  devoted  to  th luca- 

tim,  of  young  ladies.  The  growth  of  this  order 
has  been  very  rapid,  the  number  of  its  establish- 
in  the  United  Stales,  to  2L-  In  Canada,  the 
Gray  Nuns,  or  Sisters  of  (  harity,  of  Montreal, 
an  order  founded  in  1745,  in  1*75  had  24  houses 
in  the    Dominion   of   Canada   and   the    United 


ROMANIC  LANGUAGES,  , 

Languages,  the  collective  name  o 
era  languages  which,  after  the  dovt 
Western  Roman   Empire,  were  gra 
oped  from  the  lingua  Romana  n 
gar  Latin,  by  the  admixture  of  Ge 
and  other  idioms.     The  independt 

r  Romance 

those  mod- 
nfall  of  the 
luallv  dcvel- 

stica,  or  vul- 

man.  Celtic, 
nt   Romanic 

languages   are   the 
Wallachian   or   Da 

^-Roumanian). 

Portuguese, 
(also  called 
In   the   five 

of  south-western  !■' 

e  of  the  t  iermanic  conquerors 
trope  has  left  marked  traces  ; 

while  the  Roumanian  language  has  been  con- 
siderably influenced  by  Slavic  tongues.  'Hie  lan- 
guage, called  RomirnscJi,  which  is  spoken  in  some 
districts  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  Grisons  and 
the  Tyrol,  is  not  regarded  by  Diez  as  an  in- 
dependent Romanic  language.  The  most  im- 
portant among  the  Romanic  languages  are  the 
French,  the  Spanish,  and  the  Italian,  the  his- 
tory and  study  of  which  are  treated  in  special 
articles  of  this  work.     The  Comparative  Gram- 


mar, and  the  Kliiu, 
Romanic  languages, 
only  universally  rec 
on 'the  subject,  but  a 


y.   of  the 
.  are   not 

linguists 
of  com- 


parative philology.  The  derivation  of  the  Ro- 
manic languages  from  the  Latin  has  been  fully 

treated   l>\    1 " 1 1 ■  1 1 -      If,.     I! ■,„,'.-//■„  Sj„:ir/,r',t 

,,,  ihrem  Verhaltniss  turn  Lateinischen,  Halle, 
L845),  and  by  Pott,  in  Hofei  -  Zeilschrifl  fur 
Wissenschafl  der  Spracke,  in  Aufreeht's  and 
Kiilm's  Zeitschriftfur  vergleichen.de  Spraclir 
fomcJnntr).  and  in  the  Zeitschvift  fur  die  Altrr- 
ihumswissenschaft 


744 


ROME,  the  capital  of  tl 
founded,  iii  7.">H  B.  ( '..  liy  tl 


■ient  world,  was 

irtreas  of  Latiuin,  on  the 
Etruscan  march.  But  that  border  fortress  grew, 
step  by  step,  to  be  the  head  of  Latium,  the  head 
of  Italy,  the  head  of  the  whole  Mediterranean  re- 
gion, the  mistress  of  the  world.  "It  is  in  Rome", 
says  Freeman  (Comparative  Politics),  "that  all 
the  states  of  the  earlier  European  world  lose 
themselves  ;  it  is  out  of  Rome  that  all  the  states 
of  the  later  European  world  take  their  being." 
Rome  gathered  unto  itself  the  traditions  of  all 
that  had  ever  been  great  and  illustrious  in  the 
human  race. —  Assyrian,  Egyptian,  Persian,  He- 
brew,  Phoenician,  Greek,  Etruscan;  and  extended 
its  sway  over  the  multitudinous  western  tribes 
— Italian.  Gallic,  Iberian,  and  Teutonic,  the  latter 
as  yet  only  known  as  warriors.  The  civilization, 
the"  arts  and  sciences,  the  laws  and  institutions, 
the  poetry  and  philosophy,  the  accumulated  liter- 
ary treasures  of  all  past  generations,  were  grad- 
ually merged  in  Rome.  Its  history,  then,  is  that 
of  the  whole  civilized  world,  down  to  the  modern 
period.  And  yet,  the  history  of  Roman  educa- 
tion is  neither  as  interesting  nor  as  valuable  as 
that  of  Greece.  In  the  latter  country,  a  love  for 
the  esthetic  predominated,  the  Greek  taking  a 
peculiar  delight  in  the  beautiful;  but,  with  the 
Roman,  the  practical  prevailed,  and  the  beautiful 
was  simply  an  esthetic  amusement.  He  was 
harder,  coarser,  delighting  more  in  power  and 
less  in  beauty,  more  in  facts  and  less  in  specula- 
tion, more  in  the  real  and  less  in  the  ideal. 
Rome's  chief  object  was  conquest,  extension  of 
power  ;  and.  hence,  the  education  of  her  youth 
aimed  to  fit  them  for  citizenship  and  for  war. — 
Among  the  Latins  and  the  Etruscans,  though 
they  ha  1  teachers,  as  we  learn  from  Livy,  literary 
training  cannot  have  prevaile  1.  as  they  wen-  too 
much  animated  by  warlike  zeal.  The  priests  culti- 
vated religious  science,  and  the  principal  Bubject 
of  instruction  was  probably  dirinuti-m.  In  the 
early  days  of  the  Republic,  education  was  en- 
tirely domestic ;  and  the  amount  of  intellectual 
culture  was  very  scanty.  Plutarch  regarded  it 
as  a  deficiency  in  the  Roman  laws  thai  thej  di  I 
not.  like  those  of  the  Spartans,  prescribe  a  cer- 
tain system  of  regulations  for  the  education  of 
youth;  but,  in  fact,  the  manners  and  customs 
of  the  people  replaced  that  want.  For,  first,  edu- 
cation was  not  regarded,  a  -  in  Athens  and  Sparta, 
as  a  duty  of  the  state  :  and.  secondly,  woman 
had  a  much  higher  place  than  in  the  Greek 
states.  Rome  honore  I  her  vestal  virgins,  and  the 
wife  was  not.  as  in  Greece,  the  servant,  but  the 
companion  of  her  husband,  and  was  revered  by 
him  as  the  mother  of  his  children.  Maternal 
duties  were  considered  sacred;  and  the  care- 
ful nursing  of  infants,  the  needful  occupations 
in  the  household,  and  the  imparting  of  the  rudi- 
ments of  education,  were  regarded  as  the  most 
prominent  points  of  womanly  merit.  Tin'  so- 
called  /,  ilri.i  potestas  gave  to  each  head  of  a  fami- 
ly an  unlimited  authority  over  all  its  members. 
But  that  tremendous  power— which  was  felt 
and  acknowledged   to   be  a  natural   right — was 


never  abused.  The  father  was  regarded  with 
reverence  and  respect,  though,  probably,  not  al- 
ways with  very  strong  affection;  for  the  Latin 
word  pietas,  which  expressed  the  feeling  of  the 
dutiful  child  toward  his  parent,  hardly  implies 
much  of  love.  After  boys  had  attained  the 
age  when  their  mothers  considered  another 
instructor  desirable,  they  were  placed  under  the 
care  of  the pcedagogus.  Frequently,  these  pceda- 
gogi  were  liberated  slaves.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  father  would  himself  assume  this  task,  as,  e. 
f/.,  Cicero  and  <  'ato  (  Vnsorinus.  who  taught  their 
children  to  read  and  write.  Cato  also  trained 
his  sons  in  gymnastics,  the  use  of  weapons, 
boxing,  horseback  riding,  and  even  swimming, 
but  never  bathed  with  them,  in  order  not  to 
offend  their  modesty.  The  boys  were  also  taught 
songs  commemorating  the  courageous  and  heroic 
d  e  Is  of  their  ancestry,  and  were  obliged  to  com- 
mit to  memory  the  laws  of  the  12  tables.  These 
were  the  usual  subjects  of  instruction.  The  boys 
of  wealthy  parents  had  sometimes  several  poeda- 
gogi.—The  first  schools  in  Rome  were  private, 
"and  were  located  in  public  booths  or  shops  ; 
hence,  the  name  trivium.  They  were  also  char- 
acteristically called  litdi, because  their  work  was, 
in  distinction  from  other  practice,  regarded 
simply  as  a  recreation,  or  play.  The  first  teach- 
ers were  not  paid  any  fees,  which  were  not 
introduced  until  2(11  T>.  C.  The  boys  were  con- 
ducted to  these  schools,  which  existed  as  early 
as  449  B.  C,  by  capsarii,  ?'.  c,  slaves  who  car- 
ried the  books,  writing  materials,  etc.  Vacations 
occurred  only  during  harvest  time.  The  first 
teacher  was  called  the  literati,]-.  He  taught 
reading  and  writing,  proverbs,  and  arithmetic, 
the  latter  being,  on  account  of  its  usefulness, 
more  esteemed  by  the  Romans  than  by  the 
( I  reeks.  A  second  course  devolved  on  the  gram- 
miitistn,  who  taught  language,  grammar,  and  com- 
position. This  work  was  completed  by  the  rhetor 
in  a  more  skillful  manner.  It  was  necessary,  in 
order  to  be  a  well-educated  Roman,  to  be  a  fin- 
ished orator;  and.  therefore,  very  great  stress  was 
laid  on  correctness  and  pureness  of  expression. 
Mock-trials  were  of  common  occurrence,  and  at- 
tendance at  the  Forum  was  regarded  as  an  ob- 
ligation. The  most  distinguished  teachers  were 
either  natives  of  the  colonies  or  provinces, 
or  freedmen  of  Greek  extraction.  Resides  re- 
ceiving instruction  at  home,  the  youth  not  un- 
frequently  went  to  Alliens,  Rhodes,  or  Alex- 
andria to  complete  their  education.— The  first 
favor  bestowed  by  the  government  upon  the 
teachers  was  under  •!  ulius  ( 'a-sar.  who  gave  them 
the  right  of  citizenship :  and  Augustus  added 
exemption  from  all  public  duties  and  occupa- 
tions. During  his  administration,  several  new- 
schools  of  high  repute  were  established  in  the 
provinces;  among  them,  those  of  Mitylene,  Mas- 
silia  (Marseilles),  and  ( 'ordnba,  to  all  of  which 
students  flocked  in  great  numbers.  To  keep  the 
young  men  at  Home.  Augustus  gave  Elaccus 
'Catiline's     house,    and     paid    him    a    salary   of 

I  mii. i sesterces   ($3,600),   and.   besides,  gave 

prizes  to  diligent  scholars.  Vespasian  recognized 


ROTE-TEACHING 

the  entire  system  of  educational  institutions  as 
an  integral  element  in  the  organism  of  the  state. 
Existing  schools,  both  elementary  and  higher, 
were  strengthened  as  far  as  seemed  necessary, 
and  new  facilities  for  instruction  wnc  added 
to  those  already  in  use.  The  first  school  re- 
sembling a  college,  called  the  Athena  <.  was 
founded,  professors  of  Greek  literature  were  ap- 
pointed, and  tin irse  of  study  wasextended, 

after  the  Alexandrian  model,  to  embrace  the 
circle  of  theories  libi  rales  -grammar,  dialectics. 
rhetoric,  geometry,  arithmetic,  astronomy,  mu- 
sic— and  drawing.  Vespasian's  successors,  Had- 
rian, the  two  Antonines.  Marcus  Aurelius,  and 
Alexander  Severus — in  a  word,  all  the  most  vir- 
tuous, and  not  a  few  of  the  most  sanguinary  and 
atrocious,  among  the  Caesars,  showed  great  zeal 
in  the  promotion  of  learning,  in  all  its  various 
forms,  throughout  the  empire.  The  age  of  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  is  especially  distinguished  for  the 
complete  endowment  of  what  may  well  be 
called  the  University  of  Athens.  This  munifi- 
cent liberality  of  the  Roman  Caesars  was  not 
without  many  happy  effects  upon  literature  and 
learning  in  the  declining  ages  of  the  empire. 
Thus  Athens,  e.  rj.,  became  again  the  focus  of 
learned  activity  in  an  age  which,  marred  as  it  was 
by  an  increasing  tendency  to  pedantry  and  affec- 
tation, still  succeeded  in  reviving  some  reminis- 
cences of  the  nobler  past,  and  exhibited  what  has 
not  inappropriately  been  described  as  the  after 
summer  of  Greek  genius. — Among  Roman  edu- 
cational theorists  are  M.  Terentius  Varro,  "the 
most  learned  man  in  Rome"  (lit! — 27  B.C.), 
and  author  of  Capys,  aut  de  liberis  educant lis  ; 
Cicero,  who  treats  of  education  incidentally  in 
his  DeOffi  its;  I'...  it  ii-  in  /'  Oraloribus,  com- 
monly attributed  to  him  ;  an  1  Quintilian  |  to  — 
118  A.  D.),in  the  first  book  of  his  InstUutio  Ora- 
torio.—  See  Bernhardt,  Grundriss  der  ro'mi- 
scken  Literatur;  Champagny,  Les  Cesars,  and 
Les  Antonines  (Paris.  1871);  Friedl^nder, 
Sittengeschichle  Roms,  vol.  ra.  (1th  ed.,  Leips., 
1874),  Teoppel,  Hist,  of  Roman  Literature 
(Lond.,  1873)  ;  Pfeiffer.  Brziehung  bei  den 
Griechen  und  RSmern  (Wien,  1867);  Ilistor,/ 
of  Munition  (N.  Y.,1874). 

ROTE-TEACHING,  or  Teaching  by 
Rote  (Ft.  route,  road,  whence  routine),  a  method 
of  giving  instruction  by  means  of  constant  repe- 
tition, particularly  of  certain  forms  of  speech. 
with  little  or  no  attention  to  their  meaning. 
Hence,  such  teaching  is  often  described  as 
mechanical,  that  is.  impressing  the  memory 
through  the  car  ami  the  eye,  but  not  exercising 
the  understanding.     Rote-teaching   may  be  re- 


Ass, 


in  a  depressed  state.  Although  the 
-of  1864  makes  attendance  compulsory, 
Is  have,  nevertheless,  very  fevi  pupils. 


The 
rally 
nany 

875, 
ublic 
lized 


almost  every  community  has 
ol.  The  total  number  of  pu- 
in  1875,  was  about  55,000  ; 
if  teachers  of  all  grades  was 
iv  are  8  seminaries    for   the 


lasses), 
district 

m  real 

I  gym- 
ate  of 


iml 


for  scientific  and  professional  instruction  arc  3 
agricultural  scl I...  7  industrial  schools,  7  com- 
mercial schools,  s  seminaries  for  Greek  theology, 
a  Roman  Catholic  seminary  tor  priests,  iu.lassy, 
a  school  for  engineering,  a  military  school,  in 
Bucharest,  two  art  scl,,,,,].,  ,„  Jassy  and  Bucha- 
rest; and  the  central  school  of  agriculture  and 
forestry,  in    Ferestren.     Besides   these   schools, 

colleges. —  See  Clironik  des  Vblksschidwesens, 
(1875);  Reporiof  U.S.  Commissioner  of  Edu- 
cation fur  is 74. 

ROUSSEAU,  Jean  Jacques,  a  celebrated 
French  author,  born  in  Geneva,  dune  28.,  1712; 
died  at  Krmcnonville.  near  Paris,  July  2.,  1778. 
Ee  calls  for  notice  here  chiefly  from  an  educational 
point  of  view.   I  lis  father  was  a.  watch-maker,  and 


ROUMANIA,  a  dependency  of  Turkey, 
having  an  area  of  46,7111  sq.  m.,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  4,500.000,  mostly  Roumans,  but  com- 
prising also  1 50,000  Jew's  and  200,000  gypsies. 
About  90  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  belong  to 
the  Greek  Church.  Roumania  was  formed,  in 
1859,  by  the  union  of  the  two  principalities  of 
Moldavia  and    Wallaehia. —  Education   in  Rou- 


nine;  sei  i  icu  in  rue 
of  a  visionary,  resl 

ess  ill.-] 

osition;' and  h 

"V  "as 
1  sickly 

habit  soon  led  to  hi.. 

separal 

on  from  other. 

hildren 

of  his  age,  and  d( 

veloped 

in  him  a  fond 

less  for 

works  of  fiction.   A 

era!  years  of  wander- 

ing  and  of  desultoi 

y  work 

the  latter  co 

isistllle; 

of  apprenticeships 

loin  \\1 

lich  he  invariably  ran 

away,  a  priest   at 

( 'oufigi 

on,    in   Savoy 

intro- 

duced  him  to  Mini 

de   \\  ; 

reus,  at  Anne 

V.  who 

sent  him  to  a  char: 

1  in  Turin.   Fr 

mi  this 

place,  also,  he   ran 

away. 

•ame  a 

wanderer.  After  an 

ither  in 

erval  of  adven 

ure,  he 

returned  forsheltei 

,  in  1  7'J 

l,  to  tile  roof  o 

'  Mine. 

le  Warens.uho.se 

It  him  t 

.'a  theologies 

semi- 

nary  al  Annecy,  fr 

unfitted    for    tile    ] 

riesthoi 

h  he  was  ili-in 

ssed  as 

(  Iv.    he 

accepted  a  position 

as  tuto 

in  a  private 

family 

in  Lyons,  where  he 

remained  two  or  thret 

years, 

and.  in  1741,  went 

to  Par 

s.     Here   he   became 

746  ROUS 

intimate  with  Diderot,  Grimm,  D'llolbach,  and 
Mine.  d'Epinay,  the  last  of  whom,  in  1756,  pro- 
vided a  retreat  for  him  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris, 
called  the  Hermitage,  lie  maintained  now  for 
many  years,  by  musical  and  literary  labor,  a  doubt- 
ful Btruggle  with  a  Iversity.  In  L760,  he  published 
Julie,  ou  La  NouveUe  HeloXse,  which,  by  its 
idealization  of  Mine.  d'Houdetot,  offended  his 
patroness  Mine.  d'Epinay,  and  led  to  his  retire- 
ment from  the  Hermitage.  The  duke  and  duchess 
of  Luxembourg  now  received  him,  and  induced 
him  to  take  up  his  residence  at  Montmorency,  in 
one  of  their  chateaux.  While  there,  he  wrote 
Emile,  and  the  Contnii  Social.  The  former  was 
condemned  bythe  parliament, and  he  was  obliged 
to  leave  the  country  to  escape  arrest.  He  went 
to  Geneva,  then  to  Hern,  and  finally  to  Neuf- 
chatel,  where  he  was  befriended  by  the  governor, 
Lord  Keith.  In  17l>7,  he  returned  to  France; 
and, after  living  in  several  places,  settled  again  in 
Paris,  in  177(1.    The  hostility  of  the  philosophers 


Sllllj 


upon  his  health,  which  was  now  utterly  broken. 
In  1778,  he  accepted  the  invitation  of  M.  de  Girar- 
din  to  visit  him  at  his  country-ssat  at  Ermenon- 
ville.  where  he  died.  His  fame,  however,  suffered 
no  diminution  by  his  death,  but  steadily  in- 
creased. In  1794,  his  remains  were  removed  to  the 
Pantheon  at  Paris,  where  a  statue  of  him  ha  1 
been  erected;  and,  in  1 815,  the  allied  sovereigns 
exempted  Ermenonville  from  the  payment  of 
war  taxes,  in  honor  of  his  memory. — The  character 
of  Rousseau  has  been  a  puzzle  to  moralists.  In 
him,  the  affectionate,  sensitive  nature  of  the  girl, 
the  subversive  spirit  of  the  communist,  and  the 
shamelessness  of  the  libertine,  were  united.  His 
writings  have  been  the  fruitful  source  of  contro- 
versy, the  bitterness i if  which  has  been  aggravated 
by  the  errors  of  his  life.  The  subtle  beauty  of 
his  style,  which  has  always  commanded  for  him 
a  place  among  the  most  illustrious  of  French 
prose  writers,  has  served  to  place  in  stronger 
relief  the  radical  and  dangerous  theories  which  it 
served  to  introduce.  The  virulence  with  which 
his  writings  were  assailed  during  his  life-time  has 
not  yet  ceased,  after  the  lapse  of  more  than,  a 
hundred  years. 

Eniilr.  ou  de  V&bieation  was  published  in 
1762,  and  was  the  last  product  of  the  twelve 
years  of  his  literary  activity,  nothing  of  the  first 
importance  being  afterwards  written  by  him,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Confessions.  It  appeared 
at  the  time  of  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits  in 
France,  when  education,  therefore,  was  a  general 
theme;  and  nothing  was  more  natural  than  that 
Rousseau,  from  his  own  point  of  view,  should  join 
in  the  discussion,  and  show  how  man.  who  in  the 
stateof  nature  was  entirely  good,  might  by  educa- 
tion be  preserved  from  the  prevailing  degenera- 
tion. We  can  give  but  the  barest  outline  of  the 
work.  The  parent  is  warned  that  nothing  can 
compensate  for  the  lack  of  his  own  time  and  at- 
tention in  his  children's  education,  and  is  assured 


repent  of  this  neglect  in  the  bitterness  of  sorrow, 
and  never  be  comforted.  But,  in  case  a  wealthy 
parent  should  not  have  sufficient  time,  he  is 
directed  in  the  choice  of  a  governor  or  tutor,  to 
one  who  should  be  the  guide,  philosopher,  and 
friend  of  young  Emile  from  his  tenderest  years 
to  the  time  of  his  marriage.  Why  this  shadowy, 
unreal  personage  should  be  set  forth,  as  Emile 's 
only  source  of  instruction  rather  than  his  par- 
ents— why  the  exceptional  case,  rather  than  the 
general  one,  should  be  so  fully  worked  out,  can 
be  explained  only  by  the  fact  that  Rousseau  neg- 
lected so  notably  his  own  parental  responsibil- 
ities.— From  his  second  to  his  twelfth  year,  Emile 
is  to  live  a  life  of  healthy  objectivity.  There 
are  to  be  no  books,  no  moral  discussions.  He  is 
not  to  be  lectured  or  reasoned  into  submission, 
but  must  learn  to  bow  to  a  law  of  necessity:  his 
tutor  must  be  firm  with  him.  Punishment,  also, 
that  it  may  not  seem  arbitrary,  is  to  be  such 
only  as  naturally  springs  from  his  actions  them- 
selves. This  period,  therefore,  is  to  be  one  of 
physical  development  mainly,  only  such  moral 
notions  being  communicated  as  relate  to  the 
pupil's  actual  state.  If  we  wish  to  see  Emile  in 
an  English  dress,  we  have  but  to  turn  to  Harry 
Clinton,  in  Henry  Brooke's  Fool  of  Quality 
(1st  ed.,  17o'G;  last  edition  by  Charles  Kings- 
ley),  or  to  Harry  Sandford,  in  Sandford  and 
Mcrton  (lsted.,  1783). 

From  the  age  of  12  to  that  of  15,  the  notion 
of  utility  plays  an  important  part  in  Emile's 
education.  He  is  happy  who  keeps  a  due  pro- 
portion between  his  desires  and  his  powers. 
Pesires  may  be  for  things  necessary  or  unneces- 
sary. Emile  must,  therefore,  be  accustomed  to 
limit  his  desires  to  real  needs:  and  his  education 
must  be  such  as  will  fit  him,  out  of  his  own  re- 
sources, to  satisfy  these  needs.  1  le  must  now  learn 
geography,  physics,  and  chemistry,  but  only  so 
far  as  he  can  be  brought  to  see  their  utility,  and, 
therefore,  to  feel  an  interest  in  what  he  is  doing. 
He  is  to  read  Robinson  Crusoe,  that  he  may 
learn  to  prefer  the  useful  to  the  ornamental.  He 
must  even  learn  a  trade,  such  a  one  as  Crusoe 
found  of  most  service  on  his  desert  island  (namely, 
that  of  a  carpenter). — In  the  fourth  book.  Emile 
learns  to  know  his  fellows,  from  whose  contami- 
nating influence  he  has  hitherto  been  most  care- 
fully kept.  As  a  preparative  to  entering  into 
society,  he  reads  Plutarch's  Lives,  and  studies 
history.  Now.  also,  when  he  is  between  15  and 
20  years  of  age,  does  he.  for  the  first  time,  hear  of 
(hid.  and  receive  religious  instruction.  It  is  here 
that  the  v.c!!-known  profession  of  faith  of  the 
Savoyard  vicar  is  inserted.  In  connection  with 
Emile's  marriage,  in  the  fifth  book,  Rousseau  deals 
with  the  education  of  woman.  His  view  is  briefly 
this:  that  as  woman  exists  only  for  man.  her 
education  must  be  entirely  relative  to  him.  — 
The  groundwork  of  Emile  is  to  be  found  in 
Locke:  but  Rousseau  treated  the  subject  with 
such  interest  as  to  provide  a  powerful  stimulus 
for  the  educational  workers  of  his  time.  His  in- 
fluence is  distinctly  seen  in  Basedow,  Pestalozzi, 


that,  should  these  be  wanting,   he  will  certainly  i  and  Richter,  in  Germany;  and  in  Richard  Edge- 


■worth  and  Thomas  Hay.  in  England. — Mr.  Morley 
writes  forcibly  of  two  great  deficiencies  in  Emile's 
education:  Rousseau,  who  was  himself  not  strong 
on  the  intellectual  side,  as  compared  with  the 
emotional,  has  not  in  his  scheme  made  any  ade- 
quate provision  for  thorough  intellectual  disci- 
pline; and,  by  keeping  Smile  in  seclusion  until 
he  is  on  the  verge  of  manhood,  he  has  made  it 
impossible  for  "a  passion  lor  justice"  to  develop 
itself.  The  merit  of  Emile,  indeed,  does  not  lie 
in  its  being  a  body  of  incontestable  doctrine  on 
education,  but  rather  in  its  method,  and  in  its 
sympathetic  observation  of  children's  ways  from 
their  earliest  years.  Any  one  who,  like  Thomas 
Day.  should  follow  the  directions  in  Emile,  could 
not  but  be  involved  in  ludicrous  results  (as  may  be 
seen  very  notably  by  referring  to  the  life  of  Pay's 
friend.  Edgeworth);  whilst  William  Cobbett,  an- 
other reader  of  ltuusseau.but  one  who  mixed  some 
common  sense  with  what  he  read,  has  left  us,  in 
his  Advice,  a.  picture  of  family  life  and  home  edu- 
cation which  is  truly  charming.  "Not  Rousseau's 
individual  rules",  says  Richter.  in  the  preface  to 
his  L--r  iii'i,  "many  of  which  may  be  erroneous 
without  injury  to  the  whole,  but  the  spirit  of 
education  which  tills  and  animates  the  work,  has 
shaken  to  their  foundations  and  purified  all  the 
school  rooms,  and  even  the  nurseries  in  Europe. 
In  no  previous  work  on  education,  was  the  ideal 
so  richlv  and  beautifully  combined  with  actual 
observation  as  in  his." — M.  Alphonse  Esquiros 
in  his  half-story,  half-essay,  entitled  L  Emile  du 
diahneuvieme  Siecle  (Paris,  1870),  has  followed 
in  Rousseau's  track,  and  considered  from  a  pres- 
ent-flay point  of  view  the  various  problems  in 
education  from  infancy  onwards. — See  Rousseau's 
Emile,  particularly  bks.  i..  n..  in.;  Mori.ev's  Life 
of  Rousseau,  especially  ch.  xin. ;  Jules  Paroz, 
Histoire  Universelle  de  la  Pedagogic  (Paris, 
lSli'.h;  Quick.  Ediicntinmil  llefitrmer.t;  Girardix, 
Rousseau,  sn  Vie  ft  sv.s-  Uiirrnges  (Paris  1H75). 

RUSSIA,  an  empire  in  eastern  Europe  and 
northern  and  central  Asia,  having  an  area  of 
8,563,421  sq.  m..and  a  population  of  86,486,000. 
The  area  of  the  Russian  empire  is  inferior  only 
to  that  of  the  British  empire;  while  its  con- 
tinuous territory  is  larger  than  that  of  any  other 
nation  in  the  world.  More  than  two-thirds  of 
its  population  belong  to  the  Greek  Church  ;  but. 
in  the  former  kingdom  of  Poland,  the  Catholic 
religion  prevails  ;  and,  in  Finland  and  the  Baltic 
provinces,  the  Lutheran  Church  is  predominant. 
Mohammedanism  is  still  the  ruling  religion  in 
the  new  possessions  in  central  Asia,  its  adher- 
ents numbering,  in  the  entire  empire,  more  than 
7,000,000.  The  vast  majority  of  the  population 
of  Russia  belong  to  the  Slavic  race,  the  chief 
representatives  of  winch  are  the  Russians  com 
prising  about  52,000,000.  Of  the  other  Slavic 
tribes,  the  Poles,  numbering  about  5,000,000,  arc 
the  most  numerous. 

Educational  History. —  Until  the  beginning 
of  the  Kith  century,  no  schools  appear  to  have 
existed  in  Russia,  except  in  a  few  convents. 
Ivan  III.  called  foreign  artists  and  scientists  into 
the   country ;    but   no   progress  of   importance 


3SIA  747 

!  could  be  made  in  education,  because  of  the  con- 
tinual wars  both  foreign  and  intestine.  Ivan  IV. 
established  schools  in  the  cities,  and,  in  1564, 
founded  the  first  Russian  printing-office  in  Mos- 
cow. In  1588,  the  patriarch  Jeremiah  established 
a  school  in  Kief,  for  instruction  in  reading  and 
in  the  service  of  the  church,  -which  was  gradually 
enlarged  into  the  first  theological  academy. 
With  the  accession  of  Peter  the  Great,  a  new 
era  began  for  education.  He  forbade  any  noble- 
[  man  to  marry  who  did  not  possess  a  knowledge 
of  the  elements  of  reading,  writing,  and  arith- 
metic, and  established,  in  all  the  cities,  arith- 
metic schools,  which  imparted  instruction  in 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  elements  of 
geometry.  'I  licit  original  object  was  to  prepare 
young  men  for  the  service  of  the  state  ;  and 
hence  they  were  almost  exclusively  attended  by 
children  of  government  officers,  who,  upon  leav- 
ing, were  required  to  give  the  teacher  one  ruble. 
In  L719,  arithmetic  schools  for  children  of  all 
classes  were  opened,  and  also  schools  for  the 
army,  the  navy,  and  the  priesthood.  Peter  the 
Great  also  founded  an  academy  of  sciences,  in 
connection  with  a  gymnasium  and  a  university. 
Under  his  successor,  Catharine  1.,  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  was  opened  in  Moscow,  in  1755.  The 
empress  Anna  allowed  no  private  soldier  or  non- 
commissioned officer  to  be  promoted  who  could 
not  read,  and  the-  empress  Elizabeth  imposed  fines 
on  parents  who  allowed  their  children  to  grow  up 
without  any  education.  Catharine  II.  proposed 
to  organize  educational  institutions  throughout 
the  country,  according  to  a  uniform  plan  : 
but,  after  experimenting  for  twenty  years,  she 
found  that  nothing  of  importance  had  been  ac- 
complished. She  then  determined  to  establish 
schools  like  the  Austrian  model  schools ;  and, 
at  her  request,  the  Austrian  government  sent 
Von  Jankowicz.  the  director  of  the  lllyrian 
normal  schools,  to  Russia.  A  commission  of 
three  was  appointed  to  govern  the  schools  estab- 
lished, which  were  to  be  of  three  kinds  :  higher 
schools,  in  the  capitals  of  governments;  inter- 
mediate schools,  in  the  capitals  of  circles :  and 
elementary  schools,  in  small  towns  and  villages. 
In  every  government,  a  school  board  was  to  be 
appointed,  while  the  schools  of  the  circles  were 
to  be  governed  by  a  director.  A  teachers'  semi- 
nary was  established  in  St.  Petersburg;  and.  in 
the  university  of  Moscow  and  the  three  theolog- 
ical academies,  a  three  years'  course  was  pre- 
scribed to  prepare  pupils  for  the  seminary.  The 
emperor  Paul  took  an  interest  only  in  the  prog- 
ress of  the   higher   schools.     Alexander   II.  in 


has.  in  recent  years,  been  considerably  discussed 

In  order  to  makeabeginning.it  was  resolved, 
in  ls75,  to  establish  in  St.  Petersburg  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  schools,  at  the  expense  of  the 
city,  and  to  carry  into  effect  the  compulsory  edu- 
cation of  all  children  between  the  a^'es  of  8  and 
12  years.  According  to  the  calculation  of  themin- 


748  RU! 

istry,  it  will  be  necessary,  to  this  end,  to  estab- 
lish lf>7  primary  schools,  in  addition  to  those 
existing  at  present.  These  schools  will  be  gov- 
erned by  a  school  board  of  six  members,  besides 
the  chief  officer  of  the  city  government,  who  is 
to  preside.  For  the  absence  of  children,  unless 
excused,  parents  are  to  be  lined  ;  and,  when  the 
offense  is  repeated,  are  to  be  imprisoned.  ( >ne  of 
the  principal  troubles  under  which  the  Russian 
schools  are  laboring  at  present,  is  the  absence  of 
unity  in  their  government,  every  ministry  having 
a  number  of  special  schools  under  its  control. 

Primar;/  Instruction. — According  to  the  new 
school  law  of  1874,  the  elementary  schools  com- 
prise (1)  the  primary  schools,  under  the  direction 
of  the  clergy ;  (2)  the  primary  schools,  under 
the  ministry  of  public  instruction,  both  public 
and  private ;  (3)  the  elementary  schools,  under 
other  ministries,  which  are  supported  by  the 
communes ;  and  (4)  Sunday-schools.  The  course 
of  instruction  comprises  reading,  writing,  the 
four  fundamental  rules  of  arithmetic,  the  cate- 
chism, Bible  history,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
singing.  The  language  used  in  giving  instruc- 
tion must  be  the  Russian.  Religious  instruction 
is  confided  to  the  clergy ;  while,  otherwise,  the 
superintendence  is  given  into  the  hands  of  the 
nobility.  The  ecclesiastical  schools  consist  of 
four  animal  courses,  imparting  free  elementary 
instruction  to  the  children  of  priests,  but  are  open 
to  other  children  for  a  small  fee.  The  subjects 
of  instruction  are  religion,  the  Russian  and  old 
Slavic  languages.  Latin  and  Wreek,  geography, 
arithmetic,  spelling,  ami  church  history.  Private 
schools  may  be  established,  with  the  consent  of 
the  director  of  the  circle,  either  as  day  schools  or 
boarding  schools.  This  class  of  schools  also  com- 
prises the  schools  of  all  other  denominations.  All 
private  schools  are  divided  into  three  kinds,  hav- 
ing respectively  the  rank  of  a  gymnasium,  of  a 
district-school,  and  of  elementary  schools.  The 
numerous  Jewish  population  of  the  western  and 
southern  governments,  for  a  long  time,  possessed 
a  complete  system  of  private  and  public  institu- 
tions, which  were,  up  to  1864,  left  strictly  to 
themselves.  In  that  year,  they  were  placed  un- 
der the  general  school  council,  and  were  divided 
into  three  classes:  elementary  schools,  intermedi- 
ate schools,  and  schools  for  rabbis.  In  spite. 
however,  of  the  exertions  of  the  government, 
these  schools  are  decidedly  unpopular  with  the 
.lews.  Quite  n ntly  a  desire  for -the  estab- 
lishment i if  in- lust  rial  schools  has  been  evinced  by 
the  middle  ami  lower  classes  of  the  people.  These 
schools  are  rapidly  increasing,  and  now  comprise 
independent  industrial  schools,  industrial  schools 
in  connection  with  district  and  communal  schools, 
and  industrial  schools  in  connection  with  char- 
itable institutions.  In  the  Polish  provinces,  the 
Sunday-schools  are  also  industrial  schools.  The 
lust  Sunday-schools  were  opened  in  Kief.in  L859, 
by  students  who  desired  t<>  instruct  the  laborers 
on  Sundays  and  holidays.  Shortly  after  this, 
similar  schools  were  opened  in  St.  Petersburg, 
and  spread  rapidly;  so  that,  in  1862,  there  were 
already   300  schools,  with  about  20,0110  pupils. 


Unfortunately,  they  did  not  exist  long;  for,  in  con- 
sequence of  disturbances  in  two  of  these  schools 
in  St.  Petersburg,  the  government  ordered  that 
all  should  be  closed,  with  the  exception  of  those 
in  the  school-district  of  I  *orpat. — The  schools  in 
the  circles  must  be  regarded  as  an  intermediate 
link  between  the  elementary  schools  and  the 
gymnasia.  The  law  of  1828  provided  that  a  dis- 
trict school  should  be  established  in  the  capital 
of  every  circle  for  the  children  of  the  merchants, 
the  trades-people,  and  other  inhabitants  of  the 
cities.  The  course  of  study  comprises  three  an- 
nual classes;  and  the  studies  taught  arc  n  ligion, 
the  Russian  language,  arithmetic,  geometry, 
geography,  and  Russian  and  general  history.  In 
some  of  these  schools,  Latin,  and  in  others 
French,  is  taught.  These  schools  have  consider- 
ably decreased  in  number,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  some  have  been  changed  into  progymnasia, 
and  others  into  city  schools.  The  education  of 
teachers  for  primary  schools  is  provided  for  in 
various  ways.  Special  teachers'  seminaries  and 
teachers'  institutes,  have  recently  been  estab- 
lished. The  oldest  seminary  is  that  of  Porpat, 
founded  in  1828.  Since  then,  a  number  of  sem- 
inaries have  been  established,  partly  by  the  gov- 
ernment, partly  by  provinces  and  private  endow- 
ments. Teachers'  institutes  have  been  estab- 
lished in  connection  with  the  city  schools,  the 
students  in  the  highest  classes  being  trained  to 
instruct,  under  the  supervision  of  their  teachers. 
The  normal  number  of  pupils  in  each  of  these 
institutes  is  75,  of  whom  60  are  completely  sup- 
ported at  the  expense  of  the  ministry  of  public 
worship;  and  the  remaining  15,  by  funds  from 
private  perse  ins.  the  government,  the  city,  or  other 
sources.  The  students,  in  return,  are  obliged 
to  serve  six  years  in  a  city  school,  wherever 
the  government  may  send  them.  Besides,  special 
courses  of  instruction  for  the  training  of  school- 
teachers have  been  established  in  connection 
with  a  number  of  circle  schools,  gymnasia,  and 


other  institutions.  F 
ers  for  the  Mohammed 
in  the  <  rimea.  there  a 
and  SimpheropoL  In  1 
schools,  with  30,616  schi 


af  teach- 
te  Fast,  and 
ils  in  Easan 
421  district 
53  popular 


schools,  with  !>:i3.'.)0M  scholars  I7-IS.KC6  boys  and 
185,034  girls).  Included  in  this  number  are  the 
church  scIk « .Is.  the  village  schools  of  the  Haltie 

provinces,  and  the  industrial  scl Is.  i.  p.,  all  the 

schools  under  the  minister  of  public  instruction. 
There  were,  also,  in  that  year,  54  teachers'  semi- 
naries and  institutes,  with  25,552  students-  The 
number  of  private  schools,  of  all  three  grades,  not 
belonging  to  any  church,  in  1869,  was  88(1,  with 
31,500  children;  and  the  number  of  denomina- 
tional primary  and  district  schools  not  belong- 
ing to  the  Greek  Church,  was  121,  with  24,291 
pupils.  The  number  of  ecclesiastical  schools  for 
the  children  of  the  clergy,  in  1868,  was  187,  with 
25.0(10  pupils.  The  number  of  ecclesiastical 
elementary  schools,  in  1868,  was  16.287,  with 
390,049  pupils,  of  whom  335,130  were  boys,  and 
54.919  girls.  The  statistics  of  the  Jewish  schools 
for  Jan.,  1 .,  1869,  show  the  following  :  There  are 


;i«.i 


2  schools  for  rabbis  and  Jewish  school-teachers  in 
Wilua  and  Schitomir,  5  schools  of  tin-  second 
class,  similar  to  the  district   schools,  with  220 

Jewish  religion,  Russian  and  Hebrew,  and  arith- 
metic and  penmanship,  are  taught;  5]  reading  and 
writing  schools,  in  the  school-districts  of  wilna 
and  Warsaw,  with  1,982  pupils;  2  female  schools, 
with  260  pupils,  and  a  number  of  female  read- 
ing and  writing  schools.  Besides  these  schools, 
under  the  control  of  the  government,  there  are 
a  number  of  private  schools,  with  about  26,500 
pupils.  In  1870,  thec  were  about  50  industrial 
schools,  with  about  3,000  pupils,  and.  in  1874, 
115  Sunday-schools,  with  8,565  male  pupils  and 
22  female  pupils.  The  following  table  gives  the 
ratio  of  the  number  of  schools,  and  of  the  num- 
ber of  pupils,  to  the  total  population,  in  each  of 
the  nine  school-districts  into  which  Russia  is 
divided : 


mathematics  and  the  natural  sciences,  were  the 
principal  studies.  In  1872,  the  real  gymnasia  were 

changed    into    real  schools,  of    from   two   to   six 

classes,  in  which  the  ancient  languages  were 
entirely  abolished.  The  progymnasia,  of  four 
classes,  correspond  to  the  four  lower  classes  of 
the  gymnasium. —  Very  little  wasdone  for  female 
education  in  Russia  previous  to  the  middle  of 
the  la.st  century.  In  1764,  the  first  institute  for 


«y. 


School-districts 

Ratio  of 

schools  to  tota 

Rati,,  of 
pupils  to  total 

population 

1  :      930 
1  :  2,248 
1  :  2,339 
1  :  3,814 
1  :  3, Kill 
1    :  4,364 
1  :  4,076 
1   :  3,708 
1   :  5,845 

Odessa 

Wilna 

1  :     81 
1  :     8.5 

Kief 

Moscow 

1  :  144 

Secondary  Instruction. —  In  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  there  were,  in  the  whole 
empire,  with  the  exception  of  the  Baltic  and 
Polish  provinces,  only  3  gymnasia.  Catharine  II.. 
in  1776,  established  in  the  capitals  of  the  govern- 
ments people's  high  schools,  and  in  the  other 
cities  lower  people's  schools,  the  former  to  con- 
sist of  four  the  latter  of  two  classes.  In  1804, 
Alexander  I.  ordered  that  every  capital  of  a 
government  should  have  at  least  one  gymnasium. 
The  change  of  the  people's  high  schools  into 
gymnasia  extended  over  twenty  years;  and  fi- 
nally, in  1825,  56  gymnasia,  with  9,682  pupils, 
were  established,  making  an  average  of  132 
pupils  to  each  gymnasium.  The  highest  average, 
448,  was  in  the  Wilna  school-district;  and  the 
lowest,  69,  in  Kasan.  In  1828,  a  reform  was  in- 
troduced. The  gymnasia  comprised  seven  an- 
nual classes,  which  had  for  their  basis  the  study 
of  the  ancient  languages.  Latin  was  taught  in 
all  gymnasia,  and  in  all  classes;  while  Greek, 
which  was  not  obligatory,  was  gradually  intro- 
duced. In  1849,  a  new  change  was  introduced, 
with  the  object  of  bringing  the  instruction  in 
closer  connection  with  practical  life.  Instruction 
was  either  general,  in  three  lower  classes,  or 
special,  in  the  other  classes.  In  consequence  of 
these  changes,  the  gymnasia  were  divided  into 
three  groups:  36  gymnasia,  in  which  natural 
sciences  and  law  were  taught;  29,  in  which  law 
only  was  taught;  and  12,  in  which  Greek  was  re- 
tained. In  1864,  an  imperial  decree  classed  all 
gymnasia  as  classical  or  real  gymnasia.  In  the 
former,  the   classical   languages,    in   the   latter, 


schools.  As  they  pursued  a  particular  object,  how- 
ever, and  as  they  thus  became  separated  from 
the  general  school  system,  they  have  always  been 
under  the  particular  charge  of  the  reigning  em- 
press, and  are  known  as  the  schools  of  the  em- 
press Maria.  But  not  until  the  beginning  of  the 
reign  of  Alexander  II..  did  the  ministry  of  public 
instruction  establish  female  schools  for  secondary 
instruction.  These  schools  were  of  two  grades, — 
schools  of  the  first  grade,  corresponding  to  the 
gymnasia;  and  those  of  the  second  grade,  cor- 
responding to  the  district  schools.  By  a  law  of 
1870,  the  schools  of  the  first  grade  wire  changed 
into  gymnasia,  and  those  of  the  second  grade  in- 
to progymnasia.  In  some  of  the  former,  a  special 
course,  of  one  year,  was  instituted  for  those  pupils 
who  wished  to  become  governesses  or  teachers. 
The  course  of  study  comprises  religion,  tin-  Rus- 
sian language  and  literature.  French  or  German, 
history,  geography,  natural  history,  arithmetic, 
geometry,  the  elements  of  pedagogy,  drawing,  and 
penmanship.  English  is  taught  for  an  extra  fee 
of  5  rubles  per  year,  'this  law,  however,  is  only 
for  the  purely  Bussian  provinces.  In  the  Dorpat 
school-district,  there  are  female  schools  with  a 
higher  and  lower  course,  in  which  instruction  is 
given  by  means  of  the  German  language.  An  ex- 
ception to  this  rule  is  the  female  gymnasium  in 
Biga.  During  the  last  decade,  female  gymnasia 
have  also  been  established,  in  which  girls  of  all 
ranks  are  admitted.  In  1874,  the  number  of 
gymnasia  was  123,  with  36,268  pupils;  of  pro- 
gymnasia, 44,  with  5,454  pupils;  and  of  real 
schools,  30,  with  4,275  pupils.  In  1874,  there 
were  195  female  gymnasia  and  progymnasia, 
with  23.S51  pupils,  and  28  female  institutes  with 
5,453  pupils.  The  number  of  gymnasia  belong- 
ing to  the  schools  of  the  empress,  in  1870,  was 
57,  with  about  10.000  pupils.  There  were,  also, 
in  1869,  six  gymnasia,  with  1,61  7  male  and  844 
female  pupils,  belonging  to  other  churches  than 
the  I  ireek  church. 

Superior  Instruction. — The  first  effort  to 
provide  superior  instruction  in  Russia  was 
made  by  I'eter  the  Great,  who,  in  1723,  decreed 
the  establishment  of  an  academy  of  sciences  and 
a  university,  at  St.  Petersburg.  The  academy 
was  not  opened  until  1726,  the  year  after  the 
emperor's  death;  while  the  university  only  ex- 
isted in  name,  as  there  were  no  students  for  it. 
Indeed,  it  was  not  until  1755  that  the  first  Bus- 
sian university  was  established  at  Moscow,  by 


750  RU! 

the  empress  Elizabeth.  It  consisted  of  three 
faculties,  and  was  entirely  modeled  after  the 
German  universities.  Under  Catharine  II.,  after 
the  division  of  Poland,  the  Wilua  Academy  was 
added  to  the  higher  institutions  of  learning;  and. 
in  1803,  it  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  university. 
In  1802,  the  Dorpat  University,  founded  by 
Gustavus  Adolphus  in  1632,  was  entirely  re- 
organized; and,  in  1804,  the  universities  of 
Kharkof  and  Kasan  were  founded.  On  account 
of  the  poor  condition  of  the  schools  for  secondary 
instruction  at  that  tune,  the  number  of  students 

and  of  g 1  professors,  was  at  first  very  small; 

and  more  than  one-half  of  the  latter  were  for- 
eigners. The  native  prof essors  were  educated  in 
the  principal  pedagogical  institute,  which  was 
founded  at  St  Petersburg,  in  1804.  This  insti- 
tute did  not  have  a  long  existence;  for,  in  1819, 
it  was  changed  into  the  University  of  St.  Peters- 
burg. In  1832,  on  account  of  political  disturb- 
ances, the  Wilna  University  was  closed,  with 
the  exception  of  the  medical  faculty,  which  con- 
tinued to  exist  as  the  Medico-Surgical  Academy. 
In  its  place,  the  St.  Vladimir  University  of  Kief 
was  formed  from  the  lyceuin,  which  shortly  be- 
fore had  been  transferred  to  that  place  from 
Kivnienets.  Ill  1835,  a  new  university  law  was 
passed,  which  withdrew  from  the  universities  the 
supennteiidei.ee  of  the  other  schools,  and  gave  to 
a  particular  inspector  the  discipline  of  the  .-.in- 
dents. A  dec- f  the  emperor  Nicholas,  in  1849, 

limited  thenumberof  students  in  each  univer- 
sity to  300;  but  this  decree  was  revoked  in  ls.Mi. 
In' 1863,  a  new  general  law  for  the  imperial  uni- 
versities was  published,  intended  for  all  except 
that  of  Dorpat.  which  continued  to  be  governed 
by  its  special  charter  of  1820.  In  accordance 
with  this  law,  in  1865,  the  Russian  university  of 
Odessa,  previously  a  lyceum,  was  established  ; 
and,  in  1869,  Warsaw  University,  previously  a 
high  school.  According  to  the  new  law.  every 
university  must  be  composed  of  at  least  four 
faculties:  of  history  and  philology,  of  natural 
philosophy  and  mathematics,  of  law,  and  of 
medicine.  Prom  this  order,  however,  there  are 
many  deviations.  Thus  the  University  of  St. 
Petersburg  lias  no  medical  faculty;  but,  instead 
thereof,  a  faculty  of  oriental  languages.  In  the 
University  ot  Odessa,  the  medical  faculty  has  not 
yet  been  opened;  in  that  of  Dorpat,  there  is,  in 
addition  to  the  four  mentioned  above,  a  faculty 
of  I  'n  itestant  theology.  A  candidate  for  admis- 
sion to  the  university  must  be,  at  least,  11  years 
of  age,  and  must  possess  a  certificate  of  gradu- 
ation from  a  gymnasium.  The  entire  university 
course  comprises  5  years  in  the  medical  faculty, 
and  l  in  all  the  others. 

In  1804,  Alexander  I.  ordered  that  the  course 
of  instruction  of  some  of  the  gymnasia  should  be 
extended,  and  that  gymnasia  for  the  higher  sci- 
ences should  be  established,  as  stepping-stones 

time,  four  mch  institutes  were   founded,  chiefly 

a1  the  expen E  private  persons:  (1 1  that  of 

Y.iroslav.  in  1805,  which  was  changed  into  a 
l\c,  a, n  in  1833;   (2)  the  Volhyniau  gymnasium, 


founded  at  Kremenets,  in  1805,  changed  into  a 
lyceum  in  1820,  transferred  to  Kief  in  1832, and 
subsequently  changed  into  a  university  ;  (3)  the 
Lyceum  Richelieu,  founded  in  1817,  and  after- 
ward changed  into  a  university  ;  and  (4)  the 
Gymnasium  for  Higher  Learning,  founded  in 
Nezheen,  in  1820.  which  received  the  name  of 
lyceum  in  1832.  The  lyceums  under  the  minister 
of  public  instruction  have  three  classes,  each  for 
one  year ;  a  lyceum  belonging  to  the  Schools  of 
the  Empress  Maria  lias  four  classes,  of  one  and 
one  half  years  each ;  while  the  Lyceum  of  the 
Grand-duke  Nikolai,  in  Moscow,  has  an  eight 
years'  course. 

The  following  table  presents  the  statistics  of 
the  universities  for  1875  : 


Universities 

Insmicrs 

*— 

97 
65 

72 
42 
63 

75 

Moscow 

1,473 

Kasan 

Kief 

522 
859 

Warsaw 

830 

Of  the  total  number  of  students,  36  per  cent 
study  law;  31  per  cent,  medicine;  14  percent  at- 
tend the  course  of  mathematics  and  natural  phi- 
losophy ;  9  per  cent  are  free  hearers,  but  only  8 
per  cent  attend  the  historical  and  philological 
faculty.  The  remaining  2  per  cent  are  made  up 
of  the  theological  students  in  Dorpat  and  the 
students  of  oriental  languages  in  St.  Petersburg. 
The  number  of  lyceums,  in  1874,  according  to 
the  Russian  Annals,  was  5,  with  about  600 
students. 

Special  Instruction.  —  The  special  schools  be- 
long to  different  ministries.  The  following  sta- 
tistics are  for  dan.  1.,  1874.  There  are  4  higher 
theological  schools,  with  178  professors  and  446 
students;  51  intermediate  theological  schools. 
with  789  professors  and  13,103  students  ;  and 
187  lower  theological  schools,  with  1,375  profess- 
ors and  26,671  students  ;  7  higher.  25  interme- 
diate, and  31  lower  military  schools,  with  1,416, 
(1.330,  and  6.863  students,  respectively ;  7  naval 
schools,  with  1,109  students;  3  higher  and  16 
lower  agricultural  schools,  with  293  and  1,025 
students,  respectively;  6  higher  technical  schools, 
with  2,666  students,'  12  lower  technical  schools, 
5  schools  of  art  and  drawing,  3  schools  of  music 
and  the  drama,  4  business  colleges,  1  law  school, 
with  320  students,  and  3  schools  of  philology. 

( 'aucasia. — The  schools  of  Finland  (q.  v.)  and 
of  the  Caucasus  are  the  only  schools  in  the  whole 
empire  that  are  not  subject  to  the  Russian  govern- 
ment, but  to  their  own  school  authorities.  Cau- 
casia forms  one  school-district,  the  inspector  of 
which  is  responsible  to  the  governor  only.  In 
1862,  there  were,  in  Caucasia,  4  gymnasia,  20 
district  schools,  1  progymnasium,  18  elementary 
schools,  31  private  schools,  and  13  schools  belong- 
ing to  the  church,  making  a  total  of  87  schools, 


RUTGERS   COLLEGE 

with  7,362  pupils. —  See  Scram,  Pddagogische 
Efocuclopadie;   Routs  and  Pfister,   Real-En- 


of  Education,  L874  j  UkrontM  ties  VoUcsschvJr 
toesens,  1875. 

RUTGERS  COLLEGE,  at  New  Brunswick, 
N.J.,  under  the  control  of  the  Reformed  Church 

in  America,  was  founded  in  I  770.  It  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  and  an  endowment  of  about 
6400,01)11;  the  value  of  its  buildings,  grounds,  and 
apparatus  amounts  to  about  the  same  sum.  Its 
cabinets  and  apparatus  are  extrusive;  the  libra- 
ries contain  about  9,500  volumes.  There  are 
two  departments:  the  classical  or  college  proper, 
and  the  scientific  (state  college  of  agriculture 
and  the  mechanic  arts,  endowed  with  the  con- 
gressional land  grant).  The  latter  department  has 
three  courses :  civil  engineering  and  mechanics, 
chemistry  and  agriculture,  and  a  special  course  in 
chemistry.  There  is  an  extensive  model  farm. 
The  tuition  fee  iu  both  departments  is  $75  per 
annum.  There  are  a  number  of  beneficiary  funds 
for  the  aid  of  students  intended  for  the  ministry; 
and  40  students,  resident  in  the  state,  are  ad- 
mitted to  the  scientific  department  without 
charge.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  13  professors 
and  188  students  (131  classical  and  ."'7  scientific). 
The  Rev.  Wm.  Henry  Campbell.  1).  D.,  LL.  It- 
is  ,  L876)  the  president. 

RUTHERFORD  COLLEGE,  at  Happy 
Home,  Burke  Co.,  N.  <!.,  was  commenced  by 
its  present  and  only  president,  the  Rev.  1!.  L. 
Abernethy,  A.  M.,  in  1854,  and  was  chartered  as 
Rutherford  Academy  in  1 858.  In  1861,  under 
the  title  of  the  Rutherford  Seminary,  it  was  given 


SAINT  CHARLES'S  COLLEGE     751 

the  right  to  confer  degrees;  and,  in  1870,  it  was 
made  a  college.  It  is  a  college  for  young  men. 
with  a  ladies  department.  Each  sex  has  its  own 
curriculum  ;  but  the  females  recite  nn  ith  the  males 

in  ..II  those  classes  in  which  tl ourses  of  study 

are  the  same.  The  college  is  composed  of  six 
regular  schools  :  Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  En- 
glish literature  and  rhetoric,  natural  science,  and 
mental  and  moral  philosophy.  I  he  libraries  con- 
tain about  3.5oo  volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition 
ranges  from  SI  to  S-">  a  month.  The  children 
of  ministers  of  all  denominations  of  Christians, 
as  well  as  all  indigent  orphans,  are  instructed 
free  of  tuition  charges.  In  1874-  5,  there  were 
19  instructors  and  31'.)  students  (229  males  and 
90  females!,  mostly  of  the  preparatory  grade. 

RYERSON,  Adolphus  Egerton,  a  noted 
Canadian  clergyman  and  educator,  born  at 
Cliarlotteville.  near  Victoria,  in  the  province  of 
Ontario.  March  24.,  1803.  He  at  first  taught 
school,  but  in  1825  entered  the  Wesleyan  min- 
istry, and.  in  1  -'.".I.  assumed  the  editorship  of  the 
Cliristian  Gfuardiati,  a  Methodist  journal,  estab- 
lished by  himself.  In  1842,  he  was  appointed 
principal  of  Victoria  College.  Cobourg,  C.  W., 
and  two  years  afterward,  chief  superintendent 
of  education  for  Upper  Canada,  now  Ontario, 
which  position  he  still  occupies.  Mr.  Ryerson's 
services  as  a  superintendent  have  been  quite  dis- 
tinguished. The  public-school  system  which  is 
under  his  supervision  was  organized  upon  a  plan 

arranged  by  him,  in  1849;  and  hisscl I  reports 

have  uniformly  presented  very  valuable  material. 
He  has  also  published  a  history  of  Canada,  and 
has  written  a  history  of  the  British  UnitedEmpire 
Loyalists,  who  emigrated  from  the  United  States 
to  British  America  in  1783. 


SAINT  AUGUSTINE,  Missionary  Col- 
lege of,  at  Benicia,  ( 'al.,  an  Episcopal  institu- 
tion, was  founded  in  1867,  and  incorporated 
in  18G8.  The  course  of  study  is  arranged  for 
eight  forms  or  classes,  in  three  departments; 
namely,  primary,  grammar  school,  and  collegiate 
(in  which  ancient  and  modern  languages  are 
optional).  The  students  are  under  military  dis- 
cipline, and  instruction  is given  in  infantry,  caval- 
ry, and  artillery  tactics.  The  regular  charge  for 
board,  tuition,  etc.,  is  from  $350  to  $370  per 
annum.  In  1875,  there  were  12  instructors,  and 
89  students.  The  Rt.  Rev.  J.  H.  It.  Wingfield, 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  is  (1876)  the  rector. 

SAINT  BENEDICT'S  COLLEGE,  at 
Atchison.  Kan.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution 
under  the  superintendence  of  the  Benedictine 
Fathers,  was  founded  in  1859,  and  chartered  in 
1868.  It  has  a  preparatory,  a  commercial,  and  a 
classical  department.  The  regular  charge  for  tui- 
tion, board,  etc.,  is  890  per  sessii  in  of  five  months; 
for  tuition  alone,  825.  The  library  contains  2.000 
volumes.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were  6  instructors 
and  79  students.  The  Very  Rev.  ( tswald  Moos- 
mueller,  O.  S.  B.,  is  (1870)  the  president. 


SAINT  CHARLES  COLLEGE,  at  Grand 
Coteau,  l.a..a  l: an  Catholic  institution,  under 

was  founded  in  1830.  and  incorporated  in  1k.V_\ 
The  course  of  instruction  embraces  Latin,  Creek, 
English,  French,  poetry,  rhetoric,  history,  geog- 
raphy, mathematics,  natural  and  mental  philos- 
ophy, with  the  addition  of  the  usual  commercial 
branches.  It  had  the  highest  number  of  stu- 
dents in  1861,  just  before  the  breaking  out  of 
the  civil  war.  Recently  the  numbers  have  de- 
clined, owing  to  the  impoverished  state  of  the 
country.  The  libraries  contain  5,500  volumes. 
The  regular  charge  for  board,  tuition,  etc.,  is 
8250  a  year.  In  1876,  the  number  of  students 
was  35.  The  Rev.  R.  Ollivier ,  S.  J.,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

SAINT  CHARLES'S  COLLEGE,  near 
Ellicott  City, Md., under  Roman  ( latholic  control, 
was  chartered  in  1830,  and  organized  in  L848.  It 
was  founded  by  Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton, 
and  forms  the  petit  seminaire  and  classical  de- 
partment of  St.  Mary's  University  and  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  of  St.  Sulpice.  Baltimore.  The 
course  of  instruction  is  a  full  classical  one,  re- 


752     ST.  FRANCIS  XAVIER  COLLEGE 

quiring  a  period  of  6  years  for  those  who 
complete  it,  and  embracing  all  the  branches 
preparatory  to  the  higher  ecclesiastical  studies; 
such  as  Latin.  English.  Creek,  French,  German, 
belles-lettres,  mathematics,  sacred  and  profane 
history,  Christian  doctrine,  plain  chant,  and 
church  ceremonies.  The  libraries  contain  4,500 
volumes.  The  charge  fur  tuition,  board,  etc.,  is 
$90  per  half  session  of  five  months.  Jn  1875—6, 
there  were  12  instructors  and  17."'  students.  The 
Rev.S.  Ferte,  D.  D.,  is  [1876]  the  president. 

SAINT  FRANCIS  XAVIER,  College  of, 
in  New  York  City,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution 
conducted  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  was  founded  in  L847,  and  chartered  in 
1861.  It  is  supported  by  a  tuition  fee  of  $60 
per  annum  from  each  student.  Its  library  con- 
tains 16,000  volumes.  It  has  a  post-graduate 
course  of  one  year,  leading  to  the  degree  of  A. 
M.;  an  under  graduate  course  of  four  years,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  A.  1!.;  a  grammar  course  of 
three  years,  preparatory  to  the  preceding;  a  com- 
mercial course  of  three  years;  and  a  preparatory 
or  elementary  course,  for  beginners.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  26  instructors  and  456  students.  The 
following  have  been  the  presidents  of  the  college: 
the  Rev.  John  Larkin,  the  Rev.  John  Ryan,  the 
Rev.  Michael  Driseol.  the  Rev.  Joseph  Durthaller, 
the  Rev.  Joseph  Loyzance,  and  the  Rev.  Henry 

SAINT  IGNATIUS  COLLEGE,  in  San 
Francisco.  CaL,  was  opened  in  I  s.">5,  and  char- 
ter,'! in  L859.  It  is  a  Roman  Catholic  institution, 
conducted  by  the  Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus. 
The  course  of  studied  embraces  the  Greek.Latin, 
and  English  languages,  } try.  rhetoric,  elocu- 
tion, history,  geography,  arithmetic.  1 I,  keeping. 

penmanship,  mathematics,  chemistry,  and  mental, 
moral,  and  natural  philosophy.  The  study  of  the 
French  and  Spanish  languages  is  optional  'I  here 
is  also  a  preparatory  department.  The  regular 
tuition  fee  ranges  from  $3  to  $8  a  month.  In 
1H7.1 — (>,  there  were  22  instructors  and  758  stu- 
dents. The  Rev.  A.  Masnata,  S.  J.,  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

SAINT  IGNATIUS  COLLEGE,  in  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution  conducted 
by'members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  was  founded 
in  1870.  It  possesses  a  library  of  10,000  volumes; 
and  a  museum  containing  a  rare  and  valuable 
collection  of  minerals.  It  comprises  a  classical 
course  of  six  years,  corresponding  to  the  prepar- 
atory and  collegiate  departments  of  most  col- 
leges, a  commercial  course  of  four  years,  embra- 
cing all  the  branches  of  a  good  English  education; 
and  a  preparatory  or  elementary  course.  The 
cost  of  tuition  is  $60  a  year.  In  1874— 5,  there 
were  11  instructors  and  21  I  students.  The  pres- 
idents have  been  as  follows  :  the  Rev.  A.  Damen, 
S.  J.,  1870—72;  the  Rev.  F.  Coosemans,  S.  J., 
1872 — 4;  and  the  Rev.  J.  De  Blieck,  S.  J.,  since 
1874. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE,  at  Fordham, 
New  York  City,  was  founded  by  the  Rev.  John 
Hughes,  first  Roman  Catholic  archbishop  of  New- 
York,  and  was  opened  in  1841.  It  was  chartered 


SAINT  JOHNS  COLLEGE 

in  1846,  and  the  same  year  was  transferred  to  the 
Jesuits,  by  whom  it  has  since  been  conducted. 
It  is  supported  by  the  students'  fees  for  board 
and  tuition,  amounting  ordinarily  to  $300  per 
annum  ;  the  charge  to  day  scholars  is  $60  per 
annum.  The  college  library  contains  20,000  vol- 
umes, besides  which  the  students  have  the  use  of 
a  circulating  library  of  over  5,000  volumes.  There 
are  valuable  chemical  and  philosophical  ap- 
paratus, and  a  geological  and  niineralogical  cabi- 
net, with  about  2,500  specimens.  The  college 
combines  the  ordinary  features  of  preparatory, 
grammar,  and  commercial  schools  with  those  of 
a  university.  There  are  also  several  supplement- 
ary classes.  Students  are  received  at  any  age. 
In  1875 — 6,  there  were  21  instructors  and  178 
students.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows: 
the  Rev.  John  McCloskey,  now  Cardinal  Arch- 
bishopof  New  York;  the  Kev.  Ambrose  Manahan, 
I ).I).;  the  Rev.  Roosevelt  Bayley,  now  Archbishop 
of  Baltimore ;  the  Rev.  James  Early,  A.  M.;  the 
Rev.  Aug.  J.  Thebaud,  S.  J. ;  the  Rev.  John 
Larkin,  S.J. ;  the  Rev.  Remigius  J.  Tellier.S.  J.; 
the  Rev.  Edward  Doucet,  S.  J.;  the  Rev.William 
Moylau,  S.  J. ;  the  Rev.  Joseph  Shea,  S.  J.;  and 
the  Rev.  William  Gockeln,  S.  J.,  the  present  in- 
cumbent (1876). 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE  Brooklyn, 
N.  \'.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  conducted 
by  the  Priests  of  the  Congregation  of  the  Mis- 
sion, was  founded  in  1 870.  It  has  a  full  classical, 
an  English,  and  a  commercial  course,  including 
French  and  German.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $15  per 
quarter.  In  1875-  6,  there  were  0  instructors, 
and  145  students.  The  Rev.  P.  M.  O'Regan, 
C.  M..  is  (1876)  the  president. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE,  at  Annapolis, 
Md.,  was  chartered  in  1784,  and  opened  in  1789. 
From  I  861  to  1866,  it  was  closed  in  consequence 
of  the  civil  war.  It  is  supported  chiefly  byjstate 
appropriations,  at  present  amounting  to  $25,000 
a  year,  in  return  for  which  150  students  (6  from 
each  senatorial  district)  are  entitled  to  room  rent 
and  tuition  free  ;  and  50  of  these  (2  from  each 
senatorial  district)  are  entitled,  in  addition,  to 
gratuitous  board.  These  latter  are  required  to 
teach  school  within  the  state  for  not  less  than 
two  years  after  leaving  college.  For  those  not 
holders  of  scholarships,  the  annual  charge  for 
tuition,  board,  etc.,  is  $275;  for  tuition  alone  $60 
in  the  preparatory,  and  $90  in  the  collegiate 
department.  The  library  contains  5,000  volumes. 
The  collegiate  department  embraces  an  under- 
graduate course  of  four  years,  leading  to  the 
degree  of  A.  B.;  a  post-graduate  course  of  two 
years,  leading  to  the  degree  of  A.  M.;  and  select 
courses.  In  1875—6,  there  were  11  instructors, 
including  those  in  music  and  gymnastics,  and 
121  students  (69  collegiate  and  52  prepar- 
atory), of  whom,  including  the  50  who  receive 
gratuitous  board,  about  two-thirds  were  in- 
structed free.  The  number  of  alumni  was  481. 
The  principals  of  the  <  Jollege  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: John  McDowell,  LL.  D.  (appointed  in 
1790);the  Rev.  Bethel  Judd,  D.  D.  (1807);  the 
Rev.  Henry  Lyon  Davis,  D.  D.  (1820);  the  Rev. 


AIXT  JOHNS  <'<)!, LKGE 


ST.  LOUIS 


William  Rafferty.  1>.  I>.  (1824);  the  Rev.  Hector 
Humphreys,  1>.I>.  (1*31):  the  Lev.  Oleland  K. 
Nelson,  D.  D.  (1857);  Henry  Barnard,  LL.  D. 
(1866);  .lan.es  ( '.  Welling,  LL.  D.  (1867);  and 
James  M.  Garnett,  M.A.,  LL.D.  (1870). 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE,  4  miles  from 
St.  Joseph,  Stearns  ( !o.,  Minn.,  a  Roman  I  'atholic 
institution,  conducted  by  the  Benedictine  Fathers, 
was  founded  in   L857,  and  chartered  the  same 


753 
the 


Mauritius  Klostermann.  ( >.  S.  F„   is  [1*7 
rector  of  the  ( lollege. 

SAINT  JOSEPH'S  COLLEGE,  in  Buffalo, 
N.  Y,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution  conducted 
by  the  Christian  Brothers,  was  founded  in  1861. 
It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of  students,  the  reg- 
ular e  ha  rue  fur  hoard  and  tuition  being  8200  a 
year;  for  tuition  alone,  from  $16  to  $50  a  year. 
The  institution  comprises  three  departments: 
year,  under  the  name  of  St.  John's  Seminary,  primary,  2  years;  preparatory  collegiate,  4  years; 
hut  it  is  better  known  as  St.  John's  College.  I!y  and  collegiate,  I  years.  There  is  a  commercial 
an  act  of  the  legislature, approved  March  5.,  1869,  course,  and  facilities  are  afforded  for  instruction 
his  "authorized  to  confer  such  degrees  and  giant  in  music  and  drawing.  The  library  contains  2,500 
such  diplomas  as  are  usual  in  colleges  and  uni-  volumes.  In  L875-  6,  there  were  II  instructors 
versifies."  It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of  students,  and  318  students.  The  Rev.  Bro.  Joachim  is 
the   regular  charge  for  tuition,  hoard,  etc.,  being  J  (1876)  the  president. 

$90  per  se-siou  of  five  months.  The  institution  ST.  LAWRENCE  UNIVERSITY,  The, 
comprises  an  ecclesiastical,  a  classical,  a  scientific,  at  Canton,  N.  V„  chartered  and  organized  in 
a  commercial,  and  an  elementary  course.  The  1856,  is  under  Universalist  control.  It  comprises 
libraries  contain  about  2,000  volumes.  In  1*7-1 — 5,  a  college  of  letters  and  science,  and  a  theological 
there  were  L  5  instructors  and  168  students  (30  school,  independent  of  each  other  in  their  faculties, 
ecclesiastical,  and  138  classical  and  commercial),  and  in  the  instruction  and  government  of  their 
The  Rt.  Rev.  Alexius  Edelbrock,  O.  S.B.,  D.D.,  students.  Its  productive'  funds  amount  to 
is  (1876)  the  president.  $165,000,and  its  libraries  contain  7. 366  volumes. 

SAINT  JOHN'S  COLLEGE  OF  AR-  j  Roth  sexes  are  admitted  to  each  of  the  depart- 
KANSAS,  at  Little  Rock,  was  chartered  in  ments.  The  college  has  a  classical  and  a  scientific 
1850,  and  opened  in  1859.  It  was  founded  by  the  course,  each  of  four  years.  In  1875 — <i,  it  had  8 
Masonic  Fraternity  of  Arkansas,  and  has  been  instructors  and  54  students  (28  males  and  16  fe- 
sustained  by  the  Grand  Lodge  since  itsopening.  It  males);  the  theological  school  had  3  professors 
was  suspended  from  May.  1861,  to  October,  lsin.    and  2s  students.    The  Lev.  A.  G.  Gaines,  D.D., 


is  $50  per  annum,  except  to  sons  of  Masons  with- 
in the  jurisdiction  of  the  Grand  Lodge  of  Ar- 
kansas, who  are  instructed  without  charge.  The 
college  has  a  preparatory  course  of  three  years, 
a  course  for  A.  B.  (4  years),  a  course  for  Sc.  B. 
(3  years),  and  a  course  for  Ph.  B.  (2  years).  In 
1875—6,  there  were  3  instructors  and  55  stu- 
dents. R.  H.  Parham,  Jr.,  A.  M..  is  (1876)  the 
president. 

SAINT  JOSEPH'S  COLLEGE,  atTeutop- 
olis,  111.,  was  founded  in  1861,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Rt.  Rev.  H.  D.  Yunker,  I).  I).,  Roman 
Catholic  bishop  of  Alton,  and  is  under  the  direc- 


>)  th. 


ST.   LOUIS, 


ident  of  the  college,  and  tin' 
'.!).,  is  the  president  of  the 

he  chief  city  of  Missouri  and 
i  valley,  having  a  population, 
64,  and  an  estimated  popula- 
50.000. 


Edt 


History.— On  the  13th  of  June, 
1812,  the  Congress  of  the  United  Stales  passed 
an  act  to  set  apart   certain   lands  in  St.  Louis 
and  other  town-  in  Missouri,  "for  the  support  of 
schools  in  the  respective  towns  or  villages  afore- 
said."    In   lsl7.au  ad   was  approved  by  which 
a  board  of  trustees  for  the  schools  of  St.  Louis 
was   incorporated.      The    first    business  of    the 
hoard  was  to  define  and  take  possession  of  the 
school   lands  previously  given.     This  was  amat- 
tion  of  the  Franciscan  Fathers.     The  course  of    ter  of  some  difficulty,  as  the  original  act  convey- 
studies   embraces   the    Greek.    Latin.    English,    ing  the  land  contained   a  proviso  to  the  effect 
French,  and  German  languages  ;  rhetoric,  poetry,    that   the  rights  of  claimants  should  not  be  vio- 


composition,  history,  geography,  book-keeping 
arithmetic,  mathematics,  natural  philosophy 
natural  history,  drawing,  penmanship,  and  in- 
strumental ami  vocal  music.  The  study  of  Ger- 
man (for  English  students),  French,  book-keep- 
ing, drawing,  and  music,  is  optional.  It  is  an 
ecclesiastical  seminary  (designed  to  prepare  can 


and   such    claimants 
tin 


by   action    in    the 

of    the   land   for 

iplementary  acts  of 

compelled  them  to 


comprised  a  little  less  than  •">(» 
acres,  and  is  the  land  now  reported  annually  by 


didates  for  the  priesthood  for  the  study  of  phi-  the  board  of  public  schools,  as  "real  estate  helil 
losophy  and  theology),  and  admits  only  Catholic  for  revenue.'  A  new  school  board  was  created 
pupils;  but  the  course  also  furnishes  a  qualifica-  j  in  1833  by  the  legislature,  styled  the  ••  Hoard  of 
tion  for  secular  pursuits.  There  are  two  prepar-  I  President' and  Directors  of  the  St.  Louis  Public 
atory  and  four  collegiate  classes.  The  charge  for  Schools."  An  election  took  place,  the  same  year, 
tuition,  board,  etc..  is  $75  per  session  of  five  which  resulted  in  the  choice  of  six  school  direct- 
months  to  those  studying  for  the  priesthood,  and  ors,  Fdward  Bates  being  of  the  number. 
Slid  to  others.  In  1875—6,  there  were  10  in-  The  first  money  from  the  rent  of  the  school 
structors  and   112  students.    The  Very  Rev.  P.  I  lands  was  received  in  1834  ;    and,  the  following 


754  ST.  I 

year,  the  money  was  loaned,  by  permission  of 
the  legislature,  the  time  for  establishing  schools 
not  yet  having  arrived.  In  1837,  two  school- 
houses  were  built — the  south  and  the  north 
sell. ml -house — the  former  of  whirl)  is  Mill  stand- 
ing on  the  corner  of  Fourth  and  Spruce  -tints. 
The  latter  was  abandoned  in  1842,  and  was 
afterwards  burnt.  In  April,  1838,  the  first 
school  was  opened  ;  and,  shortly  after,  the  sec- 
ond. In  1S41.  the  third  school-house -was  built 
at  a  cost  of  $10,925,  an  expense  which  the 
board  was  very  much  embarrassed  to  meet 
In  1845,  two  inure  school-houses  were  built, and, 
the  following  year,  occupied.  Other  schools 
followed.  In  1849,  two  evening  schools  were 
opened.  The  first  high  school  was  established 
in  1853,  with  an  attendance  of  over  70  pupils. 
On  the  first  .Monday  in  June,  1849,  the  question 
of  supporting  the  public  .schools  by  taxation  was 
voted  upon  by  the  people,  the  legislature  having 
so  directed,  in  answer  to  a  petition  from  a  com- 
mittee of  the  school  board.  The  anxiety  felt  by 
the  friends  of  popular  education  in  regard  to 
this  election  proved  to  be  unnecessary,  as  the  law 
was  endorsed  by  a  large  majority;  and  the  first, 
tax  under  it,  amounting  to  SIS.OOO,  was  col- 
lected the  following  year.  At  the  session  of 
1853 — 4,  the  legislature  repealed  the  law  by 
which  St.  Louis  was  prevented  from  participation 
in  the  state  school  fund.  This  law  had  been 
passed  on  the  erroneous  supposition  that  the 
special  grant  of  land  made  to  the  city  by  Con- 
gress, in  1.812,  would  be  ample  for  sel 1  pur- 
poses. On  the  establishment  of  the  high  school, 
the  same  opposition  to  it  was  encountered  thai 
has  been  observed  in  other  cities  during  the  first 
half  of  the  century.  This  opposition  arose  from 
a  conception,  common  at  that  time,  that  it  was 
unjust  to  tax  the  people  generally  for  any  thing 
beyond  elementary  instruction.  In  the  school 
board,  fortunately,  were  several  men  of  sufficient 
foresight  and  firmness  to  disregard  the  clamor 
of  the  hour,  and  to  provide  for  the  new-  school 
in  the  most  efficient  manner.  The  wisdom  of 
their  action  is  proved  by  the  fact  that,  in  the 
words  of  the  present  superintendent,  "  no  other 
measure  ever  adopted  by  the  Hoard  has  had  so 
powerful  an  influence  as  this  in  popularizing  and 
strengthening  the  public  schools."  In  1855,  the 
school  buildings  were  found  insufficient  to  ac- 
commodate the  children  of  the  city,  and  primary 
schools  were  established  in  leased  bouses.  The 
success  of  the  schools  of  St.  Louis  now  attracted 
attention  throughout  the  state,  and  a  law  was 
passed  by  the  legislature,  appropriating  25  pier 
cent  of  the  state  revenue  to  the  support  of  free 
schools.  Hy  this  apportionment.  St.  Louis  re- 
ceived $27,456.51,  in  1854.  The  schools  had 
now  been  in  operation  about  20  years,  and  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  pupils  caused  the 
want  which  always  attends  this  increasi — that 
of  trained  teachers— to  be  severely  felt  In  1857, 
accordingly,  the  first  normal  sel I  was  estab- 

li  !i<  I  a  in  I  Ira  Hivoll  became  superintendent  of 
schools.  The  city  had  now  gone  so  far  in  the 
completion  of  its  school  system,  that  the  remain- 


ing steps  were  easy.  The  Franklin  school-house 
was  begun  in  1857,  but  was  not  finished  till  the 
following  year.  It  was  built  on  the  Lancasteriau 
plan,  then'  extensively  used  in  nearly  all  of  the. 
large  cities  of  the  I  uion,  and  was  the  last  house 
SO  built  by  the  city,  the  era  of  graded  schools, 
which  required  a  different  plan,  having  begun. 
In  the  summer  of  1857,  the  new  superintendent 
went  upon  a  tour  of  observation  through  the 
principal  eastern  cities,  and  on  his  return,  drew 
up  a  comprehensive  plan  for  the  reorganization 
of  the  school  system,  in  every  thing  that  related 
to  the  construction  and  size  of  school-houses, 
the  style  of  furniture  and  appointments, 
the  mode  of  organization  and  classification, 
methods  of  instruction,  etc.;  and  the  principles 
then  discussed  and  agreed  upon  were  made 
the  basis  upon  which  an  entire  reconstruction 
of  the  system  was  begun.  It  was  ordered  that 
the  school-houses  should  be  built  thereafter 
according  to  the  plan  for  graded  schools,  that 
they  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  of  uni- 
form size,  and  that  tluv  should  be  the  property 
of  the  city:  that  pupils  should  be  classified 
according  to  attainment ;  ami  that  there  should 
be  but  one  organization  and  one  principal  teacher 
for  each  building.  The  city,  at  that  time,  con- 
tained 135,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  25,000 
were  children  of  school  age;  yet  the  schools 
could  accommodate  only  5,3(11.  This  insuffi- 
ciency of  the  school  accommodations  was  forci- 
bly presented  to  the  board  by  Mr.  Hivoll  in  his 
report  for  1858.  and  the  erection  of  several  new 
buildings  was  urgently  recommended.  Eight 
new  school-houses  were,  accordingly,  begun,  and 
shortly  after,  four  of  the  old  buildings  were  re- 
constructed, and  made  to  conform  to  the  new 
plan.     The  changes    went    steadily   on   till    all 

ll Id  sel 1-1  louses  were  adapted'  to  the  graded 

system.  The  German  language  was  introduced 
into  five  of  the  public  schools  of  the  city,  in 
1  S('i4,  as  an  optional  study  for  pupils  who  had 
advanced  in  English  as  far  as  the  •■Second 
Header  and  Primary  Geography."  A  serious 
difficulty  immediately  presented  itself — that  of 
finding  teachers  properly  qualified  to  give  such 
instruction.  Several  were  obtained,  however, 
from  the  German-American  schools  of  Cincin- 
nati ;  and  the  first  year,  450  German  children 
received  instruction  in  their  native  language. 
The  following  year,  this  study  was  introduced 
into  two  more  schools,  and  the  office  of  German 
Assistant  Superintendent  was  created.  In  1866, 
the  organization  of  German  classes  was  author- 
ized in  any  school  containing  100  German-speak- 
ing pupils  who  requested  it,  and  its  introduction 
in  the  study  of  object  lessons  only,  was  directed 
in  all  schools  of  the  lowest  grade.  This  action 
met  with  considerable  opposition  on  the  ground 
that  the  homogeneity  of  feelings  and  interests  be- 
tween  German  residents  and  natives  required 
that  the  children  of  the  former  should  have  the 
whole  time  during  the  first  year  in  school  to  be- 
come familiar  with  English.  It  was  pointed 
out,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  absence  of  the 
study  of   German    was    having    the    effect   of 


keeping  German  children  out  of  the  schools. 
Whatever  the  cogency  of  these  opposite  views 
may  have  been,  the  study  of  German  spread 
rapidly  till,  in  1870,  the  number  of  pupils  re- 
ceiving instruction  in  it  was  more  than  6,000. 
About  this  time,  also,  the  study  of  German  and 
geography  was  made  optional  with  the  pupil  in 
the  highest  grade  of  the  district  school,  and 
American  pupils  were  permitted  to  com- 
mence the  study  of  German  in  any  grade.  This 
led  to  an  increase  in  the  number  of  Amer- 
ican pupils  studying  German,  the  number. 
in  1872,  being,  L,356.  The  German  language  is 
now  taught  in  every  school  in  the  city  except 
the  colored  schools.  1  difficulties  have,  from  time  to 
time,  arisen  from  the  introduction  of  this  study, 
the  first  being  in  regard  to  the  comparative 
grades  of  German  and  English  classes  ;  but  this 
was  met  by  a  rule  of  the  board  which  required 
that  pupils  studying  Herman  should  belong,  in 
this  branch  of  instruction,  to  the  same  grade  a  < 
in  their  English  studies.  The  system  of  parallel 
grading  thus  adopted,  supplemented  by  improve- 
ments looking stca  lily  towards  a  practical  rather 
than  a  theoretical  know  ledge  of  the  language,  has 
produced  an  increased  interest  in  the  study, 
till,  in  1875,  this  department  contained  over 
17,000  pupils,  one-third  of  whom  were  Amer- 
icans, taught  by  7,'i  teachers.  —  Another  im- 
provement, due  to  the  foresight  and  energy  of 
Mr.  Divoll,  is  the  Public  School  Library,  which 
was  founded  in  1865.  Beginning  at  that  time 
with  a  miscellaneous  collection  of  453  volumes, 
it  numbered  3(5,507  volumes,  in  1874,  with  an 
annual  membership  of  5,477.  The  establish- 
ment of  a  kindergarten  in  connection  with  the 
public  schools,  was  decided  upon  between  the 
years  1872  and  1873.  The  experiment  was 
made  at  the  Des  Peres  School,  and  proving  suc- 
cessful, was  soon  repeated  in  two  others.  Two 
difficulties  were  at  once  encountered  :  the  apathy 
towards  the  schools  of  the  poorer  classes,  for 
whose  benefit  they  were  established,  and  the 
comparative  costliness  of  this  kind  of  school.  The 
first  difficulty  was  soon  overcome;  the  second 
remains,  as  it  always  will,  a  stumbling-block  to 
those  who  consider  the  mere  question  of  expense 
in  dollars  and  cents,  and  take  no  account  of  the 
kind  of  instruction  imparted,  as  compared  with 
that  furnished  at  a  cheaper  rate.  The  advantages 
derived  from  the  kindergarten,  as  stated  in  the 
published  reports,  are  a  readier  submission  to 
school  discipline,  an  increase  of  average  intel- 
ligence, and  a  special  aptitude  for  arithmetic, 
drawing,  natural  science,  and  language — the  last 
shown  in  a  quicker  comprehension  and  greater 
ability  to  express  ideas. — The  first  superintendent 
of  schools  was  John  W.  Tice  (1854 — 7) ;  the  next 
was  Ira  Divoll  (1857 — 68)  ;  his  successor  was 
William  T.  Harris,  the  present  incumbent,  who 
was  appointed  in  lsils. 

8b !  System. —  The  entire  control  and  man- 
agement of  the  public  schools  is  committed  to 
The  Board  of  President  and  Directors  of  the 
St.  Louis  Public  Schools.  This  board  consists 
of  26  members — two  from  each  ward — who  are 


)UIS  755 

elected  for  3  years,  one-third  going  out  of  office 
each  year.  A  s>ipi-,-i,/i,  „,/,■, ,t  of  juiblic  schools 
is  elected  annually  by  the  board,  whose  dutj  it 
is  to  exercise  a  general  supervision  over  the  public 
schools  of  the  city,  visiting  and  examining  them 
for  this  purpose,  and  reporting  upon  their  con- 
dition quarterly,  or  whenever  required  by  the 
board.  He  appoints  two  assistant  superintend- 
ents, one  of  whom  must  be  able  to  speak  Ger- 
man. The  school  revenue  is  derived  from  a 
state  school  fund,  rent  of  lands  given  by  the 
general  government,  a  four  or  five  mill  tax  (the 
amount  varying  from  year  to  year)  on  each 
dollar  of  the  city  property,  and  fines  in  criminal 
cases.  The  two  sexes  are  educated  together. 
All  religious  or  sectarian  instruction  is  prohib- 
ited. The  length  of  the  school  year  is  40  weeks; 
the  school  age  is  from  6  to  16  years.  The  school 
system  comprises  three  grades  of  schools — the 
district,  the  normal,  and  the  high  school,  the 
former  composed  of  a  primary,  an  intermediate, 
and  a  grammar  department,  all  in  the  same 
building.  Owing  to  the  overcrowding  of  the 
schools,  in  1866  and  subsequently,  a  system  of 
half-time  sessions  was  begun  in  the  first  year  of 
the  primary  school  in  some  districts,  and  is  still 
on  trial.  Hy  this  arrangement,  in  crowded  dis- 
tricts, a  slight  addition  to  the  teaching  force  is 
all  that  is  needed  to  supply  the  necessary  in- 
struction, one  set  of  pupils  coining  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  another  in  the  afternoon.  As  its  action 
is  to  diminish  the  school  hours  of  the  smallest 
children  only,  it  is  thought  to  be  beneficial.  The 
course  of  study  in  the  district  school  comprises 
reading,  spelling,  writing,  drawing,  vocal  music, 
descriptive  and  physical  geography,  mental  and 
written  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  history 
and  constitution  of  the  United  States,  composi- 
tion, and  outlines  of  physics  and  natural  history. 
In  the  high  school,  the  course  of  study  is  a  gen- 
eral and  classical  one  of  4  years;  in  the  normal 
school  the  course  covers  a  period  of  2  years,  the 
branchespursni  d  beingprincipallyadvanced  stages 
of  the  district-school  Indies,  with  the  addition  of 
Latin,  elocution,  human  anatomy  ami  physiology, 
algebra,  general  history,  geometry,  mental  philos- 
ophy. English  literature,  practical  instruction  in 
tliete.iclimeof  allot  these. and general  iiiMni'  tion 
in  the  theory  and  art  of  teaching.  In  the  even- 
ing schools,  and  the  O'Fallou  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute, which  serves  as  a  high  school  for  them. 
the  course  of  study  inclines  toward  elementary 
English  branches  and  technological  instruction. 
The  session  of  the  evening  schools  is  4  months. 
The  rapid  growth  of  these  schools — the  increase 
being  from  1,149,  in  1861,  to  5.751.  in  1875— is 
attributed  to  their  intimate  relation  to  the 
Public  School  Library,  a  year's  membership  in 
which  is  granted  to  each  student  who  attends 
an  evening  school  punctually  60  evenings  of  the 
course,  and  maintains  a  satisfactory  standing 
therein.  The  certificate  of  such  membership  is 
equivalent  to  one-third  payment  of  the  cost  of 
life  membership.  Certificates  of  the  former  kind 
are  thus  obtained  annually  by  more  than  1,000 
students. 


rr>(j 


SAINT  LOUIS  UNIVERSITY 


The  number  of  schools  in  the  city  is  as  fol- 
lows:  district  schools,  44 ;  high  schools  and 
branches,  6;  normal  school,  1;  evening  schools, 
2  i  ;  colored  schools.  6  ;  kindergartens,  12  :  total, 
93.  The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  for 
1875  are  as  follows : 

Number  of  children  ofBchool  age 95,539 

"       •<        "        enrolled 41,692 

Average  daily  attendance .24,43s 

Number  of  teachers,  male-; 00 

females 594 

Total • 654 

....  $849,513.24 
....  $815,413.89 
.,    .$2,386,620.44 


Ticceipts  (IsT.Vi 

Expenditure*  (ls7j) 

Total  value  of  school  property. 

There  are  about  70  denominational  schools  in 
St.  Louis  under  the  control  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic and  other  churches,  and  a  number  of  private    the  1 


SAINT  VINCENT'S  COLLEGE 

number  of  students,  in  1876,  was  320.  Bro.  Justin 

ST.  MARY'S  COLLEGE,  at  St.  Mary's, 
Marion  Co..  Ky..  a  Roman  Catholic  institu- 
tion, conducted  by  ecclesiastics  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Resurrection  of  Our  Lord,  was 
founded  in  1821.  It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of 
pupils.  The  regular  charge  for  board,  tuition. 
etc.,  is  $200  a  year  ;  for  tuition  alone  Sill.  It 
has  a  preparatory,  a  commercial,  ami  a  collegiate 
course.  In  1875 — 0.  there  were  8  instructors 
ami  10.'!  students.    The  Rev.D.  1'enncssy,  C.R., 

SAINT  MEINRAD'S  COLLEGE,  at 
St.  Meinrad,  Spencer  I  !o.,  Ind..  founded  in  1854, 


St.  M< 


schools  and  academies.  In  ; 
stitutions  for  special  and  high 
tioned  under  the  head  of  Mi 


sessed  of  a  library  of  3,000  volumes  and  a  large 
museum;  the  Missouri  Historical  Society,  found- 
ed in  1  hi;5  ;  and  three  public  libraries,  special 
ami  general,  with  an  aggregate  of  nearly  80,000 
volumes. 

SAINT  LOUIS  UNIVERSITY,  in  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  con- 
ducted by  members  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  was 
founded  in  1829,  and  chartered' in  1832.  It  is 
supported  by  the  fees  of  students,  the  charge  for 
tuition,  board,  etc., being  $280  a  year,  and  for 
tuition  alone,  from  S  10  to  SCO.  It  has  a  classical 
course  of  6  years,  corresponding  to  the  prepara- 
tory and  collegiate  departments  of  most  colleges, 
and  a  commercial  course  of  4  years,  embracing 
all  the  branches  of  a  good  English  education. 
There  is  also  a  preparatory  or  elementary  class. 
The  library  belonging  to  the  institution  numbers 
over  1.6,500  volumes.  The  select  libraries,  open 
to  the  students,  form  a  separate  collection  of 
over  8.000  volumes.  In  187o— 6.  there  were  22 
instructors  and  353  students.  The  presidents  of 
the  university  have  been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  P. 

J.  Verhai u.  S.J.,  1829—36;  the  Rev.  J.  A. 

Elet,  S.  J.,  1830 — 10  ;  the  Rev.  J.  Vandevelde, 
S.  J.,  1840—43;  the  Rev.  G.  A.  Carrell,  S.  J., 
]  8411—7  ;  the  Rev.  .1.  B.Druyts,  S.  J.,1847— 54  ; 
the  Rev.  J.  S.  Verdin,  S..I.,  is.".  I  9;  the  Rev. 
P.  Coosemans,  S.  J.,  1859—02 ;  the  Rev.  T. 
O'Neil,  S.  J.,  1862—8;  the  Rev.  P.  II.  Stunte- 
beck,  S.  J.,  1868—71 ;  the  Rev.  J.  Zealand,  S.  J., 
1871 — 4;  the  Rev.  L.  Bushart.  S.  J.,  since  1874. 

SAINT  MARY'S  COLLEGE,  a  Roman 
Catholic  institution  in  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  con- 
ducted  by  the  Christian  Brothers,  was  founded 
in  I  si;::. '  It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of  .students. 
the  regular  charge  for  board,  tuition,  etc.,  per 
ter f   five  months  being  $125,     It  has  a  pre- 

panitorv.  a  commercial,  and  a  collegiate  depart- 
in  it.  the  last  with  a  classical  and  a  scientific 
course.   The  library  contains 3,000  volumes.   The 


bey,  and  is 
Fathers  of 
supported 

to  $90  per 

tuition.    It 


by  the  fees  of  students,  amounting 
session  of  five  months  for  board  and 
is  the  seminary  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Diocese 
of  Yineennes,  in  which  the  priests  of  that  dio- 
cese are  educated,  and  offers  a  full  curse  of  En- 
glish, commercial,  classical,  and  theological  stud- 
ies. The  library  contains  6,000  volumes.  The 
number  of  students,  in  1876,  was  80.  The  ab- 
bot,or  superior.of  the  monastery  is  the  principal 
of  the  college ;  he  appoints  one  of  the  Fathers 
to  act  as  president,  or  prefect  of  studies  and 
morals.  The  present  prefect  (1876)  is  the  Rev. 
O.  Isidore  llobi.  U.S.  I'...  appointed  in  1871. 

SAINT  STEPHEN'S  COLLEGE,  at  An- 
andale,  Dutchess  Co..  N.Y.,  was  founded  in  1860. 
It  is  an  academic  body  composed  i  if  religious  men 
—  trustees,  professors,  and  students  —  who  are 
communicants  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
( 'hurch.  The  religious  culture  of  the  students  is 
a  prominent  object.  Its  special  design  is  the 
classical  education  of  candidates  for  the  ministry 
of  the  Church.  It  is  chiefly  supported  by  the 
contributions  of  friends.  The  only  charge  to 
students  is  $225  per  year  for  board,  etc.  The 
college  has  valuable  philosophical  apparatus,  and 
a  library  of  2,000  volumes.  In  L875— 6,  there 
were  8  instructors  and  74  students  (45  collegiate 
and  29  preparatory).  The  presidents  have  been 
as  follows  :  the  Rev.  Geo.  F.  Seymour,  D.  D., 
1860— 61;  the  Rev.  Thos..Richey,  D.D.,  1861— 3; 
and  (1876)  the  Rev.  Robert  B.  Fairbairn.  D.  D., 
LL.D.,  since  1863. 

SAINT  VINCENT'S  COLLEGE,  at  Cape 
Girardeau,  Mo.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution 
conducted  by  the  Priests  of  the  Congregation  of 
the  Mission,  was  chartered  in  1843.  It  has  a 
theological  and  a  collegiate  department.  The 
curriculum  of  studies  in  the  collegiate  depart- 
ment covers  five  years,  and  embraces  a  complete 
couisc  of  English  and  classical  literature.  Ger- 
man. French.  Italian.  Spanish,  and  instrumental 
music  are  optional.  I  Ihristian  doctrine  is  taught 
throughout  the  course.  The  library  contains 
5,500  volumes.  The  regular  charge  for  tuition, 
board,  etc..  is  S2.".0  a  year:  for  tuition  alone.  $40. 
In  1-7.'  6,  there  were  L 2  instructors,  and  125 
students  (10  theological).  The  Rev.  J.  \V.  Hickey, 
C.  M..  is  (1876)  the  president. 


SAINT  VINCENT'S  COLLEGE 

SAINT  VINCENT'S  COLLEGE,  at  Beat- 

ty,  Westmoreland  Co.,  Pa.,  2  miles  from  Latrobe, 
is  a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  founded  in  1846 
by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Boniface  Wimmer,  0.  S.  B-,  of 
St.  Vincent's  Abbey,  and  incorporated  in  1870. 
It  is  conducted  by  the  Benedictine  Fathers, 
under  the  immediate  supervision  of  its  founder. 
There  are  four  distinct  courses  of  study:  the 
theological,  the  philosophical,  the  classical,  and 
the  commercial,  besides  an  elementary  school  for 
beginners.  In  all  these,  special  attention  is  paid 
to  religious  instruction.  The  German,  French, 
Italian,  and  Spanish  languages  are  optional. 
The  regular  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  is 
$00  per  session  of  live  months.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  37  instructors  and  .'{(Mi  students  (ec- 
clesiastical course,  38;  philosophical,  30;  classical, 
152;  commercial,  04;  elementary.  22).  The  Rev. 
Hilary  Pframgle,  O.  S.  B.,  is  (1870)  the  director 
of  the  college. 

SAINT  XAVIER  COLLEGE,  in  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio,  was  established  in  1831, by  the  Rt.  Rev. 
E.  D.  Fenwick,  1).  I).,  the  first  Roman  Cath- 
olic Bishop  of  ( lincinnati,  under  the  name  of  The 
Athenaeum.  In  1840,  it  was  transferred  to  the 
Fathers  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  who  have  con- 
ducted it  ever  since  under  its  present  title.  It 
was  incorporated  in  1842.  The  college  library 
numbers  about  12.000  volumes.  There  are,  also, 
select  libraries  for  the  use  of  the  students.  The 
course  of  instruction  embraces  four  departments: 
the  collegiate,  academic,  commercial, and  prepar- 
atory. The  regular  tuition  fee  is  800  a  year. 
In  1875 — 0,  there  were  1  I  instructors  and  202 
students  (54  collegiate,  101  academic.  90  com- 
mercial, and  17  preparatory).  The  presidents, 
since  L840,  have  been  as  follows:  John  Elet, 
7  years;  Jno.  De  Blieck,  3;  [si  lore  Boudreaux,  3; 
John  Blox,  1;  George  A.  Carrel,  2 ;  Maurice 
Oakley,  5  ;  Jno.  Schultz,  4  :  Walter  II.  Hill.  3  ; 
Thos.  O'Neil,  2;  Leopold  Bushart,  3;  and  the 
Rev.  Edward  A.  Wiggins.  S.  J.,  the  present  in- 
cumbent (1876),  since  I  374. 

SALADO  COLLEGE,  at  Salado,  BeU  Co., 
Tex.,  was  founded  in  1859  by  a  joint  stock 
association.  It  is  not  denominational.  It  is 
supported  by  tuition  fees,  which  range  from  $10 
to  .525  per  session  of  five  months  for  the  regular 
branches.  It  admits  both  sexes,  and  has  a  pre- 
paratory and  a  collegiate  department.  In  1874 — 5, 
there  were  5  instructors  and  204  students  (112 
males  and  92  females).  The  presidents  of  the 
college  have  been  as  follows:  James  L.  Smith,  to 
1874;  Samuel  I).  Sanders,  1874—6;  and  0.  IL 
Jlc'lmber,  A.  M.,  since  June  1876. 

SALZMANN,  Christian  Gotthilf,  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  educators  of  Germany, 
was  born  June  1.,  174  t.  at  Sommerda,  and  died 
Oct.  31.,  1811.  Having  studied  theology,  he 
became  pastor,  in  1768,  of  a  Lutheran  church  al 
Rohrborn,  near  Erfurt;  and.  in  I  772,  of  one  of 
the  churches  in  the  city  of  Erfurt.  The  writings 
of  Rousseau  and  Basedowmade  a  strong  impres- 
sion on  his  mind;  and,  in  1781,  he  resigned  his 
pastorate,  in  order  to  connect  himself  with  the 
Philanthropin   (q.  v.).     In  consequence  of   the 


SAN    FRANCISCO 


757 


dissensions  and  confusion  which  arose  in  the 
Philanthropin.  he  left  it  in  L784,  and  established, 
at  a  villa  purchased  by  him  at  Seimepfenthal. 
near  Gotha,  a  new  educational  institution,  for 
the  sons  of  persons  belonging  to  the  higher 
classes  of  society.  The  literary  reputation  which 
Salzmann  had  already  acquired  by  the  publica- 
tion of  several  pedagogical  works,  the  efficient 
co-operation  of  an  excellent  wife  and  of  several 
eminent  educators,  as  Gutsmuths  (q.  v.),  I.enz. 
Weisscnliorn.  and  the  three  brothers  Ausfeld, 
soon  made  this  institution  one  of  the  most  fa- 
mous in  all  Germany,  and  attracted  pupils  from 
all  parts  of  Europe.  In  course  of  time,  his  son, 
Karl  Salzmann.  and  several  of  his  daughters  and 
sons-in-law  took  an  active  part  in  the  management 
of  the  institution,  which  thus,  to  a  degree  rarely 
equaled  in  the  history  of  education,  possessed 
the  character  of  an  enlarged  family  circle.  After 
Salzmann's  death,  his  son  Karl  assumed  the 
direction  of  the  school;  and,  in  1848.  he  was 
succeeded  by  Wilhelm  Ausfeld.  a  grandson  of 
the  founder.  A  collection  of  the  educational  and 
juvenile  works  of  Salzmann,  which  are  highly 
esteemed,  has  been  published  at  Stuttgart,  in  12 
vols.  ( I  845—6).  Salzmann  was  by  far  the  most 
successful  among  the  Philanthropinists,  Wing 
especially  distinguished  for  common  sense,  mod- 
eration,and  perseverance.  The  school  established 
by  him,  is  the  only  one  among  the  original  Phil- 
anthropinic  institutions  which  has  survived  to 
the  present  day.  His  first  pupil  at  Seimepfen- 
thal was  Karl  Kittcr.tl,  -  founder  of  comparative 
geography,  who  always  gratefully  remembered 
the  indelible  impressions  which  he  had  received 
from  Gutsmuths,  his  teacher  in  geography. 

SANDWICH  ISLANDS.  See  Hawaiian 
Islands. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  the  metropolis  of  the 
state  of  California,  and  the  largest  city  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  having  a  population,  in  1870,  of 
149,473,  estimated,  in  1*75.  at  234,000. 

Educational  History. — The  first  systematic 
instruction  given  in  San  Francisco  was  that  at 
the  mission  Dolores,  which  was  founded  by  the 
Franciscan  Brothers,  in  Oct.,  1776.  This  instruc- 
tion, however,  was  chiefly  religious,  and  was 
given  to  a  favored  few.  The  first  English  school 
in  the  city  was  opened  in  April.  1847,  in  a 
small  shanty  erected  on  the  Plaza.  It  was  a 
private  institution,  and  was  supported  by  tuition 
fees  and  voluntary  contributions.  Nearly  all 
the  children  in  the  city  (20  or  30  in  number) 
received  instruction  there.  This  school  was  con- 
tinued but  a  few  months,  however:  and.  in  the 
autumn  of  the  same  year,  the  citizen.-  - 
a  public  school.  This  was  opened  in  a  small, 
one-storv  building,  which  %vas  used  for  various 
purposes  till  Is  is,  when  the  discover}  of  gold  in 


'3d 


All 


:t    school   in    his   church,   which    ho 
a  few   months.     This  was  followed  bj 

if  J.  C.  I'elton.  who  i lucted  ii  as 

iterprise  from  t  >ctober,  1849,^0  April, 


758 


SAN   FRANCISCO 


1850,  when  it  was  marie  a  public  school  by  an 
act  of  the  common  council.  This  school  opened 
with  only  3  pupils,  but  the  number  increased 
rapidly  till  1850,  when  the  disastrous  fires  of  that 
and  the  following  year  broke  up  the  school.  The 
Happy  Valley  school,  situated  near  the  corner 
of  Second  and  Minna  streets,  was  opened  in 
July,  1850.  This  soon  became  a  flourishing 
school  of  about  100  pupils,  but  the  great  tires  of 
1851  caused  its  suspension.  It  was  supported 
by  tuition  fees  and  voluntary  contributions;  but, 
as  it  received  a  small  appropriation  from  the 
common  council,  the  children  of  the  poor  re- 
ceived free  instruction  there.  Another  school  of 
the  same  kind,  i.  e.,  partly  private  and  partly 
public,  was  established  in  Spring  V alley,  in  1  !-C>  I . 
This  is  now  the  Spring  Valley  Primary  School. 
A  few  other  small  schools  were  taught  during 
1850  and  1851,  and  several  large  Catholic 
parochial  schools  were  also  established.  —  The 
first  extended  provision  for  a  system  of  free 
schools  was  made  September  25.,  1851,  when 
the  common  council  passed  an  ordinance  author- 
izing the  organization,  support,  and  regulation 
of  common  schools.  Under  this  ordinance, 
Thomas  J.  Nevins  was  appointed  superintend- 
ent, and  James  Denman  the  first  teacher.  The 
first  board  of  education  was  elected  in  October 
following  ;  and,  at  the  end  of  the  school  year  in 
November,  1852,  seven  schools  had  been  estab- 
lished, with  an  attendance  of  791  pupils.  At 
that  time,  the  number  of  children  in  the 
city  between  the  ages  of  4  and  18,  was  2,050; 
and  the  average  number  attending  the  schools 
was  145.  In  1853,  the  amount  expended  for 
the  support  of  the  sehools  was  So5,040,the  aver- 
age number  of  pupils  being  1,182.  The  first 
high  school  was  opened  August  \i'<..  1856,  with 
80  pupils — 35  boys  and  45  girls.  The  usual  op- 
position to  this  school,  on  the  ground  that  the 
people's  money  should  be  spent  for  elementary 
instruction  only,  was  at  once  encountered,  but 
rapidly  passed  away  upon  an  exhibition  of  the 
substantial  benefits  conferred  by  the  school.  In 
June,  L864,  this  school  was  divided  into  a  boys' 
and  a  girls'  school,  in  separate  buildings.  During 
the  same  year,  the  city  was  divided  into  7  gram- 
mar-school districts;  and  the  classes  in  each  were 
placed  under  the  supervision  of  a  grammar 
master,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  greater  uni- 
formity and  ellirieney  in  classification  and  in- 
struction. In  1867,  a  normal  training  class  for 
teachers  was  organized  ;  but,  for  want  of  ap- 
preciation by  the  board  of  education,  it  was  dis- 
continued. In  1868,  graded  evening  schools 
were  established.  In  l>s7'J  3,  instruction  in 
Flench  and  Ocnnan  was  introduced  into  nearly 
all  the  public  schools,  the  study  of  one  or  the 
other  language,  in  some  eases,  and  in  others,  of 
both,  being  compulsory;  but,  in  February,  1874, 
the  study  of  any  language  but  English  was  pro- 
hibited, except  in  the  Cirls'  and  the  Boys'  High 
School.  In  July  of  the  latter  year,  the  study  of 
l-'ivnrh  and  German  was  again  introduced  into 
four  primary  and  four  grammar  schools.  A 
Chinese  school  was  organized  in  1859,  but  was 


never  popular  with  the  class  it  was  intended  to 
benefit.  In  1860,  it  was  converted  into  an  even- 
ing school,  and  as  such  was  continued  till  1871, 
when  it  was  suspended.  Two  colored  schools 
were  established — one  in  1854,  the  other  in  1871; 
but,  in  1875,  all  colored  schools  were  abolished, 
and  their  pupils  were  transferred  to  the  other 
schools  of  the  city.  Evening  schools,  on  the 
contrary,  have  steadily  grown  in  public  favor, 
till  they  are  now  regarded  as  "  the  most  useful 
and  prosperous  schools  in  the  city."  The  city 
superintendents  have  been  as  follows :  T.  J. 
Nevins,  1852—4;  W.  H.  0 'Grady,  1854—6; 
E.  A.  Theller,  1856—7;  J.  C.  Pelton,  1857—8; 
H.  B.  Janes,  1858—60  ;  J.  Denman,  1860—62; 
G.  Tait,  1862—6;  J.  C.  Pelton,  1866—8;  J. 
Denman,  1868—70  ;  J.  H.  Widber,  1870—73; 
J.  Denman,  1873—5  ;  and  H.  N.  Bolander,  the 
present  incumbent,  who  was  elected  in  1875. 

School  System. — The  city  constitutes  but  one 
school-district,  parents  being  permitted  to  send 
their  children  to  any  school  they  may  choose. 
The  management  of  the  schools  is  intrusted  to  a 
board  of  ediccalion  composed  of  12  members, 
elected,  at  large,  biennially,  by  direct  vote  of  the 
people.  This  board  has  all  the  powers  usually 
conferred  upon  such  bodies.  The  superintendent 
of  common  schools  is,  also,  elected  biennially  by 
the  people,  and  may  appoint  an  assistant.  The 
support  of  the  schools  is  derived  from  state  and 
city  taxes,  the  latter  being  fixed  bylaw  at  an 
amount  equal  to  $7  for  each  actual  attendant. 
The  school  age  is  from  5  to  1  7  years.  There  are 
33  primary,  13  grammar,  and  2  high  schools,  and 
one  evening  school.  'I  he  system  contemplates  a 
course  of  4  years  in  the  primary  schools,  I  in  the 
grammar,  and  3  in  the  high  schools,  pupils  con- 
tinuing one  year  in  each  grade.  The  course  of 
study  in  the  high  schools  is  such  as  to  prepare 
students  for  the  state  university.  In  the  gram- 
mar and  the  primary  schools,  it  does  not  differ 
materially  from  that  of  other  large  cities;  and  in- 
cludes industrial  drawing,  vocal  music,  French, 
and  German.  To  the  two  latter,  where  taught, 
li  hours  a  day  for  each  class  are  given,  30  spe- 
cial teachers  being  employed  for  the  purpose. 

The  principal  items  of  school  statistics,  for 
1875,  are  as  follows : 

Number  of  children  .if  sc1mi.i1  ;i"-e 37,583 

enrolled  in  public  schools.  .31,128 

Average  daily  attendance 21,014 

Number  of  teachers,    males C3 

females 447 


Total 


,ln 


Expenditures. $707,445.36 

The  number  of  private  schools  and  colleges,  in 
1875,  was  about  100,  about  one-fifth  of  which 
are  managed  by  the  Koman  Catholics,  and  a 
considerable  part  of  the  remainder,  by  other 
denominations.*  In  size  and  character,  they  range 
from  the  small  family  school  of  a  few  pupils,  to 
the  flourishing  college  which  numbers  its  students 
by  hundreds"  The  number  of  pupils  attend- 
ing such  institutions,  in  1  875,  was  reported  at  a 
little    over    6000.     Among    the    agencies   for 


SANTA   BARBARA  COLLEGE 

higher  education,  the  city  contains  an  academy 
of  sciences.  For  an  enumeration  of  the  institu- 
tions for  superior  and  special  instruction,  see 
California. 

SANTA  BARBARA  COLLEGE,  at 
Santa  Barbara,  Cal,  was  incorporated  in  L869. 
It  is  not  denominational.  Both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted. It  contains  six  departments :  (1)  math- 
ematics, (2)  languages.  (3)  literature  and  history, 
(4)  natural  science  and  physics,  (.">)  art,  (ill  mu- 
sic. There  are  three  courses  of  study:  juvenile, 
preparatory,  and  academic:  a  collegiate  course 
is  also  to  be  established.  The  regular  charge  for 
tuition,  board,  etc.  ranges  from  $150  to  SI  75 
per  term  of  five  months  ;  for  tuition  alone,  from 
$5  to  §10  a  month.  In  1874 — 5,  there  were 
8  instructors  and  L20  students.  Kllwood  Cooper 
is  (1876)  the  principal. 

SANTA  CLARA  COLLEGE,  at  Santa 
Clara.  Cal.,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution  under 
the  superintendence  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Soci- 
ety of  Jesus,  was  founded  in  1  >.">1 ,  and  chartered 
in  L855.  It  is  supported  bythe  tees  of  students, 
the  regular  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  being 
§350  a  year;  for  tuition  alone,  from  $4  to  $5  a 
month."  The  library  contains  over  10,000  vol- 
umes. The  plan  of  instruction  embraces  two 
distinct  courses,  the  classical  and  the  scientific. 
There  is,  besides,  a  preparatory  department.  In 
1875  ti.  there  were  26  instructors  and  257 
students.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows: 
Rev.  John  Nobili,  185]  (i  :  Rev.  Nicholas 
Congiato,  1856—8  :  Rev.  Felix  ( 'icaterri,  1858— 
61  :  Rev.Burchard  Villiger,  L861— 5;  Rev.  Aloy- 
sius  Masnata,  1865  8;  Rev.  Aloysius  Varsi, 
1868—76;  Rev.  Aloysius   Brunengo,  since  1876. 

SANTO  DOMINGO  (sometimes  called  San 
Domingo,  or  the  Dominican  Republic), a  republic 
in  the  West  Indies,  occupying  the  eastern  and 
larger  portion  of  the  island  of  llavti  (q.v.).  It 
has  au  area  of  20,600  sip  m.;  and  a  population  of 
about  175,000.  The  greater  part  of  the  popula- 
tion are  a  mixed  race  of  Spaniards,  Indians,  and 
negroes.  They  speak  the  Spanish  language,  and 
belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. —  Public 
instruction  can  scarcely  be  said  to  exist.  Spain,  to 
which  Santo  Domingo  formerly  belonged,  never 
cared  for  the  education  of  the  natives;  and  nearly 
all  the  priests,  physicians,  officers,  and  teachers 
came  from  the  mother  country.  At  present, 
there  is  freedom  of  instruction;  but,  with  tin- 
exception  of  a  few  private  schools  in  the  cities, 
which  charge  exorbitant  fees,  there  are  no  ele- 
mentary schools, and,  consequently,  the  wealthy 
classes  still  continue  to  semi  their  children  to 
Europe  to  be  educated.  In  1860,  thi  re  was  bu1 
one  public  primary  school  in  the  entire  northern 
and  eastern  part  of  the  republic;  and  but  little, 

if  any.  improvement  has  been  made     i thai 

time.  Special  branches  of  study,  like  law,  medi- 
cine, pharmacy,  and  architecture,  are  taught  ex- 
clusively by  private  teachers. 

SARMIENTO,  Domingo  Faustino,  a 
South- American  statesman,  born  February  15., 
1811,  in  San  Juan  de  la  Frontera,  now  a  western 
province  of   the   Argentine   Republic.     He  be- 


SCHMIDT 


f59 


came  director  of  a  school  in  the  province  of  San 


larly  as 


bin 


purpose 


of  til. 


ici-t    of   the    t  Lilian    eoverninelit.  he 

ipe  and  the  United  States  for  the 
ibserving  the  primary-school  systems 
ose  countries.  Subsequently,  he  again  took 
up  his  residence  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  and 
was  made,  successively,  minister  of  the  interior, 
colonel  in  the  Argentine  army,  governor  of  San 
Juan,  and  minister  of  public  instruction  of  the 
republic,  from  1864  to  1868,  he  was  minister 
plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States  from  that 
country;  and.  in  October  of  the  latter  year,  was 
inaugurated  president  of  the  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, which  ofliee  he  continued  to  hold  six  years. 
In  this  position,  his  efforts,  always  directed  to- 
wards the  development  of  the  resources  of  his 
country,  and  the  improvement  of  her  people, 
were  remarkably  successful.  The  introduction 
and  extension  of  railroadand  telegraph  facilities, 
the  encouragi  ment  of  immigration  and  foreign 
commerce,  and  the  establishment  of  si  hools  and 
colleges,  were  the  principal  events  of  his  adminis- 
tration. The  foundation  of  the  national  observ- 
atory at  Cordoba,  under  the  supervision  of 
Prof.  B.  A.  Gould,  an  institution  which  has 
alreaiU  rendered  important  service,  is  chiefly 
ilue  to  President  Sarinieiito.  His  principal  edu- 
cational works  arc  the  following  :  Be  la  Educa- 
i-iiiii  jnijiiil,ir.  and  Lux  is  «.  las.  the  latter  pub- 
lished in  New  York. 


SAXONY. 
SCHMIDT, 


See    IrKRMAXV. 

Karl,  a  <  lerman  educator,  was 
9,  and  died  Nov.  8.,  1864.  After 
y  and  philosophy  at  the  univer- 
nd  Berlin,  he  was  appointed,  in 
the  gymnasium  of  Kothen.  In 
minted  director  of  the  teachers' 
liool  councilor  at  Gotha,  and  in 
u  was  called  upon  to  re  organize 
i  of  the  duchy.  I  le  wrote  a  large 
tional  works,  some  of  which  are 
iging  to  the  best  part  of  <  lerman 
most  important  of  his  works  is 
of  pedagogies  ((intrhirhh-  •/  r 
'-'.  I  vols. ;  3d  ed.,  revised  b\ 
lv72 — 5,  4  vols.).  Among  his 
'.'. ...  hit  lite  '■'•  r  Erziehung  und 
-  >0  /'  -  Buch  </■  /■  Erzii  I,  nun 
sialpddagogik  1  357  .  Zur  /.< 
■seminar,  i  i '  r  Volksschule 


d   the 


dequate  foundation  of  peda- 
1  the  theories  of  Gall  (q.  v.) 
Hid  himself  made  notable  con- 
?velopment  of  phrenology. 


760  SCHOLASTICISM 

SCHOLASTICISM,  a  name  generally  ap- 
plied to  the  Christian  philosophy  of  the  middle 
ages,  though  there  is  no  agreement  among  schol- 
ars as  to  its  exact  definition.  In  its  first  period, 
which  extends  from  the  9th  to  the  11th  century, 
philosophical  speculations  were  limited  to  theo- 
logical problems.  Among  the  greatest,  represent- 
atives of  scholasticism  are  Scotns  Krigena,  Ger- 
bert  (Pope  Sylvester  II.),  and  Ansehn  of  Can- 
terbury. About  the  middle  of  the  12th  century. 
the  controversy  between  the  Realists  and  Nomi- 
nalists led  to  the  full  development  of  scholasti- 
cism, which  denied  to  philosophy  any  right  to 
extend  its  speculations  beyond  the  tenets  of  the 
Church,  but  assigned  to  it  the  task  of  systema- 
tizing the  doctrines  of  the  Church, and  of  defend- 
ing them  (philosophic!  theologies  ancilla).  Thus, 
the  scholastics  were  led  to  cultivate  chiefly  logic 
and  dialectics.  Among  the  greatest  scholastics, 
during  the  classic  period  of  the  system,  were 
Alexander  de  Hales,  Albertus  Magnus,  Thomas 
A.quinas,and  I  Min-  Scotus.  In  the  15th  century, 
scholasticism  began  to  decline;  and,  though  sub- 
sequently iii"  Jesuits  tried  to  revive  it.  and 
havepartlj  retained  its  method  of  teaching  to 
the  present  day.it  has  never  been  able  to  recover 
anywhere  its  mediaeval  supremacy.  Its  impor- 
tance in  the  history  of  education  depends  chiefly 
on  thi'  influence  which  it  exerted,  during  the 
middle  ages, upon  all  schools,  but  more  especially 
upon  the  cathedral  and  convent  seln»ik  Among 
the  best  works  on  the  history  of  scholasticism, 
are  Haue6au,  De  la  philosopJii  a  i  istique 
(2  vols.,  1850)  ;  K  u  i.i.  ii.  Geschichte  </•  r  scho- 
lastischen  Philosophii  (1853  ;  Stxei  k  Ges  hichte 
derPhilosophiedesMitielalters(3Y6ia.,lS64^-6); 
IIvi.i.am,  Introduction  In  the  Literature  if 
Europe. 

SCHOOL  (Lat.  scJiola,  from  Gr.  axo%!],  lei- 
sure, especially  for  literary  studies,  and  hence 
applied  to  the  place  where  such  studies  were  pur- 
sued,— a  school),  a  term  now  applied  to  an  educa- 
tional establishment,  particularly  of  the  primary 
or  secondary  grade;  as  a  primary  school,  a  gram- 
mar school,  a  high  school,  a  classical  school,  etc. 
Schools  of  the  secondary  grade  are,  however,  of- 
ten designated  academies,  seminaries,  etc.  The 
term  school  is  not  applied  to  an  institution  of 
learning  i  >f  the  superior  grade,  but  institutions  for 
scientific:  or  professional  instruction  are  usually 
called  schools;  as  theological  schools,  medical 
schools,  law  schools,  polytechnic  schools,  art 
schools,  etc.  For  information  in  regard  to  each 
kind  of  schools,  see  under  the  respective  titles. 

SCHOOL  AGE,  or  Scholastic  Age,  the 
age  fixed  by  law,  during  which  pupils  may  at- 
tend the  public  schools.  This  varies  consider- 
ably in  different  countries,  both  as  to   its  < i- 

mence u1  and  termination.     Thus,  in  Prussia, 

the  school  age  is  from  5  to  11  years  ;  in  France, 
from  7  to  L3;  in  Switzerland, from  6  to  1.'!,  and 
in  England,  from  ::  to  18.  In  the  latter  coun- 
try, the  rule  is  as  follows:  -  Attendances  may 
not  he  reckoned  for  any  seh. ilar  above  18,  or  in 
a  day  School,  under  3,  or.  in   an   evening   school, 

under  12  years  of  age."    The  legislation  on  this 


SCHOOL   BOARD 

subject  in  the  different,  states  of  the  American 
Union,  also  presents  considerable  diversity,  as  is 
shown  by  the  following  table  : 


Alabama. . . 
Arkansas. . . 
California. . 
Colorado. .  . 
Connecticut 
Delaware. . 

Florida 

Georgia.... 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas.  .  .  . 
Kentucky 


5-21 
G-20 


New  Jersey 

New  York 

North  Carolina. 
Ohio 


Oregon 

Pennsylvania  . . 
Rhode  Island.  . . 
South  Carolina 
Tennessee 


\  ermont 

West  Viiejtiu 


*— 16 

6— 1G 


G-21 


Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  school  age  begins 
at  4  years  iu  five  states ;  at  5  years,  in  seventeen 
states  ;  at  6  years,  in  fifteen  states  ;  and  at  7 
years,  in  only  one  state ;  also,  that  the  school 
age  ends  at  21  in  twenty-two  states;  at  20,  in 
six  states;  at  18,  in  five  states;  at  17,  in  one 
state  ;  at  16,  in  three  states  ;  and  at  15,  in  only 
one — Massachusetts. 

The  statistics  showing  the  age  of  the  children 
who  actually  attend  school,  is  very  meager,  but 
few  of  the  state  school  reports  giving  any  infor- 
mation on  the  subject.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  the  vast  majority  of  children  leave  school 
before  the  age  of  15  years.  The  average  age  of 
pupils  in  the  evening  schools  must,  however,  be 
much  higher.     In  the  rural  districts,  the  average 

age  of  pupils  in  the  public  sch Is  must  be  higher 

than  in  the  large  cities,  especially  in  the  winter 
term.  After  a  comparison  of  ail  available  sta- 
tistics, Francis  Adams,  in  Free  School  System 
of  the  United  States,  remarks,  "There  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  that,  as  a  general  rule,  children 
remain  at  school  much  later  in  America  [United 
Slates]  than  in  England."  It  is  also  stated  by 
the  same  writer  that,  "  in  England  and  Wales, 
the  percentage  of  children  over  II,  in  schools  re- 
ceiving grants,  in  1874,  was  0.99."  The  age 
fixeil  by  most  compulsory  attendance  laws,  is 
from  s  to  1  1  years. 

SCHOOL  BOARD,  the  name  generally 
given  to  the  body  of  school  commissioners,  di- 
rectors, trustees,  etc.  constituted  by  law  to  have 
the  care  and  regulation  of  schools  in  states. cities, 
towns,  districts,  etc.  Such  a  board  is  often 
called  the  Board  of  Education,  on  Board  of 
Publi  i  Tns£ru<$ion.  In  most  of  the  New  Eng- 
land .-tat.  -.  the  school  board  is  called  the  School 
Commi  e  Formerly,  in  Nevs  England,  the 
usual  term  was  Prudential  Committee,  which 
title  is  still  retained  in  some  places.  State  boards 
of  education  usually  havea  paramount  authority 
in  all  educational  matters  in  the  state.  In  Eng- 
land. School  Board  is  the  name  given  by  the 
"  Elementary  Education  Act"  of  1870,  to  the 


SCHOOL  BROTHERS 

constituted  school  authority  in  each  district,  sub- 
ject to  the  Education  Department  of  the  govern- 
ment. 

SCHOOL  BROTHERS.  See  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church. 

SCHOOL  CENSUS,  in  its  wider  sense,  is 
an  official  census  relating  to  school  affaire,  and 
embraces  the  number  of  schools,  teachers  and 
pupils,  children  of  school  age.  school  libraries. 
etc.  The  great  progress  of  statistical  science, 
in  late  years,  has  led,  in  different  countries,  to 
much  more  minute  inquiries  into  school  affairs. 
and  is  preparing  the  way  for  a  much  fuller  and 
more  comprehensive  school  census  than  has  been 
accessible  in  the  past.  1  [eretofore,  a  school  census 
has  commonly  been  understood  in  a  narrower 
sense  to  denote  an  enumeration  of  all  the  chil- 
dren of  scl 1  age  residing  in  any  country,  state, 

city.  etc.  This  enumeration  lias  always  formed  a 
part  of  the  general  decennial  census  of  the  United 
States,  and  of  the  state  enumerations.  In  some 
states,  an  enumeration  of  the  children  of  school 
age  is  taken  annually,  as  the  appropriation  of 
state  aid  for  public  schools  is  based  upon  it.  Such 
a  census  is  of  great  importance,  as  showing  the 
numberof  children  to  be  educated,  in  comparison 
with  the  school  attendance.  The  following  table 
shows  the  number  of  white  and  colored  children 
between  the  ages  of  5  and  1  9  in  each  of  the  states 
of  the  Union,  according  to  the  census  of  1870  : 

School  Census  of  the  United  States. 


SCHOOL  CENSUS  76 

School  Census  of  the  United  States. 

IC'OLomoi  >.i 


AVI  IITES.) 

5   to  9 

10  to  14  '  15  to  17 

IB  to  19 

Alabama 

BO  166 

I I 

25  1 19 

Arkansas 

California  ... 

60,18! 

49,523       21,074 

12  902 

Delaware 

12,751 

Florida 

12,6  ■ 

13,4  3        6,718 

4. tol 

Georgia 

Illinois 

Indiana 

220  1  'ii      112,64] 

72  17  ' 

Iowa 

164,72 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

152,681 

147,3           75,7? 

46,306 

Louisiana 

15  003 

Maryland. 

71.71  1 

25,435 

Massachusetts 

138,706 

57,826 

Michigan 

1  13,8  1 

138,42         70,861 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

1 ,  .1 

18,0   i 

Missouri 

Nebraska  .... 

15,143 

13,04               e    III 

4  216 

Nevada 

N.  Hampshire 

31,806       1-  641 

12,839 

,        New  Jersey  . . 
X6H  New  Ynik'. 

17   ,673 

North  Carolina. 

Ohio 

Oregon 

12,348 

1 1  .:  2        5,35! 

2,947 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina  . 

Tennessee 

123,40! 

Texas 

Vermont. 

::i   16 

;  I      . :           13 

Virginia 

83  701 

93  061         i 

West\  lrginia. 

Wisconsin 

1  ! 

139,611        67,94 

12,21  i 

Total 

1,105,742 

1,095,386  2,114,625 

1,3  13,289 

Alabama 

(17,7)47 

i,.;.:;ss 

30,221 

Arkansas 

1  1,64 

15,702 

8,193 

California 

383 

385 

ISO 

766 

91 

575 

Delaware 

2,960 

2.91s 

1.  136 

Florida 

13,442 

12,011 

. 

Georgia 

79,091 

74,4!>: 

35,502 

Illinois 

3,044 

3,11  7 

1,722 

Indiana  . 

3,01? 

3,1IH(, 

1,(149 

625 

nil 

:;..:; 

2,137 

2,237 

1,120 

Kentucky 

31,181 

31,975 

be 

Louisiana 

44,871 

42,32! 

20,493 

115 

111! 

129 

Maryland 

22,274 

22,574 

II,:, 1 

1,075 

1,201 

782 

Michigan 

1,579 

1,485 

7iis 

Minnesota 

62 

39 

Mississippi 

62,152 

59,09! 

28,308 

Missouri 

16,761 

17,133 

8,328 

Nebraska 

65 

si 

47 

Nevada 

Is 

15 

5 

New  Hampshin 

.14 

57 

41; 

New  Jersey... 

3,217 

3,45s 

1,952 

New  York 

4,5511 

4,'is-i 

2,972 

North  Carolina. 

54,775 

54,4s: 

26,581 

Ohio 

7.5  4  s 

7,638 

4.222 

Oregon 

33 

34 

12 

Pennsylvania 

6,271 

6,960 

4,020 

R le  Island     . 

3114 

tall 

309 

South  Carolina 

57,792 

55,324 

26,508 

Ten,, 

43,637 

45,688 

22,1112 

Texas    

38,345 

34,239 

111,054 

Vermont 

117 

92 

(12 

Virginia  

67,908 

69,352 

33,894 

Wesl  Virginia 

2,277 

2,383 

1,155 

Wisconsin 

•ill 

20s 

112 

Total 

I155,s;,4 

i;40,4lls 

152,318] 

1.031 
3,945 

22,7011 


690 
9,738 

13,709 


530 
57 

Is, 203 
5,44S 


1.37S 
2,300 
17.0S7 
3,053 


826 


202, 72S 

The  Bchool  age,  in  some  of  the  states,  extends 
to  •_'!  years;  bill.  practically,  the  above  table 
includes  all  the  children  who  attend  school. 

In  the  countries  of  Europe,  the  school  age  (4. 
v. 1  generally  extends  only  to  the  1  1th.  13th,  or 
12th  year  of  age.  The  following  table  exhibits 
tin-  number  of  schools  and  pupils,  and  the  pro- 
portion of  the  latter  to  the  entire  population,  in 
the  several  countries  of  Europe  : 


Alsace    and    Lor- 

Netherlands 

Austria-Hungary 

Great    Britain    an 
Ire. and 


Nllllll"! 

of 
public 
schools 

Number 

Year 

of 

1871-2 

5,088 

412,789 

1872 

56.000 

;. 9100 

1S71 

644 

28.437 

1ST! 

6.5112 

243  '.ll'.'.l 

8.12S 

606  876 

187S 

3,791 

1867 

3.064 

220  1179 

1872 

70,17! 

1872 

5.67S 

618  937 

1870-72 

31.1169 

;.2s;,.4sr, 

1871-4 

22,578 

2.S4S.2115 

1S73 

27,761 

1  3S1  :>72 

1873-4 

42.921- 

.  3   i 

1  227 

81,449 

76.477 

1871 

no, nun 

187! 

2.221 

i    . 

23  1.-. 

1.1109.037 

pupils 


702 


sriIooL-PISTRKT 


SCHOOL-DISTRICT,  a  district  formed  by 
the  division  of  a  town,  or  township,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  establishing,  managing,  and  supervising 
schools.  It  is  usually  tin-  -~in.-tli--.~i  territorial  sub- 
division of  a  state.  The  oldest  law,  in  the  United 
States,  establishing  school-districts  and  the  dis- 
trict system,  was  that  passed  in  Massachusetts,  in 
1789.  In  most  of  the  states,  at  the  present  time, 
the  district  system  has  been  wholly  or  partly 
superseded  by  the  township  system,  which  has 
been  found  to  have  many  advantages  over  it.  In 
Massachusetts,  the  district  system  was,  in  the 
main,  abolished  in  18o!)  ;  and  the  change  is 
strongly  commended.  The  system  still  exists  to 
some  extent  in  the  western  part  of  the  state, elic- 
iting the  following  comment  from  one  of  the 
state  agents,  in  his  report  of  December,  187a  : 
"With  little  or  nothing  of  consideration  in  its 
favor,  with  a  troop  of  evils  attendant  upon  it, 
with  many  peculiarly  incident  to  its  existence, 
it  would  seem  that  it  should  be  abolished  at 
once,  and  forever,  by  legislative  enactment."  In 
some  of  the  other  New  England  states,  permis- 
sory  laws  have  been  passed,  allowing  the  inhabit- 
ants to  accept  the  township  system  instead  of  the. 
district  system. —  Each  school-district  has  a 
trustee,  or  a  board  of  trustees,  or,  as  styled  in  New 
England,  a  school  i-nmiintU;-,  elected  by  the  in- 
habitants, and  authorized  to  have  the  safe-keep- 
ing of  the  school-house  and  other  school  property, 
to  hire  ami  pay  the  teacher,  or  teachers,  and  to 
make  all  necessary  regulations  for  the  manage- 
ment of  the  school.  The  mo  1c  of  forming  school- 
districts,  and  of  changing  their  boundaries,  varies 
in  the  different  states. — The  objections  to  the 
district  system  seem  to  be  based  upon  the  small- 
ness  of  its  area  anil  its  consequent  inadequate 
resources  to  support  suitable  schools.  "Little 
money,  poor  school-houses,  short  schools."  said  the 
state  superintendent  of  .Maine,  in  1872,  -arc  the 
necessary  attendants  of  this  system."  This  cir- 
cumstance has  led,  in  New  York,  to  the  establish- 
ment of  Union  free-school  ilistrir/s,  formed  by 
uniting  two  adjoining  districts  for  the  purpose 
of  establishing  and  supporting  a  better  school 
than  the  resources  of  either  by  itself  would  per- 
mit. In  the  English  Education  Act,  the  parish 
is  constituted  the  school-district,  in  relation  to 
which  F.  Adams  remarks,  in  The  Free  School 
System  of  the  United  States,  "it  lias  been  sug- 
gested that  in  selecting  the  parish  .-is  the  school- 
district,  we  have  select  I  too  anal]  a  division. 
We  have,  however,  happily  steered  clear  of  the 
system  which,  in  the  united  States,  has  been 
very  prejudicial  to  harmonious  and  efficient 
action.'  Fur  information  in  regard  to  srliuol- 
districts  in  the  several  states,  sec  under  the  re- 
-| 1 1\  ■•  titles. 

SCHOOL  ECONOMY,  a  general  term  ap- 
plied to  the  collective  body  of  principles  and 
rules  by  which  the  keeping  of  schools  is  regu- 
lated. In  its  widest  sense,  it  embraces  all  that 
pertains  to  the  construction  and  furnishing  of 
the  school-house  the  proper  apparatus  to  be  em- 
ployed in  carrying  on  the  processes  of  instruc- 
tion, the  various  modes  of  school  organization 


SCHOOL  FESTIVALS 

and  administration,  including  a  consideration  of 
the  length  and  arrangement  of  school  sessions 
and  terms,  the  proper  records  to  be  kept,  the 
course  of  study,  programme  of  daily  exercises, 
and  the  modes  of  discipline,  management,  and 
instruction.  The  treatment  of  all  these  various 
matters  will  be  found  in  this  work  under  the  re- 
spective titles. 

SCHOOL  FESTIVALS,  like  the  vacation 
and  holidays,  are  an  interruption  of  the  regular 
school  work;  but  while  the  latter  only  aim  at  a 
cessation  from  work  in  order  to  gi\e  to  teachers 
and  pupils  time  for  rest  and  recreation,  school 
festivals  are  intended  to  substitute  enjoyment 
for  mental  labor.  Ancient  Koine  had  at  the  be- 
ginning of  March,  a  school  festival,  called  the 
quinquatria,  at  which  the  teachers  collected 
presents.  In  order  to  give  to  this  festival  a 
Christian  character.  Pope  Gregory  IV.  (827 — 
41)  appointed  the  12th  of  March  (the  day  on 
which  the  Church  commemorated  the  death  of 
I'ope  Gregory  I.)  as  a  special  festival  for  the 
schools  of  Rome.  rl  he  '  Iregorian  festival  spread 
throughout  Italy.  France,  and  Germany,  and  to 
other  countries :  and,  in  some  places,  has  main- 
tained itself  to  the  presentday. —  Next  to  the 
day  of  St.  Gregory,  the  festivals  of  the  Apostle 
Andrew,  of  the  Innocent  I  bildren,of  St.  Nicho- 
las, and  others,  came  early  into  general  use. 
Among  these,  the  virgalum-gehen  may  be  nicn- 
ti id.  (See<  Jermant.)  Processions  and  masquer- 
ades were  a  common  feature  of  all  these  fes- 
tivals.— In  GermanyTas  well  as  in  the  Scandina- 
vian countries,  there  were  also  Mil/  festivals, 
to  celebrate  the  departure  of  winter  and  the 
advent  of  spring.  The  pupils  of  the  schools,  in 
solemn  procession,  marched  around  the  field, 
and,  in  the  evening,  were  treated  to  a  common 
banquet.  This  festival  is  still  in  common  use  in 
Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg.  The  most  celebrated 
among  the  school  festivals  in  Germany,  are  the 
Kirschenfesl,  at  Naumburg,  and  the  Rnthenfest, 
at  Ravensburg.  The  celebration  of  these  usually 
draws  a  large  concourse  of  people.  Where  the 
public  schools  have  a  denominational  character, 
great  church  holidays  are  frequently  the  occa- 
sion for  special  school  festivals.  Thus,  in  many 
Protestant  schools  of  Europe,  it  is  common 
to  celebrate  annually  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformation.  Monarchical  governments  have 
made  the  celebration  of  the  birthday  of  the 
sovereign  obligatory  in  all  the  schools  of  the 
country,  in  order  to  implant  sentiments  of  loyal- 
ty and  submissiveness  in  the  minds  of  the  rising 
gi ■ncrai  i  ii-  Some  of  the  German  educators  who 
are  favorable  to  school  festivals,  have,  by  way 
of  experiment,  organized  them  on  the  grandest 
scale.  Thus  Froebel  spent,  in  1850,  several 
months  in  preparing  a  school  children's  and 
people's  festival,  which  was  held  in  a  castle  of 
the  duke  of  Saxe-Meiningen.  It  is  quite  com- 
mon for  the  elementary  schools  in  Germany  to 
spend  at  least  one  day  of  the  year  in  an  excur- 
sion, during  which  the  children  amuse  themselves 
with  the  national  games.  To  close  the  school 
year  with  appropriate  festivals,  is  quite  common 


SCHOOL  FUND 

in  civilized  countries.  The  best  known  among 
the  school  festivals  of  the  Inked  States  are  those 
connected  with  the  college  commencement.  (See 
Commi  set  mi  sr.)      Among  schools  of  all  grades. 

scl 1   exhibitions  and  receptions  have  become 

very  popular,  and  rarely  fail  to  be  numerously  at- 
tended by  the  relatives  and  friends  of  the  pupils. 
School  picnics  are  more  frequently  held  during  the 
summer  vacation  than  in  the  midst  of  the  school 
year;  but.  without  regard  to  the  season,  are  sure 
to  delight  tin'  scholars.  —Educators  are  generally 
agreed  that  Bchool  festivals,  if  well  arranged  and 
superintended,  exert  a  beneficial  influence. 

SCHOOL  FUND,  property  or  money  set 
apart  by  legislative  enactment  for  the  support  of 
schools.  In  the  United  States,  the  school  fund 
in  each  state  has  been  chiefly  derived  from  na- 
tional and  state  appropriations,  particularly  of 
lands.  Of  the  latter,  the  16th  section  grant  is 
an  example.  The  <7.  S.  Deposit  Fund,  some- 
times called  the  Surplus  Revenue  Fuml.  was 
also  a  national  grant.  (See  United  States.] 
The  mode  of  apportionment  varies  in  the  dif- 
ferent states ;  it  is,  however,  wholly  or  partly 
based  upon  the  number  of  pupils,  in  each  town 
or  district,  of  the  legal  school  age.  For  an  ac- 
count of  the  amount  of  the  school  fund  in  each 
state,  see  under  the  respective  titles. 

SCHOOL  FURNITURE.  Under  tins  head 
will  be  considered  (1)  desks  and  seats;  ('J)  plat- 
form ;  (,'i)  blackboard ;  and  (4)  miscellaneous  fur- 
niture and  apparatus. 

Desks  and  Seats.— In  the  matter  of  health, 
these  are,  perhaps,  the  articles  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  school  room.  Notwithstanding 
their  importance,  however,  as  deciding  the  pu- 
pil's position  for  several  hours  of  the  day,  and 
thus  determining,  in  a  great  measure,  his  future 
health  and  bearing,  school  authorities  are  not  yet 
entirely  agreed  as  to  their  style,  dimensions,  or  ar- 
rangement ;  each  civilized  country  using  its  own, 
on  account  of  some  peculiar  advantage,  the  rela- 
tive value  of  which  is  determined  by  observation 
from  its  own  stand-point.  The  first  consideration, 
in  the  construction  or  arrangement  of  desks  and 
seats,  should  have  regard  to  their  influence  upon 
the  health  of  the  pupils;  the  second,  to  the  con- 
venience of  the  teacher  and  pupils,  in  the  ad- 
justability of  the  desk  and  seat  for  different 
exercises,  or  for  purposes  of  school  government, 
which  last  would  be  determined  principally  by 
the  arrangement,  and  the  means  afforded  for 
facilitating  the  cut  ranee  or  exit  of  the  pupils. 
Of  the  comparative  advantages  of  different 
styles  of  desks  or  seats,  it  is  not  necessary 
here  to  speak,  the  subject  being  treated  exhaust- 
ively in  the  works  referred  to  at  the  end  of  this 
article.  The  hooks  that  have  been  written  on 
this  subject  in  different  countries  form  almost  a 
library  of  themselves.  Perhaps  the  best  form 
yet  devised  is  that  described  in  the  report  of  M. 
Buisson,  French  commissioner  to  the  Exposition 
at  Vienna  in  1873,  which  was  selected  for  special 
commendation,  after  an  examination  of  all  the 
styles  there  presented.  It  is  known  as  the  Bapte- 
rosses  desk  and  seat,  from   the  name  of  the  in- 


SCIIOOI,    FURNITURE 


TG3 


ventor,  who  designed  it  for  use  in  his  factory  at 
Briare.    It  has  recently  been  introduced  into  the 

normal  school  at  Auteuil.  The  chair  is  single, 
the  Beat  being  of  wood,  round  or  square  in  shape, 
and  supported  by  an  iron  leg  which  slides  up  or 
down  in  a  sheath,  or  hollow  cylinder,  the  base  of 
which  is  firmly  screwed  to  the  floor.  The  leg  and 
.■-heath  together  form  the  support  of  the  seat, 
which  is  checked  at  any  height,  in  its  upward  or 
downward  motion,  by  a  thumb-screw.  The  back 
of  the  chair  is  of  the  ordinary  pattern,  and  is 
slightly  inclined.  The  desk  is  stationary,  and  is 
supported  by  a  cast-iron  upright.  Its  upper  sur- 
face is  divided  into  two  parts  in  the  usual  man- 
ner—  a  narrow  horizontal  part  at  the  back,  and 
a  sloping  part,  much  larger,  and  nearer  the  pupil. 
It  is  provided  either  with  a  lid  which  converts 
the  desk  into  an  ordinary  box,  or,  if  the  top  is 
not  movable,  with  compartments  which  open 
laterally.  A  small  leaden  pipe,  extending  the 
whole  length  of  the  desk,  under  the  horizontal 
part  of  the  upper  surface,  serves  as  an  inkstand. 
It  is  provided  with  a  vent  at  each  end,  secured 
by  a  copper  cap.  and,  opposite  the  pupil,  is  pierced 
to  receive  a  small  copper  funnel  of  sufficient  size 
to  allow  only  the  point  of  the  pen  to  enter.  By 
this  arrangement,  the  pupil  can  neither  dip  his 
pen  too  deeply,  so  as  to  get  too  much  ink,  nor 
upset  his  inkstand.  Near  the  foot  of  the  leg  of 
the  desk  is  a  foot-rest,  which  may  be  raised  or 
lowered  by  the  same  di  vice  of  slide  ami  thumb- 
screw that  is  used  for  the  scat.  The  thumb- 
screws used  on  the  chair  and  desk  are  so  arranged 
that  they  cannot  be  turned  except  by  a  key, 
which  is  kept  by  the  teacher.  The  principal  ad- 
vantage of  this  desk  is.  that  it  can  be  adapted 
to  pupils  of  different  heights;  its  other  recom- 
mendations are  obvious.  An  improvement,  per- 
haps, might  be  made  by  providing  the  desk  with 
two  supports  instead  of  one,  thus  securing  a  firm- 
ness which  desks  supported  by  one  central  pillar 
do  not  usually  have.  The  single  desk  should  be 
2  feet  long,  from  25  in.  to  29  in.  high,  and  18 
in.  wide  ;  the  double  desk  should  be  4  feet  long, 
the  other  dimensions  being  the  same  as  those  of 
the  single  desk.  The  seats  should  be  from  12  in. 
to  16  in.  high.  Recitation  seats  as  well  as  desk 
seats  should  be  provided  with  backs.  It  should 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  no  arrangement 
of  desk  or  scat,  however  ingeniously  adapted  to 
the  pupils  comfort,  can  take  the  place  of  that 
frequent  change  of  position  which  is  a  necessity 
of  his  being.  ( >f  the  dimensions  of  desks  and 
seals.  Etobson  says,  after  a  careful  comparison  of 
the  works  of  Zwey,  Falk.  Frey.  Colin.  Kleiber, 
and  Virchow.  ••The  weight  of  opinion  is  to  the 
effect  that  the  height  of  the  scat  should  corre- 
spond to  the  length  of  the  scholar's  leg,  from 
the  knee  to  the  sole  of  the  foot.  There  must  be 
no  stretching  of  muscles:  therefore,  the  sole  of 
the  foot  must  rest  on  the  floor  or  upon  some  flat 
surface.  If  the  seat  be  too  high,  the  swinging  of 
the  foot  in  the  air  causes  a  compression  of  the 
blood-vessels  and  nerves  of  the  hinder  part  of 
the  leg  and  knee ;  if  it  be  too  low,  the  thighs  of 
the  scholar  are  pressed  against  his  stomach  to  the 


764 


school  Fri:\rru:i'. 


disadvantage  of  health.  *  *  *  In  order  to  prevent 
I h.-  seliolars  slipping  forward,  the  seat  should  he 
slightly  deelined  backward.  The  height  of  the 
desks  should  be  so  arranged,  that  the  under  part 
of  the  arm  may  rest  comfortably  on  the  desk-top, 
and  that  the  powers  of  vision  may  not  be  strained, 
or,  in  other  words,  that  the  normal  distance  of  vi- 
sion may  be  preserved.  Desks  which  are  too  low 
cause,  by  the  bending  of  the  scholar,  a  pressing 
on  the  chest  and  lower  part  of  the  body ;  while 
those  which  are  too  high  cause  the  right  shoulder 
to  be  so  lifted,  as  to  remove  the  upper  part  of 
the  arm  so  far  from  the  body,  that  the  lower  arm 
cannot  be  laid  flat  on  the  table,  thereby  causing 
the  arm  to  be  unsteady  and  easily  tired."  Much 
ingenuity  has  been  exercised  in  devising  seats 
capable  of  transformation  into  a  variety  of  forms. 
The  tendency  in  this  respect  is  frequently  to- 
wards a  mechanism  so  complicated  that  it  de- 
feats its  own  object  by  becoming  easily  disar- 
ranged; and,  even  if  this  were  not  the  case,  many 
of  the  transformations  will  usually  be  found  to 
be  useless.  The  really  desirable  changes  of  form 
are  very  few.  Says  an  eminent  educator  :  "  If 
seats  could  be  so  contrived  as  to  remain  firm 
when  placed  horizontally,  to  allow  the  pupil  to 
lean  forward  easily  to  write  upon  his  desk,  and 
then  could  be  made  in  have  an  inclination  back- 
ward when  the  pupil  desires  to  read  or  study, 
it  would  add  much  to  his  comfort  in  sitting,  and 
something,  perhaps,  to  the  comeliness  of  his 
figure.'  Concerning  the  distance  of  the  seat  from 
the  desk,  a  considerable  difference  of  opinion  ex- 
ists, some  teachers  considering  only  one  inch  nec- 
essary, others  as  much  as  three.  On  this  point 
Dr.  U'iese  says  :  "It  is,  therefore,  desirable,  that 
the  inner  edge  of  the  desk  should  be  distant  from 
the  front  of  the  scat  only  about  one  inch."  Rob- 
son  says  :  "  The  scholar  wdio  sits  too  far  from  the 
desk,  either  bends  too  much,  ami  thereby  hurts 
his  chest  and  eyes,  or  he  glides  too  far  forward  on 
his  seat,  and  so  gets  an  unsteady  position.  *  *  * 
It  is  recommended  that  the  vertical  distance  from 
the  desk  to  the  seat-top  should  be  the  length 
of  the  fore-arm.  or  one-sixth  the  size  [height]  of 
the  body  of  the  scholar.  Too  great  a  distance 
encourages  crooked  growth:  for  the  scholar,  while 
writing,  has  his  body  weighing  on  one  arm,  in- 
stead of  having  the  arm  naturally  resting  on  his 
body.  If  the  difference  in  height  between  desk 
and  seat  be  too  slight,  then  the  chest  sinks,  and 
the  back  is  bent  out  so  as  to  encourage  stooping." 
Of  the  arrangement  of  desks,  many  methods 
have  been  advocated,  and  different  ones  prevail 
in  different  countries;  but  the  weight  of  author- 
ity seems  to  be  in  favor  of  seating  the  pupils  in 
pairs,  this  method  hciic_'  economical  as  to  space, 
and  more  advantageous  for  both  teacher  and 
pupil  in  the  efficient  carrying  out  of  the  daily 
exercises.  Its  superiority,  also,  in  the  matter  of 
ingress  ainl  egress  of  the  pupils  is  manifest.  The 
arrangement  of  desks  in  regard  to  space  and  light 
has  been  considered  in  the  article  Hygiene, 
School.      Many    other    considerations    present 

themselves  in  this  i nection,  the  chief  of  which 

are  the   following  :   the  form  and  height  of  the 


back  of  the  seat ;  its  attachment  to.  or  inde- 
pendence of.  the  desk  immediately  behind  it ;  the 
variation  in  the  height  of  seats  and  desks  as  ar- 
ranged on  the  same  level  for  pupils  of  different 
sizes  ;  t  lie  slope  of  the  floor,  or  its  construction  in 
steps,  for  the  same  purpose  :  the  movable  desk  or 
seat  as  compared  with  the  stationary;  the  mount- 
ing of  desks  and  seats  on  casters ;  the  varying 
slope  of  the  desk-top  for  different  purposes ;  the 
space  between  the  desks ;  the  breadth  of  aisles, 
etc.  These  are  all  considered,  however,  in  works 
specially  written  for  the  purpose  ;  and  the  merits 
of  each  for  different  purposes  are  fully  set  forth. 
The  Platform.-  'I  his  is  now  considered  high- 
ly desirable,  if  not  indispensable,  in  the  school 
room.  On  all  public  occasions,  whether  of  ex- 
amination orexhibition.it  is  indispensable;  while 
there  are  many  occasions  in  the  usual  routine 
of  the  school,  when  it  is  exceedingly  useful.  It 
should  be  not  less  than  (i  feet  wide. and  15  inches 
high,  and  should  be  divided  into  two  levels  or 
risers.  In  schools  in  which  all  the  exercises  tire 
conducted  in  one  room,  closets  for  the  storing  of 
school  apparatus  are  often  placed  at  each  end  of 


the 
fitted 

stand 
77, 


atioii    rooms    are    usually 
latforms,  the  tea.  hers'  desk 


'eo,-./  At  the  back  of  the  plat- 
form, against  the  wall,  and  facing  the  school  or 
class,  is  placed  the  blackboard.  It  should  extend 
the  entire  length  of  the  platform,  should  be  at. 
least  4  feet  wide,  and  extend  to  within  3  feet  of 
the  floor.  It  should  be  provided  with  a  frame  all 
around,  and  a  trough  at  the  lower  edge  for  the 
i  halk.  and  to  catch  dust,  and  should  have  hooks, 
on  which  pointers  may  be  hung.  The  material 
of  blackboards  is  of  three  kinds:  wood,  slate, 
and  a  kind  of  slate  surface  made  to  lay  directly 
on  the  wall.  rl  he  last,  by  combining  in  a  medium 
the  best  qualities  of  the  two  others,  is  the  most 
desirable,     i  Sec  Blackboard.) 

Miscellaneous  Furniture  mnl  Apparatus. — 
The  principal  consideration  under  this  head  is 
not  so  much  the  comparative  values  of  different 
articles,  but  what  articles  tire  indispensable  or.at 
least,  highly  necessary.  Among  these,  may  be 
mentioned  a  clock,  a  small  bell  for  the  calling 
and  dismissing  of  classes,  chairs  for  visitors,  clos- 
ets or  wardrobes,  provided  with  wrought-iron 
hooks  and  pegs,  a  thermometer,  sets  of  maps  and 
charts,  a  terrestrial  globe,  an  abacus,  or  numeral 
frame,  and  a  collection  of  miscellaneous  articles 
to  be  used  in  giving  object    lessons.     The  extent 


the 


ever,  furnishes  a  toler.iOly  complete  outfit  for  a 
primary  school.    One  consideration  remains  to  he 

insisted  on;  namely,  the  exercise  of  good  taste  in 

the  selection  of  furniture  and  articles  intended 
to  be  iii  constant  sieht  of  the  pupils,  tin  this 
subject,  the  architect  of  the  London  School 
board  remarks:  "The  furniture  of  the  school 
room  should  be  graceful  in  form,  and  good  in 
quality  and  finish.    Children  are  particularly  BUS- 


SCHOOL  GROUNDS 

ceptible  of  surrounding  influences,  ami  their  dai- 
ly familiarization  with  beauty  of  form  or  color,  in 
the  simplest  and  most  ordinary  objects,  cannot 
fail  to  assist  in  fostering  the  seeds  of  taste,just 
as  daily  discipline  tends  to  promote  habits  of 
order.  Furniture  finished  like  good  cabinet  work 
is  more  likely  to  be  respected,  even  by  the  mis- 
chievous school  boy,  than  that  of  an  unsightly  or 
rough  character."  For  further  information  on 
this  subject  see  RoBSOK,  School  Architecture  (Lou- 
don, 1874);  Wickersham,  S  4c  n  Economy 
(Phila.,  L868);  Currie,  Common-School  Educa- 
tion (Edinburgh,  L857) ;  Buisson,  Rapport  sur 
rinstruction  primaire  a  Vexposition  universelle 
de  Vienneen  1st:!  (Paris,  1875). 

SCHOOL  GROUNDS.  See  Hygiene,  School. 

SCHOOL-HOUSE.— Of  the  first  importance 
in  any  system  of  public  instruction,  is  f/,,,,,1 
architecture,  including  every  thing  that  relates 
to  the  building  in  which  the  instruction  is  to  be 
imparted.  All  matters  that  concern  the  health 
of  the  school;  namely,  the  situation  of  the  school- 
house,  its  furniture,  the  temperature  of  the 
rooms,  and  the  means  for  wanning,  lighting,  and 
ventilating  them,  are  considered  either  in  sepa- 
rate articles  in  this  work,  or  under  the  head  of 
Hygiene,  School.  It  is  designed  here  specially  to 
treat  of  (I)  the  construction  of  the  school- 
house,  and  (II)  its  internal  arrangement. 

I.  Construction  of  the  School-House.— What 
material  should  be  used  in  the  construction 
of  a  school  building  depends  entirely  upon  its 
location  and  the  means  at  command.  Owing  to 
the  improved  modern  methods  of  building,  wood, 
brick,  or  stone  may  be  used  indifferently,  as  far 
as  healthfulness  is  concerned,  economic  consider- 
ations alone  deciding  which  is  to  be  employed.  It 
may  be  said,  in  general,  that  these  considerations 
point  to  the  use  of  stone  or  brick  in  cities  and 
towns,  and  of  wood,  in  the  rural  districts,  except 
in  old  and  thickly-settled  countries  where  wood  is 
scarce.  The  increased  attention  bestowed  upon 
the  appearance  of  the  school-house  at  the  present 
time  is  one  of  the  most  encouraging  proofs  of 
the  general  and  permanent  interest  aroused  in 
the  welfare  of  schools,  since  purely  esthetic  con- 
siderations are  generally  the  last  to  make  them- 
selves felt.  The  rudeuess  of  the  district-school 
building  is  proverbial ;  yet,  the  expression  of 
the  cherished  memories  that  cluster  around  it, 
forms  a  part  of  the  choicest  literature  of  every 
civilized  country.  U  the  transfiguring  power  of 
early  association,  therefore,  renders  it  an  object 
of  affection  through  life,  in  spite  of  its  uncouth- 
ness,  how  much  stronger  would  that  affection  be 
if  the  matured  taste  of  later  years  confirmed  the 
preference  of  childhood  !  Not  only  the  testimony 
of  eminent  writers,  but  the  unwritten  experience 
of  every  observing  person,  bears  abundant  wit- 
ness to  the  subtle  and  enduring  influence  of 
early  associations  ;  and  now.  when  the  subject  of 
education  is  receiving  so  large  a  share  of  careful 
thought,  with  a  view  to  discover  all  available 
ways  to  perfect  its  means  and  methods,  it 
would  seem  that  this  powerful  agent  should  not 
be   neglected.      Without   squandering    money, 


SCHOOL-HOUSE  765 

therefore,  to  make  the  school-house  pretentious, 
or  a  perfect  specimen  of  one  of  the  conventional 
orders  of  architecture,  pains  should  betaken  that 
it  should  not  be  an  often.-.''  to  the  eve,  or  out  of 
harmony  with  the  landscape.  Since  this  can 
generally  be  done.  also,  without  any,  or  with 
only  slight,  additional  cost,  the  educational 
value,  moral  and  esthetic,  of  the  appearance  of 
the  school-house,  may  properly  be  included  in 
the  plans  of  the  architect.  As  to  the  solidity  of 
the  school  building  in  all  its  parts,  it  is  not  too 
much  to  say  that  no  financial  objections  which 
would  impair  this,  should,  for  a  moment,  be  en- 
tertained. The  contingencies  which  may  hap- 
pen at  any  moment  where  large  numbers  of  chil- 
dren are  gathered  together,  are  so  momentous 
in  their  character,  as  to  render  this  imperative. 
The  size  of  the  school-house  should  be  deter- 
mined, of  course,  by  the  number  of  pupils  it  is 
intended  to  accommodate.  An  eminent  author- 
ity says  that,  a  building  designed  for  an  ungraded 
school  to  be  taught  by  a  single  teacher,  should 
contain,  at  least,  '.Mill  sip  ft.  of  floor-space;  be- 
ing  intended  to  accommodate  from  50  to  ho  pu- 
pils. In  regard  to  the  proper  size  of  class  rooms, 
see  I  Iygiene,  School. 

II.  Internal  Arrangement  of  the  School-House. 
—  Every  district-school  house  should  have  a 
vestibule,  a  main  room,  and  one  or  more  class- 
rooms, unless  the  school  is  taught  by  only  one 
teacher.  The  vestibule  should  lie  commodious, 
dry.  well-lighed,  and  properly  supplied  with 
pegs  for  hats  and  outer  garments,  mats,  wash 
basins,  and  all  means  for  ensuring  personal 
cleanliness.  In  mixed  schools,  it  should  be 
divided  into  two  rooms.  The  best  authorities 
are  almost  unanimous  in  the  opinion  that  the 
shape  of  the  school  room  proper  should  be  that 
of  an  oblong  about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  the 
size  being  determined  by  the  probable  attend- 
ance. The  ceiling  should  be  from  12  to  15  feet 
in  height,  the  controlling  consideration  being  that 
each  pupil  should  have  not  less  than  HIS  cubic 
feet  of  air  space.  The  door  and  the  teacher's 
desk  should  be  at  opposite  ends  of  the  room, the 
former,  when  practicable,  at  the  southern  ex- 
tremity, the  northern  being  without  windows, 
and  provided  with  a  shallow  platform  about  15 
inches  high.  This  arrangement  enables  the 
teacher  to  survey  the  school,  and  is  simple  and 
convenient  for  examination  or  exhibition  pur- 
poses. Very  large  school  rooms  are  not  ex- 
pedient, experience  having  shown  that  a  large 
number  of  pupils  may  be  supervised  and  taught 
to  better  advantage  in  two  rooms  of  medium 
size,  the  teacher  having  an  assistant  for  the  pur- 
pose, than  in  one  large  room.  A  separate  class 
room  is  indispensable  in  all  schools,  except  the 
smallest,  the  number  being  increased  according 
to  the  size  of  the  school.  In  its  construction, 
the  classroom  shotdd  conform  proportionally  to 
the  school  room,  and  should,  if  possible,  be  in 
immediate  connection  with  it.  but  separable  from 
it  completely  as  far  as  noise  is  concerned.  The 
teacher's  room,  in  small  schools, could  be  utilized 
as  the  school  library,  or  as  a  temporary  storing 


70(3 


SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT 


place  for  such  delicate  apparatus  as  required 
special  care.  .Schools  of  other  grades  and  sizes 
will,  of  course,  require  a  different  arrangement 
of  rooms.  Nearly  every  civilized  country,  in 
fact,  has  its  own  plans  for  the  construction  of 
school-houses,  and  the  arrangement  of  school 
and  class  rooms,  determined  by  the  peculiarities 
of  its  school  system,  or  by  national  character- 
istics. Interesting  exhibits  of  these  are  made  at 
every  world's  fair  ;  and  the  comparison  there  in- 
stituted will,  probably,  result  in  a  retention  and 
general  diffusion  of  the  best.  It  is  possible  here 
only  to  refer  to  the  subject,  and  to  cite  a  few 
standard  works  which  open  the  door  to  a  vol- 
uminous literature.  (See  Buisson,  Rapport  sur 
TinstrucKon  primaire  a  ^exposition  universeUe 
de  Vienne  en  1873  (Paris,  1875);  Barnard, 
School  ArcJdtecture  (N.  T.,  1863);  Johonnot, 
Country  School-Houses,  (N.  V..  L858);  and  Our 
School-Houses  (N.  T.,  1873);  Eveleth,  School- 
House  Architecture  (N.  T.,  1874).  (See  also 
the  references  at  the  end  of  the  article  School 
Furniture.) 

SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  is  a  department 
of  the  teacher's  profession  which  includes  (I)  the 
organization  of  the  school,  and  (II)  its  conduct. 
Under  the  former,  must  be  considered  (1)  the 
classification  (see  Class)  ;  (2)  the  distribution. 
as  to  order  and  time. of  the  brandies  to  be  taught, 
(course  of  instruction  and  programme)  ;  and 
(3)  the  proper  assignment  of  the  work  of  instruc- 
tion (in  a  graded  school)  to  the  several  teachers, 
either  in  accordance  with  the  class  system  or  with 
the  departmental  system  (q.  v.).  The  conduct 
of  the  school  has  reference  (1)  to  instruction, 
and  (2)  to  discipline.  Great  care  should  betaken, 
by  means  of  a  carefully  constructed  programme, 
or  daily  order  of  exercises,  to. secure  to  each  subject 
its  proper  amount  of  time,  according  to  its  place 
in  the  course  of  instruction,  as  well  as  to  insure 
an  equable  advancement  on  the  part  of  the  pupils 
in  each  subject  of  the  grade,  as  preliminary  to 
j, run ml/, hi.  The  promotion  of  pupils  is  a  matter 
of  great  practical  importance  in  the  management 
of  a  school.  One  of  the  most  serious  errors  made 
by  teachers  is  the  too  rapid  advancement  of  their 
pupils.  Promotions  should  always  be  based  upon 
a  careful  examination  ;  and,  in  a  graded  school, 
care  should  be  taken  that  every  grade  is  passed 
through  in  a  legitimate  manner,  that  is,  without 
hurry  or  cramming.  When  the  school  is  un- 
graded, the  advancement  of  individual  pupils  is 
to  be  considered  ;  but  there  is  the  same  need  of 
avoiding  haste,  so  as  to  secure  thorough  proficien- 
cy, as  the  basis  of  promotion.  Government  is, 
also,  an  important  department  of  school  manage- 
ment; since,  without  efficient  government,  all 
attempts  at  effective  school  instruction  must  be 
fruitless.  (See  Course  of  Instruction,  Disci- 
i'i.ine,  and  Government.) 

SCHOOL  RECORDS  are  of  great  impor- 
tance, both  in  connection  with  the  management 
of  the  school  itself,  and  for  the  purpose  of  af- 
fording a  means  of  obtaining  accurate  and  valu- 
able returns  to  be  embodied  in  a  genera]  system 
of  school  statistics.     These  records  are,  therefore. 


SCHOOL   RECORDS 

to   be   arranged    from   a   twofold  stand-point  r 

(I)  What  are  needed  as  auxiliary  to  the  keeping 
and    instruction    of     the    school    itself ;      and 

(II)  What  are  required  for  a  proper  administra- 
tion of  the  school  laws,  as  well  as  to  show  the 
condition  of  the  system  to  which  the  school  be- 
longs, and  the  progress  of  education  in  the 
town,  city,  and  state  in  which  it  is  located,  as 
compared  with  other  places. 

I.  For  the  carrying  out  of  the  first  object, 
there  should  be  an  accurate  registration  of  each 
pupil's  name  and  age,  his  parent's  name,  the 
date  of  his  admission  into  the  school,  of  his  suc- 
cessive promotion  from  grade  to  grade,  and  of 
his  discharge,  with  the  cause  of  the  same,  thus 
presenting  a  history  in  outline  of  the  pupil's 
whole  career  in  the  school.  The  register  kept 
for  these  items  should  be  in  such  a  form  as  to  be 
easy  of  reference,  cither  by  a  numerical  designa- 
tion of  the  pupils  in  the  order  of  their  admis- 
sion, or  by  an  alphabetical  arrangement.  Aux- 
iliary to  the  school  register,  there  may  be  (in 
large  schools,  should  be)  an  admission  hunk,  and 
a  i/isi:h,ir,/,i  honk,  the  entries  being  first  made  in 
these  books,  and  transferred  ;it  stated  times 
(weekly  or  monthly)  into  the  register.  The  ad- 
mission hunk  should  contain  a  statement  of  the 
antecedents  of  the  pupil,  and  the  discharge  book, 
the  cause  of  his  leaving  the  school. and  his  desti- 
nation. There  should,  also,  be  books  showing 
the  school  history  of  the  pupil  more  in  detail,  as 
his  daily  attendance,  conduct,  merit  and  de- 
merit marks  for  recitations,  etc.  One  book, 
usually  called  the  roll  hook,  may  be  used  for  all 
these  particulars,  there  being. in  a  graded  school, 
one  such  book  for  each  class,  and  kept  by  the 
class  teacher.  In  this  book  may  also  be  entered 
the  place  of  residence  of  each  pupil,  in  order  to 
facilitate  communication  with  the  parents.  The 
sclwol  diary  is  auxiliary  to  this,  containing 
transcripts  from  the  roll  book,  with  summaries 
of  marks  and  a  .statement  of  class  standing,  the 
pupil  being  required  to  take  this  diary  home  for 
the  inspection  and  signature  of  his  parents. 
Other  records,  besides  those  enumerated,  may  be 
kept  for  special  purposes;  but.  ordinarily,  these 
are  all  that  arc  indispensably  requisite  to  carry 
on  the  internal  operations  of  the  school. 

II.  The  records  made  necessary  by  the  pro- 
visions of  law  under  which  the  school  is  es- 
tablished and  supported,  will  vary,  of  course, 
with  the  nature  of  those  provisions,  and  with 
the  organization  of  the  system  to  which  the 
school  belongs.  But  there  are  certain  common 
and  indispensable  features,  inasmuch  as  there 
are  facts  which  all  school  records  for  this  pur- 
pose should  aim  to  show,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned  the  following:  (1)  The  number  of 
pupils  enrolled  during  the  year;  (2)  The  average 
enrollment,  or  "average  number  belonging"; 
(3)  The  number  in  attendance  at  each  session  of 
the  school;  and  (4)  the  number  of  pupils  of 
each  grade,  and  of  certain  specified  ages. — No 
attempt  is  made  in  this  article  to  present  the 
forms  of  these  records,  as  there  is  a  wide  diver- 
sity of  form  in  different  places,  and  as  the  form 


SCHWARZ 

is  of  secondary  importance  to  the  presenting  of 
the  required  farts. — See  Morrison,  Manual  of 

iScl/iuil  Mniiiii/riiifii/.a.Y.  Hf'iistrntiuit  (Idasgow 

and  London,  1874)  ;  Wickersham,  School  Econ- 
omy (Phila.,  1868);  Wells,  The  Graded 
School  (New  Fork,  L862). 

SCHWARZ,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Chris- 
tian, an  eminent  (Jcrman  educationist,  born  in 
1776,  at  Giessen;  died  at  Heidelberg,  in  L837. 
His  chief  work  is  Erziehungslehre  |  Voctrine  of 
Education),  of  which  the  first  part  appeared  in 
L802  ;  the  fourth  and  last,  which  was  issued  in 
1813,  contains  the  Geschichte  der  Erziehung 
[History  of  Education),  a  work  of  permanent 

value.     -An g  teachers,"  says   Hides  [Schule 

der  PadagogU  .  "  the  /■•  hrbuch  </<  r  Padagogik 
tend  Didaktik  (1805)  of  Curtmann  is  better 
known  than  the  ErziehungsleJire."  He,  how- 
ever, asserts  that,  while  Schwarz  has  not  given  so 
clear  an  exposition  of  the  principles  of  education 
and  instruction  as  Xiemeyer,  his  writings  are 
more  replete  with  practical  observations  and 
suggestions. 

SCIENCE,  The  Teaching-  of.  In  this  ar- 
ticle, the  treatment  will  refer  to  the  teaching  of 
science  (I)  as  a  branch  of  elementary  instruction, 
and  (II)  as  a  department  of  higher  education. 

I.  This  subject  is  one  into  which  great  con- 
fusion has  been  introduced  by  the  use  of  the 
words  science  and  scientific  in  two  different 
senses.  In  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  the  scien- 
tific knowledge  of  a  subject  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
laws  which  harmonize  and  explain  its  various 
phenomena.  Science  goes  beyond  mere  appear- 
ances, and  finds  that,  amidst  endless  variety, 
there  is  unity;  and.  amid  apparent  discord,  there 
is"harmony.  In  this  sense,  it  is  the  highest  out- 
come of  intellectual  effort.  The  human  mind 
deals  first  with  the  concrete.  For  a  lung  time  it 
scarcely  rises  above  the  information  of  the  senses. 
It  then  groups  the  impressions  of  the  senses  into 
more  comprehensive  unities,  and  in  this  process 
gams  a  certain  power  of  abstraction.  But  science 
supposes  that  the  mind  lias  been  long  practiced 
in  that  power  of  abstraction  and  generalization. 
It  views  in  succession  the  principal  facts  in  any 
department  of  nature  as  a  w  hole,  and  it  seeks  to 
find  the  invisible  order  which  pervades  them  all. 
In  this  sense  of  the  term,  also,  all  subjects  admit 
of  scientific  treatment ;  as  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  law  pervades  all  phenomena,  there  must  be 
a  science  of  mental  phenomena  as  well  as  of 
physical  phenomena;  and.  therefore,  no  single 
phenomenon  can  exist  which  has  not  its  own 
place  in  the  systsm  of  the  universe.  But,  from 
various  considerations,  the  term  tcir/ic  has  been 
often  restricted  to  the  explanation  of  the  laws 
which  regulate  matter,  and  tins  is  the  sense  in 
which  it  is  used  in  this  article.  Now  it  is  plain 
that,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term, children  can- 
not be  taught  science.  If  the  scientific  stage  is 
the  highest  in  the  development  of  the  intellectual 
faculties,  we  cannot  expect  to  find  it  in  the 
school.  It  belongs  to  the  university.  But  we 
may  lay  the  foundation  of  it  at  an  earlier  period. 
Indeed,  we  cannot  help  doing  something  toward 


SCIENCE 


161 


this  work;  but  we  may  do  it  awkwardly  and  un- 
consciously, or  skillfully  and  consciously.  The 
latter  is  the  function  of  the  educated  teacher. 
We  must,  therefore,  inquire  more  minutely  into 
the  mode  in  which  the  foundations  of  science  are 
laid.  For  this  purpose,  we  shall  quote  the  words 
of  the  late  Professor  Payne,  to  whom  the  prep- 
aration of  this  article  for  the  Cyclopaedia  of 
Education  w;is  first  assigned.  (See  Payne,  J.) 
Science,  he  defined,  as  "organized  knowledge", 
and,  after  explaining  the  meaning  of  organized 
in  this  definition,  he  proceeds:  "Returning  to  the 
other  factor  of  the  definition,  knowledge,  we  ob- 
serve that  there  are  two  kinds  of  knowledge — 
what  we  know  through  our  own  experience,  and 
what  we  know  through  the  experience  of  others. 
Thus,  I  know  by  my  own  knowledge  that  I  have 
an  audience  before  me,  and  I  know  through  the 
knowlei  Igi  i  of  others  that  the  earth  is  25,000  miles 
in  circumference.  This  latter  fact,  however.  I 
know  in  a  sense  different  from  that  in  which  I 
know  the  former.  The  one  is  a  part  of  my  ex- 
perience, of  my  very  being.  The  other  1  can  only 
be  strictly  said  to  know  when  I  have,  by  an 
effort  of  the  mind,  passed  through  the  connected 
chain  of  facts  and  reasonings  on  wdiich  the  dem- 
onstration is  founded.  Thus  only  can  it  become 
my  knowledge  in  the  true  sense  of  the  term. 
Strictly  speaking,  then,  organized  knowledge,  or 
science,  is  originally  based  on  unorganized  know- 
ledge, and  is  the  outcome  of  the  learner's  obser- 
vation of  facts  through  the  exercise  of  his  senses, 
and  his  own  reflection  upon  what  he  has  observed. 
This  knowledge,  ultimately  organized  into  science 
through  the  operation  of  his  mind,  he  may  with 
just  right  call  his  own ;  and,  as  a  learner,  he  can 
properly  call  no  other  knowledge  his  own.  "What 
is  reported  to  us  by  another  is  that  others,  if 
gained,  at  first-hand,  by  experience;  but  it  stands 
on  a  different  footing  from  that  which  we  have 
gained  by  our  own  experience.  He  merely  hands 
it  over  to  us;  but,  when  we  receive  it,  its  condition 
is  already  changed.  It  wants  the  brightness,  def- 
iniu  nrss.  and  certainty  ill  our  eyes,  which  it  had 
in  his;  and,  moreover,  it  is  merely  a  loan,  and  not 
our  property.  The  fact,  for  instance,  about  the 
earth's  circumference  was  to  him  a  living  fact; 
it  sprung  into  being  as  the  outcome  of  exper- 
iments and  reasonings,  with  the  entire  chain  of 
which  it  was  seen  by  him  to  be  intimately — in- 
deed, indissolubly  and  organically — connected.  To 
us  it  is  a  dead  fact,  severed  from  its  connection 
with  the  body  of  truth,  and,  by  our  hypothesis, 
having  no  organic  relation  to  the  living  truths 
we  have  gained  by  our  own  minds.  What  I  in- 
sist on.  then.  is.  that  the  knowledge  from  ex]  e- 
rience — that  which  is  gained  by  bringing  our  own 
minds  into  direct  contact  with  matter — is  the 
only  knowledge  that,  as  novices  in  science,  we 
have  to  do  with.  The  dogmatic  knowledge  im- 
posed on  us  by  authority,  though  originally 
gained  by  the  same  means,  is  really,  not  ours,  but 
another's — is,  as  far  as  we  are  concerned,  unor- 
ganizable,  and,  therefore,  though  science  to  its 
proprietor,  is  not  science  to  us.  To  us  it  is  merely 
information,  or   hap-hazard   knowledge." — The 


account  here  given  contains  the  very 
matter,  and  cannot  be  too  deeply  pot 
impressed  on  the  mind;  and  we  shall 


lie  notices 
u  he  finds 


objects,  he 
the  same 
first  effort 


tell 


ih:il 


seen  the  individuals  and  noticed  the  similarity, 
the  generalization  would  be  of  no  real  use 
to  him.  Out  of  this  fact  flow  some  of  the  prin- 
cipal rules  in  regard  to  the  method  of  teaching 
.science:  (1)  The  pupil  must  be  brought  face 
to  face  with  nature ;  he  must  see  the  indi- 
vidual;  he  must  himself  make  the  experiment. 
(2)  He  must  make  the  generalization,  himself; 
he  must  be  a  discoverer.  It  is  here,  however,  that 
the  skillful  teacher  can  wisely  interfere.  The 
child,  if  left  to  himself,  might  be  too  long 
in  making  the  discovery,  for  he  might  not 
stumble  upon  individuals  which  contain  sim- 
ilarities. The  teacher,  therefore,  takes  care  to 
bring  similar  individuals  before  his  pupils  in 
sufficient  number.  He  sternly  checks  his  own 
wish  to  shorten  the  work  by  telling  the  generali- 
zation; but  he  prepares  the  way  for  the  pupils 
making  it  by  adducing  instance  after  instance, 
until  the  similarities  cannot  but  become  visible 
to  the  pupil's  mind.  And  this  rule  suggests  an- 
other,— that,  wherever  it  is  possible,  the  pupil 
.should  be  lei  I  alnng  the  road  over  which  mankind 
traveled  in  making  the  discovery  originally.  He 
must.of  course,  commit  many  blunders  before  he 
reaches  the  truth;  yet.  under  a  skillful  teacher. 
such  a  process  is  eminently  educative.  But, 
besides  the  making  of  generalizations,  there  is 
also  the  faculty  of  observation  to  be  cai  fully 
cultivated.  Indeed  the  cultivation  of  the  faculty 
of  observation  is  essentially  necessary  to  the  for- 
mation of  correct  generalizations.  At  first,  the 
child  makes  his  generalizations  unconsciously. 
He  sees  a  tree,  and  then  another  tree,  and  then 
another,  and  somehow  they  impress  him  as 
being  like;  but  he  has  no  accurate  conception  in 
regard  to  the  points  in  which  they  are  like. — 
Even  when  he  becomes  conscious  of  the  points 
of  resemblance  in  objects,  he  may  find  that  the 
resemblances  in  them  are  on  the  surface,  and  that 
there  are  greater  differences  separating  the  ob- 
jects from  each  other.     He  is  now  i ling  nearer 

the  stage  in  which  he  can  deal  with  a  subject 
scientifically.  For  observation  has  to  furnish,  as 
the  basis  of  scientific  conceptions,  a  more  accurate 
knowledge  than  that  possessed  by  the  ordinary 
observer.  The  pupil  has  to  notice  qualities  which 
ordinarily  escape  observation.  The  teacher  again 
must  take  the  utmost  care  that  the  pupil  Iris 
really  observed  the  peculiarity  before  lie  tolls  bim 
the  special  name  given  to  it.  Else  the  pupil's 
mind  will  be  crammed   with   a  number  of  t, cli- 


nical terms  of  the  meaning  of  which  he  probably 
will  have  no  clear  conception;  and  even  should  he 
have  a  clear  conception  of  their  meaning  when 
lie  hears  it  from  his  teacher,  he  will  be  sure  to 
forgot  it  very  soon.  In  one  word,  the  pupil  must 
conquer  every  step  in  science  by  personal  obser- 
vation and  experience.  He  must  find  out  every 
thing  himself.  The  teacher  has  simply  to  arrange 
the  order  in  which  the  facts  of  nature  are  to  be 
presented  to  the  pupil,  and  to  lay  before  him 
only  those  phenomena  which  it  is  important  for 
him  to  observe.  From  what  has  been  said,  it  is 
plain  that  the  plan  of  going  through  all  the 
principal  phenomena  of  a  science  is  not  to  be 
adopted  in  schools.  This  is  a  method  appropri- 
ate only  to  the  last  stage  of  scientific  instruction. 
The  teacher  must  select  the  portions  of  science 
which  will  be  most  educative;  and  he  will  treat 
them  in  such  a  way  as  to  interest  the  pupil,  and 
make  him  take  an  active  part  in  ascertaining  the 
facts  of  nature.  At  the  same  time,  lie  will  take 
care  to  make  his  various  lessons  bear  on  each 
other.  Though  he  does  not  disclose  a  law,  but 
leave  it  to  dawn  upon  the  pupil's  mind  from  the 
presentation  of  instances,   he   will  sec   to  it  that 

i  each  lesson  adds  to  tin- structure  which  the  pre- 
vious one  has  helped  to  raise,  lie  will  have  a  fixed 
plan  in  his  own  mind;  and  he  will  look  forward 
to  the  intellectual  result  which  he  is  to  produce, 
in  process  of  time,  by  the  examples  and  experi- 
ments which  he   makes  the   pupil  observe  and 

!  perform. — In  all  these  considerations,  we  have 
been  looking  at  science  as  a  subject  worthy  of 
bring  Btudied  for  its  own  sake.  This  is  unques- 
tionably true.  The  intellectual  powers  of  man 
are  an  essentia]  feature  of  man's  nature,  and  they 
demand  exercise.  This  exercise  is  invariably  ac- 
companied by  an  intense  pleasure.  Now,  the 
scientific  knowledge  of  nature  is  eminently  cal- 
culated to  call  the  intellectual  [powers  into  aetiv- 

pure  and  lasting  enjoyment.  But  theteai  1htiii.iv 

look  on  the  knowledge  of  science  fro ther 

points  of  view.  Man  is  corporeal,  and  his  physical 
well-being  depends  on  his  coming  into  proper 
relations  with  physical  nature.  It  is  important 
for  him  to  know  these  relations,  and  the  teacher 
of  youth  will  endeavor  to  enlighten  the  mind  of 
his"  pupil  in  regard  to  them.  At  the  same  time, 
these  relations  arc  most  deeply  impressed  on  tile 
mind,  when  the  facts  of  science  are  taught  ac- 
cording to  the  laws  of  education.  If  1  inform  a 
boy  that  carbonic  acid  gas  is  dclcti  rious.  the  im- 
pression is  of  the  faintest  nature,  and  will  not 
lead,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  to  any  action;  but 
if  I  show  the  boy  how  to  produce  carbonic  acid 
gas  by  the  union  of  its  component  elements,  that 
is.  if  I  lead  him  to  make  experiments  by  which 
the  truth  will  be  forced  upon  his  mind  without 
my  telling  him  that  it  is  injurious  to  life;  and  if, 
in  addition  to  this,  I  make  him  discover  that  he 
is  continually  exhaling  this  gas.  he  will  be  deeply 
impressed  with  the  necessity  of  ventilation,  and 
will  make  every  effort  to  procure  it.  Then. 
again,  nature  presents  herself  not  merely  as  the 
embodiment  of  law  but  also  as  the  embodiment 


of  beauty  ;  and  the  teacher  should,  therefore,  en- 
deavor to  bring  out  this  feature  occasionally. 
He  will  point,  for  example,  to  the  exquisite 
structure  of  flowers  :  he  will  lead  the  child  to 
feel  the  loveliness  of  landscapes;  he  will  interest 
him  in  the  habits  of  animals  ;  in  fact,  he  will  try 
to  make  nature  reveal  herself  to  him  in  her  con- 
crete loveliness  and  variety. 

Among  the  questions  keenly  discussed  in  con- 
nection with  science  teaching  are  (1)  the  order 
in  which  the  sciences  should  be  taught,  and 
(2)  what  sciences  are  suitable  for  schools.  Opin- 
ions on  these  subjects  will  necessarily  differ  until 
agreement  as  to  the  meaning  of  terms  is  reached. 
The  fact  is,  as  we  have  seen,  that  all  the  sciences 
call  for  processes  c  if  thought  which  can  be  reason- 
ably expected  only  in  mature  minds;  but  it  is 
true,  at  the  same  time,  that  separate  facts,  in  all 
these  sciences,  tending  towards  a  unity,  may  be 
discovered  by  a  child  of  eleven  or  twelve  years 
of  age.  Faraday  said  that  chemistry  could  be 
taught  to  a  boy  of  eleven;  others  denied  that  it 
could;  and  in  a  certain  sense,  both  were  right, 
from  their  respective  points  of  view.  At  the 
same  time  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  facts  of 
some  sciences,  in  the  average,  are  much  more 
complicated  than  those  of  other  sciences ;  and, 
therefore,  there  is  wisdom  in  teaching  them  in  a 
certain  order.  Botany,  for  instance,  is  among 
the  simplest  of  the  sciences.  It  calLs  into  play 
the  power  of  minute  observation.  The  child  is 
interested  in  examining  the  structure  of  the 
plant  and  the  growth  of  the  various  parts.  An 
appeal  is  also  made  to  his  [lowers  of  grouping  or, 
in  other  words,  of  classification.  And  the  pupil 
has  a  large  field  in  botany  for  these  two  activities. 
(See  Botany.)  The  same  is  true  of  the  other 
science  of  classification,  zoology ;  but  the  processes 
are  a  little  more  complicated.  It  should,  there- 
fore, naturally  follow  botany.  From  these,  the 
pupil  should  proceed  to  some  department  of 
physics,  and  from  that,  advance  to  chemistry. 
The  one  should  go  before  the  other;  because  the 
processes  of  chemical  motion  are  much  more  dif- 
ficult to  observe  accurately  than  those  of  me- 
chanical motion.  And  the  course  of  science  might 
well  end  with  physiology,  in  which  many  of  the 
modes  of  reasoning  employed  are  abstruse,  and 
the  student  is  continually  liable  to  be  misled  by 
appearances  and  analogies. 

II.  One  of  the  most  important  aims  of  the 
educator  is  to  lead  man  to  recognize  how  to 
live  most  successfully  for  himself  ;  to  realize  the 
responsibilities  of  his  position,  and,  by  seeking 
to  comply  with  these  responsibilities,  to  attain  to 
the  greatest  possible  happiness.  In  this  process 
of  education,  the  student  must  be  led  to  recognize 
the  material  and  physical  conditions  of  his  ex- 
istence ;  to  know  himself,  not  as  an  independent 
being,  but  as  one  dependent  upon  the  multifa- 
rious conditions  of  the  vast  scheme  of  nature,  and 
as  one,  who,  alike  in  what  he  is  and  in  that  of 
which  he  is  capable,  is  strictly  under  the  control 
of  natural  law.  In  other  words,  man  can  only 
know  himself  by  comparison  with  other  objects 
in  nature, — can  only  know  Ms  powers  by  com- 


I  parison  with  the  forces  by  which  other  forms  of 
I  matter  are  controlled.  Again,  as  a  mere  question 
[  of  material  prosperity,  the  st  udy  of  natural  science 
[  is  forced  upon  our  consideration.  No  thoughtful 
man  warn  lering  through  the  aisles  of  a  great  inter- 
:  national  exhibition  can  fail  to  see  that  all  prog- 
I  ress  in  applied  science  and  the  arts  must  be  based, 
in  the  first  place,  upon  an  exact  knowledge  ol 
natural  resources,  material  ami  physical.  It  will 
lie  admitted  that  knowledge  of  all  kinds  is  fun- 
damentally based  upon  the  evidence  of  our  senses, 
but  such  evidence  is  apt  to  mislead,  unless  checked 
by  experiment;  experiment,  to  be  of  real  utility, 
must  be  exact  and  systematic.  The  reasoning  that 
draws  conclusions  from  such  experiments  must 
be  logical;  and  language,  at  once  ample  and  exact, 
is  required  as  an  implement,  only  of  value  when 
wielded  with  precision,  to  widen  the  fields  of  in- 
quiry with  the  utmost  economy  of  mental  labor. 
We  are  compelled  to  make  these  remarks  because 
the  true  importance  of  a  scientific  study  of  nature 
has  not  been  recognized  by  the  greater  part  of 
those  who  are  engaged  in  education.  A  knowl- 
I  edge  of  the  leading  truths  of  natural  science  is. 
j  however,  essential  to  education,  (1)  because  of 
their  fundamental  character,  and  (2)  because  of 
the  method  by  which  such  sciences  are  pursued, 
which  method  is  the  same  as  that  which  ought  to 
obtain  in  every  action  of  our  every-day  lives. 
Comparing  the  training  given  by  language  and 
mathematics  with  that  given  by  natural  science, 
we  see  that,  whilst  language  cultivates  the  mem- 
ory, and  mathematics  trains  the  reasoning  facul- 
ties, neither  affords  any  means  for  the  cultivation 
of  observation  and  experiment.  Turning  to  the 
natural  sciences  themselves,  we  find  that  the 
physical  branches  cultivate  observation,  experi- 
ment, and  inductive  reasoning;  while  the  material 
branches,  including  the  natural  history  sciences, 
cultivate  especially  the  faculties  of  observation 
and  systematic  classification.  But.  in  addition 
to  this,  from  the  multitudinous  data  with  which 
the  latter  deal,  and  the  impossibility  of  obtain- 
ing complete  series  of  such  data,  these  studies  in- 
evitably lead  the  inquiring  mind  to  a  constant 
consideration  of  probabilities,  or,  in  other  words, 
to  a  habit,  of  the  utmost  importance  to  us  prac- 
tically, of  justly  weighing  circumstantial  evidence. 
In  view  of  the  vast  mass  of  facts  accumulating 
more  and  more  rapidly  each  day  from  the  various 
fields  of  scientific  investigation,  it  is  impossible 
that  any  human  mind  can  grasp  all  the  details  of 
even  a  single  branch.  The  follow  ing  considerations 
are,  however,  important  in  this  view  of  education: 
I  I  )  that,  by  experience  in  some  two  sciences,  I  In- 
one  physical  and  the  other  relating  to  the  forms 
assumed  by  matter,  the  student  should  learn  the 
principles  on  which  these  natural  sciences  are 
pursued,  and  therefrom  be  able  to  appreciate  the 
value  of  scientific  training  and  knowledge  ; 
('!)  that  he  should  understand  the  general  scope 
of  the  various  sciences  ;  (3)  that  he  should  be 
familiar  with  the  broad  generalizations  of  science; 
(4)  that  he  should  not  be  ignorant  of  such  com- 
mon scientific  details  as  occur  to  us  every  day, 
and  have  an  immediate  and  direct  connection 


770  SCIENCE 

with  our  welfare  and  success  in  life;  and  (5)  that 
he  should  be  taught  how  to  obtain  information 
by  reference,  and  how  to  weigh  the  trustworthi- 
ness of  authorities.  In  order  that  the  second 
and  third  of  these  requirements  may  be  intelli- 
gently obtained,  they  must  logically  be  preceded 
by  the  first,  and  simultaneously  the  acquisition 
of  the  knowledge  implied  by  the  fifth  may  well 
be  commenced.  In  the  physical  branches  of 
scientific  inquiry,  qualitative  analytical  chemistry 
theoretically  best  meets  the  requirements  of  the 
ease  ;  in  the  materi  il  sciences,  we  may  sele  t  one 
of  those  which  are  called  natural  history  sciences. 
Under  this  hea  I,  certain  of  the  natural  sciences 
which  treat  of  the  living  forms  of  matter  were 
formerly  include  I:  but  the  term  is  a  must  indef- 
inite one.  and  must  cease  to  be  used  at  all,  if  con- 
fined to  its  old  signification.  The  sciences  espe- 
cially included  under  it.  botany  and  zoology,have 
been  placed  upon  altogether  new  and  broader 
foundations  as  branches  of  biology,  so  that  they 
now  cover  morphological  and  physiological 
ground  never  contemplated  in  the  old  use  of  the 
term.  There  would  seem  to  be  a  propriety  in 
using  the  term  to  express  that  pursuit  of  nature 
which  is  essentially  out-of-door  in  its  character, 
—  the  study  of  the  external  relationship  of  beings 
to  each  other  ;  and  in  this  view  we  should  cer- 
tainly need  to  include  geological  investigations. 
At  the  same  time,  it  will  be  apparent  to  every 
naturalist  that  the  scope  of  such  a  term  could 
not  be  rigorously  defined.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  an  out-of-door  study  of  nature  ought 
to  be  an  essential  element  of  education.  It  may 
be  long  before  it  is  generally  introduced  into  the 
courseof  school  education,  but  it  should  certainly 
be  enforced  upon  the  community  as  a  duty  at 
least  in  home  culture.  It  should  be  used  to  cul- 
tivate habits  of  close,  exact,  tu id  systematic  ob- 
servation, commenced  in  the  field  and  continued 
in  the  laboratory;  of  judiciously  collecting,  care- 
fully  preserving  and    classifying,  s e  one  or 

more  series  of  natural  objects;  and  of  referring 
for  information  not  to  be  obtained  by  personal 
inquiry,  regarding  the  objects  observed  and  col- 
lected, to  trustworthy  sources.  By  well-judged 
training  in  either  botany  or  any  one  of  the 
branches  of  zoology,  the  ends  above  indicated 
may  be  attained  :  w  hilst  the  general  spirit  of  ob- 
servation an  inquiry  in  the  wide  field  of  natural 
science  thai  will  be  encouraged,  will  lead  to  a 
breadth  and  liberality  of  mental  tone.  Nor  need 
this  general  and  more  desultory  observation  be 
dreaded,  as  apt  to  lead  to  hasty,  unfounded,  and 
inexact  acquirements,  if  the  mind  is  duly  drained, 
as  had  been  suggested,  in  vigorous  methods  of 
thought  by  the  evict  pursuit  of  some  special  suli 
ject  of  scientific  study.  If  there  be  any  truth  in 
the  suggestions  just- thrown  out,  it  will  be  ap- 
parent that  such  training  in  the  natural  history 
sciences  cannot  be  commenced  too  early  in  life, 
because  the  spirit  of  the  training  is  such  that  it 
should  imbue  the  entire  mental  culture  of  the  in- 
dividual; and,  furthermore,  if  this  early  training 
has  been  neglected,  the  study  of  science  in  an 
advanced  period  of  education,  will  not  be  so  suc- 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS 

cessful,  because  it  will  lack  the  vivid  conceptions 
which  can  only  be  acquired  by  the  exercise  of 
the  observing  faculties  in  early  life.  It  only 
remains  to  add  that,  as  all  teaching  by  the  very 
nature  of  these  sciences  must  be  objective,  the 
duty  of  the  instructor,  at  every  stage  of  science 
teaching,  is  to  supplement  nature  and  not  to 
take  her  place,  not  to  impart  information  but  to 
guide  the  pupil  in  the  .self-acquirement  of  knowl- 
edge. Books,  similarly,  are  only  to  be  permitted 
as  dictionaries  to  explain  such  ] mints  as  the  pupil 
cannot  elucidate  by  his  own  efforts.-    See  Payne, 

The    True.    Foundation    of    Sbi -Teaching 

(London!;  Wilson,  Essay  on  Teaching 


Li  I, 


the  r 


/■:./-: 


„/,  /;/., 


ttural 

Edu- 
on  of 
[..  On 


(L 


Modern  Life  (New  York,  1867);  Spencer, 'FPfca* 

Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth  in  Education:  In- 

teUectual,  Moral,  aneZPAysiW  (NewYork,1866). 

SCIENCE     OF     GOVERNMENT,     the 

name  given  to  a  branch  of  instruction  in  pri- 
mary or  secondary  schools,  which  is  designed  to 
impart  to  the  pupils  a  knowledge  of  the  political 
system  under  which  they  live,  and  to  make 
them,  as  far  as  requisite,  familiar  with  the  dif- 
ferent functions  of  government,  and  the  mode 
in  which  they  are  performed.  It.  generally,  in- 
cludes a  consideration  of  the  constitution  of  the 
country  or  state,  the  qualifications  and  duties  of 
the  principal  officers  of  government,  the  legal 
restrictions  imposed  upon  citizens,  and  an  out- 
line of  civil  and  municipal  regulations.  Many 
excellent  treatises  have  been  prepared  for  this 


purpose    for 

there  can  be  i 


elementary  schools;  and, 
on  of  the  value  of  this  de- 
m  for  all  classes  of  pupils. 
schools,  one  of  the  most 
irhich  is  to  prepare  for  in- 


payment ot  instruct 
particularly  in  publi 
important  obji  el-  ot 
telli-ent  and  useful  atizensnip. 

SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS  are  higher  insti 

and  theoretical,  is  t 
chide  polytechnic  sc 
rious  branches  of  scii 
schools,  such  as  those 
— In  Europe,  they 
the  state.  The  real 
are  essentially  scienti 
In  Austria  Hungan 
nic  institutes  iha\  in<_ 
327  instructors  and  4.40")  pupils);  namely,  in 
Vienna,  Buda-Pesth,  Prague  (one  German  and 
one  Bohemian),  Grata,  Lemberg,  and  Briinn. 
The  oldest  are  those  in  Prague,  founded  in  180G. 
That  in  Vienna,  founded  in  1815,  has  five  de- 
partments (one  of  general  science,  and  schools  of 
engineering,  architecture,  mechanical  engineer- 
ing, and  chcmi.strvi:  the  others  lack  one  or  more 
of  these  departments.— The  German  Empire 
has  K»  scientific  institutes  (having,  in  the  winter 
of  1875—6,  498  instructors  and  fi,(!44  pupils); 
namely,  the   Academy  of   Architecture    (Ban- 


taught  i.  and  special 

ng.  engineering, etc. 
rally  supported  by 
q.  v.)  in  Germany 
Is  of  a  lower  grade, 
ire  seven  polyteeh- 
winter  of  1875 — (i. 


SCIENTIFIC    SCHOOLS 


771 


akademie)  in  Berlin;  the  Technological  Academy 
(Oewerbe-Akademie)  in  the  same  place,  with  de- 
partments of  mechanics  and  engineering,  of  chem- 
istry and  metallurgy,  and  of  naval  construction; 
and' the  polytechnic  schools  in  Hanover,  Aix-la- 
C'hapelle,  Munich.  Dresden,  Stuttgart.  <  'arlsruhe, 
Darmstadt,  and  Brunswick.  The  last,  founded 
in  1745,  is  the  oldest.  The  Berlin  academies 
were  founded  in  L799  and  1820,  respectively. 
The  polytechnic  schools  have  several  depart- 
ments :  that  in  Munich  includes  one  of  agri- 
culture; that  in  Dresden,  one  of  mathematics 
and  physical  science  for  teachers;  that  in  I 'arls- 
ruhe, one  of  forestry  ;  and  that  in  Brunswick, 
one  of  pharmacy,  and  one  of  forestry.  Common 
to  must  of  them,  as  branches  of  instruction,  are 
mechanics,  engineering,  architecture,  mathemat- 
ics, physics,  and  chemistry. — In  France,  the 
Polytechnic  School  in  Paris  is  organized  on  a 
military  basis,  and  has  for  its  object  the  prepa- 
ration of  engineers,  and  candidates  for  positions 
in  the  artillery, the  navy,  the  public  works,  mines, 
the  general  staff,  the  powder  and  saltpeter  facto- 
ries, the  telegraphic  institutions, and  the  tobacco 
administration.  It  was  founded  in  1795,  and, 
in  1873,  had  426  pupils.  It  is,  properly,  only 
preparatory  to  higher  special  institutions,  mili- 
tary and  civil.  The  latter  include  the  <  'entral 
School  of  Arts  and  Manufactures  (£co!e  centrale 
ties  arts  et  mamifactures),  designed  for  the  in- 
struction of  civil  engineers  and  directors  of  fac- 
tories and  metallurgical  establishments;  the 
School  of  Bridge  and  Road  Building  (tlcole  des 
pants  et  chaussees);  and  the  Conservatory  of 
Arts  and  Trades  ( Conservatoire  des  arts  <■/  me- 
tiers). These  are  all  in  Paris.  The  last-named  has 
a  collection  of  machines,  instruments,  products 
of  agriculture  and  industry,  and  a  library.  There 
are  thirteen  scientific  courses  in  techuical  sub- 
jects, political  economy,  industrial  legislation, 
and  statistics,  and,  also,  an  inferior  school  of 
drawing  and  descriptive  geometry.  The  Museum 
of  Natural  History  in  Paris  affords  instruction 
to  students. — In  Italy,  there  are  scientific  schools 
in  Milan,  Turin,  Naples,  Rome,  Padua,  and 
Palermo,  the  last  three  being  connected  with 
the  universities  in  those  places.— In  Russia  are 
found  the  Technological  Institute,  the  Engineer- 
ing Institute,  and  the  School  of  Architecture, 
in  St.  Petersburg,  and  polytechnic  schools,  in 
Riga,  Moscow,  Lodz,  and  Eelsingfors  (Finland). 
The  last,  in  1872—3,  had  118  students;  the 
others,  in  1874,  2,570.  The  institution  in  Riga 
has  seven  departments:  an  agricultural,  a  chem- 
ical, a  surveying,  an  engineering,  a  mechanical 
engineering,  an  architectural,  and  a  commercial 
department. — In  Bel;/inm.  scientific  schools  are 

connected  with   the  universities. Switzerland 

has  a  polytechnic  school  in  Zurich,  with  eight 
departments :  an  architectural,  an  engineering, 
a  mechanical,  and  a  chemical  department,  a 
school  of  agriculture  and  forestry,  a  depart- 
ment for  the  education  of  special  teachers  of 
mathematics  and  natural  sciences,  a  general 
philosophical  and  politico-economical  depart- 
ment, and  a  preparatory  mathematical  course. 


This  institution  was  founded  in  1854  ;  and.  in 
1.S75—G,  had  92  instructors  and  912  students. 
There  is,  besides,  a  scientific  department  in  the 
Academy  of  Lausanne,  and  an  architectural  de- 
partment in  the  Lyceum  of  Lugano.  I  he  othei 
continental  nations  also  have  scientific-  schools. 
In  Great  Britain,  there  are  no  polytechnic 
schools.  There  are,  however,  private  associations 
that  offer  instruction  in  science;  and  the  South 
Kensington  Museum  in  London,  which  possesses 
rich  collections  in  art,  natural  history,  and  sci- 
ence, also  maintains  schools.  Lectures  are  also 
given  on  scientific  subjects  in  the  universities 
of  London.  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin. 
The  Royal  College  of  Science,  hi  Dublin,  and 
the  Royal  Mining  School,  in  London,  may  also 
be  mentioned. 

In  Europe,  there  are  numerous  special  scl Is 

of  agriculture  and  forestry.  Austria  has  a  school 
of  vine  culture  and  pomology  at  Klosterueuburg. 
The  principal  milling  institutions  of  the  conti- 
nent are  as  follows:  in  Austria-Hungary,  the 
mining  academies  at  Leoben,  Pribram,  and 
Schciniiitz.  and  eight  milling  schools:  in  Ger- 
many, the  mining  academies"  in  Merlin,  Claus- 
thal,  and  Freiberg  (opened  in  17Gfi),  and  14 
mining  schools  ;  iu  France,  the  National  Mining 
School  in  Paris  (of  a  higher  grade),  and  the 
mining  schools  at  St.  Etienneand  Alais;  in  Italy, 
the  mining  schools  at  Caltanisetta  and  Agordo. 
and  the  special  e  tool  for  quarrying  and  working 
marble,  at  Carrara  :  in  Russia,  the  Imperial  In- 
stitute of  Mining  and  Metallurgy,  in  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  seven  intermediate  and  lower  mining 
schools;  in  Sweden,  the  mining  department  of 
the  Technological  Institute  of  Stockholm  ;  in 
Belgium,  the  special  school  of  mines  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Liege,  and  the  provincial  school  of 
trades,  industry,  and  mining,  at  Mons. 

In  the  United  Stales,  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  reports,  in  1875,  74  schools  of  science 
mining,  en-in. .  i  hi-.agiicuftural, etc.), including 
separate  inMitutioiis  and  departments  of  colleges 
and  univei'siti.  -.  with  7.  -  instructors  and  7,157 
students.  Of  these,  41  are  endowed  by  the  na- 
tional land  grant  as  agricultural  colleges;  but 
most  or  all  of  them  have  one  or  more  additional 
courses,  as  of  general  science,  engineering,  etc. 
i  For  their  special  features,  see  Agricultural 
Colleges.)  The  terms  of  admission  to  Amer- 
ican scientific  schools  vary  somewhat  in  the  dif- 
ferent institutions,  but  include  arithmetic,  ele- 
mentary algebra  and  geometry,  geography,  En- 
glish grammar  and  composition,  and  history. 
The  course  generally  covers  four,  sometimes  oidy 
three  years,  and  leads  to  the  degree  of  Bachelor 
of  Science,  or  appropriate  special  degrees  (as 
Civil  Engineer. etc.).  The  curriculum  commonly 
embraces  the  higher  mathematics,  English  lan- 
guage and  literature,  history.  French  and  Ger- 
man, chemistry,  drawing,  physics,  natural  his- 
tory, astronomy,  mental  science,  and  political 
economy,  besides  special  branches  appropriate  to 
the  particular  course  pursued.  Of  separate  in- 
stitutions, the  oldest  is  the  Rensselaer  Polytech- 
nic Institute  in  Troy,  N.  Y.,  founded  in  1824, 


772 


SCIENTIFIC  SCHOOLS 


and  re-organized  in  1849.  It  has  a  course  in 
civil  engineering  (understood  to  include  mechan- 
ical or  dynamical  engineering,  road  engineering, 
bridge  engineering,  hydraulic  engineering,  etc.). 
Other  prominent  institutions  are  the  .Massachu- 
setts Institute  of  Technology  (opened  in  L861), 
in  Boston,  with  10  courses  (civil  engineering, 
mechanical  engineering,  mining  engineering, 
architecture,  chemistry,  metallurgy,  natural  his- 
tory, physics,  science  and  literature,  philosophy); 
the  Illinois  Industrial  University  (1867),  at  Ur- 
bana,  III.,  with  courses  in  agriculture,  horticult- 
ure, mechanical,  mining,  and  civil  engineering, 
architecture,  chemistry,  natural  history,  English 
and  modern  languages,  ancient  languages,  mili- 
tary science,  commerce,  and  domestic  science 
and  art  (for  women);  the  Stevens  Institute  of 
Technology  (1871),  in  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  a  school 
of  mechanical  engineering;  Purdue  University 
(1874),  at  Lafayette,  Ind.,  with  a  course  in  gen- 
eral science,  and  courses  in  agriculture,  horti- 
culture, civil  engineering,  industrial  design, 
physics  and  mechanics,  chemistry  aud  metal- 
lurgy, and  natural  history ;  the  State  School  of 
Mines  (1874),  at  Golden,  Col.;  and  the  New 
Market  Polytechnic  Institute,  at  New  Market, 
Va.,  with  a  mechanical-engineering,  a  civil-en- 
gineering, a  chemical,  and  a  classical  course. 
Among  scientific  departments  (for  mention  of 
which  see  the  articles  on  the  institutions  to 
which  they  belong),  may  be  instanced  the  Law- 
rence Scientific  School  (Harvard  University), 
the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  (Yale  <  'ollegei,  the 
School  of  Mines  of  ( lolumbia  ( iollege,  the  « 'hand- 
ler Scientific  Department  and  the  Thayer  School 
of  Civil  Engineering  (Dartmouth  College),  the 
John  C.  Green  School  of  Science  (College  of 
New  Jersey),  the  Scientific  School  of  Rutgers 
College,  the  Engineering  School  of  LTnion  Uni- 
versity, the  Pardee  Scientific  Department  of 
Lafayette  College,  and  the  Missouri  School  of 
Miues  and  Metallurgy  (University  of  Missouri). 
Cornell  University  and  some  other  institutions 
have  various  scientific  courses,  without  a  distinct 
organization.  The  Worcester  County  Free  In- 
stitute of  Industrial  Science,  at  Worcester, 
Mass.,  was  opened  in  1868.  It  offers  instruction 
in  mechanical  engineering,  civil  engineering, 
drawing,  physics,  chemistry,  English,  French, 
and  German.  The  course  occupies  three  and  a 
half  years  for  those  preparing  to  become  mechan- 
ical engineers,  and  three  years  for  all  others. 
Much  attention  is  given  in  this  institution  to 
practice,  it  being  designed  to  impart  sufficient 
practical  familiarity  with  some  branch  of  ap- 
plied science,  to  secure  to  its  graduates  a  liveli- 
hood. At  the  middle  of  the  first  year,  every 
student  (except  the  mechanical  section)  chooses 
some  department,  under  the  advice  of  the  in- 
structors, and  devotes  ten  hours  a  week  and  the 
month  of  July,  to  practice  in  that  department 
until  his  graduation,  that  is,  for  two  and  a  half 
years.  The  mechanical  section  practice  in  the 
machine  shop  from  the  beginning,  that  is,  for 
three  and  a  half  years.  Students  who  select 
chemistry,  work  in  the  laboratory  ;  the  civil  en- 


SCOTLAND 

gineers,  at  field  work  or  problems  in  construc- 
tion ;  and  the  designers,  at  problems  in  design. 
The  shop  is  managed  as  a  manufacturing  estab- 
lishment, in  order  that  the  students  may  always 
work  in  the  wholesome  atmosphere  of  real 
business. 

SCOTLAND,  the  northern  part  of  the  island 
of  Great  Britain,  aud  an  important  division  of 
I  the  United  Kingdom  of  the  same  name.  Its 
|  area  contains  30,463  sq.  ni.;  and  its  population, 
according  to  the  census  of  1871,  was  3,3611,(118. 
Educational  History. — The  system  of  com- 
mon schools,  under  which  Scotland  became  cel- 
ebrated for  the  general  diffusion  of  education  / 
among  its  people,  was  founded  in  1695,  by  the  7^* 
law  which  required  that  a  school  should  be 
established  and  "a  school-master  appointed  in 
every  parish  by  advice  of  the  presbyteries."  (See 
PitKsnvTKRiAXs.)  The  fundamental  principle  of 
free  schools  was  recognized  in  this  act,  thus  en- 
titling Scotland  to  the  credit  of  having  first 
established  schools  for  primary  instruction  to  be 
supported  at  the  public  expense.  Indeed,  as  early 
as  1617,  King  James  visited  Scotland  to  oblige 
the  privy  council  to  establish  parish  schools.  In 
I  696,  the  system  was  completed  by  an  act  of  par- 
liament. The  minimum  of  salary  to  be  paid  the 
teacher  was  fixed,  and  the  proprietors  were  re- 
quired to  meet, and  vote  the  requisite  funds.which 
if  they  failed  todo.the  commissioners  of  taxes  were 
required  to  levy  the  school  tax.  It  is  the  effect  of 
this  law,  and  of  the  parish  schools  that  it  created, 
which  has  been  said  to  be.  "beyond  contradiction, 
one  of  the  most  memorable  examples  of  the 
action  which  the  diffusion  of  knowledge  exerts 
upon  the  morality  and  well-being  of  nations." 
In  1803,  the  salary  of  the  school-master  was 
fixed  at  £16  13s.  4d.  as  a  minimum  ;  and,  in 
1828,  it  was  again  raised,  to  £25  13s.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  salary  fixed  by  law,  the  teachers  re- 
ceived a  small  fee  from  each  pupil.  Besides  the 
parish  schools,  many  others  have  been  estab- 
lished by  the  Society  in  Scotland  for  Propagat- 
ing Christian  Knowledge,  as  well  as  by  the 
Established  Church,  and  other  religious  denomi- 
nations. But.  while  the  parochial  system  was 
most  beneficent  in  its  operation  for  many  gener- 
ations, it  was  found  inadequate  for  the  wants  of 
the  great  modern  towns.  There  was,  however, 
no  difficulty  in  regard  to  religion  ;  because,  in 
every  class  of  schools,  the  religious  views  of 
parents  were  carefully  respected.  Hence,  Roman 
Catholic  children  often  attended  the  Presbyte- 
rian schools,  which  constituted  the  great  major- 
ity of  all  the  schools  in  the  country.  By  the 
act  of  Aug.  0.,  1 872,  a  new  system  was  inau- 
gurated, built  on  the  old  parochial  system. 

frimiiiy  Iiitilrm-lidii.  According  to  the  law 
of  1872,  "to  amend  and  extend  the  provisions 
of  the  law  of  Scotland  on  the  .subject  of  educa- 
tion," the  management  of  that  department  of 
state  affairs  is  intrusted  to  the  Committee  of 
Council  on  Education.  The  provisions  of  law 
here  referred  to  are  those  of  the  several  laws  of 
1696,  1803,  and  1828,  already  referred  to,  and 
the  laws  of  1837,  1838  (to  facilitate  the  founda- 


tion  and  endowment  of  additional  schools),  and 
1861  (the  Parochial  and  Burgh  School-masters 
Act).  A  board  of  education  has  been  temporarily 
established,  consisting  of  five  members,  appointed 
by  the  queen,  but  to  be  responsible  to  the  Scotch 
Education  Department.  The  national  system 
organized  under  the  law  of  1H72,  is,  in  its  main 
features,  similar  to  that  established  in  England 
by  the  law  of  1870.  The  denominational  system, 
however,  is  more  thoroughly  interwoven  with  it ; 
but  parliamentary  grants  cannot  be  made  "for 
or  in  respect  of  religious  instruction."  The  "con- 
science clause"  provides  that  every  public  school 
shall  be  open  to  children  of  all  denominations, 
and  any  child  may  be  withdrawn  by  his  parents 
from  any  religious  observance  in  the  school, 
which  must  be  practiced,  if  at  all,  at  the  be- 
ginning or  at  the  end  of  the  session.  A  school 
board,  consisting  of  not  less  than  5  nor  more 
than  15  members,  is  elected  in  each  parish  and 
burgh;  and  the  electors  consist  of  all  persons 
on  the  latest  valuation  roll,  as  owners  or  Occu- 
piers of  "lauds  or  heritages  of  the  annual  value 
of  not  less  than  £4,  situated  in  the  parish  or 
burgh.  Every  voter  is  entitled  to  as  many  votes 
as  there  are  members  to  be  elected,  and  may 
distribute  them  among  the  candidates  as  he 
thinks  fit.  These  school  boards  have  the  charge 
of  the  schools,  and  appoint  and  dismiss  the 
teachers  ;  but  theyare  not  required  to  make  any 
restriction  as  to  religious  teaching  beyond  the 
provisions  above  stated.  All  the  teachers  must  be 
certificated,  after  an  examination  by  examiners 
appointed  by  the  school  board  ;  and  such  exam- 
iners must  be  "professors  in  a  Scotch  university, 
or  teachers  of  distinction  in  a  higher-class  public 
school."  The  revenues  of  the  school  consist  of 
(1)  contributions  payable  from  the  common 
good  of  the  burghs  in  which  they  respectively 
exist ;  (2)  all  endowments  applicable  to  the  gen- 
eral purposes  of  the  respective  schools;  (3)  en- 
dowments for  the  promotion  of  instruction  in 
particular  subjects,  or  for  the  benefit  of  teachers  of 
particular  branches  in  the  respective  schools;  and 
(4)  fees  paid  by  scholars.  The  schools  are  not 
free,  except  to  indigent  pupils,  the  fees  for  whose 
instruction  must  be  paid  out  of  the  poor  fund 
of  the  parish  or  burgh,  on  the  order  of  the  school 
board.  The  compulsory  clause  prohibits  any 
person  from  employing  a  child  under  the  use  of 
13,  who  has  not  attended  school  regularly,  for  at 
least  3  years,  between  the  ages  of  5  and  13,  and 
is  unable  to  read  and  write,  unless  he  makes  pro- 
vision for  the  education  of  the  child.  To  exempt 
such  employer  from  prosecution  under  this 
clause,  an  inspector's  certificate  of  the  child's 
ability  to  read  and  write  must  be  shown.  The 
general  provisions  of  the  Scottish  Education  Code 
are  similar  in  character  to  those  of  the  English 
code.  (See  England. )—  The  chief  items  of  school 
statistics  for  1875  are  as  follows  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age  (5—13) 629,254 

"       "  pupilsonrolled  in  the  public  scliools.2!io,N74 

Average    daily  attendance 212,21111 

Number  of  schools  under  school  boards 2,303 

"        "  certificated  teachers 3,K54 

"       "  pupil-teaoliers 2,475 


.AND  773 

In  1874,  the  whole  number  of  pupils  enrolled 
in  the  schools  was  344,628,  of  whom  46,276 
were  under  6  years  of  age  ;  252,521,  between 
6  and  12  ;  and  45,831,above  12.  The  aggregate 
average  attendance  was  263,748;  and  the  num- 
ber of  certificated  teachers,  3,165.  Accommoda- 
tion was  afforded  for  372,000  pupils  at  8  square 
feet  of  superficial  area  per  child.  In  1876,  the 
annual  grants  schools  showed  an  average  at- 
tendance of  304,000.  The  average  attendance 
all  over  Scotland  is  about  75  per  cent  of  the 
enrollment.  The  number  of  schools  inspected 
in  1874  was  2,609,  of  which  221  did  not  fulfill 
the  conditions  permitting  annual  grants.  There 
were  102  night  schools,  attended  by  5,555 
scholars  above  12  years  of  age.  There  were  6 
training  colleges,  attended  by  822  students. 
There  were  12  reformatory  schools,  with  791 
boys  and  257  girls;  and  27  industrial  schools, 
with  2,493  boys  and  992  girls.  The  compulsory 
education  of  system  of  Scotland  is  represented 
a.s  being  remarkably  efficient  and  satisfactory, 
having  increased  the  attendance,  from  L872  to 
1875,  to  the  extent  of  42  per  cent.  The  inspec- 
tion is  similar  to  that  of  England,  the  grants 
being  allowed  only  on  results  as  shown  by 
passes  under  the  inspector's  examination.  To 
this  system  much  objection  is  made,  the  teach- 
er's success  and  pay  depending  too  much  on  the 
judgment,  and,  as  is  said,  sometimes  on  the 
caprice,  of   the  inspector. 

Educational  Associations. — There  are  several 
educational  associations  in  Scotland,  especially 

distinguished  a ng  which  is  the   Educational 

Institute  of  Scotland,  of  comparatively  recent 
establishment,  which  has  its  branches  in  various 
parts  of  the  country,  its  roll  of  members  now 
numbering  about  2,000.  The  Parochial  Associa- 
tion forthe  Advancement  of  Education, recently 
organized  at  Rogart,  under  the  auspices  of  the 
Duke  of  Sutherland,  aims  at  the  advancement 
of  education  in  the  parishes  by  means  of  an  an- 
nual distribution  of  prizes,  and  the  awarding 
of  bursaries  to  promising  pupils  of  the  element- 
ary schools,  so  as  to  enable  them  to  obtain  a 
higher  education.  The  Edinburgh  Ladies'  Edu- 
cational Association  has  rendered  valuable  ser- 
vice in  improving  the  opportunities  of  their  sex 
for  a  higher  education. 

Secondary  Instruction. — In  many  of  the  large 
country  parishes,  subsidiary  schools  have  been 
established,  which  provide  for  secondary  as  well 
as  primary  instruction.  The  chief  representatives 
of  secondary  instruction  are,  however,  the  high 
schools  and  academies.  Among  them,  the  1 1  igh 
School  and  the  Academy  of  Edinburgh,  the  High 
School  of  Glasgow,  and  the  academy  i  if  I  'erth.are 
specially  distinguished.  The  High  School  of  Kdin 
burgh  is  mentioned,  even  in  1519,  as  the  Gram- 
mar School  of  the  City.  It  was  re-organized  in 
1598.  and  received  from  King  -lames  VI.  the 
name  Sckola  Regia  Edinburgensis.  It  prepares 
its  pupils,  who  at  the  time  of  their  admission 
must  be  8  years  of  age.  either  for  the  university 
or  for  business  life,  and,  therefore,  corresponds 
partly  to  the  German  gymnasium,  and  partly  to 


the  real  school.  The  branches  of  study  are 
partly  compulsory  or  imperative,  as  Latin,  the 
English  language  and  literature,  history  and 
geography,  and  natural  history;  and  partly  op 


inch,  German,  mathematics, 
ring,  and  gymnastics.  The 
ny  was  opened,  in  1824,   by 


book-keepi 
Edinburgh 

Sir  Walter  Scott,  it  consists  of 
likewise  comprises  a  classical  and  a  scientific 
course  (Classical  Side  and  Modern  Side).  It  be- 
longs to  a  stock  company,  which  elects  from  its 
own  midst  15  directors,  who  appoint  the  rector 
and  the  other  teachers,  regulate,  conjointly  with 
the  rector,  all  the  affairs  of  the  school,  attend 
the  examination,  and  distribute  the  prizes.  The 
classical  course  prepares  for  the  university;  the 
scientific  course,  for  the  civil  and  military  ser- 
vice, and  for  commercial  life.  —The  -Madras  Col- 
lege, at  St.  Andrews,  owes  its  origin  to  the 
liberality  of  Dr.  Andrew  Hell  (q.v.),  who  be- 
queathed the  sum  of  £45,000,  in  three  per  cent 
stock,  for  the  erection  of  a  seminary,  on  a  com- 
prehensive plan,  in  this,  his  native,  city.  The 
seminary  affords  instruction  gratis  to  the  poor, 
and  the  fees  are  very  low  even  for  others.  It  is 
one  of  the  best  attended  schools  of  this  class  in 
Scotland,  having  more  than  1.000  pupils.  The 
grammar  school  of  Perth,  formerly  the  most 
celebrated  in  Scotland,  is  attended  by  pupils 
from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  Jesuits 
have  a  college  (St.  Aloysius'),  at  Glasgow.  The 
education  of  women  lias  long  been  on  a  higher 
level  in  Scotland  than  in  England.  Of  late, 
some  important    improvements  have  been  made. 

The   I'liin-rsi/ir.t.      Scotland  has  four   univer- 

confirmed  by  papal  decree  in  111  I  :  Glasgow, 
founded  in  1450  ;   Aberdeen,  founded  in  1494; 

and  Edinburgh,  founded  in  loo-.  The  three 
former  were  established  by  papal  authority:  that 
of  Edinburgh,  by  king  .lames  VI.  In  regard  to 
their  organization,  the  Scotch  universities  have 
always  resembled  more  those  of  the  continent  of 
Europe  than  those  of  England.  The  students 
were  divided  into  four  miliim*.  as  they  still  are 
in  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen.  They  do  not  live  in 
the  college  halls,  like  the  students  of  the  En- 
glish universities,,  but.  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
iiiiner-ilv  authorities  over  them  ceases  when 
they  are  beyond  the  walls  of  the  university. 
In  1858,  a  uniform  constitution  was  given  them 
by  the  university  act.  Each  of  the  universities 
has  three  governing  bodies,  —  a  senatus  aca- 
i/e/itienn,  a  university  court,  and  a  general  coun- 
cil. The  senate  which  consists  of  the  principal 
(elected  for  life  by  the  I  Town)  and  the  professors. 

takes  charge  of  instruction,  of  discipline,  and  of 
the  finances  of  the  university.     It.-  decisions  are 

the  rector,  its  president,  the  principal,  and  as- 
sessors i limited  respectively  by  the  chancellor. 

the  rector,  the  general  council,  and  the  senate. 
In  Glasgow,  the  dean  of  faculties,  elected  an- 
nually by  the  senate,  is  also  a  member;  and,  in 
Edinburgh,  there  are  two  additional  members,- 


■d  Provost 

of  the  City,  and  an  assessor, 

by  the  eit. 

corporation.     It  is  also  the 

f  the  univ' 

reity  court,  to  fix  the  fees,  to 

tend  the  , 

ofessors,  and.  if  necessarj  .  to 

. suspend. I 

r  deprive  them  of  office.   The 

hich   is  composed  of  all  the 

■ed  graduat 

s  and  alumni,  and  is  a  merely 

itive  body. 

discusses   all   questions  con 

■  the  interei 

ts  of  the  university,  and  sub- 

icm    to   tb 

•    decision    of   the    university 

The   genu 

al  council  elects  a  chancellor 

for  life,  who  becomes  its  president,  and,  in  turn, 
appoints  a  vice-chancellor.  The  general  coun- 
cils of  St.  Andrews   and  Edinburgh,  and  also 


rech.r.  an  ollicc  which  is  of  a  merely  honorary 
character,  and  usually  conferred  upon  distin- 
guished non-residents.  The  Scotch  universities 
confer  the  degrees  of  .Master  of  Arts.  Bachelor 
of  Divinity,  Doctor  of  Divinity.  Bachelor  of 
Medicine,  Master  in  Surgery,  Doctor  of  Med- 
icine, and  Doctor  of  Laws.  At  Glasgow,  the 
degree  of  Bachelor  of  Science  is  also  conferred; 
at  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh,  the  degrees  of 


Bachelor  of  Sci 
versity  medical  ( 

nee  and  Doctor  of  Science;  and. 

Edinburgh,  the  degrees  of  Bach- 
Doctor  of  Law.  Besides  the  uni- 
egrees,lii  ens  sareissui  din  Scot- 

land  by  the  l;„, 

of  Surgeons  (in 

and  the  bacilli) 
Glasgow  (incorj 
of  St.  Andrews 

ll s.     St.Salvi 

its,  the   two    f, 
1717.  when  the 
pulled  down.      ' 

al  College  oi    1  bysicians  (incor- 
1,  Edinburgh,  the'  Royal  College 

.,1    Physicians  and  Surgeons  of 
■rated  in  L592).     The  university 

originally  consisted  of  three  col- 
dor's,  St.  Leonard's,  and  St.  Ma- 
rnier of  which   were   united    in 
buildings  of  St.  Leonard's  were 

tinct.  The  United  College  is  appropriated  to 
the  study  of  languages,  philosophy,  and  science; 
and  St.  Mary,  to  that  of  theology.  The  United 
College,  in  1876,  had  lb  ami  St.  Mary's,  4,  pro- 
fessors. He  number  of  matriculated  students 
was  143,  of  graduates,  20;  the  proceeds  available 
for  bursaries,  prizes,  and  schola 


dh 

to  about  £2.000.- 

-Aberdee 

i  had  formerly 

■ii  t 

iversities.  in  each 

lunded.  Thatoi  0 

if  Which  1 

d  Alienle 

tie  college  had 

n  was  founded 

I'.i 

hop  William  Kip 

tinstone,  i 

i  141)4.  under 

il    bull    of    Ale.vi 

der   VI.; 

and  early  re- 
ge.  instead  of 

ved 

that  ol  ilit-  \  ii-in  .Marv,  to  whom  ii  was  origin- 
ally dedicated.  The  other  was  established  in 
New  Aberdeen,  in  L593,  and  called  Marisrlial 
College,  from  its  founder  I  leorge  Keith.  Karl 
Marisrlial.  The  two  foundations  were  united 
by  Charles  I.  under  the  name  of  King  Charles's 
University  of  Aberdeen,  but  retained  their 
character  of  distinct  colleges  till  1860,  when 
they  were  finally  incorporated  as  the  University 
of  Aberdeen.  In  1876,  the  university  had  21 
professors, 3  "Murray  lecturers,"  1  "Murtlelect- 


SCOTLAND 


SELF-EDUCATION 


-urer"  (on  the  evidences  <if  Christianity),  and 
1  "  Fordyce  lecturer."  The  total  number  of 
matriculated  students  was  845;  of  graduates,  211; 

an  annual  public  competition  for  bursaries,  and, 
in  1886,  the  sum  of  £4468  was  held  in  bursaries 


M:i 


in  1700)  embraces  a  medical    school,    mechanics' 

classes  (the  first  established  in  the  empire),  and 


Bishop  Turnbull.  En  1460,  James  Lord  Ham- 
ilton bequeathed  for  the  use  of  the  college  a 
tenement  in  the  High  Street,  with  four  acres  of 
land  adjoining  ;  and.  in  buildings  on  this  side, 
the  university  classes  met  for  410  years.  In 
1577,  James  VI.  made  provision  for  the  support 
of  a  principal  and  three  regents.  In  1870,  the 
classes  of  the  university  were  transferred  from 
the  old  buildings  in  the  1  [igh  Street  to  a  magnif- 
icent edifice  erecte  1  in  Gilinorehill,  in  the  west  of 
Glasgow,  the  estimate  1  cost  of  which  was  about 
£350,000.  The  curriculum  is  divide  I  int..  the 
four  faculties  of  arts,  divinity,  medicine,  and 
law.  There  were,  in  L876,  "JT  professors  and  1 
lecturer;  the  number  of  matriculated  students 
was  ll'.lll;  of  graduates,  17-s  of  registered  mem- 
bers of  the  General  Council,  2,835.  The  total 
university  income  amounts  to  £15,756. — The 
University  of  Edinburgh  was  chartered  by 
•lames  VI.  in  1582:  and.  in  1583,  the  college 
was  opened   with  1  professor,  or  regent,  and  48 


nd. 


L87 


losophy,  law,  medicine,  and  divinity.  The 
medical  faculty  has  long  been  celebrated  as  one 
-of  the  bast  medical  schools  in  Europe,  and  still 
continues  to  have  the  largest  number  of  stu- 
dents. Its  library  contains  over  126,000  printed 
volumes,  and  Too  volumes  m  manuscript.  Re- 
cently, a  chair  of  the  Theory  of  Teaching  has 
been  established  in  this  university,  like  that  of 
the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Education  in  the 
University  of  St.  Andrews,  in  order  to  afford 
instruction  in  practical  pedagogy. 

Special  and  Professional  Instruction.— (1)  The 
ministers  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland 
are  required  to  study  at  one  of  the  four  Scotch 
universities,  all  of  w  Erich  have  theological  prof ess- 
orships.  Attn-  devoting  four  years  to  a  literary 
and  philosophical  curriculum,  they  are  admitted 
into  the  divinity  hall,  and  spend  four  other  ses- 
sions in  prosecuting  the  study  of  theology.  The 
Free  ( Ihurch  has  a  large  divinity  school  at  Edin- 
burgh, called  the  New  ('..liege  of  the  Free 
Church;  it  has  also  divinity  halls  tit  Glasgow 
and  Aberdeen.  The  United  Presbyterians  have 
a  ••  divinity  hall."  the  CongregationaJists  a  ''theo- 
logical hall"  (established  in  181 1  |,  in  Edinburgh  ; 
the  Baptists  likewise  have  a  theological  institu- 
tion. The  Roman  Catholic  St.  Mary's  College, 
Blairs,  Aberdeen,  was  established  in  1829.— 
(2)  Anderson's  University,  or  Andersonian  In- 
stitution, in  Glasgow,  founded  by  Dr.  John  An- 
derson,  professor  of   natural  philosophy   (died 


Tin 


ml. 


sible;  Voigt,  Mittheilimgen  uberdas  Unterrichts- 
wesen  Englands  undSchotllands  (2d  edit.,  1863). 

SECONDARY  INSTRUCTION,  that 
grade  of  instruction  which  is  usually  afforded 
in  high  schools,  academies. etc..  or  in  institutions 
above  the  ordinary  grade  of  a  common  or  pri- 
mary school.  'I  his  grade  of  instruction  is 
intermediate  between  primary  instruction  and 
superior  instruction,  or  that  afforded  in  colleges 
and  universities.  (See  Education,  and  High 
Sen i.s.) 

SELF-EDUCATION,  that  developmenf  of 
the  powers  whii  h  is  carried  on  by  the  individual 
himself,  without  the  aid  of  ..tin  rs.  To  a  certain 
extent,  this  education  is  not  only  unconscious, 
but  inevitable.     The  constant  recurrence  of  like 

c utions  or  actions,  the  knowledge  of  which  is 

conveyed  to  the  individual  by  the  senses,  (hiring 
the  growth  of  mind  and  bo.lv.  isalwavs  attended 


of  boll,,  whie 

i,  of  itself,  constitutes  an  education. 

II:  l  ii ...  nts  1 

which  this  knowledge  is  converted 

into  an  unoor 

scious  education   are  chiefly    habit 

creased  ease  i 

t  action   under  like  circumstances, 

and  thus  rem 

ering  the  individual  more  capable; 

the  other  ena 

iling  him  to  systematize  his  knowl- 

edge,  and  to  i 

se  it  as  an  instrument  for  further 

acquisition. 

I'.,   determine,   in    all    cases,  just 

where  this  ed 

ication  ceases,  and  voluntary  self- 

education  bt  g 

us,  would   probably  be  very  dim- 

cult :   y.  t.    in 

general,  it  may  be  said  that  the 

active  interve 

it  i.  -ii  of  the  will  i*  the  most  obvious 

feature    by    w 

hich    self  education    may  be  distill- 

lion  which  is  carried  on  intentionally.  oiitM.le.  or 
beyond  the  influence,  of  the  school.  Even  here. 
however,  the  definition  is  imperfect;  for  it  must 
always  !«■  difficult  to  estimate  at  its  true  compar- 
ative value  the  strength  of  each  of  two  impulses 
which  act  thus  at  the  same  time  and  invisibly;  but, 
probably,  a  truer  conception  of  the  two  powers, 
self-education  and  school  education,  may  be  ac- 
quired by  supposing  the  difference  between  them 
(..be  one  of  function  rather  than  of  degree — 
school  education  serving  rather  as  a  director  or 
Bystematizer  of  power,  while  self-education  must 
often  be  looked  upon  as  identical  with  innate 
power,  from  our  inability  to  separate  the  one 
from  the  other.     We  know  what  training  the 


776 


SELF-EDUCATION 


school  gives ;  and,  though  we  cannot  analyze  the 
results  it  produces  with  sufficient  accuracy  to  as- 
sign to  the  school  and  to  the  individual  the 
proper  share  due  to  each,  we  know  from  many 
comparisons  made  between  countries  with  schools 
and  those  without  them,  that  the  advantage  lies 
decidedly  with  the  former.  That  the  school  is 
rather  a  director  of  power  than  a  creator  of  it,  is 
shown  by  contrasting  the  large  number  of  men 
who  have  enjoyed  its  advantages  without  mani- 
festing special  ability  afterward  in  any  walk  of 
life,  with  those  who  have  risen  to  the  highest  po- 
sitions without  this  privilege.  In  every  civilized 
country,  the  number  of  eminent  self-educated 
men  is  large  enough  to  justify  the  paradoxical 
saying  of  Emerson,  that  one  of  the  chief  values 
of  a  college  education  is  to  teach  its  worthless- 
ness.  Whatever  truth  there  may  be  in  this  remark 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  education  is  of  two  kinds, — 
practical  and  theoretical,  the  first  based  princi- 
pally upon  facts  and  experience,  and  dealing 
largely  with  human  nature  ;  the  other,  acquired 
from  books,  and  concerning  itself  in  great  measure 
with  abstractions  and  theories  which,  though  val- 
uable enough  for  purposes  of  general  culture,  are 
of  little  use  in  practical  life,  and.  if  exclusively 
pursued,  produce  a  positive  disqualification  for  it. 
Of  these  two  kinds  of  education,  it  is  hardly  too 
much  to  say  that  the  former  is  the  more  avail- 
able, in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  life,  in  a  vast  ma- 
jority of  cases.  Hence,  it  should  never  be  forgot- 
ten by  the  educator,  that  the  facilities  for  mental 
acquisition  which  he  offers  the  pupil  by  system- 
atic instruction,  too  frequently  result  in  vacilla- 
tion, or  feebleness  of  purpose,  and  are  almost  in- 
evitably accompanied  with  a  loss,  on  the  part  of 
the  latter,  of  that  vividness  of  apprehension 
which  experimental  acquaintance  gives.  The  only 
amends,  therefore,  he  can  make  is  to  render  his 
instruction  as  practical,  and  as  far  removed  from 
mere  book-learning,  as  possible.  Knowledge  and 
"rote-learning  have  often  a  wonderful  resemblance, 
while,  essentially,  they  may  have  nothing  in  com- 
mon. The  picture  of  a  Lincoln,  hastily  gathering 
book-knowledge  by  the  light  of  the  cabin  fire;  or 
of  a  Franklin,  finding  in  the  intervals  of  his  work 
in  a  chandler's  shop  and  a  printing-office,  an 
equivalent  for  the  school,  should  be  a  sufficient 
admonition  to  every  teacher,  that  the  privileges 
of  the  school  room  are  not  indispensable  to  the 
most  brilliant  success.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
multiply  instances  of  self-taught  men  ;  the  ranks 
of  greatness  have  been  almost  exclusively  filled 
from  this  class.  Three  most  valuable  attributes 
are  strengthened,  if  not  created,  by  a  course  of 
self-education  :  self-confidence,  independence  of 
judgment,  and  perseverance.  He  only  who  has 
always  depended  upon  himself,  knows  accurately 
the  limit  of  his  powers,  measures  beforehand 
every  difficulty,  and  does  not  look,  at  the  last 
moment,  for  extraneous  aid;  while  the  habit  of 
self-reliance  thus  cultivated,  lays  the  foundation 
for  a  solidity  of  character  which,  in  critical 
moments,  is  not  swayed  by  fitful  or  transient  in- 
fluences. The  third  attribute,  perseverance,  is 
the  necessary  result  of  such  an  education.  Having 


SEMINARY 

always  been  accustomed  to  encounter  obstacles, 
and  having  always  overcome  them,  the  joy  of 
conflict  and  the  joy  of  conquest,  become,  to  self- 
taught  men,  synonymous.  The  atmosphere  of 
difficulty  is  as  the  breath  of  life,  and  the  result  is 
never  doubtful  to  those  who  gather  strength  from 
opposition.  These  are  the  most  essential  elements 
of  success,  and,  in  practical  matters,  weigh  more 
than  all  the  advantages  of  the  school.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  commonest  error  of  the  self- 
taught  man  is  a  depreciation  of  all  studies  or 
pursuits  which  have  no  practical  bearing.  Geueral 
culture — knowledge  for  itself  alone,  with  all  the 
pleasures  and  consolations  which  it  brings — is 
underestimated.  Accustomed  always  to  see  his 
thoughts  followed  by  tangible  results,  the  moral 
aspect  of  thought  is  lost  sight  of ;  and  his  ideal 
standard  never  rises  above  this  utilitarian  level. 
This  narrowness  of  mind  leads  almost  inevitably 
to  a  want  of  sympathy  with  liberal  pursuits,  and 
sometimes  to  a  kind  of  hardness  or  positiveness 
of  character  which  bears  the  appearance  of  ar- 
rogance. Weakness  being  scarcely  understood 
by  the  successful,  self-taught  man.  want  of  char- 
ity is  a  natural  fruit  of  his  habits  of  thought. 
These  defects,  however,  are  frequently  removed 
by  age;  and,  even  at  their  worst,  can  hardly  be 
said  to  be  so  serious  as  those  which  have  been 
cited  as  incident  to  misdirected  education  in  the 
school.  Of  the  two  kinds  of  education— self- 
education  and  school  education  it  may,  there- 
fore, be  said  in  general,  that  the  former  is  of 
greater  value  than  the  latter ;  that  for  all  prac- 
tical action  in  the  familiar  matters  of  daily 
life,  all  great  emergencies,  whether  of  peace 
or  war,  which  require  independence  of  judg- 
ment, promptness  of  decision  or  action,  and 
inflexible  perseverance,  the  self-taught  man  is 
vastly  the  superior;  while,  in  purely  speculative 
pursuits,  in  researches  or  projects  undertaken 
without  hope  of  immediate  or  material  result,' 
the  man  of  the  schools,  whose  education  has  been 
conducted  with  that  broader  outlook  upon  life 
which  leads  directly  to  culture  solely  for  its  own 
sake,  manifests  a  far  greater  zeal  and  activity. 
Neither  kind  of  education  is  to  be  commended 
by  itself ;  since  the  deficiencies  of  one  need  to 
be  supplied  by  the  advantages  of  the  other. 
Their  relation  is  well  expressed  by  De  Gerando, 
in  Self-Education:  "  If  all  the  means  of  educa- 
tion which  are  scattered  over  the  world,  and  if 
all  the  philosophers  and  teachers  of  ancient  and 
modern  times  were  to  be  collected  together,  and 
made  to  bring  their  combined  efforts  to  bear 
upon  an  individual,  all  they  could  do  would  be  to 
afford  the  opportunity  of  improvement" — i.  e., 
self-education.  (See  Gerando.) 

SEMINARY  (Lat.  semiwtrinm,  a  place 
where  seed  is  sown,  from  semen,  seed),  a  term, 
used  in  education  to  denote  an  institution  of 
learning  of  any  grade,  though  oftener  applied  to 
one  of  secondary  grade.  It  is  also  applied  to 
certain  kinds  of  professional  schools;  as  a  theolog- 
ical seminary,  a  teachers'  seminary,  etc.,  the  idea 
intended  to  be  conveyed  by  the  term  being  that- 
of  preparation  for  subsequent  usefulness. 


SENECA 

SENECA,  Lucius  Annseus,  the  last  great 
representative  of  the  Stoic  philosophy,  bom  in 
Corduba  (Cordova),  Spain,  about  T  B.C.;  died 
in  Rome  A.  D.65.  He  was  the  son  of  Marcus 
Annasus  Seneca,  a  noted  Roman  rhetorician, 
and  the  author  of  Oratortan  et  Rhetorum  Sen- 
tentice,  etc.,  a  work  containing  the  memorable 
sayings  which  he  had  heard  from  the  orators  and 
rhetoricians  of  his  time.  The  first  studies  of  the 
younger  Seneca  were  eloquence  and  the  affiliated 
sciences;  but,  later,  he  developed  a  taste  for 
philosophy,  in  which  he  enjoyed  the  instructions 
of  Papirius  Fabianus,  Attains,  Demetrius,  and 
Sotion.  His  connection  with  the  imperial  court 
caused  him  much  misery,  and  gave  a  tone  of 
sadness  and  weariness  to  his  whole  philosophy. 
He  was  banished  to  Corsica  by  the  emperor  on 
false  charges,  and  remained  in  exile  eight  years  ; 
at  the  end  of  which  time  he  was  recalled,  through 
the  intercession  of  the  empress  Agrippina.  who 
hoped,  by  this  means,  to  gain  favor  for  her  son 
Nero  with  the  citizens,  who  held  Seneca  in  high 
esteem.  On  the  accession  of  Nero,  Seneca,  who 
had  served  him  as  tutor,  became  his  adviser; 
but  he  was  unable  to  restrain  the  emperor's 
monstrous  excesses  and  crimes.  He,  therefore, 
endeavored  to  withdraw  entirely  from  the  Ro- 
man court,  offering  to  the  emperor  to  surrender 
to  him  his  property  :  but  this  was  refused.  He, 
however,  succeeded  in  keeping  himself  in  seclu- 
sion, but  could  not  escape  the  cruelty  of  Nero, 
by  whom  he  was  condemned,  on  a  false  charge 
of  complicity  in  Piso's  conspiracy,  and  ordered 
to  commit  suicide.  His  death  was  painful  but 
heroic,  and  his  last  words  were.  To  Jove  the  Lib- 
erator.'  —  Surrounded  by  the  dissipations  of  a 
corrupt  age.  Seneca,  with  great  earnestness,  ad- 
vocated the  education  of  youth  in  pure  morals, 
self-control,  and  truthfulness.  He  believed,  that 
human  nature,  from  birth,  tended  to  evil,  but 
that  God,  who  is  the  soul  of  the  world,  inspires 
every  man  with  thoughts  upright,  just,  ami  pure. 
Seneca  recognized,  however,  the  great  variety  of 
infantile  individualities,  rendering  it  necessary 
for  the  educator  to  accommodate  himself  to  par- 
ticular cases.  He  recommended  a  just  medium 
between  severity  and  remissness.  He  insisted 
that  boys  should  learn  what  is  useful  and  prac- 
tical in  life  ;  and.  from  his  complaint  that  the 
youth  of  his  times  were  studying  not  for  life,  but 
for  the  school,  the  well-known  maxim  has  been 
deduced,  Non  scholce,  se</  vittv  discendum  est. 
His  remark  that  the  teacher  himself  advances 
in  knowledge  by  imparting  instruction,  has 
given  rise  to  another  maxim:  Docendo discimus. 
— The  recent  literature  in  regard  to  Seneca  is 
fully  reviewed  in  an  exhaustive  article  in  the 
Methodist  Quarterly  Review  (1876),  by  Hurst, 
An  edition  of  Seneca,  designed  for  schools  and 
colleges,  and  embracing  his  principal  essays,  epi- 
grams, epistles,  alleged  correspondence  with  St. 
Paul,  and  parallels  with  sacred  writers,  by  Hurst 
and  Whiting,  appeared  in  New  Tork.  in   1*77. 

SENSES,  the  Education  of  the.  Edu- 
cation, through  the  senses,  has  received  a  great 
amount  of  attention  in  recent  times,  and  a  spe- 


SKNSES 


777 


cial  effort  to  systematize  it,  is  made  in  the  kin- 
dergarten (q.v.);  but  comparatively  little  thought 
has  been  given  to  the  training  of  the  senses 
themselves.  And.  yet,  there  is  ample  experience 
to  prove  that  much  can  be  done  in  this  direction. 
In  cases  where  special  senses  have  been  called 
into  the  most  vigorous  action,  they  have  attained 
capabilities  which  could  scarcely  have  been 
dreamed  of.  It  may  not  be  advisable  to  attempt 
to  cultivate  each  sense  in  every  individual  to 
the  same  degree  of  acuteness  that  has  been 
reached  in  these  extraordinary  instances ;  but, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  neglect  to  train  the 
senses,  now  almost  universal,  is  not  justifiable. 
The  special  attributes  which  we  may  assign  to 
the  senses,  are  quickness  in  receiving  impressions, 
strength  in  taking  hold  of  the  impressions,  and 
vivacity  in  noticing  not  merely  the  unity  which 
is  presented  to  the  mind,  but  in  remarking  the 
various  details  which  compose  or  characterize 
this  unity.  These  three  qualities  are  quite  dif- 
ferent from  each  other.  If  an  object  is  held  up 
before  a  number  of  children,  some  will  be  found 
able  to  form  an  impression  of  it  much  more 
than  others,  while  some  will  be  very 
to  catch  a  notion  of  it.  So.  again,  they 
will  differ  in  the  strength  of  grasp  with  which 
they  seize  hold  of  the  object.  On  some  it  will 
produce  but  a  feeble  impression,  and  that  im- 
pression will,  consequently,  soon  die  away  ;  but 
by  others  the  object  will  lie  grasped  firmly,  and, 
consequently,  held  firmly.  Many,  too.  that  may 
be  able  to  take  strong  impressions,  may  be  sur- 
passed by  others  of  less  strength  in  the  capacity 
to  catch  the  multiplicity  of  details  which  are 
presented  to  the  view.  In  fact,  the  strong  sense 
is  generally  absorbed  in  the  unity  :  but  the  less 
vigorous  notices  the  details  along  with  the  unity. 
Now,  these  qualities  are  inborn  with  the  senses; 
and  it  is  likely  that  the  original  difference,  in 
these  respects,  which  exists  in  different  minds, 
is  sufficient,  to  account  for  the  mental  differences 
that  ultimately  appear  among  human  beings. 
Circumstances  will  explain  the  rest  of  tin'  phe- 
nomena;  but  these  qualities  arc  capable  of  cul- 
tivation, being  intensified  in  proportion  to  the 
healthy  exercise  of  the  senses.  In  attempting 
to  train  the  senses,  the  most  essential  process  is 
isolation.  The  blind  man  becomes  singularly 
expert  in  the  sense  of  touch,  because  he  brings 
it  into  continual  play,  and  trusts  much  to  it, 
He  must  voluntarily  follow  the  course  which 
necessity  compels  him  to  follow.  Science  has 
not  thrown  much  light,  as  yet,  on  the  lower 
senses;  and,  therefore,  little  can  be  done  for 
their  training.  The  vital  sense  is  so  closely  con- 
nected with  processes  which  take  place  in  un- 
consciousness that  little  can  be  made  of  it, 
Somewhat  more  can  be  done  with  the  senses  of 
taste  and  smell.  If  the  child  were  asked  to  shut 
his  eyes,  and  determine,  by  taste,  what  objects 
were  presented  to  him,  the  sense  might  become 
much  more  perfect  and  much  more  useful.  At- 
tention could  be  called  to  the  general  harmony 
th.it  rxists  between  the  taste  and  healthfulness 
of  objects,  and  the  child  might   thus   learn,  in 


;rs 


SENSES 


many  cases,  to  choose  the  good  and  reject  the 
evil.  The  same  remarks  apply  to  the  sense  of 
smell;  but  a  wider  range  could  be  given  to  its 
activities.  The  child,  for  example,  might  be  re- 
quired to  determine  flowers  by  their  smells.  I'.ut 
it  is  when  we  come  to  the  higher  senses  that 
much  can  be  done  by  isolating  practice.  In  re- 
gard to  the  sense  of  touch,  there  are  three  ex- 
ercises which  may  be  usefully  practiced,  hirst, 
the  sense  of  touch  over  the  body  may  be  rendered 
much  more  acute;  and.  in  consequence,  what 
are  called  the  sensory  circles,  very  much  nar- 
rowed. Experiment  has  proved  this  fact  most 
conclusively.  Then,  from  touch  we  derive  the 
sense  of  pressure.  Here  the  child  may  find  in- 
teresting exercise  in  trying  to  estimate  the 
weight  of  an  object  from  its  pressure  on  the 
hand,  or  on  other  parts  of  the  body.  This  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  peculiar  exercises  of  object 
teaching  (q.  v.).  Moreover,  touch  gives  the 
notion  of  temperature  ;  and  here  again  the  child 
might  be  taught  to  come  very  close  to  the  exact 
degree  of  Fahrenheit  by  the  sense  of  heat  which 
lie  has  in  his  touch.  The  training  which  may 
be  given  to  the  sense  of  hearing,  is  also  various. 
The  child  might  be  exercised  in  ascertaining 
from  what  direction  sounds  come.  He  might 
be  taught  to  distinguish  various  sounds,  and,  es- 
peciallj .  musical  sounds  ;  and  he  might  learn  to 
analyze  complex  sounds.  Some  think,  that  the 
last  exercise  should  always  be  preliminary  to 
learning  to  read.  Thus,  the  instructor  utters  a 
word,  and  draws  the  child's  attention  to  the 
fact  that  it  consists  of  several  sounds.  The 
child  is  then  asked  to  analyze  the  sounds:  and 
the  child  does  not  commence  to  learn  to  read 
until  he  is  able  to  analyze  short  words  into  their 
simplest  sounds.  Spelling,  in  the  sense  of  ana- 
lyzing the  sounds,  according  to  this  method, 
precedes  reading.  According  to  the  phonic 
method,  the  analysis  of  sounds  is  employed  to 
facilitate  the  pronunciation  of  words,  and.  hence, 
as  auxiliary  to  reading,  i  See  Phonic  Method.)  - 
The  sense  of  sight  is  the  one  through  which  edu- 
cation takes  place  most  of  all.  It  is.  therefore, 
brought  into  continual  activity,  and  thus  re- 
ceives greater  training.  In  the  object-teaching 
system,  this  is  accomplished  in  various  ways, 
but,  particularly,  by  the  use  of  color  (q.  v.).  l)is- 
tinct  colors  are  first  brought  before  the  child's 
eye.  and  In'  is  gradually  practiced  m  distinguish- 
ing them,  so  as.  ultimately,  to  be  able  to  note 
the  minutest  sha  les  of  difference.  Then,  again, 
the  child  is  taught  to  form  from  sight  an  ac- 
curate idea  of  size  ami  distance. — The  space 
here  does  not  admit  of  more  than  a  mere  glance 
at  this  important  subject:  and  only  in  connec- 
tion with  the  training  of  children.  But,  while 
there  is  no  doubt  lliat  the  greatest  good  can  be 
done  in  the  earliest,  years,  the  training  may 
profitably  be  continued  throughout  the  whole 
period  of  education.  The  organization  of  meth- 
ods for  such  training  has  still  to  be  discussed  by 
educationists.  Moreover,  physiologists  are  still 
in  great  uncertainty  as  to  many  points.  Great 
discoveries  have   been  recently  made  by  the  re- 


SERVIA 

searches  of  Weber,  Wundt,  Helmholtz,  and 
others;  but  we  may  expect  still  more  important 
discoveries  from  the  investigations  now  going 
on  ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  such  discoveries 
will  throw  light  on  the  proper  method  of  train- 
ing the  senses. — See  G.  Wilson,  The  Five  Gate- 
ways of  Knowledge  (Ith  ed.,  London,  1663); 
Wyld,  Physics  and  Philosophy  of  the  Senses 
(London,  isa(i)  ;  .Iri.irs  Berxstkix,  The  Fire 
Senses  of  Mm  (New  Fork,  1876).  (See  also 
Ear,  and  Eye.) 

SENTENTIAL,  ANALYSIS.  See  Anal- 
ysis, Grammatical. 

SERVIA,  a  dependency  of  Turkey,  having 
an  area  of  1(1. si  7  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  about  1,338,000.  The  large  majority  of  the 
inhabitants  belong  to  the  Servo-Croatian  branch 
of  the  southern  Slaves,  and  are  members  of  the 
Greek  Church. 

Educational  Legislation.  —  Fifty  years  ago, 
Servia  had  no  public  primary  schools,  but  owing 
to  the  interest  taken  in  the  cause  of  education 
by  the  ruling  house  of  Obrenovitch,  and  by  the 
Skupshtina.  the  national  assembly,  elementary 
instruction  has,  of  late,  made  considerable  prog- 
ress. The  public  school  system  is  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  ministry  of  education,  composed  of 
the  minister,  a  chief  of  section,  4  secretaries  and 
3  actuaries.  The  four  secretaries,  with  the  chief  of 
the  section,  form  a  school  board  which  is  presided 
over  by  the  minister,  and  publishes  all  school 
laws  and  regulations. 


/'/-, 


•!v  sii 


the 


is    (1,1 


cct  of  the 

circle,  the  minister  being  the  highest.  Education 
is  compulsory,  and  is  free  to  all.  in  the  hiilicst  as 
well  as  in  the  lowest  schools.  Every  teacher  who 
has  served  ten  years,  and  has  become  unfit  for 
further  service,  is  entitled  to  a  pension  equal  to 
III  per  cent  of  his  salary,  and  each  additional 
year  entitles  him  to  an  increase  of  2  per  cent. 
After  .'i."i  years'  service,  he  receives  his  entire  sal- 
ary as  a  pension.  The  salaries  of  teachers  are  the 
same  in  large  and  in  small  communities,  being 
about  $250  a  year.  In  1874.  there  were  517 
public  schools,  with  650  teachers  and  23,278 
pupils.  Most  of  the  schools  have,  thus  far,  had 
three  classes:  but  a  law.  passed  in  1875,  provides 
that  in  future  all  schools  shall  have  four  classes. 
The  number  of  private  scl Is  is  small.  A  nor- 
mal school  was  established,  in  1872,  at  Kraguye- 
vatz,  which,  in  1873,  had  59  pupils. 

Secondary  Instruction. — Secondary  instruction 
is  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  minister 
of  education.  The  secondary  schools  comprise 
gymnasia,  sub-gymnasia,  real  schools,  and  sub- 
real  schools.  The  gymnasia  and  real  schools, 
had,  in  1*75.  five  classes,  the  sub-gymnasia,  four 
or  three  :  and  the  sub-real  schools,  two.  In  1875. 
the  Skupshtina  passed  a  law.  providing  for  the 
establishment  of  a  real  school  in  the  capital  of 
each  circle.  In  1873,  there  were  2  gymnasia  and 
5  sub-gymnasia,  with  an  aggregate  of  72  teach- 
ers and  1,323  pupils,  and  1  real  school  and  8  sub- 
real  schools,  with  an  aggregate  of  40  teachers  and 


STIURTLKFF    COLLEGE 


.79 


436  pupils.  There  is.  also,  for  tin-  instruction  of 
girls,  one  secondary  school,  with  238  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction.  —  The  high  school  in 
Belgrade,  the  only  institution  for  superior  in- 
struction, is.  like  the  secondary  schools,  under  the 
direct  control  of  the  minister  of  education.  It 
had,  in  1873.  three  faculties,— of  law,  technology, 
and  philosophy,  with  El  teachers  and  207  stu- 
dents.    All  the  lectures  axe  public,  and  no  fees 

Special  and  Professional  Schools.— Special 
instruction  is  imparted  in  a  school  of  forestry 
and  agriculture,  a  theological  seminary  of  the 
Creek  Church,  an  artillery  .school,  and  a  military 
school.     Sec  Chronikdes  Volksschulwesens,  Is;:',, 

SETON,  Samuel  Waddington,  eminent  as 

connection  with  the  pul.'lic  schools  of  tlie  'city 
of  New  Vork.  was  horn  in  that  city  Jan.  23., 
1  789;  and  died  in  the  same.  Nov.  I'll..  1870.  His 
father  was  the  first  president  of  the  Bank  of 
New  York,  then  the  second  banking-house  in 
the  country.  By  the  decease  of  both  his  parents, 
he  was  left  an  orphan  at  an  early  age.  Afn  r  re- 
ceiving an  academic  education,  he  entered  upon 
a  commercial  life,  and,  aided   by   John  Jacob 

was  unsuccessful  ;  and.  on  his  return  to  New 
York,  in  L807,  he  obtained  an  appointment  in 
the  Bank  of  New  York,  where  he  remained  some 
years.  In  1823,  he  was  elected  by  the  Public 
School  Society  a  trustee  of  the  schools  ;  and,  in 
1826,  at  considerable  pecuniary  sacrifice,  he  ac- 
cepted the  appointment,  from  the  hoard  of  trust- 
ees, of  aue.it  of  the  society,  virtually,  super- 
intendent  of   the  schools,  the  duties  of   which 


of  character  and  active  beneficence  :  and.  having 
never  married,  he   was    able    to   devote    Inn.  elf 

wholly  to   his  benevolent  efforts  to   improve    the 

condition  of  his  race.  II,-  was  a  fertile  and  taste- 
ful writer   both    in   pro.se   and  verse-      the  filler 

viving  as  models  of  the  kind.  He  was  also  sin- 
gularly effective  in  his  a  Idresses  to  the  young, 
mingling  informal  ion,  impressed  with  the  quaint- 
est and  most  humorous  of  illustrations,  w  ith  pas- 
sages of  the  m.isi  touching  pathos  His  dying 
request  breathed  the  spirit  which  had  pervaded 

among  the  children  !" — and,  accordingly,  his  grave 
was  made  in  the  center  of  the  children's  plot,  in 
Greenwood  Cemetery,  over  which  a  monument 
waserected  by  the  public-school  teachers  of  the 
city,  bearing  the  appropriate  epitaph:  Peace  I 
■See   I ;, .■  i. \r.    //,*/,„■!/  <>f  the   Public  School 


Ne< 


l-e|,; 


the 


the  society,  in  1853.  In  1854,  he  was  elected  by 
the  Board  of  Education  of  the  city  an  assistant. 
superintendent,  in  which  office  he  continued  un- 
til his  death.  He  also  took  great  interest  in 
Sunday-school  instruction,  having  had,  at  I  he  time 
of  his  death,  the  charge  of  a  Baptist  Sunday- 
school  (though  himself  an  Episcopalian  i  for  ell 
years  uninterruptedly,  during  which  period,  it  is 
said,  he  was  absent  from  his  self-imposed  duty 
only  twelve  Sundays,  and  this  in  consequence  of 
sickness  or  absence  from  the  city.  Mr.  Seton 
w;ts  peculiarly  qualified  for  In-  duties  as  a  super- 
intendent of  schools  particularly  primary 
schools,  by  his  gentle,  losing  spirit,his  sympathy 
with  children,  and  his  ardent  zeal  in  behalf  of 
early  education.  This  subject  he  had  studied 
with  the  deepest  interest:  and  his  suggestions 
were  eminently  wise  and  practical.  In  titis  work, 
he  was  the  active  associate  of  Josiah  Holbrook 
(q.  v.)  and  Joseph  Curtis  ( < j.  v.),  as  well  as  many 
I  others,  whose  efforts,  at  that  time,  were  given 
to  improving  the  methods  of  common-school  in- 
struction. His  annual  reports  are  replete  with 
valuable  information  for  teachers  of  young  chil- 
dren. His  philanthropic  zeal  was  not  confined 
to  the  schools,  but  extended  to  all  the  poor  and 
helpless  within  his  reach.  Few  lives  have  been 
so  strongly  marked  by  purity  and  disinterestedness 


SETON  HALL  COLLEGE,  at  South 
Orange.  N.  J.,  under  Roman  Catholic  control, 
was  founded  at  Madison.in  1856,  removed  to  its 
present  location  in  1860,  and  incorporated  in 
1861.  It  is  supported  by  the  fees  of  students, 
the  charge  for  tuition,  board,  etc.,  being  $400 
a  year.  The  library  contains  8,000  volumes. 
There  is  a  commercial,  a  preparatory,  a  col- 
legiate, and  a  theological  department.  In  1875 
-  6,  there  were  15  instructors  and  140  students, 
of  whom  39  were  iii  the  theological  department. 
The  presidents  have  been  the  Rt.  Kev.  B.  J. 
McQuaid,  D.  D.,  1856—68,  and  the  Rt.  Rev.  M. 
A.  Corrigan,  ]>.]>..  since  1868. 

SEX  IN  EDUCATION.  See  Co-Education. 

SHAW  UNIVERSITY,  at  Holly  Springs, 
Miss.,  founded  in  1870,  is  under  Methodist 
Episcopal  control,  and  is  supported  by  the  Freed- 
men's  Aid  Society  of  that  Church.  It  was  designed 
especially  for  colored  youth.but  is  open  to  all  with- 
out distinction  of  race  or  sex.  It  has  an  English, 
a  normal,  a  preparatory,  a  collegiate,  a  theological, 
and  a  law  department.  Tuition,  except  inlaw  and 
music,  is  free.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  8  instruct- 
ors and  1  13  students  (38  of  the  collegiate  grade). 
'I  he  presidents  have  been  the  Kev.  A.  C.McDon- 
ald,  L870— 74,  and  (he  Rev.  W.  AY.  Hooper, 
since  1874. 

SHAW  UNIVERSITY,  at  Raleigh. N.  C, 
founded  in  1865,  and  chartered  in  L875,is under 
Baptist  control.  It  is  supported  by  a  small 
charge  upon  the  students,  and  by  contributions 
from  friends  in  the  North.  It  was  especially  de- 
signed for  colored  youth;  but  none  are  excluded 
on  account  of  race  or  sex.  The  university  has 
tin  elementary,  a  normal,  a  collegiate,  and  a  the- 
ological department.  In  1875 — G,  there  were  8 
instructors  and  23IJ  students.  The  liev.  II.  M. 
Tupper,  A.  M.,  is  (1870)  the  president. 

SHURTLEFF  COLLEGE,  at  Upper  Al- 
ton, III.  under  Baptist  control,  was  established 
as  Alton  Seminary,  in  1832,  and  chartered  as 
Alton  College,  in  1835.  Soon  after  its  establish- 
ment, the  Bock  Spring  Literary  and  Theological 
Seminary,  organized  in  lS'27.  and  likewise  under 
Baptist  control,  was  removed  to  this  place,  and 


780 


SICARD 


merged  in  this  college.  The  Rev.  Hubbell  Loomis, 
who  was  the  principal  of  the  seminary  from 
1832  to  1835,  contributed  largely  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  college,  which,  by  virtue  of  its 
origin  in  1827,  is  claimed  to  be  the  oldest  insti- 
tution of  the  kind  in  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
The  name  was  changed,  in  183(5,  in  honor  of 
Benjamin  Shurtleff.  M.  D.,  of  Boston,  who  had 
donated  $10,000  to  the  institution.  It  consists 
of  an  academic  and  preparatory  department,  the 
college  proper,  and  a  theological  department. 
Students  of  both  sexes  are  admitted  to  the  col- 
lege, as  well  as  to  the  academic  and  preparatory 
department.  The  college  has  a  classical  and  a 
scientific  course  of  four  years  each,  and  a  three 
years'  Latin  course.  It  has  au  endowment  of 
$125,000,  and  its  libraries  contain  10,000  volumes. 
The  cost  of  tuition  ranges  from  $36  to  $48  a 
year:  but  in  the  the  'logical  department  it  is  free. 
.Ministerial  students  arc  assisted  by  the  Illinois 
Baptist  Education  Society.  In  1875—6,  there 
were  12  instructors  and  189  students  (deducting 
repetitions), namely:  theological,  6;  collegiate,  54; 
preparatory  and  academic,  131.  The  presidents 
of  the  college  have  been  as  follows :  the  Rev. 
Washington  Leverett,  A.  M..  1835—41;  the  Rev. 
Adiel  Sherwood,  1).  1).,  1841—5;  the  Rev. 
Washington  Leverett,  A.  M.,  again.  1846 — 9;  the 
Rev.  Norman  N.  Wood,  D.  D.,  1850—55  ;  the 
Rev.  S.  T.  McMasters,  LL.  D.  [pro  tern.),  1855 
—6;  the  Rev.  Daniel  Read,  LL.D.,  L856  -71  : 
and  the  Rev.  A.  A.  Kendrick,  D.  D.,  since  1872. 
SICARD,  Roch  Ambroise  Cucurron,  abb.1, 
a  French  philanthropist  and  teacher  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  born  in  Fousseret.  September  2(1.. 
1742;  died  in  Paris,  May  10.,  1K22.  He  was  edu- 
cated for  the  ministry,  at  the  university  of  Tou- 
louse, and  was  made  vicar-general  of  Condom  and 
canon  of  Bordeaux.^  1  laving  received  instruction 
from  the  abbe  de  l'Epee,  he  opened  a  school  for 
deaf-mutes  in  Bordeaux,  in  1 786;  and,  three  years 
after,  succeeded  Ins  teacher  in  the  management  of 
a  private  school  of  that  kind,  which  the  latter  had 
opened  in  1760.  Two  years  after,  he  succeeded 
in  causing  its  adoption  by  the  government.'  It  is 
now  known  as  the  Imperial  Institution  of  Paris. 
Owing  to  his  connection  with  the  church,  he 
became  an  object  of  suspicion  to  the  revolution- 
ists, in  1792,  and  was  thrown  into  prison,  barely 
escaping  with  Ins  life.  He  was  afterwards  ban- 
ished. In  1815,  he  made  a  visit  to  England, 
taking  with  him  his  pupils  Massieu  and  Laurent 
Clerc,  the  latter  of  whom  formed  the  acquaint- 
ance there  of  Dr.  Gallaudet,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  the  United  States  in  1816.  The  dis- 
tinctive work  of  the  abbe  Sicard  was  his  enlarge- 
ment of  the  resources  of  the  deaf-mute  language 
taught  by  De  l'Epee  by  the  addition  of  signs  for 
metaphysical  ideas.  lie  constructed  an  elaborate 
analytical  system  of  visible  signs,  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  to  deaf-mutes  the  functions  and  re- 
lations of  words  in  sentences,  and  thus  succeeded 
in  making  them  acquainted  with  the  principles 
of  grammar — an  achievement  which,  from  its 
ingenious  and  imaginative  methods,  secured  for 
him  the  title  of  "the  painter  of  syntax  and  the 


SINGING-SCHOOLS 

poet  of  grammar."  His  principal  works  are 
Theorie  des  Siqnes  and  Cours  d 'Instruction. 
(See  Deaf-Motes.) 

SIGNS,  LANGUAGE  OF.  See  Deaf- 
Mutes,  and    Pkf.t.  II.  P. 

SIMPSON  CENTENARY  COLLEGE, 
at  Indianola,  Iowa,  founded  iuls67,  is  under 
Methodist  Episcopal  control.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  fees  ranging  from  $24  to  $30  a  year,  and 
by  the  income  of  an  endowment  of  about  $70,000. 
It  comprises  a  preparatory  department  and  a 
collegiate  department,  with  a  four  years'  classical 
course  and  a  three  years'  scientific  course.  Facil- 
ities are  afforded  for  instruction  in  music,  teleg- 
raphy, book-keeping,  penmanship,  phonography, 
and  Hebrew.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  In  1875 
— 6,  there  were  16  instructors  and  259  students 
(under-graduates,  60;  preparatory  students,  169; 
pursuing  special  studies.  30).  There  is  also,  at 
Des  Moines,  a  law  department  (the  Iowa  College 
of  Law),  organized  in  1875;  and  a  medical  depart- 
ment is  about  to  be  organized  there.  The  Rev. 
Alexander  Burns,  D.  D.,  has  been  the  president 
of  the  college  since  its  foundation. 

SIMULTANEOUS  INSTRUCTION.  See 
Concert  Teaching. 

SINGING-SCHOOLS.  From  the  days  of 
St.  Ambrose  and  Gregory  the  Great  to  the  pres- 
ent age,  singing-schools  and  classes  have  existed, 
for  purposes  of  instruction  in  elementary  vocal 
and  choral  exercises.  ( ihiefly  through  the  efforts 
of  ecclesiastics  and  choirs  of  an  earlier  period, 
(hose  substantial  and  permanent  forms  of  church 
music, — the  single  chant,  the  hymn,  and  the 
choral,  have  been  preserved  to  warm  and  enliven 
the  sacred  services  of  a  later  time.  There  was, 
undoubtedly,  a  very  strong  and  direct  effect  pro- 
ilm-ed  through  the  instrumentality  of  men  and 
boys,  uniting  their  voices  within  a  limited  com- 
pass, associatingthcir  music  with  words  of  solemn 
anil  living  import,  and  uttering  their  hymns  of 
praise  under  the  direction  of  a  religious  leader. 
(Juido  Aretino  (1020  A.D.)  must  have  perceived 
the  necessity  of  a  certain  order  in  conducting  the 
musical  exercises  of  his  classes,  since  portions  of 
his  method  have  lasted  eight  centuries ;  the  staff, 
completed  to  nearly  its  present  state,  and  the 
syllables  <?,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si,  improve- 
ments of  his  and  introduced  under  his  immediate 
eye,  being  still  in  full  and  vigorous  use.  The  Ref- 
ormation, with  Martin  Luther  for  one  of  its 
musical  as  well  as  one  of  its  ecclesiastical  guides, 
gave  the  choral  and  the  special  hymn  to  all  the 
people.  Subsequently,  not  only  Germany,  but 
Great  Britain,  and  the  United  States  of  America, 
greatly  encouraged  the  cultivation  of  vocal  mu- 
sic, in  its  higher  relations,  among  all  classes  of 
people.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some,  however,  that 
the  people  of  the  United  States  are  a  century 
behind  the  more  powerful  and  influential  of  the 
European  nations  in  a  systematic  6  istering  of  the 
science  and  art.  of  music  by  the.state;  but.  through 
the  more  general  diffusion  of  knowdedge  by 
means  of  schools,  the  press,  and  other  agencies, 
the  individual  efforts  of  Americans  are  wide- 
spread, toward  imparting  a  more  thorough  un- 


SINGING-SCHOOLS 


781 


tlerstandiug  of  that  which  is.  to  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  people,  an  unknown  language  ;  namely, 
the  secret  of  the  independent  reading  of  vocal 
music  with  facility. 

The  origin  of  the  staff,  and  the  use  of  the  syl- 
lables H,  Be,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si,  seem  to  have 
been  nearly  contemporary.  These,  together  with 
the  clefs,  notes,  and  chromatic  signs,  constitute 
the  written  language  of  music  as  recognized  by 
every  civilized  country  ;  and  it  is  not  possible 
to  change  them  for  the  letters  only,  valuable 
as  these  are  in  certain  relations,  without  disas- 
trously revolutionizing  the  whole  written  system 
of  modern  music,  and  all  its  magnificent  acces- 
sories. Large  numbers  of  most  valuable  works 
upon  harmony,  counterpoint,  and  orchestral  ef- 
fects have  been  written,  besides  innumerable 
scores,  with  all  of  these  well  known  musical  signs, 
and  with  the  employment  of  the  syllables  Ut,  Re, 
Mi,  etc.,  as  denoting  absolute  pitch  constantly  in 
view;  and  to  reduce  them  to  the  dimensions 
of  lettered  signs  simply,  and  require  singers  and 
players  to  translate  them  into  music  agreeable 
to  the  ear,  would  be  an  interminable  and  tedious 
task.  The  modern  Italian  method  of  present- 
ing the  scale  through  the  familiar  syllables  Do, 
Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si,  has  the  merit  of  being 
direct  and  of  appealing  to  the  ear;  and  it  is.  also, 
quite  unique,  since  the  syllables  are  at  once  the 
vehicles  of  variations  of  sound  required  in  render- 
ing the  scale,  and  the  signs  denoting  absolute 
pitch,  like  the  letters  to  the  Germans  and  to  the 
English.  So  that,  by  this  method,  the  pupil 
has  to  remember  only  one  particular  syllable, 
either  in  naming  a  key-note  or  in  singing  it.  To 
the  Italians  and  to  the  French,  and  to  very 
many  others  who  have  been  taught  by  this 
method,  this  association  of  a  certain  syllable  with 
a  certain  key-note,  that  particular  syllable  being 
the  very  vehicle  for  the  production  of  the  tone 
desired,  is  deemed,  in  many  respects,  an  advan- 
tage. The  fixed  and  immovable  Bo  becomes  the 
middle  C  of  the  system.  All  other  tones  of  that 
octave,  diatonic  and  chromatic,  revolve  around  it, 
as  the  planets  around  the  sun.  The  major  scale, 
with  its  intermediate  half-tones,  becomes  the 
nucleus  of  the  entire  tonal  system.  In  exact  pro- 
portion as  the  scholar  acquires  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  scale,  by  regular  degrees,  by  intervals 
small  and  large,  by  chromatic  as  well  as  by  dia- 
tonic progression,  and  by  all  the  varieties  of  me- 
lodic andharmonic  effect  of  wdiieh  it  is  suscep- 
tible,will  his  succeding  study  be  made  satisfactory 
and  available.  Multiply  this  knowledge  of  the 
resources  of  one  scale  within  the  compass  of  one 
octave  by  twelve,  the  number  of  independent 
key-notes  included  within  the  limits  of  the  chro- 
matic scale,  and  thereby  are  obtained  the  changes 
of  progression  possible  in  all  the  twelve  keys, 
in  the  circle  of  harmony,  through  the  transposi- 
tion of  the  key-note.  Now  this  may  seem  com- 
plicated to  the  uninitiated  ;  but  it  is  quite  clear 
to  all  who  have  mastered  the  changes  obtainable 
within  the  compass  of  one  octave,  and  afterward 
have  learned  the  rule  of  transposition  to  the  suc- 
ceeding eleven  keys.  This,  indeed,  is  the  first  di- 


rect business  of  the  faithful  musical  instructor 
and  his  pupils.  There  is  no  escape  from  travel- 
ing this  well-known  and  well-beaten  road,  if 
accuracy  and  a  full  comprehension  of  the 
groundwork  of  music  be  really  desired.  In 
schools  where  the  very  tender  age  of  the  pupils 
hardly  admits  of  any  extended  course  of  vocal 
musical  instruction,  it  is  now  positively  ascer- 
tained that  the  association  of  the  sounds  of  the 
major  scale  with  the  numerals  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,8, 
is  of  direct  and  permanent  use.  Practicing  frag- 
ments of  the  major  scale,  ascending  and  descend- 
ing, by  regular  degrees  and  in  wider  intervals, 
with  frequent  recurrence  of  the  key-note  1  or  8, 
and  unisonant  passages,  has  the  effect  of  locating 
the  sounds  of  the  scale  in  their  exact  order,  and 
immediately  secures  the  attention  and  the  active 
participation  of  the  pupils,  because  the  order  of 
the  numerals  is  already  familiar  to  them  ;  and, 
in  this  way,  each  sound  of  the  scale  becomes 
gradually  associated  with  its  corresponding  nu- 
meral. If  to  the  use  of  the  numerals  be  added 
that  of  the  syllables  Do,  Re,  Mi,  Fa,  Sol,  La,  Si, 
which  are  more  musical  in  themselves  than  the 
numerals,  there  are  obtained  three  indicators  of 
the  different  sounds  of  the  scale ;  namely,  the 
letters,  the  numerals,  and  the  syllables,  all  of 
which  are  useful  for  special  purposes:  the  letters, 
for  denoting  absolute  pitch  and  the  location  of 
the  key-notes,  changeable  only  with  the  clefs  ;  the 
numerals,  for  drilling  in  the  plain  sounds  of  the 
scale,  and  ultimately  for  practical  use  in  the 
study  of  harmony,  one  and  eight  being  used  as 
key-notes  in  one  or  all  of  the  twelve  keys ;  and 
the  syllables,  for  sol-faing,  used  according  to 
the  Italian  method.  (J  being  always  the  fixed  and 
immovable  Bo.  It  is  at  this  point  that  this 
Italian  method,  which  recognizes  the  syllables  as 
necessary  indicators  of  absolute  pitch,  and  at  the 
same  time  as  necessary  in  sol-faing  for  the  pro- 
duction of  an  equable  and  yet  varied  effect,  dif- 
fers from  three  other  methods  which  are  in  ex- 
tensive use  :  (1)  from  that  of  the  Germans,  who, 
with  a  special  name  for  every  plain  sound  of  the 
scale,  and  for  every  augmented  or  depressed  in- 
terval thereof,  rely  chiefly  upon  vocalizing  with 
different  vowels  to  secure  accuracy  in  all  chro- 
matic as  well  as  diatonic  progressions  ;  ('-')  from 
that  of  the  United  States,  which  quite  generally, 
but  not  entirely,  employs  a  movable  Do  as  the 
starting-point  or  key-note  of  the  major  scale,  the 
key-note  for  any  relative  minor  becoming  La  ; 
and  (3)  from  that  of  the  Rev.  J.  Curwen,  the 
success  of  wdiose  method  in  England  has  been 
quite  remarkable,  —  a  method,  which  is  identical 
with  that  so  extensively  practiced  in  the  I'nitcd 
States,  in  the  use  of  a  movable  Bo,  but  which 
substitutes  the  syllable  Te  for  Si  ;  the  names  of 
Mr.  Curwen's  syllables  being  Boh,  Ray,  Me,  Fall, 
Soh,  La,  Te.  This  method  of  lettered  and  nu- 
meral abbreviations,  as  substitutes  for  the  staff, 
clefs,  chromatic  signs,  bars,  measures,  and  time- 
table of  the  present  musical  sign-language  will 
be  more  minutely  considered  further  on. — To  re- 
turn to  the  two  methods  which  are  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  the  United  States,  it  is,  really,  very 


7S2 


SINGING-SCHOOLS 


important  to  the  beginner  that  he  adhere  to 
one  method  until  it  is  thoroughly  acquired.  It 
is  the  united  testimony  of  experienced  teachers 
of  vocal  music  that  good  readers  are  educated  by 
both  of  these  methods,  provided  the  teacher  be- 
gins, continues,  and  nils  the  work  of  strict  read- 
ing by  adopting  only  one  method  at  a  time  The 
pupil  may  afterward  become  acquainted  with  all 
other  methods,  and  vith  advantagr  ;  since  Mill- 
sequent  experience  will  enable  him  to  test  the 
merits  of  the  method  which  he  most  thoroughly 
understands,  and  which  he  can  make  most  ef- 
fective. To  attempt  to  teach,  or  to  learn,  both 
methods  at  the  same  time,  produces  a  confusion 
of  associations,  and  a  consequent  bewilderment, 
which  should  be  avoided.  It  has  been  the  ex- 
perience of  the  writer  to  be  required  to  teach 
contemporaneously  according  to  both  of  these 
methods;  and,  while  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
method  which  retains  the  immovable  Do  has  a 
unity  and  ('(insistency  which  demand  time  for 
their  thorough  appreciation  and  practical  use,  it 
is  easier,  in  the  first  stages  of  instruction,  to 
change  the  Do  with  each  successive  key-note  of 
the  entire  twelve.  By  the  former  method.  Do 
is  invariably  associated  with  a  certain  letter  and 
a  certain  line  or  space;  by  the  latter,  Do  becomes 
the  key-note,  or  numeral  one  or  eight,  of  even- 
one  of  the  major  scales.  —  One  or  the  other  of 
these  ways  of  using  the  syllables  being  accepted, 
the  natural  and  ordinary  divisions  of  elementary 
vocal  teaching  into  those  of  tune,  time,  and  e.c- 
/i/'c.«i'i»  | .  i  ■'■-■'  1 1 1  themselves  ;  tune,  or  melody, 
addressing  itself  more  directly  to  the  soul  than 
time  or  rhythm,  is  certainly  first  in  order  in  the 
musical  education  of  the  young.  By  common 
consent,  the  major  scale,  in  great  variety,  is  now 
practiced  with  numerals  and  with  syllables  in  the 
primary  departments  of  schools,  as  a  preparation 
for  the  presentation  of  the  staff,  clefs,  notes,  etc., 
at  a  later  period.  It  is  a  matter  of  no  conse- 
quence whether  the  scale  be  based  upon  one  par- 
ticular line  or  space  in  preference  to  another,  if 
the  movable  Do  be  used  ;  but  if  it  be  the  teach- 
er's design  to  employ  the  Italian  method,  with 
its  Do  immovably  fixed  upon  middle  0,  it  is 
conducive  to  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  sub- 
ject of  the  /rans/iosi/iim.  of  the  key-note  to  start 
from  this  point.  If  another  letter  be  selected  as 
the  base  of  the  scale  iu  the  earlier  lessons,  it  is 
necessary  to  return  to  middle  0  when  the  sub- 
ject of  /rniisjiositio/i  is  introduced,  and  the  ordi- 
nary rules  for  changing  the  place  of  the  key-note 
by  help  of  the  sharps  and  fiats,  are  fully  ex- 
plained. After  some  familiarity  with  the  sounds 
of  the  major  scale  is  acquired,  a  division  of  the 
class  should  be  made,  whereby  singing  in  two 
parts  can  be  attempted.  This  phase  of  "element- 
ary vocal  instruction  may  be  postponed,  in  teach- 
ing children,  until  a  considerable  knowledge 
(if  the  diatonic  intervals  of  the  major  scale  has 
bee i  le  familiar  to  them.  With  adults,  how- 
ever, the  natural  division  of  the  class  of  mixed 
voices  arising  from  the  selection  of  the  soprano, 
alto,  tenor,  and  base  voices,  each  to  sing  in  a  com- 
pact body,  and  in  a  separate  location,  is  obvious- 


ly necessary  as  a  measure  of  interest  and  advan- 
tage to  all  four  of  these  parties,  alter  the  quality 
of  tone  and  compass  of  each  voice  have  been  as- 
certained. Beating  time  should  be  introduced 
and  rigidly  enforced  as  soon  as  the  staff  and  its  di- 
vision into  measures  by  bars  have  been  explained, 
especially  in  the  simpler  forms  of  twofold,  three- 
fold, and  fourfold  measure.  The  department 
of  <    ;<■    si   ".  with  its  more  apparent  varieties 

may  accompany  the  performance  of  the  simplest 
exercises,  and  grow  with  the  growth  and 
strengthen  with  the  strength  of  the  pupil  as  he 
advances  toward  the  execution  of  more  elaborate 
examples  in  melody,  rhythm,andharmony.  They 
who  clog  the  wheels  of  musical  progress  with 
dull  and  incompetent  ears  must  gradually  dis- 
appear.   This  is  a  rule  without  exception. 

Allusion  has  l,e,„  made  to  the  success  of  the 
Rev.  J.  Curwen's  Tonic-Sol-Fa  system  in  Eng- 
land, of  which  Miss  Sarah  A.  Glover,  with  her 
so-called  tetrm-lmrdnl  nn-lhod,  was  the  forerunner. 
It  is  claimed  that  it  is  better  suited  for  vocal 
practice  than  the  ordinary  signs,  and  many  of 
Mr.  Curwen's  di.-eiples  consider  it  available  for 
the  presentation  of  every  possible  variety  of 
music,  instrumental  as  well  as  vocal.  The  syllables 
Dok,  Ray,  Me,  Fah,  Soh,  Lah,  Te,  are  pro- 
nounced as  they  arc  spelt.  Te  being  substituted 
for  Si,  to  avoid  confusion  with  S<Ji  when  only 
the  initial  letter  is  used,  as  in  the  printed  music 
the  initial  only  is  employed.  To  indicate  the 
higher  or  lower  octaves,  figures  are  placed  by  the 
sides  of  the  letters  which  stand  for  notes,  as 
d1,  d$,  m3,and  S2,MS,  d2.  The  tune  America 
is  presented  thus  :  |  <l  d  r  7,  d  r  m  m  f  m  r  d  r 
dt1,etc.  Different  keyrnotes  are  announced  by 
letter  at  the  beginning,  as  key  G,  key  A,  etc. 
The  key-note  of  the  relative  minor  is  always  Lah. 
Changes  of  key  are  effected  by  what  are  called 
bridge  tones.  The  note,  or  rather  the  letter  indi- 
cating a  certain  sound,  is  placed  side  by  side  with 
the  letter  indicating  the  pitch  of  the  letter  in  the 
key  approached,  and  pupils  are  taught  to  think 
and  sing  the  sound  of  the  first  note  or  letter  and 
to  call  it  by  the  name  of  the  second.  Thus  d  r  m 
f  sd  t  d  would  show  a  modulation  to  the  key  of 
G.  Tonic-Sol-Ft litis  consider  that  this  affords  an 
easier  mode  of  making  modulations  and  transi- 
tions than  the  older  system.  The  chromatic  scale 
is  named  by  adding  the  vowel  e  to  the  initial  of 
sharped  notes,  and  a  (aw)  to  flatted  notes.  Thus 
de,  re,fe,  se,  are  respectively  d,  r,  /,  s  sharp;  and 
ma  (maw)  In.  in,  are  in,  1. 1  flat.  The  sharp  or  aug- 
mented sixth  of  the  minor  scale  is  called  bah,  to 
distinguish  it  from  fe,  the  sharp  or  augmented 
fourth  of  the  major  scale.  Time  and  accent  are 
indicated  by  measurement  across  the  page,  thus : 

I  :  I  :  I  :  I 

the  space  between  one  sign  and  the  next  repre- 
senting the  beat ;  the  line  showing  the  stronger 
accent,  and  the  colon  the  weaker.  Short  divisions 
are  indicated  on  halving  the  measure  by  one  dot 
|  .  :  and  commas  are  used  to  divide  the 
measure  into  quarters,  and  other  divisions  are 
similarly  shown.     A  stroke,  through  a  beat  or 


SINGING-SCHOOLS 

pulse,  means  that  a  previous  sound  is  to  be  con- 
tinued. Sol-Foists  esteem  this  mode  of  measur- 
ing time  a  great  advantage  over  the  elder  nota- 
tion. The  first  line  of  ['levels  hymn  is  thus 
written  :    |  m  :  s  |  r  :  .  m  \  f  :   r  \  m,  etc. 

The  method  cannof  easily  be  understood  with- 
outreference  to  the  7'  s  Fa  arrangement 
i.  <•.,  the  distinctive  plan  of  teaching  the  musical 
facts  indicated  by  the  lettered  nutation.  It  is  the 
result  of  laborious  inquiry  and  experience  on 
the  part  of  .Mr.  Curwen  ami  his  fellow  laborers. 
Great  importance  is  attached  to  the  doctrine  of 
what  is  called  mental  effect,  but  which  has  been 
previously  named  more  properly  emotional  effect, 
by  which  is  meant  a  certain  coloring  or  impres- 
sion produced  by  eaeli  sound   of   the    scale   when 

sum.' >l.>uly.     Thus  ,/,,/,   is  , sidered  firm;  te, 

sharp  an  1  piercing;  lah,  sorrowful  \fdh, gloomy; 
soh,  bright  and  clear,  etc,  Teaching  by  pattern 
is  also  require  1  ;  the  scale  is  taughl  in  the  follow- 
ing order:  ill  the  notes  of  the  tonic  common 
chord  d,  m.  s,  or  doh  me  soh,  and  their  replicates; 
(2)  the  notes  of  the  dominant  common  chord 
s,  /.  r,or  soh,  te,  ray;  (3)  the  common  chord  i  if  the 
subdominant  /,  /,  </,  or /ah,  lah,  doh,  —  which 
are  simply  the  fundamental  harmonies  of  the 
scale,  embracing  all  its  sounds,  and  giving  birth 
to  the  name  of  the  system.  Tauic-Sol-Fo.  The 
backbone  of  the  system,  however,  is  the  Modu- 
lator, without  a  proper  use  of  which  the  method 
cannot  be  taught, 

r'       s        d  f1 


SOCIAL  ECONOMY 


783 


1 

r 

s 

-DOH1- 

TE        — 

f 

3 

d 

f 

ta           la 

t, 

m 

-LAH  = 

r 

f 

la              se 

m 

1, 

r 

-son  - 

ba              fe 

d 
tj 

d 

si 
f 

d 
tx 

-FAH 

-ME     - 

\ 

tl 

in  j 

1, 

BAY    — 

g 

h 

ri 

Sj 

DOII  - 

ti      - 

f 
m 

This  Modulator  is  a  mi 
sounds  to  be  read  in  an  as  e 
the  scale,  its  minor,  its  chro 
closely  related  keys  or  seal 


the  use  of  this  chart,  tb 


QF 


musical 

.  s-I  i,  .w  ing 

i  its  more 

liliarity  in 

'  and  down- 


ward motion  of  the  notes  all  on  one  level,  is 
gradually  learned  by  the  pupil.  Syllables  are 
used  to  show  the  length  of  the  notes  according  to 
the  French  Cheve  system.  So  taa  is  the  name 
of  one  beat,  taa-iai  of  a  half-heat,  and  ta-fa-ie-fe 
of  quarter  beats.  Continuations  of  any  kind  are 
met  by  dropping  the  consonant.  Sol-Faists  con- 
sider that  the  inure  intricate  and  refined  of  di- 
vided beats  can  be  sooner  learnei  1  in  this  way  than 
in  any  other.  But  this  7'.,,,/,  >,„'-/■•,,  ,1,'ethod. 
more  than  any  other,  requires  the  livii  \  teachei 
to  illustrate  the  meaning  of  its  signs  :  and  it  fol- 
lows, of  course,  that  the  teacher  of  any  particular 
method  of  imparting  musical  instruction  will 
best  succeed  with  that  which  he  most  thoroughly 
understands. 

SMITHSON    COLLEGE,    at  Logansport, 

Ind.,  founded  in  1872  for  the  edncati f  both 

sexes  is  under  Universalisf  control.  It  is  sup- 
ported  by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  an 
endowment  of  S20.IHKI.  The  regular  tuition  fee 
is  §30  a  year.  The  institution  comprises  a  pre- 
paratory, a  commercial,  a  philosophical,  a  col- 
legiate, ami  a  normal  department.  In  1876 — 7. 
there  were  8  instructors  and  5(1  students.  The 
presidents  have  been  the  Rev.  Paul  R.  Kendall, 
1S72— 4.  and  the   Rev.  R.  N.  John,  since  1875. 

SOCIAL  ECONOMY.  The  place  actually 
held  by  the  science,  of  social  or  political  economy, 
in  modern  education,  presents  a  Strang-  contrast 
with  that  which  its  importance  demands.  If  the 
object  of  education  is  to  fit  the  young  to  become 
self-supporting  citizens  in  a  progressive  society, 
conducing  at  once  to  the  happiness  of  all.  while 
securing  their  own,  then  must  the  science  whose 
special  function  is  the  elucidation  of  the  condi- 
tions of  man's  well-being  in  society,  rightfully 
claim  a  foremost  place  in  every  school  cur- 
riculum. It  is,  nevertheless,  to  be  noted  that,  up 
to  the  present  time,  instruction  in  this  science 
has  been  limited  to  the  few  who  attend  colleges 
and  universities,  and  to  the  pupils  of  a  small 
number  of  schools,  of  which  further  mention  will 
be  made  in  the  course  of  this  article.  A  part  of 
the  difficulty  popularly  experienced  in  appreciat 
ing  the  proper  position  of  thi 
course  of  stud 
to  be  ascril 
ferent 

I n  appropriate 

t  winch   have  been   su-'-estei] 

lamination,  to  be  thatunder 
-abject  is  here  treated, — that  is,  the 
ice  which  treats  of  the  manner  in  which  are 
.     the    affairs    that    relate   to   man    iu 
ty,  a  meaning  fully  suggested  by  the  etymol- 
ogy of  the  words.     Nevertheless,  this  term,  as 
(veil  as  the  allied  name  politico  is  apl 

to  suggest  to  the  unprepared  mind  a  s>  i>  n<  e  deal- 
ing with  a  very  different  set  of  ideas  from  those 
of  which  it  treats.— The  dissatisfaction  which  has 
thus  arisen  with  the  name  social  economy  has 
led  to  the  attempt  to  adopt  various  other  forms 
of  expression  to  designate  the  science,  of  which 
attempts  the  happiest  perhaps  has  been  the  pro- 
posal to  call  it  the  "science  which  teaches  the 


(84 


SOCIAL  ECONOMY 


conditions  of  human  well-being."  But  this 
title  is  not  without  objection.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  wanting  in  that  terseness  which  is  a  main 
requirement  in  nomenclature;  and.  secondly,  it 
is  wanting  in  precision.  This  expression  would 
logically  include  many  other  sciences  ;  as,  for  in- 
stance, hygiene,  a  due  regard  to  the  laws  of 
which  is  assuredly  a  condition  of  human  well- 
being.  If  the  science  had  to  do  solely  with  the 
production  and  distribution  of  wealth,  the  term 
originally  employed  by  Adam  Smith,  the  father 
of  the  science,  namely,  the  wealth  of  nations, 
would  be  specially  appropriate  ;  but,  even  this  is 
inadequate  ;  for,  although  the  laws  of  the  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  wealth  influence 
in  a  material  degree  the  conditions  of  human 
well-being,  the  science  which  we  have  called 
social  economy  includes  also  most  of  the  moral 
elements  that  enter  into  the  economy  of  society. 
The  diversity  of  names  that,  from  time  to  time, 
have  been  suggested,  has,  not  unnaturally,  given 
risetothe  idea  that  there  must  be  something  espe- 
cially abstruse  in  a  science  the  professors  of  which 
have  been  unable  to  agree  even  upon  the  name  by 
which  it  should  be  known.  The  difficulty  prob- 
ably arises  from  the  modern  use  of  the  term 
economy,  which  has,  to  some  extent,  lost  its 
original  and  etymological  signification.  Another 
cause  of  the  misapprehension  pf  the  proper  place 
of  social  economy  in  education,  arises  from  the 
intimate  relations  into  which  every  person  un- 
avoidably enters  with  the  subjects  it  elucidates, 
at  nearly  every  instant  of  his  industrial  life ;  so 
that  all  persons  are  unavoidably  possessed,  of 
some  notions  on  the  subjects  of  which  it  treats. 
Now,  as  there  is  an  infinite  number  of  modes 
of  error  and  only  one  of  truth,  it  is  only  by 
starting  rightly,  and  proceeding,  systematically 
or  scientifically,  from  the  known  to  the  un- 
known, that  error  can  be  avoided;  hence,  the  no- 
tions taken  up  in  the  course  of  practical  life 
are,  in  the  absence  of  systematic  study,  gen- 
erally erroneous.  But  it  is  usually  the  most 
ignorant  who  wrangle  and  dictate  with  the  loud- 
ption  of  knowledge  ;  and,  hence,  people 
'  ■  •  is  a  difference  of 
long  the  students 
of  the  science,  and  re,  the    subject 

'  by  children. 
It  is,  neverthi  .. .  "irds  the 

elements  of  the  science,  liffer- 

ence   of  opinion  among    ,  h 

systematic  study  to  it,  than  It. 
students  of  mathematics    upon 
principles  of    geometry.      Another 
serious   obstacle    to    the  introduction  i 
economy,  as  a  subject  of  instruction  for  the), 
is  the  following.     Owing  to  the  extremely  on.: 
plex  nature  of  human  society,  it  is  impossible  to 
take  all  of  its  factors  into  account  when  inves- 
tigating its  elementary  principles;     But  it  is  also 
true  that  the  geometrician  disregards  the  breadth 
of  the  line,  and  the  mechanician  the   weight   of 
the  mechanical  powers,  when   investigating  the 
laws  of  magnitude  in  space,  or  the  relations  of 
forces ;  but  as  soon  as  the  geometrician  or  the 


mathematician  begins  to  apply  the  principles  of 
his  particular  science  to  practical  engineering, 
these  discarded  factors  form  data  in  his  prob- 
lems ;  and  their  effects  are  estimated  by  means 
of  the  very  laws  which  were  established  while 
disregarding  their  existence.  So  with  the  laws 
of  man  in  society.  The  laws  of  the  produc- 
tion and  distribution  of  wealth  were  investigated 
by  rigorously  excluding  the  sympathetic  side  of 
man's  nature  and  looking  upon  him  as  purely  a 
self-seeking  being ;  but  the  principles  of  social 
economy  can  only  be  understood  by  regarding 
him  from  both  points  of  view.  This  was  well 
understood  by  Adam  Smith,  whose  Tlieory  of 
the  Moral  S  nlinn  nts  treats  of  man  as  a  sympa- 
thetic being,  ami  is  complementary  to  hialnqiiii-y 
into  tin1  Wealth  of  Xatioitn.  Most  of  the  followers 
of  this  great  master,  have,  since  his  time,  lost 
sight  of  the  fact  of  this  artificial  exclusion,  and 
while  pursuing  with  great  zeal  and  intelligence 
their  researches  into  the  one  half  of  the  subject, 
have  forgotten  that,  after  all,  it  was  but  one  half, 
and  that  the  other  half,  which  they  neglected, 
was  of  little  less  moment  to  man's  happiness  than 
that  which  they  were  investigating.  It  was,  in 
great  part,  owing  to  this  forgetfulncss  on  the  part 
of  the  votaries  of  the  science,  that  it  acquired, 
among  persons  of  large  sympathy  but  small 
knowledge,  the  nickname  of  the  dismal  science; 
and  as  the  investigation  of  the  self -regarding  half 
of  the  laws  of  human  well-being,  divorced  from 
the  sympathetic,  would  be  apt  to  chill  those 
sentiments  of  generous  sympathy  with  our  kind 
which,  in  youth,  should  be  encouraged  rather 
than  suppressed,  a  not  unnatural  disinclination 
was  felt  to  fortify  the  self-regarding  side  of  our 
nature  by  exhibiting  it  to  the  young  as  the  basis 
of  a  science  on  which  to  build  up  the  structure 
of  human  well-being.  This  well-grounded  ob- 
jection has  been  removed  by  the  correlation  of 
these  two  aspects  of  our  nature  into  one  body 
of  science,  —  a  correlation  first  illustrated  by 
the  teachings  of  William  Kllis.  which  has  been 
more  or  less  successfully  followed  up  by  his  dis- 
ciples ;  so  that,  to-day,  the  science,  when  prop- 
erly taught,  instead  of  warping  the  minds  of  its 
students  into  a  one-sided  egoism,  develops  a 
largeness  of  views,  a  generosity  of  sentiment,  and 
a  soundness  of  judgment  perhaps  unattainable 
through  any  other  study. — All  educators  have 
agreed  that  the  earlier  years  of  youth  must  be 
directed  to  concrete,  before  proceeding  to  abstract, 
studies — to  observation  rather  than  to  causation. 
While,  speaking  generally,  this  rule  is  sound.it  is 
i  be  understood  as  requiring  the  exclusion 
■soiling  process  from  even  infant  minds; 
the  reasoning  faculties  are  compar- 
uit  in  early  youth,  knowledge  should 
hrough  observation  (as  for  instance 
in  iry)  :and  from  the  facts  thus  ob- 

tai  should  be  trained  to  reason  logic- 

ally.      Nov      I    •  this  purpose,   social  economy 
presi  ■  i     ■•■  vantages,  and  this  hardly  less 

asam  ne  than  for  the  knowledge  it 

imparts.     But  the  teaching  of  science  to  the  very 
young  s,       '  1  ahwtys  be  in  connection  with  facts 


SOCIAL   ECONOMY 


785 


or  subjects  presented  to  the  senses.  For  instance, 
suppose  a  lesson  is  to  be  given  upon  bread  to 
children  8  or  9  years  of  age.  After  the  children 
have  observed  those  properties  which  are  directly 
cognizable  by  the  senses,  the  judicious  teacher 
will  proceed  to  the  more  elementary  of  those  facts 
relating  to  it  which  physics,  chemistry,  and 
physiology  have  made  known  to  us,  and  will  not 
shrink  from  gradually  introducing  the  pupils, 
notwithstanding  their  youth,  to  the  terms  used 
by  men  of  science  in  speaking  of  those  facts. 
Instruction  of  this  kind  has,  for  a' long  while, 
been  given  by  the  best  teachers,  in  what  are 
termed  object  lesson*;  and  they  have  now  only  to 
add  the  facts  relating  to  bread  which  are  made 
known  to  us  by  the  science  of  social  economy  to 
complete  their  course.  They  will  rind  it  far 
easier  to  adopt  this  course  with  the  social  bear- 
ings of  objects  than  with  those  which  relate  to 
physics,  chetiiistry,  or  physiology,  because  many 
of  the  social  facts  will  have  been  spontaneously 
and  unavoidably  noticed  by  the  children  them- 
selves; and  when  once  they  perceive  that  what  goes 
on  around  them  at  home,  in  the  workshop,  and 
in  the  store,  has  a  scientific  value  and  importance, 
and  that  an  observation  of  surrounding  facts  and 
events  can  be  used  in  school  work,  and  have  a 
fitting  place  found  for  it,  as  a  help  to  further 
knowledge,  their  observation  will  be  suddenly 
and  wonderfully  awakened,  and  fresh  facts  and 
events  will  be  poured  upon  the  teacher  by  the 
children  themselves.  By  this  method,  long  before 
children  have  passed  out  of  the  primary  grades, 
they  may  have  acquired  a  knowledge  of  not  only 
the  fundamental  laws  of  the  production  of 
wealth,  but  morals  also,  as  well  as  many  of  the 
consequences  of  the  division  of  labor,  and  other 
matters  connected  with  the  interchange  of  com- 
modities. At  an  age  even  earlier  than  that  at 
which  it  is  now  deemed  proper  to  commence 
the  study  of  geometry,  that  is  to  say,  11  or 
12  years,  social  economy  may  be  taught  as  a 
special  subject;  but  the  opportunities  afforded 
by  object  lessons,  of  observing  the  social  aspects 
of  the  objects  under  consideration  should  always 
be  made  available.  In  teaching  social  econ- 
omy, as  a  special  branch,  to  scholars  of  from 
11  to  12  years  of  age,  the  subject  should,  as  far 
as  possible,  be  introduced  in  a  manner  analogous 
to  that  of  object  teaching.  Attention  should  be 
called  to  the  comforts  enjoyed  by  the  children, 
and  by  people  in  general,  in  the  country  in  which 
they  live, — things  to  which  they  have  perhaps 
become  so  accustomed  thai  they  have  given  no 
thought  to  the  means  by  which  they  have  been 
provided  at  the  time  and  place  at  which  they 
are  needed  to  be  used  and  enjoyed.  With  chil- 
dren who  have  not  before  received  any  instruction 
in  the  science,  some  simple  object  of  their  daily 
use  should  be  noticed,  and  its  history  examined, 
from  the  first  preparation  for  the  production  of 
the  raw  material  of  which  it  is  mainly  composed, 
down  to  its  distribution  in  the  form  in  which  it  is 
required  to  be  ready  for  their  consumption.  Such 
an  examination  will  bring  vividly  before  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  the  fact  -that  nearly  all  the 


u lividual  as   " 

d  the  division  of  In 
esulting  enormous 


lforts  of  life  are  produced  by 
:he  name  wealth,  bj  which 
,bor  are  to  be  thenceforth  de- 
al to  them.  Industry,  econ- 
id  skill  will  next  be  evolved  as 
-  general  well- 
Ub  examined, 


duetiveness  of  labor.  Tl 
then  be  taken  to  exhibit  the  ground!  ssm  oi 
prevailing  prejudices  in  regard  to  the  relative 
honor  to  be  attached  to  one  class  of  labor  over 
another,  and  to  point  out  that  those  by  whom 
household  labors  are  performed  are  as  much  en- 
gaged in  the  business  of  production  as  other 
laborers.  The  pupils  will  now  be  ready  to  ob- 
serve with  understanding  the  simpler  phenomena 
of  interchange  ;  and  then  the  paramount  impor- 
tance of  honesty,  truthfulness,  and  thorough  trust- 
worthiness on  the  part  of  all  will  be  evolved  and 
made  apparent.  —  While  carefully  avoiding  all 
appearance  of  dogmatism,  the  teacher  can  hardly 
devote  too  much  time  to  multiplying  illustrations, 
and  iv\  iewing  the  investigations  of  the  pupils, 
upon  this  head.  The  various  forms  of  untrust- 
worthiness.  and  the  con;-.'  qucncvs  thereof,  should 
be  made  very  clear,  nor  should  the  subject  be 
left  until  the  pupils  have  arrived  at  a  hearty 
detestation,  not  only  of  unsuccessful,  but  still 
more  of  successful,  dishonesty.  The  natural  laws 
regulating  the  relations  of  employer  and  i  mployed 
will  next  be  Studied;  and,  either  now  or  at  a 
later  period,  the  rules  of  trades-unions,  and  the 
effects  of  strikes  and  of  combinations,  should 
be  closely  examined ;  nor  should  the  subject 
of  wages  be  left  until  the  pupils  see  clearly, 
that  the  wages  which  they,  as  sellers  of  their 
labor,  are  destined  to  earn,  will  depend  almost 
exclusively  on  the  productiveness  of  their  labor, 
and  that  all  those  rules  of  trades -unions  etc. 
which  tend  to  diminish  the  productiveness  of 
labor,  of  necessity,  lower  also  the  wages  of  labor. 
The  laws  determining  the  administration  of 
capital  will  next  engage  their  attention;  the  idea 
of  profit  will  be  evolved,  and  its  nature  determined 
with  precision;  the  mischievous  results  of  com- 
binations among  capitalists,  both  to  themselves 
and  to  the  community,  will  be  investigated. until 
it  becomes  apparent  that  the  profit  of  the 
capitalist  is  the  reward  paid  him  by  society  for 
the  services  he  has  rendered,  of  which  services  it 
forms  also,  in  most  cases,  an  accurate  measure. — 
Property  in  land  will  next  claim  attention,  the 
justification  for  its  adoption,  as  well  as  its  just 
limitations,  being  ascertained,  and  the  principle 
of  rent,  determined. — As  the  next  step  in  the 
course  of  study,  the  idea  of  exchangeableness,  and 
the  name  -value,  will  be  evolved.  The  laws  which 
regulate  value  will  then  be  investigated,  and 
the  necessity  of  precision,  alike  in  ideas  and  in 
the  use  of  words,  will  be  again  impressed  upon 
the  minds  of  the  pupils,  and  forcibly  illustrated 
by  as  many  examples  as  possible.  It  will  now 
be  time  to  examine  into  some  of  the  means 
which  have  been  adopted  to  facilitate  inter 
change,  among  which  money  will  be  seen  to  hold 


7SG 


SOCIAL   ECONOMY 


a  prominent  place  ;  the  reasons  fur  selecting  gold  ( 
or  silver  for  money  will  be  examined  ;  the  im- 
possibility of  fixing  the  relative  values  of  the 
two  metals,  and,  consequently,  the  want  of  wis- 
dom shown  inenaoting  lawsmaking  both  metals 
a  standard  of  value  for  the  same  contract,  will 
be  readily  perceived  ;  nor  will  it  be  difficult  for 
the  pupils  to  discern  the  only  proper  function  to 
be  fulfilled  by  a  mint.  The  causes  of  fluctuations 
in  the  value  of  money  will  be  next  investigated, 
and  the  phenomena  of  />ria>  and  its  fluctuations 
observed.  The  use  and  functions  of  credit  will 
now  be  inquired  into,  and  the  unhappy  con- 
sequences of  its  abuse  traced  to  their  source. 
Now.  or  at  a  later  period  in  the  course,  the 
causes  of  the  so-called  "tightness  in  the  money 
market",  of  business  derangements,  commercial 
crises,  and  of  panics,  will  be  rigidly  investigated 
and  their  only  remedy  discerned,  namely,  greater 
trustworthiness  and  honesty,  to  be  secured  by  the 
improved  teaching  and  training  of  youth.  The 
policy  of  laws  for  the  recovery  of  debts  may  now 
be  profitably  inquired  into,  as  also  the  function 
which,  at  best,  governments  may  hope  to  perform 
in  the  economy  of  society.—  Bills  of  exchange, 
rates  of  exchange,  the  par  of  ■  cckange  between 
distant  countries,  rates  of  interest,  banks  and 
banking,  may  all  now,  in  turn,  be  discussed,  and 
the  want  of  wisdom  shown  by  legislatures  in  the 
enactment  of  usury  laws,  and  of  laws  which  at- 
tempt to  control  or  regulate  banking,  may  be 
made  apparent.  Paper  money,  and  the  promise 
made  by  the  issuers  thereof,  the  dishonesty 
evinced  in  breaking  the  promise  thus  made,  and 
the  duty  incumbent  upon  those  who  have  either 
dishonestly  or  ignorantly  broken  such  promises, 
should  be  dwelt  upon,  and  illustrated  by  examples 
drawn  from  history.  Foreign  commerce  may 
next  be  illustrated,  its  origin  and  the  cause  of 
its  existence  observed,  and  the  want  of  wisdom 
shown  by  those  legislatures  which  have  attempted 
improperly  to  interfere  with  it. — The  proper 
mode  of  raising  revenue,  to  be  deduced  in  great 
part  from  the  truths  discovered  when  consider- 
ing the  phenomena  of  rent  and  of  its  progressive 
increase,  will  next  be  investigated  ;  and  the 
wisest  methods  of  expenditure,  both  public  and 
private,  may  then  be  discussed. — With  the  con- 
sideration of  all  these  questions,  and  mainly  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  here  sketched,  the 
school  course  of  study  in  social  economy  may 
be  closed.  Not,  however,  without  warning  the 
pupil  that  he  has,  by  no  means,  mastered  all 
the  truths  of  the  science,  but  that,  if  he  has 
thoroughly  assimilated  the  lessons  he  has  re- 
ceived, they  will  suffice  to  direct  his  path  in  in- 
dustrial life. — The  course  as  sketched  in  these 
pages  should  occupy  from  two  to  four  years  of 
the  school  curriculum, — two  years,  if  the  knowl- 
edge to  be  acquired  is  to  be  learned  from  books; 
but  about  four  years,  if  tin;  Socratic  methodhe 
adopted  by  the  teacher.  Another  method  of  in- 
struction, and  one  which,  like  that  already  in- 
dicated, has  been  successfully  practiced,  is  the 
division  of  the  science  into  progressive  problems, 
demonstrating  these  either  on  the  Socratic  plan 


SOCRATES 

or  by  a  deductive  process,  as  in  the  study  of  ge- 
ometry. The  former  of  these  two  plans  is  that 
chiefly  followed  in  the  admirable  Hirkbeck  schools 

of    London,   sel Is   founded    and    endowed   by 

William  Kllis  (q.  v.),  of  that  city,  for  the  special 
purpose  of  introducing  the  science  of  social  econ- 
omy as  a  branch  of  school  teaching,  especially 
for  the  children  of  mechanics  and  laborers. 
Since  the  year  1848,  this  instruction  has  been 
continued  in  these  schools,  and  their  example 
has,  at  last,  been  followed  by  the  London  school 
board. —  See  Ellis.  Outlines  of  S  ■  ■■  E  ti  my 
(a  text-book  for  schools);  Progress}  I 
in  Social  Science  (for  teachers);  Introduction  to 
the  Study  of  the  Social  Sciences  (Loudon); 
Phih-Socrates  (London);  Lessons  on  the  Phe- 
nommaofIndtistrialLife,etc.,editedhytheT)em 

on  Political  Economy  (N.  V.);  E.  M.  Leverson, 
Common  Sense,  or  First  Stepsin  Political  Econ- 
omy (N.  V.  and  Denver,  L876). 

SOCRATES,  a  celebrated  Creek  philosopher 
and  teacher,  born  in  a  village  near  Athens,  about 
469  B.  C;  died  in  that  city  399  Ii.  ( '.  He  was 
trained  in  his  father's  art,  that  of  sculpture,  and 
pursued  it  for  several  years.  At  the  same  time, 
lie  devoted  himself  to  study,  and  attended  the 
lectures  of  Anaxagoras  ami  other  eminent  phi- 
losophers at  Athens,  and  gained  a  reputation  as 
a  man  of  superior  intelligence.  Indeed,  one  of 
his  friends  asked  the  oracle  at  Delphi  whether 
Socrates  was  not  the  wisest  man  living,  and  was 
answered  in  the  affirmative.  This  answer  sur- 
prised and  perplexed  Socrates,  who  was  deeply 
impressed  with  his  own  ignorance  ;  but  he  was 
incited  by  it  to  continue  in  his  career  as  a  phi- 
losopher. In  this,  however,  he  assumed  the 
character  of  an  ignorant  person  asking  for  in- 
formation. Accordingly,  he  entered  into  con- 
versation with  the  most  eminent  men  in  .Athens, 
particularly  the  Sophists;  and  soon  was  con- 
vinced that  their  claims  to  superior  wisdom  were 
without  foundation.  He  adopted  a  peculiar 
method  of  questioning  (since  called  the  Socratic 
method),  by  which,  under  the  guise  of  seeking 
information,  he  convinced  the  person  whom  he 
questioned  of  ignorance,  and  showed  him  the 
truth.  He  passed  much  of  his  time  wandering 
about  the  streets  of  Athens  in  meditation,  or 
mingling,  in  the  school  and  in  the  market  place, 
with  people  of  all  ages  and  conditions,  and  of  both 
sexes,  and  sought  to  engage  them  in  conversation, 
his  g I  humor  and  brilliant  powers  as  a  dis- 
putant charming  all  classes.  Lu  his  walks,  he 
was  constantly  attended  by  a  crowd  of  persons 
who  were  commonly  lex  iked  upon  as  his  disciples; 
though  he  never  opened  a  school,  or  assumed 
the  name  of  teacher.  He  selected,  however,  a 
few  as  his  special  disciples  and  companions, 
among  whom  were  Plato  and  Xenophon  ;  and 
to  these  he  was  particularly  endeared.  The 
unselfishness  of  his  aims  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  he  never  accepted  payment  for  the  instruc- 
tion he  gave,  never  sought  public  influence  or 
place,  and  only  once  in  his  life  occupied  a  polit- 
ical office  ;  while  he  frequently,  in  the  interest 


of  justice,  defied  popular  clamor,  when  acquies- 
cence in  its  demands  would  have  lir.ii  to  his  ad- 
vantage, if  Ins  designs  had  been  ambitious,  lie 
acted  constantly  as  if  under  the  sense  of  a  divine 
commission.  He  professed  to  hear  a  super- 
natural voice,  proceeding  from  what  he  called 
his  genius  [dai/t&i  •>>  i,  which  exerted  over  him  a 
restraining,  but  never  an  inciting,  influence.  His 
unsparing  irony  towards,  and  contempt  for,  the 
Athenian  rulers,  and  his  demonstration  of  the 
ignorance  of  men  prominent  in  all  walks  of  life, 
which  he  made  plain  to  others  by  his  unrivaled 
skill  in  questioning,  created  finally  an  intense 
opposition  to  him,  particularly  on  the  part  of 
the  Sophists.  A  conspiracy  against  him  was 
formed  by  an  orator,  a  poet,  and  a  demagogue 
(Lycon,  Melitus,  and  Anytus),  who  made  a  pub- 
lic accusation  against  him  that  his  teaching  had 
brought  contempt  upon  the  national  gods,  that 
he  had  sought  to  introduce  other  gods  in  their 
stead,  and  that  he  had  corrupted  the  Athenian 
youth.  He  approached  his  trial  in  the  same 
spirit  of  independence  and  defiance  that  he  had 
always  exhibited.  With  no  expectation  of  ac- 
quittal, he  yet  defended  himself  to  the  extent  of 
showing  the  falsity  of  the  charges  brought 
against  him.  and  declaring  exactly  what  his 
teaching  had  been.  A  court  composed  of  citizen 
judges,  variously  estimated  at  557  to  567  mem- 
bers, condemned  him  to  death  by  a  very  small 
majority.  It  is  thought  that  the  fearlessness  of 
his  defense  led  to  his  condemnation,  as  the  pros- 
ecution was  intended  rather  to  humble  than  to 
destroy  him.  After  his  sentence,  he  passed  30 
days  in  prison,  and  ended  his  life  by  drinking 
poison,  according  to  the  sentence  of  the  court. 
From  a  moral  stand-point.  Socrates  has  been 
considered  the  type  of  the  highest  virtue  at- 
tainable by  man  when  unaided  by  the  spirit  of 
Christianity.  The  immediate  and  inevitable 
product  of  his  method,  as  an  instrument  of  in- 
tellectual research,  is  clearness  of  conception — 
the  most  important  prerequisite  to  precision  of 
thought.  The  result  of  his  teaching,  therefore, 
was  comprehensive  and  radical,  leading  to  an 
entire  reconstruction  of  fundamental  ideas  in 
many  departments  of  human  inquiry.  The 
sophistry  which  constantly  enveloped  every  sub- 
ject, under  the  methods  pursued  by  the  ancients 
for  centuries,  was  dissipated  by  his  merciless 
questioning.  The  practical  character  of  his 
mind,  also,  in  regard  to  natural  science,  is  re- 
markable, considering  the  age  in  which  he  lived; 
in  this  respect,  forcibly  recalling  the  similar 
characteristic  of  Franklin.  Thus,  he  would  have 
had  the  men  of  his  time  know  only  so  much  of 
arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy,  as  would 
be  of  use  to  them  in  the  daily  occupations  of 
life,  on  the  ground  that  the  vast  realm  of  human 
nature,  with  its  characteristics  and  duties,  was  at 
that  time  unexplored,  and  was  a  more  appro- 
priate field  for  investigation  than  what  he  called 
the  divine  phase  of  philosophy,  by  which  he 
meant  wdiat  is  now  understood  by  speculative 
science.  In  his  estimate  of  the  proper  subjects 
for  investigation,  this  strongly  practical  bias  is 


SOUTH    CAROLINA 


always  apparent,  insomuch  thai  Xenophon  says, 
"he  continued  incessantly  to  discuss  human 
affairs."  and  Cicero  impressively  declares  that 
"lie  called  philosophy  down  from  heaven  to 
the  earth."  The  career  of  Socrates  as  a  teacher 
was  a  remarkably  illustrious  one.  ft  was,  also, 
eminently  successful.  Those  who  listened  to  his 
instructions  always  felt  their  minds  enlarged, 
and  their  virtuous  inclinations  strengthened. 
Certainly,  no  teacher  lias  ever  presented  a  more 
complete  example  of  what  should  be  the  aim  of 
instruction,  and  none  has  ever  employed  a 
method  so  well  calculated  to  develop  in  the 
minds  of  his  pupils  the  ideas  and  truths  wdiich 
he  designed  to  impart. — See  Grote,  History  of 
Greer,',  chap.i.xvin. 

SOLON,  the  author  of  the  Athenian  system 
of  education,  was  born  at  Athens  in  639  B.  C; 
and  died,  in  55;i.  on  the  island  of  Cyprus.  He 
was  one  of  the  noblest  men  of  his  age,  and  was 
reckoned  among  the  seven  sages  of  Greece.  A 
modern  historian  (Duncker.  Qeschichte  des 
AMerihums)  calls  him  the  greatest  political 
genius  of  antiquity.  Having  been  called  to 
the  archonship,  in  594  B.  C,  by  all  parties,  with 
authority  to  confirm,  repeal,  or  modify  the  Dra- 
conian  laws,  he  gave  to  the  Athenians  a  new- 
constitution,  which  educated  the  people  to  a 
higher  degree  of  culture  than  had  been  attained 
by  any  nation  before  that  time.  The  eminence 
which  Greece  occupies  in  the  history  of  educa- 
tion, is  chiefly  due  to  the  laws  of  Solon.  (For 
an  account  of  the  educational  legislation  of 
Solon,  see  Athens.) 

SOUTH,  University  of  the,  at  Sewanee, 
Tenn.,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church.  It  was  chartered  in 
1858,  but  was  not  opened  until  18tiS,  its  organ- 
ization being  interrupted  by  the  civil  war.  It  is 
situated  on  the  Sewanee  Plateau,  a  spur  of  the 
Cumberland  Mountains.  2,000  ft.  above  the  sea, 
and  1,000  ft.  above  the  surrounding  country.  'I  he 
university  domain  comprises  nearly  10,0110  acres. 
The  value  of  its  grounds,  buildings,  and  apparatus 
is  $150,000;  the  amount  of  its  productive  funds, 
$50,000.  The  library  contains  6,000  volumes. 
The  university  consists  of  10  schools;  namely, 
civil  engineering  and  physics,  mathematics,  mod- 
ern languages  and  literature,  theoretical  and  ex- 
perimental chemistry,  metaphysics  and  English 
literature,  geology  and  mineralogy,  ancient  lan- 
guages, history  and  political  science,  commerce 
and  trade,  moral  science  and  evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity and  theology.  There  is  also  a  grammar 
or  preparatory  school.  The  charge  for  tuition, 
board,  etc..  is  $310  a  year.  In  1875.  there  were 
12  instructors  and  243  students  (92  preparatory). 
The  vice-chancellor,  who  is  the  administrative 
head  of  the  university,  is  (lSTfiJ  (Jen.  J.  Uorgas. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA,  one  of  the  thirteen 
original  states  of  the  American  Union,  having 
an  area  of  about  34.000  sq.  m.;  and  a  population, 
in  1870,  of  705,606,  of  whom  289,667  were 
whites,  and  415,814  colored  persons. 

Eiluni/iiiiKil  IFialnn/. — The  first  constitution 
of  the  state  was  silent  on  the  subject  of  educa- 


788 


SOUTH    CAROLINA 


tion,  the  custom  at  that  time  being  to  leave 
elementary  education  in  the  hands  of  parents. 
In  Is  1 1 ,  the  legislature  created  a  free-school  fund, 
the  use  of  which  was  to  be  confined  to  the  poor 
in  case  of  its  inadequacy  for  all.  This  proviso, 
imparting  a  sort  of  charity  phase  to  the  state 
effort  to  promote  education,  has  always  proved 
ah  obstacle  in  its  way  by  alienating  from  it  the 
support  of  the  wealthier  classes.  An  effort  was 
made  in  184H  to  revive  an  interest  in  the  sub- 
ject, but  without  permanent  success.  From  the 
earliest  times,  the  city  of  Charleston  has  been 
the  recipient  of  benefactions  for  educational 
purposes,  but  these  have  been  limited  in  amount, 
and  their  influence  has  not  extended  over  the 
state.  Good  public  schools,  however,  existed  in 
that  city  previous  to  1861.  In  1868,  a  new  consti- 
tution was  adopted,  which  provided  for  a  uni- 
form system  of  public  schools,  to  be  supported 
by  an  annual  tax  on  property  and  polls,  for  the 
establishment  of  a  state  normal  school,  a  state 
reform  school,  a  state  university,  and  educational 
institutions  forthedeaf  and  dumb,  and  the  blind. 
It  also  provided  that  all  schools,  colleges,  and 
universities,  supported  wholly  or  in  part  by 
public  funds  should  be  free  to  the  children  of 
the  state,  regardless  of  color;  but  this  provision. 
together  with  one  compelling  the  attendance  at 
school  of  all  children  in  the  state  between  the 
ages  of  6  and  16,  has  been  disregar  led.  Separate 
schools  arc  now  generally  provided  for  colored 
children.  No  state  superintendent  of  public 
infraction  was  chosen  in  .South  Carolina  till 
186s,  when  J.  K.  .lillson  was  elected,  lie  was 
re-elected  in  Istl' ;  and  was  succeeded  by  John 
E.  Tolbert,  elected  in  1876. 

Softool  System.  -The  present  school  system  of 
the  state  was  established  in  1870,  the  act  which 
established  it  receiving  some  slight  modifications 
the  following  year.  The  general  supervision  of 
the  schools  rests  with  the  state,  sup'-rinte,/, /,■„/. 
He  is  elected  for  four  years,  is  required  to  secure 
uniformity  in  the  textbooks  used  in  the  schools, 
and  to  discharge  all  other  duties  usually  pertain- 
ing to  the  office.  The  state  board  if  education 
consists  of  the  superintendent,  and  the  several 
county  school  commissioners.  It  convenes  an- 
nually in  regular  meetings  at  the  capital,  or  in 
special  meetings  at  such  other  times  and  places 
as  the  superintendent,  who  is  its  chairman,  may 
direct.  County  school  commissioners  are  elected 
biennially,  one  in  each  county.  They  direct  the 
expenditure  of  the  school  funds,  appoint  teachers, 
and  manage  the  schools,  generally  with  entire 
independence  of  the  state  superintendent,  whose 
powers  are  chiefly  advisory.  County  school  ex- 
aminers, two  in  number,  arc  appointed  by  the 
county  commissioner,  the  three  constituting  a 
board,  of  which  the  county  commissioner  is  chair- 
man, for  the  examination  of  teachers,  and  the 
appointment  of  district  trustees.  In  addition 
to  these  officers,  the  governor,  the  chairmen  of 
the  committees  of  education  in  the  two  houses 
of  the  legislature,  and  two  others  one  appointed 
by  each  house,  constitute  a  committee  of  five 
to  choose  a  uniform  series  of  text-books  for  the 


schools  of  the  state.  The  school  revenue  is 
composed  of  the  state  school  tax.  the  poll  tax, 
and  district  taxes.  The  first  is  derived  from  a 
levy  of  two  mills  on  every  dollar  of  taxable 
■  property.  District  taxes  are  subject  to  the  will 
of  the  people.  Owing  to  the  failure  of  the  gen- 
eral assembly  to  pass  specific  laws,  as  intended 
by  the  constitution  of  1868,  various  matters 
necessary  to  give  definiteness  to  the  school  law 
and  make  it  effective,  are  undetermined.  The 
school  age  is  from  6  to  16  years. 

Educational  Condition.  — The  number  of 
school-districts  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was  428; 
the  number  of  free  schools,  2,580.  The  only 
graded  schools  in  the  state  are  in  the  city  of 
Charleston.  The  school  revenue  for  the  year 
1875  was  as  follows  : 

From  state  school  tax $240,000.00 

•■      district  taxes 130,721.17 

"      poll  tax 63,443.42 

other  sources 55,378.16 


Total $4*9,542.75 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 

For  teachers'  salaries $3i;0,685.21 

Iimhliug    ami   repairing 
school-houses,  etc 31,459.15 

Expense  of  enumeration   of 

school  children 7,245.13 

For  all  other  purposes ls,07:j.5(l 


Total $426,462.99 

This  statement  of  expenditures  is  only  ap- 
proximately correct,  as  complete  returns  from 
some  parts  of  the  state  had  not  been  received  by 
the  superintendent. 

The  chief  items  of  sc7/oo/  statistics,  for  the 
year  1875,  are  the  following: 
Population  of  the  state,  of  school  age: 

Whites 85,566 

Colored 153,698 

Total 239,264 

Number  of  children  attending  school: 

Whites 47,001 

Colored 63,415 

Total 110,416 

Teachers  employed,  males,  white 1,090 

"         females    "     786 

"  "         males,   colored 683 

"  "         females,    "       296 

Total 2,855 

Monthly  average  paid  to  teachers,  males $31.64 

"           "         '.'      "         "        females....  29.21 

Average  number  of  months  of  school  session. .  4.5 

Normal  Instruction. —  The  State  Normal 
School  at  Columbia  was  opened  in  1874.  It 
provides  a  two  years'  course  of  study  in  two  de- 
partments ;  the  first,  a  training  class  for  fitting 
teachers  for  lower-grade  positions;  the  second, 
for  fitting  them  for  positions  in  the  higher 
schools.  The  board  of  regents  determines  the 
number  of  students  to  be  admitted  annually,  and 
these  are  apportioned  among  the  counties  of 
the  state  according  to  the  number  of  represent- 
atives of  each  in  the  general  assembly.  The  can- 
didates so  apportioned,  pass  through  a  competi- 
tive examination,  conducted  by  the  county  school 
commissioners  and  board  of  examiners,  the  com- 


SOUTH   CAROLINA 

missioner  recommending  the  candidates  accord- 
ing to  their  standing  in  the  examination,  ex- 
cept in  cases  of  special  aptitude  for  teaching  on 
the  part  of  the  applicant.  They  are  then  re-ex- 
amined by  the  president  of  the  normal  school, 
and  if  found  qualified,  are  admitted  upon  a 
pledge  of  intention  to  teach  in  the  public  schools 
of  the  state.  Certificates  and  diplomas  are 
granted  according  to  the  degree  of  proficiency 
attained.  During  the  first  year  of  the  school. 
39  students  were  registered,  G  males  and  33  fe- 
males. The  report  for  L875  stated  that  the 
school  was  in  a  flourishing  condition. —  Six 
teachers'  institutes  were  held  during  the  year 
1 875  :  but  the  system  has  not  yet  been  developed 
sufficiently  to  affect  materially  the  educational 
interests  of  the  state. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  institutions  for 
supplying  this  kind  of  instruction,  are  few  in 
number.  In  1875,  only  7  academies  and  sem- 
inaries made  reports  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Education, — 1  for  boys.  2  for  girls,  and  4  for 
both  sexes.  They  employed  22  teachers,  and 
had  an  attendance  of  (!(i3  pupils.  The  number 
of  pupils  in  the  public  schools  pursuing  higher 
studies,  was  2,752.  There  are  no  high  schools 
organized  outside  of  Charleston.  There  is  a 
preparatory  school  at  Orangeburg,  having,  in 
1875,  an  attendance  of  209  pupils. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Instruction. 
— The  denominational  schools  in  the  state  are 
not  numerou's.  the  instruction  usually  given  in 
such  institutions,  being  furnished,  as  demanded, 
by  schools  of  other  grades. 

Superior  Instruction.  -  -The  colleges  and  uni- 
versities of  the  state  are  as  follows  : 


R.  liL^io:: 


t  inniL-.  1'iiri;  1^70    M.  Epis. 

Charleston  1789   Non-sect. 

Erskine  College  ....      Dm   West  1839   Hf.  Presb. 

9reenville  1851    Baptist 

Walballa  1858    Luth. 

Columbia  IsOo    N<>  i  s.-.-r 

Spartanburg  1853  M.  Epis.S. 
Profession, i!  and  Scientific  instruction. — De- 
partments for  furnishing  this  kind  of  instruction, 
are  in  operation  in  many  of  the  colleges  and 
universities  of  the  state,  but  there  are,  in  addi- 
tion, special  institutions,  as  follows:  The  South- 
ern Baptist  Theological  Seminary,  at  Greenville, 
with  5  instructors  and  66  students,  in  1874 — 5  ; 
and  the  Theological  Seminary  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  <  'hurch,  at  Colum- 
bia, with  5  instructors  and  57  students. 

Special  Instruct  ion. — The  South  Carolina  In- 
stitution for  the  education  of  the  deaf  and 
dumb  and  the  blind,  located  at  Spartanburg,  is 
a  state  institution.  It  has  been  closed,  since 
October.  1873. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA,  University  of,  at. 
Columbia,  S.  C.  was  chartered  as  South  Caro- 
lina College  in  1801,  and  was  organized  in  1805. 
It  became  a  university  in  1865.  it  is  a  state  in- 
stitution, supported  by  legislative  appropriations. 
Instruction   is    free    to  all,  and   there  are  no 


S.  W.  BAPTIST  UNIVERSITY     789 

charges  for  rent  of  rooms  or  matriculation.  The 
campus  and  grounds  are  in  the  center  of  the 
city.  They  cover  four  squares,  including  eighteen 
acres,  and  are  adorned  with  shade  trees.  Within 
the  enclosure  are  the  library  building,  recitation 
rooms,  dormitories,  society  balls,  and  residences 
of  the  professors.  The  university  has  a  museum 
of  mineralogy  and  geology,  and  a  library  of  over 
26,000  volumes.  It  comprises  an  academic  depart- 
ment, preparatory  school,  law  school,  and  medical 
school  (suspended).  In  the  academic  department 
there  are  two  quadrennial  courses,  the  classical, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  A.  B.,  and  the  modern, 
leading  to  the  degree  of  Ph.  B.  The  preparatory 
school  is  designed  for  instruction  in  the  higher 
English  branches,  as  well  as  to  fit  boys  for  the 
college  courses.  Colored  as  well  as  white  youth 
are  admitted  to  all  the  courses,  The  legislature, 
in  the  session  of  1873 — 4,  established  124  bene- 
ficiary scholarships,  open  for  general  competition, 
each  yielding  8200  a  year  to  the  successful  ap- 
plicant. They  are  apportioned  to  the  counties  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  representatives  to  w  Inch 
each  is  entitled  in  the  lower  branch  oi  the  general 
assembly.  The  scholarships  are  tenable  tor  four 
years,  or  until  graduation  :  and  the  holder  may 
pursue  either  of  the  quadrennial  courses.  In 
January,  1876,  there  were  12  instructors  and  19G 
students  (11  law.  88  collegiate,  97  preparatory). 
Of  the  college  students.  35  were  pursuing  the 
classical  course,  and  53  the  modern  course.  The 
Rev.  Anson  W.  Oummings,  A.M.,D.D.,is(1877) 
the  chairman  of  the  faculty. 

SOUTHERN  UNIVERSITY,  at  Greens- 
boro', Ala.,  chartered  in  1858,  and  organized  in 
1859, is  under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal <  'hurch.  South.  It  has  productive  funds  to 
the  amount  of  $51,000  :  the  value  of  its  grounds, 
buildings,  and  apparatus  is  S'.mi.iiiii.  Before  the 
war.  its  endowment  was  over  S'Jiiu.liiNl.  The  li- 
brary contains  upward  of  2,000  volumes,  and  the 
laboratory  is  well  supplied  with  apparatus,  chem- 
ical and  philosophical.  It  was  originally  organized 
on  the  plan  of  the  University  of  Virginia,  and, 
besides  the  ordinary  collegiate  schools,  has  schools 
of  law.  medicine,  and  Biblical  literature.  In 
1870 — 7,  there  were  14  instructors  and  about 
LOO  students.  The  Rev.  A.  S.  Andrews.  D.  D., 
was  the  chancellor  until  .lulv.  1*75.  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Luther  M.  Smith,  1).  1)., 
the  present  incumbent  (1877). 

SOUTHWESTERN  BAPTIST  UNI- 
VERSITY, at  Jackson,  Term.,  was  founded  in 
1874,  by  the  Baptists  of  the  south  western 
States.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  ran- 
ging from  SI 21  to  S30  per  term  ol 
and  by  the  income  of  an  endowment  of  $60  000. 
The  value  of  its  real  estate  is  $50,000.  The 
academic  department  consists  of  a  primary  school 
and  a  grammar  (or  preparatory)  school.  The 
university  comprises  two  departments  :  (1 )  liter- 
ature and  science ;  (2)  law.  The  department  of 
literature  and  science  comprehends  the  seven 
schools,  as  follows:  (1)  Latin;  (2)  Greek; 
(.'Si  mathematics:  [  1)  natural  science;  (5)  moral 
science  ;   (0)  English;   (7)  German  and  Erench. 


790      S.  W.  PRESB.  UNIVERSITY 

Two  auxiliary  preparatory  schools  are  to  be  es- 
tablished :  one  for  East  Tennessee,  at  Mossy 
('reek,  and  one  for  Middle  Tennessee,  in  Mur- 
freesboro,  which  will  be  component  parts  of  the 
university.  In  L875  -6,  there  were  1  instructors 
and  191  students  (52  collegiate,  11  grammar,  95 
primary).  The  presidents  have  been:  Geo.  W. 
Jarman,  A.  M.,  1874—5  :  Win.  Shelton,  D.  D., 
1875 — 6 ;  and  Geo.  W.  Jarman,  A.  M.,  again, 
since  1876. 

SOUTHWESTERN  PRESBYTERIAN 
UNIVERSITY,  at  Clarksville,  Tenn.,  char- 
tered in  1 875,  was  established  by  the  Presbyterian 
synods  of  the  South-west.  It  succeeded  to  the 
property  and  funds  of  Stewart  t  Jollege,  which  was 
continued  on  the  existing  plan,  until  the  formal 
organization  of  the  university  proper.  The  uni- 
versity now  has  an  endowment  fund  of  $100,000, 
24  acres  of  laud,  with  commodious  college  build- 
ings, and  a  considerable  building  fund,  besides 
large  and  costly  cabinets  of  minerals,  fossils,  and 
shells,  and  a  valuable  scientific  library,  presented 
by  Prof.  Wm.  M.  Stewart,  after  whom  Stewart- 
College  was  named.  The liege  received  its  name. 

in  1855,  when  the  buildings, grounds, etc,  of  the 
Masonic  University  of  Tenn.  (founded  in  1850 
by  the  Masonic  Fraternity  of  the  state)  were 
purchased  in  behalf  of  the.  Synod  of  Nashville. 
It  was  suspended  during  the  civil  war,  and  re- 
opened some  time  after  its  close.  It  has  a  sub- 
COllegiate  and  a  collegiate  department,  and  con- 
fers the  usual  degrees.  A  Biblical  course  is  pre- 
scribed through  the  four  college  classes.  The 
cost  of  tuition  ranges  from  S 10  to  $70  per  an- 
num. Eree  tuition  is  provided  for  all  candidates 
for  the  ministry,  and  tor  all  sons  of  Presbyterian 
ministers.  In  1875 — G,  there  were  6  professors 
and  131  students.  The  Rev.  J.  B.  Shearer,  D.D., 
is  (1876)  the  president. 

SOUTHWESTERN  UNIVERSITY,    at 


Willi 


control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South,  was  opened  as  Texas  University  in  1874, 
and  chartered  under  its  present  title  in  1875.  In 
it  were  merged  Rutersville  College,  at  Ruters- 
ville,  chartered  in  1840;  Wesleyan  College,  at 
San  Augustine,  1844;  Sonic  University, at  Chap- 
pel  Hill,  1856;  and  McKcnzie  College,  at  Clarks- 
ville, I860;  all  controlled  by  thesame  church.  It 
is  supported  chiefly  by  tuition  fees,  but  has  an 
endowment  of  12,000  acres  of  land.  The  tuition 
fee  is  $30  for  one  term  of  five  months,  or  $50 
for  one  session  of  ten  months.  The  university 
comprises  12  schools  ;  namely,  mental  and  moral 
philosophy,  Latin,  Greek,  pure  mathematics,  ap- 
plied mathematics,  German,  Spanish,  English 
language  and  literature  history  and  political 
economy,  chemistry  and  geology,  a  commercial 
school,  and  a  preparatory  school.  In  |s7">  -ii. 
there  were  6  instructors  and  78  students.  The 
Rev.  E.  A.  Mood,  D.I).,  formerly  president  of 
Smile  University,  is  now  (1870)  regent  of  this 
university. 

SPAIN,  a  country  of  Europe,  having  an 
areaof  195,774  sq.  m.,  and  a  population,  in  1x70. 
of  16,835,500.  With  the  exception  of  the  Basques, 


SPAIN 

in  four  of  the  northern  provinces,  almost  all 
the  inhabitants  are  Spaniards,  and  speak  the 
Spanish  language.  Until  quite  recently,  the 
only  form  of  religion  allowed  by  law  was  the 
Roman  Catholic. 

History  of  Education.  —  Education,  in  Spain, 
may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Roman  power,  in  the  2d  century 
before  ( Ihrist.  The  progress  made  by  the  natives 
was  so  great  that  Strata  found  no  difference  be- 
tween a  Roman  and  an  Iberian  youth.  The 
schools  of  Cordova,  especially,  were,  during  the 
first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  in  a  flourish- 
ing condition,  and  educated  some  of  the  best 
representatives  of  the  later  Roman  literature. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  the  two  Romans,  who,  un- 
der the  reign  of  the  emperors,  achieved  the 
highest  reputation  as  writers  on  education  — 
Seneca  and  Quintilian,  were  both  natives  of 
Spain.  The  invasion  of  the  German  tribes,  for 
a  time,  checked  the  progress  of  education  ;  but 
the  scholarship  of  the  Spanish  monasteries  was 
soon  worthy  to  be  compared  with  that  of  other 
Christian  countries.  Some  of  the  Gothic  kings, 
too,  began  to  show  an  interest  in  education, 
which  was  well  calculated  to  raise  great  hopes 
for  the  future.  The  conquest  of  Spain  by  the 
Arabs  raised  the  country  to  the  foremost  rank 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth  in  regard  to  edu- 
cation. The  religious  toleration  of  the  Moham- 
medan rulers  allowed  Christian  and  Jewish 
scholars  to  teach  in  the  schools  side  by  side 
with  Mohammedans,  and  produced  a  literary 
emulation  which  was  followed  by  the  most 
beneficial  results.  Pozy,  in  his  History  of  the 
Mohammedans  in  Spun/,  shows  that  primary 
schools  were  numerous  and  well  conducted, 
and  that,  while  in  the  Christian  countries  only 
the  priests  possessed  a  moderate  knowledge,  in 
Andalusia  the  bulk  of  the  people  were  able  to 
read  and  write.  Aristotle  became  better  known 
to  Christian  Europe  from  translations  made  by 
.Mohammedan  Arabs  :  and  Cordova  and  other 
seats  of  Mohammedan  learning  attracted  the 
most  gifted  students  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 
One  of  the  most  learned  of  the  Popes  of  the 
middle  ages,  Sylvester  11..  was  chiefly  indebted 
for  his  scholarship  to  Mohammedan  teachers. 
When  the  power  of  Mohammedanism  declined, 
and  the  Christian  kings  began  to  recover  the 
lost  ground,  Spain  found  a  distinguished  patron 
of  education  in  king  Alfonso  X..  surnamed  the 
Wise  (1252 — 84),  who,  in  his  remarkable  code 
of  laws,  entitled  Las  Siete  Partidas,  devoted 
one  chapter  I  o  Estudios  Generates.  Salamanca 
became  the  most  famous  university  of  Christian 
Europe, having, at  one  tunc,  over  10.000 students. 
Uniing  the  16th  and  1  7th  centuries,  the  cause  of 
education  visibly  declined.  In  thesecond  half  of 
the  18th  century,  Charles  III.  re-organized  the 
universities  of  Salamanca,  AJcalade  Henares.and 
Granada,  and  established  elementary  and  higher 
schools  in  all  the  market  towns  and  villages. 
Under  Charles  IV.  (1788  -1808),  the  Pestaloz- 
zian  system  was  introduced  ;  but  it  did  not  lead 
to  any  lasting  improvement.     The  new  consti- 


tution  of  1312  favored  the  development  of  edu- 
cation, but  no  real  progress  could  be  made  dur- 
ing the  illiberal  reign  of  Ferdinand  VII.  Sev- 
eral attempts  tip  re-organize  the  educational  sys- 
tem were  made  during  the  regency  of  Chris- 
tina, the  reigns  of  Isabella  and  Amadeo,  and  the 
short  repubnean  administration ;  but.  in  i se- 
quence of  the  ensuing  civil  wars,  no  reform  of 
importance  has  as  yet  been  carried  into  effect. 

Primary  Instruction. — Primary  instruction 
is  compulsory,  and,  since  1809,  free  to  all.  Iiy 
the  law  of  L857,  it  was  divided  into  an  element- 
ary and  a  higher  grade.  The  course  of  studies  j 
of  the  elementary  schools  comprised  religion. 
Scriptural  history,  reading,  writing,  the  elements 
of  .Spanish  grammar,  and  the  rudiments  of 
arithmetic.  In  the  higher  primary  schools,  the 
same  subjects  were  taught  and.  in  addition,  tin; 
elements  of  geometry,  of  linear  drawing  and 
surveying,  history  and  geography  i particularly 
of  Spain),  natural  philosophy,  chemistry,  and 
natural  history.  The  law  of  L868  abolished  the 
above  distinct  ion.and  divided  the  schools  into  four 
classes:  (1)  As.v/.V.is  </.<  ,  ntrt  hi.  for  communities 
of  from  500  to  1,000  inhabitants  ;  (2)  Escuelas 
'/■'  jirim  to  naiviniii,  for  communities  of  from 
2,000  to  10,000  inhabitants  ;  (3)  Escuelas  de  se- 
gundoascenso,  for  cities  of  from  10.000  to  20,000 
inhabitants;  and  (4)  /•.'<.•».'/,«  //<■  tcrwiuo.  for 
the  chief  towns  of  provinces  and  cities  of  more 
than  20,0011  inhabitants.  The  course  of  studies 
generally  agreed  with  that  of  the  law  of  1857, 
but  required  for  the  girls'  schools  practical  in- 
struction in  needle  work,  and  recommended  the 
introduction  of  music  wherever  possible.  The 
law  of  1857  declared  all  those  schools  public 
schools,  which  were  sustained  wholly  or  in  part 
by  the  state,  by  charitable  institutions,  or  by 
funds  specially  appropriated  for  this  purpose. 
The  law  of  1808  added  to  these  all  schools 
sustained  by  religious  corporations,  but  the  re-  | 
publican  government  deprived  the  religious 
corporations  of  all  privileges  formerly  possessed  , 
by  them.  An  elementary  school  for  boys  is  re- 
quired to  be  established  in  every  village  of  500 
inhabitants,  and  also  one  for  girls,  though  nei- 
ther need  comprise,  in  the  course  of  studies,  all 
the  subjects  enumerated  above.  Similar  schools 
for  boys  only,  are  admissible  in  communities 
•with  less  than-  500  inhabitants.  Every  town 
of  2,000  inhabitants  must  have  two  complete 
schools  for  boys  and  two  for  girls  ;  and,  for  every 
additional  2,000  inhabitants,  there  must  be  an 
additional  school  for  boys,  and  one  for  girls. 
Private  schools  are  accepted,  but  one-third  of 
the  schools  of  a  town  must  be  public.  In  the 
chief  towns  of  provinces,  and  in  cities  of  more 
than  10,000  inhabitants,  one  of  the  public 
schools  must  be  of  a  higher  grade.  Schools  for 
children  from  two  to  seven  years  of  age  must  be 
kept  in  cities  with  more  than  10,000  inhabitants. 
At  the  same  places,  are  evening  schools  and 
Sunday-schools  for  adults.  By  the  law  of  1808, 
only  the  normal  school  at  Madrid  was  retained  ; 
while,  in  the  provinces,  it  was  deemed  sufficient 
to  permit  the  candidates  for  the  office  of  teacher 


lIN  791 

to  attend  the  model  schools  in  the  chief  towns. 
The  normal  schools,  however,  were  re-opened  by 
the   revolutionary  government.      Every  capital 

of  a  province  is  require,]  to  lia\e: rmal  school, 

with  a  model  school  attached,  which  is  generally 

the  higher  school  of  the  town.    The    d I  in 

Madrid  is  called  the  Central  Normal  School.  In 
order  to  become  a  teacher,  a  candidate  must  be 
20  years  of  age,  possess  a  good  moral  character, 
and  must  have  passed  the  prescribed  examina- 
tion. Teachers  can  be  removed  only  by  the 
government  upon  the  recommendation  of  the 
supreme  council  of  study.  The  salaries  of  the 
teachers  are  very  small ;  but,  owing  to  the  com- 
plete exhaustion  of  the  Spanish  treasury,  even 
these  are  not  regularly  paid.  The  schools  of  the 
kingdom  are  under  the  supervision  of  a  supreme 
council  of  study,  consisting  of  24  members  who 
are  appointed  by  the  king.  This  council  is  divided 
into  three  sections  :  one  for  primary,  special,  and 
art  schools,  one  for  secondary  schools,  and  one  for 
superior  schools.  Every  province  has  a  provincial 
junta  for  the  schools  of  that  province;  and  every 
town  has  its  local  junta,  consisting  of  the  princi- 
pal officers  of  the  province  or  town,  a  priest .  and 
at  least  two  heads  of  families.  At  least  one  in- 
spector is  appointed  for  every  province,  by  the 
king;  and  sometimes  two  are  appointed  ;  Mad- 
rid is  entitled  to  three.  The  inspectors  visit 
all  the  schools  in  their  district,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  primary  normal  schools,  which  are 
left  to  three  general  inspectors.  In  1872,  there 
were  22,625  public  schools,  of  which  16,294  were 
for  males  (infants,  boys,  and  adults),  and  6,331 
for  females.  The  number  of  private  schools  was 
5,135,  of  which  2.901  were  for  males,  and  2,234 
for  females;  making  a  total  of  27,700  primary 
schools.  The  number  of  male  pupils  in  the 
public  schools  was  745,686  :  and  of  female  pu- 
pils. I  II  .77:! ;  making  tin  total  number  of  pupils 
in  the  public  schools  1,187,459.  The  private 
schools  had  90.75.'!  male  and  97,760  female  pu- 
pils, or  194,513  pupils  of  both  sexes.  The  total 
number  of  pupils  in  the  primary  schools  was 
1,381,972.  The  number  of  normal  schools  was  31. 
Secondary  Instruction.  —  Secondary  instruc- 
tion is  imparted  in  institutes,  which  are  divided 
into  three  classes  according  to  the  population 
of  their  localities,  that  in  Madrid  being  of  the 
first  class ;  those  in  the  provincial  capitals  and 
at  the  seats  of  universities,  of  the  second  ;  and  all 
the  rest,  of  the  third.  Every  province  has  one 
provincial  institute;  and  Madrid,  two  ;  while 
local  institutions  are  opened  wherever  they  are 
needed.  Goli  rios,  or  boarding-houses,  have  been 
established  in  connection  with  most  of  the  in- 
stitutes: while  private  colegios  maj  be  opened 
by  any  Spaniard  of  good  repute  and  over  25 
years  of  age.  who  holds  the  degree  of  licentiate 
from  a  university.  The  law  of  1857  prescribed 
that  all  teachers  in  secondary  schools  should  be 
24  years  of  age,  and  should  hold  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Arts.  This  provision  was  abol- 
ished by  the  revolutionary  government,  which 
required  a  competitive  examination.  The  in- 
stitutes are  under  the  control  of  the  rectors  of 


792 


SPANISH    LANGUAGE 


the  university  districts,  to  whom  the  directors 
of  the  institutes  must  furnish  a  monthly  finam 
cial  report.  If  no  university  is  near,  the  report 
is  made  to  the  minister.  The  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  institutes  is  divided  into  general  and 
applied  studies.  The  former  comprise  religion 
and  Scriptural  history,  reading,  writing,  uni- 
versal and  Spanish  history,  modern  languages, 
Spanish  and  Latin  grammar  and  composition, 
the  rudiments  of  Greek,  logic,  psychology,  and 
drawing.  The  course  of  general  studies  com- 
prises two  periods,  of  two  and  four  years  re- 
spectively, and  prepares  the  student  for  the  de- 
gree of  Bachelor  of  Arts.  The  applied  studies 
prepare  the  student  to  be  an  expert,  in  mercan- 
tile affairs,  mechanics,  chemistry,  or  survey- 
ing, and  cover  a  term  of  three  years.  They 
comprise  linear  and  object  drawing,  mercantile 
arithmetic,  and  all  such  branches  as  can  be  applied 
in  agriculture,  in  the  arts,  in  trades,  and  in  com- 
merce and  navigation.  The  number  of  insti- 
tutes, in  1S72,  was  (13,  with  about  30,(100  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction.  —Superior  instruction 
is  imparted  in  the  universities.  There  are  five 
faculties;  namely,  philosophy  and  literature; 
mathematical,  physical,  and  natural  sciences ; 
pharmacy;  medicine;  and  laws.  These  faculties 
however,  are  not  all  represented  in  each  uni- 
versity. Three  degrees  are  conferred,  —  the 
baccalaureate,  the  licentiate,  and  the  doctorate. 
The  universities,  in  1873,  were  as  follows: 
Barcelona,  with  55  professors  and  '2.440  students; 
Granada,  with  47  professors  and  1,404  students; 
Madrid,  with  76  professors  and  6,496  students; 
Oviedo,  with  15  professors  and  223  students: 
Salamanca,  with  41  professors  and  419  students; 
Santiago,  with  28  professors;  Seville,  with  35 
professors;  Valencia,  with  37  professors  and 
1,693  students;  and  Valladolid,  with  31  profess- 
ors and  1,050  students. 

Special  Instruction. — Special  instruction  is 
imparted  in  schools  of  agriculture,  of  architect- 
ure, of  fine  arts,  of  commerce,  of  engineering. 
and  of  mining.  There  is  also  a.  conservatory  of 
music,  at  Madrid  ;  a  school  of  forestry,  at  Villa- 
viciosa  de  "don,  and  four  schools  of  veterinary 
surgery, —  at  Madrid,  Cordova.  Leon,  and  Sara- 
gossa.  The  total  number  of  students  receiving 
special  instruction,  in  1872.  was  1,372.  See 
Sciimii),  P&dagogis'he  Eh-ii  -/n/Kiilii';  He/inrt 
of  U.  S.  Cmmis'sioH,',-  of  E-'hirotio,,   fur  1  S73. 

SPANISH  LANGUAGE.  The  Spanish 
language  has  but  little  claim  to  a  place  in  tin- 
regular  course  of  instruction,  in  schools  and  col- 
leges, in  comparison  with  the  French  and 
German  languages.  As  Spanish,  however,  is 
not  only  the  language  of  one  of  the  nations  of 
Europe,  but  is  spoken  in  all  the  countries  of 
South  America,  except  Brazil  :  and  also  in 
Central  America,  Mexico,  and  even  in  some 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  is  thus  the 
vernacular    language    of    a1    I  as1    60    millions 

of   people,    practical    considerations    eon nd 

its  study  to  thousands  of  persons  -indents 
and  others,  in  preference  to  either  German  or 
French.      Independently    of   this    consideration, 


the  Spanish  language,  as  a  school  accomplish- 
ment, is  not  without  attractions.  It  ranks,  in- 
deed, among  the  most  euphonious  of  modern 
languages,  being  even  preferred,  by  some  linguists, 
to  the  Italian  ;  and  its  literature  contains  many 
works  of  enduring  interest  and  value.  Among 
historians,  Mariana,  and  among  poets,  Lope  de 
Vega  and  Calderon,  deservedly  hold  a  very  high 
rank ;  while  Cervantes,  the  immortal  author  of 
Don  Quixote,  has  scarcely  been  surpassed  for 
humorous  description  and  lively  satire.  The 
Spanish  language,  like  the  French  and  the  Italian, 
is  one  of  the  so-called  Romanic  languages  (q.  v.); 
but  there  are  some  words  in  it  which  may  be 
traced  either  to  the  ancient  Iberians,  the  ruling 
race  before  the  invasion  of  the  Romans,  and  an 
offshoot  of  whose  language  is  supposed  to  sur- 
vive in  the  Basque,  or  to  the  Celts  who  overran 
Spain  as  well  as  other  parts  of  western  Europe. 
The  remarks  made  in  the  articles  of  this  work  on 
the  derivation  of  the  French  and  Italian  from 
the  Latin  apply  in  a.  large  measure  also  to  the 
Spanish.  When  the  Visigoths  had  established 
their  rule  in  tin-  country,  they  gradually  adopted 
the  vulgar  Latin,  which  had  already  become  the 
language  of  the  bulk  of  the  population.  They 
retained,  however,  and  introduced  into  the  com- 
mon language,  a  number  of  terms  designating 
their  political  institutions  and  war  customs. 
The  use  of  the  definite  article,  also,  and  the 
employment  of  auxiliary  verbs  in  the  formation  of 
the  past  tenses  of  the  active  voice,  and  in  all  the 
tenses  of  the  passive,  passed  from  the  language 
of  the  Teutonic  conquerors  into  the  new  language 
of  Spain,  as  likewise  into  those  of  France  and 
Italy.  The  Arabs,  with  whom  the  Spanish 
Christians,  for  nearly  800  years,  bad  to  wrestle 
for  the  control  of  the  country,  introduced 
into  the  language  a  number  of  words  relating  to 
industry,  science,  and  commerce;  and  some  of 
these  words,  especially  those  beginning  with  the 
\  rabic  articl  is  almanac,  <      hi  /.etc.). have 

passed,  through  Spanish,  into  the  modern  lan- 
guages oi  I  aro]  e  in  -  i  i  ral.  While  the  Spanish 
language  pn  ents  a  considerably  larger  number 
of  non-Latin  elen  ents  than  eitb<  I  French  or 
Italian,  it  deviates  but  little  from  these  two  sister 
languages  in  its  structure  and  gianin  ar.  In  the 
pronunciation  of  the  xowcls.it  entirely  agrees 
with  the  Italian.  The  two  double  consonants  tl  and 
n  are  peculiar  to  the  Spanish  :  and  of  the  English 
consonant  sounds,  z  (as  in  zone)i$  entirely  want- 
ing. Though  substantives  have  only  two  genders, 
masculine  and  feminine,  the  article  has  three, 
el,  la,  and  lo;  the  last,  which  is  the  neuter  form, 
being  used  to  change  adjectives  into  substantives 
(lobueno,  that  which  is  good).  The  Spanish  is 
richer  than  either  French  or  Italian  in  auginent- 
atives  and  diminutives;  and  the  reflexive  form 
of  the  verb  is  used  more  extensively,  perhaps, 
than  in  any  other  language  of  Europe.  The  sub- 
junctive has  two  more  tenses  than  the  Italian 
or  French  [amare,  future  :  amara, second  condi- 
tional). In  words  derived  from  1  at  ill.  the  e  and 
o  of  the  accented  penuliiiiia  have  frequently  been 
developed  into  ie  and  ue,  a  change  which,  in 


igu 


SPARTA 

this  class  of  words,  gives  to  the  Spanish  an  un-  ' 
doubted  superiority  in  euphony  (Spanish  tk'inpn, 
ftterli';  Flench  1,-nqix.fiui;  Ital.  tempo  fork    ■ 
The  proper  method  of  teaching  Spam-hdoe-  not 
differ  from  that  of  teaching  the /■>,.   ■' 
(q.  v.)     A  few  lessons  in  comparative  etymology 
will  greatly  facilitate  the  study  of  this  as  of  every 
lage.     If,  for  instance,  the  pupil  learns  that 
combinations  as  cl,  fl.  pi  etc.  in  English 
words  of  Latin  origin  are  often  changed   into  // 
[llamar,  clamor;   llama,  flame:    liana,  plain),  a 
large  number  of  words  will,  at  once,  be  familiar 
to  him. — The  first  grammar,  as  well  as  the  first 
dictionary,  of  the  Spanish   language,  was  pub-  ! 
lished  in  1  192  by  Antonio  de  Lebrija.  Thegram- 
lnar  and  dictionary  of  the  Spanish   Academy 
(first  published  in  1771)  at  once  became,  and 
have  since  remained,  standard  authorities.     The 
dictionary  of   the  Academy  has  received  many 
valuable  additions  and  corrections  from  Salva, 
who  has  also  written  the  best  Spanish  grammar 
for  natives.  Etymological  dictionaries  have  been  ' 
published   by   Covarrabias    (1G74)    and  Cabrera 
(1837). 

SPARTA,  one  of  the  principal  states  of 
ancient  Greece,  dates  its  important  history  from 
the  regency  of  Lycurgus  (q.  v.),  who  devised  a 
peculiar  system  of  education,  designed  to  foster, 
as  the  highest  virtue,  a  contempt  of  life  and  of 
worldly  goo, Is,  and,  as  worthy  of  the  highest, 
honor,  the  habit  of  prompt  obedience  to  all  the 
demands  of  the  state.  The  central  idea  of  his 
system  was,  that  the  interests  of  the  state  are 
paramount  to  every  consideration  of  individual 
rights  or  feelings.  Hence,  according  to  it,  the 
child  was  the  property  of  the  state,  and  its 
officers  alone  had  the  right  to  decide  its  destiny, 
even  from  its  birth,  infants  physically  incapable 
of  the  prescribed  training  not  being  permitted 
to  live.  In  the  early  period  of  its  life,  the  in- 
fant was  allowed  to  remain  with  its  mother,  who 
was  required  to  adopt  every  possible  means  to 
invigorate  its  body.  With  the  7th  year  of  age, 
the  state  education  began.  The  boys  were  com- 
mitted to  a  public  educational  establishment  (a 
sort  of  military  school);  and,  by  living  thus 
apart  from  their  friends,  were  made  to  realize 
early  their  membership  in  the  state  organism, 
with  common  interests  and  aspirations.  The 
general  direction  was  entrusted  to  a  superin- 
tendent (-«(Wc//,o).  who  was  selected  from 
among  those  who  had  been  previously  invested 
with  the  highest  political  dignities.  Under  him, 
were  officers  whose  duty  it  was  to  guide  the  ex- 
ercises of  the  boys.  The  Spartan  system  aspired 
to  establish  a  perfect  harmony  between  the  will 
of  the  individual  and  the  interests  and  demands 
of  the  state,  as  expressed  by  the  laws.  It  pro- 
vided a  gradual  transition  from  obedience  to  the 
exercise  of  authority,  on  the  principle  that  those 
onl}'  know  how  to  command  who  have  learned 
to  obey.  Thus,  the  elder  boys  were  permitted 
to  participate  in  the  training  of  the  younger ; 
and  the  latter  were  obliged  to  wait  upon  the 
former  at  table.  As  the  purpose  of  the  Spartans 
was  to  rear  warlike   citizens,  physical  training 


;<•:; 


constituted  the  chief  part  of  a  youth's  education. 
Every  possible  means  was  resorted  to  in  order 
to  cultivate  fortitude,  and  the  habit  of  enduring 
hardship  and  pain.  The  youths'  diet  was  not 
only  plain  lint  scanty.  They  were  permitted  to 
steal  the  provisions  necessary  to  satisfy  their 
hunger,  but  if  caught,  were  severely  punished; 
as  the  intention  was  to  develop  cunning,  agility. 
and  dexterity — qualities  requisite  in  war.  The 
boys  wore  neither  head  nor  foot  covering  up 
to  the  age  of  manhood.  At  the  1  2th  year,  every 
kind  of  under-gai-ment  was  laid  aside,  a  long 
cloak  (\iti.ii')  being  the  only  article  of  clothing 
worn,  and  that  at,  all  seasons.  Their  bed  was 
hard,  being  prepared  of  the  rushes  that  grew  on 
the  banks  of  the  Eurotas.  Corporal  punishment 
was  not  only  used  as  a  means  of  discipline,  but 
was  deemed  to  be  indispensably  requisite  for  the 
formation  of  a  manly  disposition.  The  intel- 
lectual cultivation  of  the  Spartans  was  very 
slight  ;  but,  on  account  of  their  political  life, 
they  were  obliged  to  possess  some  learning. 
They,  therefore,  acquired  by  oral  instruction  a 
rudimentary  knowledge  of  arithmetic  and  some 
other  branches.  They  also  learned  to  dance, 
sing,  and  play  on  some  musical  instrument, 
especially  the  flute  and  lyre  (Kitiapa),  and  com- 
mitted to  memory  the  laws  of  lycurgus.  Girls 
studied  the  same  subjects  as  boys,  and  also 
practiced  gymnastic  exercises  to  promote  health 
and  beauty.     (See  Greece.) 

SPENCER,  Herbert,  an  English  philos- 
opher and  author,  born  in  Derby,  April  27., 
1820.  At  the  age  of  seventeen,  he  became  a 
civil  engineer;  but,  at  the  end  of  eight  years, 
during  whii  h  he  was  a  contributor  to  the  Civil 
Engineers'  and  Arc)  -'  J  vrnal,  he  relin- 
quished his  j  rofession,  and  engaged  in  study.  In 
Is  I'J,  he  1  ,  gaii  the  publication,  in  the  \-  »  '  '•  « 
formisl,  of  a  series  of  papers,  entitled,  The 
'  /V<7»  /•  Sflf  ,■<•  (f  <■'"/■■  rumen!.  From  1848  to 
ls.V_'.  lie  was  a  regular  contributor  to  the  Econ- 
omist, xnA  furnished  reviews  and  criticisms  on 
various  subjects  to  other  periodicals.  In  1854, 
the  theory  of  evolution,  a  belief  in  which, as  the 
cause  of  the  present  diversity  in  the  animal 
kingdom,  had  gradually  become  strengthened  in 
his  mind,  suggested  itself  to  him  as  a  universal 
process;  and  subsequent  study  has  only  served 
to  confirm  the  truth  of  the  suggestion.  This 
view  of  evolution,  as  the  method  of  nature  in 
every  department,  is  reflected  in  the  only  dis- 
tinctively educational  work  he  has  published— a 
small  volume,  entitled.  Education:  / 
Moral,and  Physical  (London  and  New  York, 
1860).  This  work,  based  upon  the  latest  dis- 
coveries and  conclusions  of  science,  confirms  the 
most  important  results  of  Montaigne,  Locke, 
Rousseau,  Isaac  Taylor,  and  others  — results 
reached  only  by  an  acute  observation  of  mental 
J  phenomena,  but  without  a  perception  of  the  reason 
j  or  order  of  their  development.  It  goes  beyond 
them,  however,  in  its  attempt  to  lay  down  a 
complete  scheme  of  education  in  accordance 
!  with  the  doctrine  of  evolution.  The  dominant 
!  idea  of  the  method  of  Pestalozzi.  discovered  by 


794 


STATE  AND   SCHOOL 


hira  empirically  through  his  strong  sympathy  I 
for  children,  is  in  this  work  shown  to  be  the 
true  one  ;  while  his  errors  in  the  application  of 
the  method — errors  which  he  himself  acknowl- 
edged— are  explained.  Two  of  the  distinctive 
features  of  the  system  proposed  by  Mr.  Spencer 
are,  that  the  concrete  should  precede  the  ab- 
stract in  all  early  instruction,  and  the  corollary 
which  follows  from  this  ;  namely,  the  superior 
uses  of  science  as  an  educator :  and  the  use  of 
pleasure  or  interest  as  a  test  of  the  efficacy  of 
the  instruction.  The  gradual  abandonment  of 
corporal  punishment,  the  disuse  of  rote-teaching, 
and  the  substitution  of  the  direct  appeal  to  nat- 
ure, the  increased  attention  given  to  physical  ed- 
ucation, and  the  general  acceptance  of  the  idea 
of  mental  growth  by  inherent  power,  in  place  of 
the  artificial  expansion  produced  by  purely  ex- 
terior forces,  seem  to  indicate  a  practical  accept- 
ance of  the  doctrines  of  Mr.  Spencer,  whatever 
theoretical  objections  may  be  made  to  them. 

STATE  AND  SCHOOL.  In  all  civilized 
countries,  the  control  of  public  schools  is  looked 
upon  as  one  of  the  most  important  and  difficult 
branches  of  public  administration.  Many  states 
have  a  special  ministry  of  public  instruction  ; 
while  others  have  established  a  bureau  of  edu- 
cation, connected  with  one  of  the  ministries.  (See 
Ministry  of  Public  Instruction.)  As  has  been 
shown,  in  the  articles  on  the  history  of  education 
and  on  the  several  countries  of  the  world,  ancient 
and  modern,  the  relation  of  state  authorities  to 
school  affairs  has  widely  differed  in  different 
times  and  countries.  Even  at  the  present  time, 
there  is  not  only  a  vast  diversity  in  the  school 
laws  of  different  countries,  but  fundamental 
questions  in  regard  to  the  powers  of  state  author- 
ities, in  educational  affairs,  are  still  warmly  dis- 
cussed. Generally,  however,  it  is  conceded  that 
the  state  has  the  right  to  require  that  every 
child  in  the  country  should  receive  a  certain  de- 
gree of  elementary  education.  (See  Compulsory 
Education,  and  Public  Schools.)  But  one  of  the 
greatest  educational  controversies  of  the  present 
time  is,  whether  the  state  authority  has  the  sole 
Tight  to  arrange  a  course  of  studies,  without  re- 
gard to  the  different  religious  views  existing  in 
a  community.  (See  Denominational  Schools.) 
Another  controverted  question  is  the  right  of 
the  state  to  support  by  the  public  money  any 
schools  higher  than  those  of  an  elementary  grade. 

STEPHANI,  Heinrich,  a  German  educator 
and  Protestant  clergyman,  born  at  Gemiind,  in 
Bavaria,  April  1 .,  1761 :  died  at  Gorkau,  in  Sile- 
sia. Dec.  24.,  1850.  After  having  been  for  a  few 
years  at  the  head  of  the  schools  in  the  little  state 
of  Castell,  he  was,  in  1808,  after  the  incorporation 
of  Castell  with  Bavaria,  appointed  school  coun- 
cilor at  Augsburg.  Subsequently  he  held  the  same 
position  atEicltstiidt  and  Auspach;  and.  in  1818, 
he  became  dean  at  Gunzenhausen.  Prom  the 
latter  position,  he  was  removed  in  1834,  on  ac- 
count of  his  rationalistic  views.  His  Fibel  ( 1 802) . 
and  several  works  on  an  improved  method  ol 
teaching   to   read,   contributed  more   than  any 


STEPHENS 

other  work  to  the  progress  of  the  phonic  method 
(Lau/irmelhuile)  of  reading  German.  He  pub- 
lished several  works  on  national  education 
(Grundlinien  </■  r  Staatserziehungswissensi  h"/t 
(1797);  and  System  der  dffenUichen  Erziehung 
(1  SOoj.in  which  he  took  the  ground  that  the  school 
should  In'  separated  from  the  church,  and  placed 
tinder  the  exclusive  control  of  the  state  author- 
ities, but  that  parents  should  have  liberty  to  send 
their  children  to  cither  state  or  private  schools. 

STEPHENS,  Henry  (Lat.  Stephanus,  Fr. 
Estienne  or  Etienne),  was  bom  in  Paris  in  1528, 
and  died  in  Lyons  in  1598.  He  was  the  grand- 
son of  Henry  Stephens,  who  was  the  founder  of 
a  remarkable  family  of  scholars  and  printers, 
which,  for  three  generations,  maintained  its 
peculiar  eminence.  He  was  distinguished  by 
the  scholarly  ability,  but  was  wanting  in  the 
worldly  prudence,  which  characterized  his  an- 
cestors. He  continued  the  business  of  his 
father  in  Paris  and  Geneva  successively,  publish- 
ing, among  other  works,  those  of  yEschylus, 
Herodotus,  Horace.  Plato,  Virgil,  Pliny,  and 
Plutarch.  In  1572,  he  issued  his  Thesaurus 
Lingua  Greece,  an  abridgment  of  which  was 
made  by  Scapula.  The  costliness  of  this  work, 
by  confining  its  sale  to  the  wealthy,  involved 
him  in  pecuniary  difficulties,  which  ended  only 
with  his  life.  His  remarkable  ability  as  a  clas- 
sical scholar  secured  him  the  approval  of  the 
learned,  ami  would  alone  entitle  him  to  an  en- 
during reputation.  See  Leon  Feuoere,  Essai 
sur  la  Vie  vt  les  Outrages  de  If.  Estienne, 
(Paris,  lw.">3)  ;  A.  A.  Renouaed,  Annates  de 
Vimprimerie  des  Estienne  (Paris,  1*37— 43). 

STEPHENS,  Robert,  the  father  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Paris  in  1503;  died,  in  1559, 
in  Geneva,  to  which  city  he  had  removed  on 
account  of  persecution  for  his  advocacy  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  The  occasion  for 
his  persecution  was  found  by  his  enemies  in  his 
edition  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Greek  Testament, 
the  former  published  in  1545,  the  latter,  in  1549. 
He  was  considered  one  of  the  most  excellent 
scholars  of  his  time.  As  early  as  his  20th  year, 
he  published  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
in  Latin,  with  corrections  by  himself,  and,  in 
1532,  began  the  publication  of  the  most  famous 
of  all  his  works,  his  Dictionarium  »  "  Thesaurus 
Linguce  Latince,  a  work  which  maintained  an 
acknowledged  superiority  for  more  than  two 
hundred  years,  new  editions  appealing,  in  London 
and  Paris,  as  late  as  the  present  century.  In 
1543,  he  compiled  the  first  Latin-French  dic- 
tionary, a  work  which  was  received  with  great 
favor,  lie  was  at  once  author,  printer,  and 
publisher ;  and  from  his  press  were  issued  many 
editions  of  the  Bible  and  of  the  Creek  and  Latin 
classics,  all  of  which  were  marked  by  accuracy  of 
scholarship  and  an  artistic  excellence  which  sur- 
passed any  thing  that  had  been  published,  up  to 
that  time,  in  France.  The  division  of  the  New 
Testament  into  verses,  the  method  now  generally 
employed,  was  first  introduced  by  him.  See  A. 
P.  Didot,  in  the  Nbuvette Biographie  Generate ; 
and  London  Quarterly  Review  for  April,  1865. 


STEWART  COLLEGE 


stcrm 


795 


STEWART  COLLEGE,  Olarksville,  Tenn. 
See  Southern  Presbyterian  University. 

ST02TE,  William  Leete,  ail  American 
author,  born  at  New  Paltz,  N.  Y.,  April  20., 
1792;  died  at  Saratoga  Springs,  .Vug.  15.,  1844. 
He  began  life  as  a  printer,  but  at  18  beeana-  an 
editor — editing  successively  various  journals,  but, 
from  I  >21  until  bis  di-.-nli.  the  V  )'.  I  bmmeri  i  il 
Advertiser.  For  some  years,  he  was  one  of  the 
school  commissioners  of  New  York  City:  and, 
during  the  years  1843 — 4,  was  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  common  schools.  He  will  long  be 
remembered  on  account  of  his  famous  discussion 
with  Archbishop  Hughes  in  relation  to  the  use 
of  the  Bible  in  the  public  schools,  his  last  letter 
to  whom — occupying  three  columns  of  fine  type 
in  the  Commercial  Advertiser — was  dictated  ou 
his  death-bed  but  one  week  previous  to  his  de- 
cease. Although  Col.  Stone's  influence  was 
widely  extended  throughout  the  country,  it 
was  felt  more  particularly  in  New  York  City. 
For  many  years,  he  was  identified  with  all  her 
interests ;  and  she  has  reason  ever  to  bold  his 
name  in  kindly  remembrance.  The  religious 
enterprises  and  benevolent  associations  of  the 
day  commanded  his  earnest  efforts  in  their  be- 
half ;  and,  at  home,  the  Institution  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb,  and  the  Society  for  the  Reformation 
of  Juvenile  I  Minquents.  found  in  him  a  steadfast 
supporter.  "Col.  Stone,"  writes  Harvey  P.  Peet, 
the  president  of  the  New  York  Deaf  and  Dumb 
Asylum.  ■■  entered  with  characteristic  energy  into 
the  effort  to  build  up  a  superior  institution  for 
the  Deaf  and  Dumb  in  New  York  ;  and  I  ascribe 
much  of  the  success  which  crowned  my  labors 
to  his  ready  sympathy  and  encouragement  and 
his  intelligent  and  zealous  co-operation."  Indeed, 
it  may  be  truly  said  that  to  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation he  gave  his  whole  energies  and  spared 
not  his  decaying  strength.  "As  Superintend- 
ent of  Common  Schools."  said  Mr.  Clark  in 
announcing  the  fact  of  his  decease  to  the  Board 
of  Education,  at  a  special  meeting  called  for  the 
purpose,  "  his  loss  is  irreparable,  and  from  any 
knowledge  I  possess  of  the  qualifications  of 
others,  I  fear  it  will  be  long  before  his  place 
will  be  fully  supplied.  1  lis  qualifications  for  that 
office  were  pre-emiuent."  His  published  works 
are  quite  numerous,  but  mostly  on  subjects  per- 
taining to  American  history.  Of  these,  perhaps 
the  most  admired  are  Life  of  Joseph  Brant; 
Tliti-wii-ili-ite-iira  il-.:-..  new  edition  edited 
by  W.  L.  Stone,  Jr.  (Albany,  1865);  Border 
Wars  of  the  American  Revolution  |  L837);  Life 
of  Red-Jacket — Sa-go-ye-wai-ha  1 1835),  new  edi- 
tion with  life  of  the  author  by  his  son.  W.  L. 
Stone  (Albany.  1866). 

STOWE,  Calvin  E.,  an  American  clergy- 
man, born  at  Natick,  Mass.,  April  6.,  1802.  lie 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College,  in  1824,  and  at 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  in  1828;  and.  in 
the  latter,  he  was  immediately  made  assistant 
professor.  From  183(1 — 33,  he  was  professor  of 
Latin  and  Greek  in  Dartmouth  ( iollege  ;  and  in 
1833,  of  languages  and  Biblical  literature  in  the 
Lane  Theological  Seminary.  He  visited  Europe  in 


1836,  to  examine,  for  the  State  of  Ohio,  the  pub- 
lic-school system  of  the  German  States, and  pub 
lished  Elementary  Public  Instruction  in  Europe 
L83  .  «  hii  h  u.  ..i  .■  \\  circulated  in  ( lliio 
by  direction  oi  the  leg  lature.  He  published 
reports,  also,  on  the  Edu>  ition  of  Immigrants, 
and  the  Course  of  Instruction  in  the  Primary 
S  'ioo's  if  /'russia.  In  ls."(l,  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  natural  and  revealed  religion  in  Bow- 
doin College,  Me.,  and,  in  1852.  professor  of 
Biblical  literature  at  Andover  Theological  Semi 
nary.  This  position  he  resigned  in  1 86  I.  He 
has  published,  also,  a  History  of  the  Hebrew 
Common  u-ea'th.  a  translation  from  the  German 
of  Johann  Jahn  (l82S),  Lectures  on  tin-  Sorrel 
Poetry  of  the  Hebrews  (1829),  Introduction 
to  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of  the  Bible 
(183.")),  Origin  ami  History  of  the  Books  of 
the  Bible  (Part  I.,  New  Testament,  1867).- 
See  Barnard,  American  Teachers  and  Educa- 
tors i  New  Fork,  1861). 

STRAIGHT  UNIVERSITY,  in  New 
Orleans,  La.,  founded  in  1869,  is  under  Congre- 
gational control.  It  was  especially  designed  for 
colored  youth,  but  none  are  excluded  on  account 
of  race  or  sex.  It  has  an  endowmeut  of  §10,0(10. 
but  is  mainly  supported  by  the  American  Mis- 
sionary Association.  The  library  contains  nearly 
2,500  volumes.  It  has  now  in  operation  a  theo- 
logical, a  law,  a  normal,  a  classical,  a  preparatory, 
and  an  English  course,  and  elementary  depart- 
ments. In  1875 — i i,  there  were  10  instructors 
and  24fi  students.  The  presidents  have  been:  the 
Rev.  Joseph  W.  Healy,  1869—71  ;  the  Rev. 
Samuel  S.  Ashley,  1871 — 4;  and  James  A. 
Adams,  A.  M.,  since  1875. 

STURM,  Johann,  one  of  the  foremost  edu- 
cators of  the  KJth  century,  born  at  Schleiden 
(now  in  Prussia),  in  1507  :  died  in  1589.  After 
teaching  several  years  at  Louvain  ami  Paris,  he 
was,  in  1538,  appointed  rector  in  the  newly- 
established  gymnasium  of  Strasbourg,  where  his 
success  was  so  great,  that  the  city  was  called 
the  2few  Athens;  and  pupils  were  sent  there 
from  many  parts  of  Europe,  among  them  the 
sons  of  noblemen  and  princes.  In  1578,  the  in- 
stitution contained  more  than  a  thousand  pu- 
pils. In  1560,  the  emperor  Maximilian  II.  con- 
ferred upon  it  the  dignity  and  privileges  of  an 
academy,  and  Sturm  was  appointed  recto?-  per- 
petuus, in  which  position  he  continued  till  1581. 
I  lis  title  to  fame  rests  upon  his  conception  of  an 
educational  system,  the  record  of  his  work  in  the 
gymnasium  at  Strasbourg,  and  the  impulse 
which  he  gave   to   the  establishment  of  classical 

sel Is.      His  educational  system    is   clearly  set 

forth  in  his  treatise  on  the  best  modi  of  op  ning 
institutions  of  learning  i  I  >■  ir  ,.,/•- 

aperiendis),  written  in  1539,  and  published  in 
his  Epistohr  classico?  (Strasb.,  1565).  Sturm 
was  generally  regarded  as  the  greatest  educator 
connected  with  the  Reformed  Church,  in  the 
times  of  the  Reformation  ;  and,  like  Melanch- 
thon,  he  received  the  title Prceceptor  Germaniai. 
— See  Barnard,  German  Teachers  and  Educa- 
tors (N.  Y"„  1863)  ;  Schmidt,  La  vie  et  les  tra- 


7 'JO 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


vauoc  de  Jean  Sturm  (Strasb.,  1855)  ;  Loos,  Die 
Padagogik  des  Johannes  Sturm  (Berlin,  1872); 
Ktjeckelhahn,  Strassburg's  erster  Sdhvlrector 
(Leips.,  1S72). 

SUNDAY-SCHOOLS,  although  of  com- 
paratively recent  origin,  and  even  yet  in  a  condi- 
tion of  partial  development,  are  already  entitled 
to  be  ranked  among  the  most  important  educa- 
tional agencies  of  modern  times,  no  less  than 
among  the  voluntary  activities  of  the  Christian 
Church.  In  the  latter  character,  they  have  been 
extensively  established  throughout  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States,  and  everywhere,  even 
beyond  their  primary  objert  of  moral  and  religious 
influence,  their  incidents]  results  have  entitled 
them  to  a  high  appreciation.  They  have  given  rise 
to  new  and  important  improvements  in  church 
architecture,  ami  til  -y  have  <•  lib- 1  into  existence 
an  extensive  literature  emit  em  plating  their  special 
wants  and  use,  while  they  have  enlisted  teachers 
by  hundreds  of  thousands,  and  scholars  by  mil- 
lions. In  the  United  States,  more  particularly, 
they  have  claimed,  and  in  fact  assumed,  a  rela- 
tion to  public  (week-day)  schools  corresponding 
to  that  which  the  sabbath  holds  to  the  secular 
days  of  the  week.  In  this  relation,  they  Beek  to 
supplem  -lit  public  an  I  general  education  with 
the  moral  and  religious  influences  of  ( Ihristianity. 
For  this  object,  they  secure  the  attendance  of 
scholars  from  the  higher  as  well  as  the  lower 
classes  of  the  community,  and  enlist  for  their  in- 
struction a  quality  of  talent  and  an  amount  of 
effort  which  money  c  luld  never  hire.  The  sub- 
ject of  Sunday-schools  will  be  here  considered 
under  the  three  follow  ins  li  -i  Is:   (1)  Their  origin 


Wig /   ttar  ,  History      Since  Sunday- 
schools    became   popular,   various   efforts   have 

been  made  to  fix  their  origin  further  back  than 
the  period  to  which  it  is  usually  assigned.  The 
most  that  such  efforts  liave  been  able  to  accom- 
plish has  been  to  point  out  a  few  sporadic  be- 
ginnings somewhat  analogous  to  I  hit  of  Robert 
Raikes;  but,  in  no  other  instance  than  his.  can 
an  actual  historic  connection  be  traced  down- 
ward to  the  existing  system  of  Sunday-schools. 
The  effort  of  Raikes  began  in  » ilouecsfer,  Kngland, 
in  the  year  17*1.  It  was  purely  philanthropic  in 
its  design,  and  only  contemplated  local  results. 
Gloucester  was  a  focus  of  pin  manufacturing,  at 
which  children  were  gathered  together  in  great 
numbers  in  order  to  be  employed  in  the  light 
work  of  the  factories.  As  most  of  them  were 
wholly  uneducated,  and  many  without  parental 
restraint  or  supervision,  they  naturally  fell  into 
disorder  and  vice,  especially  on  the  Lord's  day, 
when  they  were  not  employed  in  work.  The 
attention  of  Mr.  Raikes,  a  worthy  printer  of  thai 
town,  was  arrested  by  a  condition  of  things  so 
distressing  to  a  person  of  Christian  sensibilities. 
His  own  account  of  the  origin  of  his  efforts  to 
establish  Sunday  instruction  for  those  neglected 
children  has  a  permanent  interest.  It  was 
furnished  in  a  letter  to  Col.  Townley,  and  pub- 
lished in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  of  Loudon. 


Gloucester,  June  6th,  17s4. 

"The  utility  of  an  establishment  of  this  sort  was  first 

suggested  by  a  group  of  little  miserable  wretches,  wIk.iii 

I  ii1i,itvo(1  ;,„(.  day  in  the  street,  where  many  people 

"1  was  ■  \|,ie-Mie_-  mv  concern  to  one,  at  their  for- 
lorn and  neglected  state  ;  and  was  told,  that  if  1  were 

to  pass  tliroinrh  th.it  -toil   upon  Sundays,  it  would 

were  spending  that  sacred  day  in  noise  and  riot,  to 
the  extreme  annovaiu-e  of  all  decent  people. 

"1  immedialelv  determined  to  inahe-eme  little  effort 
to  remedy  the  evil.     Hn\  nj    t..im.l  lour  persons,  who 


had 


with  an  injunction,  to  go  home  without  making  a  noise, 
and  by  no  means  to  play  in  the  street.  This  was  the 
general  outline  of  the  regulations.  R.  Raikes. 

The  terms  in  which  the  above  letter  was 
couched  prove  conclusively  that  the  writer  was 
describing  something  new.  and  il  may  be  deemed 
fortunate"  that  so  intelligent  an  account  of  a 
project,  then  in  its  infancy,  was  placed  upon  rec- 
ord. So  obvious  was  the  utility  of  the  schools- 
thus  founded  by  Mr.  Raikes,  that  they  immedi- 
ately began  to  be  imitatedin  surrounding  towns. 
The  period  was  favorable  to  their  diffusion. 
Other  philanthropists  seized  upon  the  idea.  The 
want  of  such  schools  was  found  to  be  urgent  in 
every  large  town,  and  in  many  smaller  places. 
A  Sunday-school  society  was  formed,  and  so 
general  an  interest  was  awakened  on  the  subject, 
that,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years.  Sunday-schools 
were  opened  in  nearly  everj  part  of  England. 
But  they  did  not  become  universal  till  a  higher 
idea  than  that  of  mere  philanthropy  took  posses- 
sion of  their  promoters.  As  in  the  case  of  Mr. 
Raikes,  most  of  the  early  Sunday-schools  were 
taught  by  hired  teachers.  This  arrangement 
made  it  necessary  to  raise  considerable  sums  of 
money  which  would  need  to  be  increased  in 
proportion  to  the  multiplication  of  the  schools. 
Besides,  it  was  found  that  persons  engaged  in 
the  task  of  teaching  in  them  from  motives  of  an 
inferior  if  not  mercenary  character:  and.  hence, 
even  the  philanthropic  design  of  the  instruction 
was  marred.  1 1  w  as.  therefore,  a  grand  improve- 
ment upon  the  project  of  Mr.  Raikes  when 
gratuitous  instruction  from  persons  who  served 
from  Christian  motives  became  generally  intro- 
duced into  the  rising  Sunday -schools.  Perhaps 
no  one  individual  was  more  instrumental  in 
promoting  this  gnat  improvement  than  the  Rev. 
John  Wesley,  who  was  then  in  a  most  influential 
position  at  the  head  of  a  growing  religious  or- 
ganization, and  accustomed  frequently  to  traverse 
England  from  end  to  end.  lie  early  conceived 
the  idea  of  making  these  schools  ••Nurseries  for 
Christians",  and  encouraged  good  people  to  work 
in  them  as  teachers  without  pecuniar}  reward. 
-The  idea  of  gratuitous  instruction  on  the 
Lord's  day  to  poor  children,  when  once  brought 
to  the  minds  ami  hearts  of  the  Christian  people 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


797 


of  Great  Britain,  was  seen  to  be  so  perfectly  in 
accord  with  the  Saviour's  command,  "(Jo  teach 
all  nations",  thai  il  was  adopted  with  a  zeal 
and  a  universality  that  astonished  the  most  san- 
guine of  the  original  supporters  of  Sunday- 
schools.  From  that  period,  the  success  of  the 
Sunday-school  enterprise  was  assured.  It  crossed 
the  Atlantic  as  early  as  1786,  during  which 
year  Bishop  Asbury  organized  Sunday-schools 
in  Virginia,  in  South  Carolina,  and  in  other 
parts  of  the  South.  In  America,  the  system  of 
gratuitous  instruction  has  prevailed,  with  very 
few  exceptions,  from  the  first.  It  must,  however, 
be  acknowledged  that  the  circumstances  of 
society  in  the  Tinted  States  were  very  unfavor- 
able to  the  general  establishment  and  mainte- 
nance of  Sunday -schools  at  that  early  period.  The 
country  was  but  thinly  settled,  and  was  just 
eiiicrvjiiu  from  its  colonial  condition  under  the 
heavy  burdens  of  the  Revolutionary  war.  More- 
over, in  the  Southern  States,  where  Sunday- 
schools  were  first  introduced,  an  active  prejudice 
began,  almost  from  the  first,  to  develop  itself 
against  the  instruction  of  colored  children,  lest 
they  should  be  unfitted  by  it  for  the  condition 
of  slavery.  From  these  and  other  causes,  some 
twenty-five  or  thirty  years  elapsed  before  Sun- 
day-schools sprung  up  extensively  in  America. — 
Sunday-schools  in  England  were  for  a  long 
period  burdened  with  the  task  of  teaching  let- 
ters and  the  lowest  rudiments  of  knowledge  to 
the  mass  of  their  scholars.  This  was  indispen- 
sable as  a  means  of  preparing  them  to  read  the 
Scriptures,  and  to  comprehend  moral  and  relig- 
ious truth.  The  same  necessity  prevailed  in 
some  sections,  and  classes  of  the  population,  in 
the  United  States ;  but,  throughout  the  larger 
portions  of  that  country,  the  great  majority  of 
children  gathered  into  Sunday-schools  were  those 
who  received  elementary,  and  indeed  contin- 
uous, instruction  in  the  public  schools.  In  both 
countries,  Sunday-schools  have  done  not  a  little 
toward  elevating  general  intelligence  and  stimu- 
lating secidar  study;  but  it  is  only  where  a  good 
system  of  public  instruction  has  prevailed  that 
they  have  been  able  to  do  their  best  work. — As 
Sunday-schools  are  for  religious  instruction  on 
the  Sabbath,  the  Bible  is  the  foundation  and 
central  text-book  of  all  proper  Sunday-school 
teaching.  But  as  the  word  of  God  admits  of 
elucidation  from  all  branches  of  sound  learning, 
it  follows  that  the  more  knowledge  persons, 
whether  young  or  old,  bring  to  its  study,  the 
greater  progress  they  may  be  expected  to  make 
in  the  comprehension  of  its  truths.  The  recent 
even  more  than  the  early  history  of  Sunday- 
schools  corroborates  this  view,  in  the  fact  that 
they  have  nourished  most,  and  with  the  best 
results,  where  their  scholars  were  most  intelligent. 
Nevertheless,  from  first  to  last,  they  have  shown 
the  capacity  of  adaptation  to  all  phases  of  society 
and  all  grades  of  intelligence.  They  have  proved 
of  inestimable  value  among  the  most  degraded 
populations  of  great  cities,  and  a  fitting  religious 
counterpart  to  the  highest  and  most  progressive 
secular  schools. 


Leading  Agencies. — The  whole  history  of 
Sunday-schools  illustrates  the  voluntary  principle 
in  education,  government  aid  having  never  been 
sought  in  their  support.  The  instruction  given 
in  them  has  always  been  free;  and,  there- 
fore, whatever  Sun. lav-schools  h.n 
been  the  voluntary  gift  of  the  friends  of  religious 
education.  The  gratuitous  bestowing  of  "time 
and  effort  on  the  part  of  teachers  has  remained 
no  less  a  gift  of  value  than  the  money  by  which 
rooms,  fixtures,  books,  and  apparatus  have  been 
provided.  Associated  effort  may  be  designated 
as  the  generic  agency  by  which  the  vast  sum  of 
money  has  been  obtained  which  has  been  fur- 
nished in  aid  i^f  Sunday  school  instruction.  As- 
sociated efforts  in  behalf  of  Sunday -,-cl Is  have 

assumed  two  forms  :  (1)  local;  (2)  general:  each 
correspondent  and  supplementary  to  the  other. 
j  Local  associations,  whether  in  neighborhoods  or 
in  churches,  have,  from  the  first,  been  necessary 
to  found  and  maintain  individual  schools.  Gen- 
eral associations  were  also,  from  an  early  day, 
seen  to  be  important,  for  the  purpose  of  diffus- 
ing information,  and  awakening  public  interest, 
both  as  to  the  necessity  and  the  means  of  in- 
structing the  young  in  religious  truth.  They 
also  did  much  to  enlist  and  direct  individual  and 
local  effort  in  the  work  of  organizing  schools ; 
while,  at  the  same  time,  they  practically  served 
as  a  bond  of  union  between  individual*  schools 
not  locally  connected. — A  brief  enumeration  of 
the  principal  agencies  and  movements  of  the 
latter  class  will  illustrate  the  progress  and  ex- 
pansion of  the  Sunday-school  idea  both  in  Eng- 
land and  America.  In  1785,  "  The  Society  for 
Promoting  Sunday-schools  in  the  British  Domin- 
ions", was  organized  in  London,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  William  Fox,  who  had  previously  proved 
himself  to  be  a  true  philanthropist,  by  his  zeal 
and  liberality  in  efforts  to  educate  the  poorer 
classes  of  his  countrymen.  This  society,  during 
the  first  sixteen  years  of  its  existence,  expended 
£4,000  in  paying  for  the  services  of  hired 
teachers.  In  1700,  the  first  official  church  action 
of  a  general  character  in  behalf  of  Sunday- 
schools  took  place  ata  conference  of  the  Method- 
ist Episcopal  Church,  held  at  Charleston,  S.  C, 
in  February  of  that  year,  under  the  presidency 
of  Bishop  Asbury.  That  good  bishop  and  the 
ministers  associated  with  him,  had  evidently  seen 
such  fruits  following  the  establishment  of  Sun- 
day-schools in  various  placesduring  the  previous 
four  years,  that  they  then  sought  to  make  them 
universal  by  the  enactment  of  the  following 
church  rule : 

"Let  us  labor,  as  the  heart  and  soul  of  one  man,  to 
establish  Sunday-schools  in  or  near  tie  place  ,,f 
public  worship.  Let  persons  be  appointed  by  the 
bishops,  elders,  deacons,  or  preachers  to  teach  gratis 
all  that  will  attend  and  have  a  capacity  to  learn, from  six 
o'clock  in  the  morning  till  ten,  and  In.m  two  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon  till  six,  where  it  does  not  interfere  with 


In  1791,  the  First-day  or  Sunday  School  So- 
ciety was  formed  in  Philadelphia.  This  society 
embraced  persons  of  various  denominations  of 


70S 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


Christians,  and  contemplated  the  payment  of  | 
teachers  for  their  services.  In  1797,  the  Gratis 
Sunday  School  Society  was  established  in  Scot-  ' 
land.  In  1802.  the  Sunday  School  Committee  of 
Wesleyans  was  organized  in  London,  for  the 
purpose  of  correspondence  and  other  efforts  to 
promote  the  organization  and  improvement  of 
Sunday  schools  in  the  Wesleyan  societies  of 
Great  Britain.  In  1803,  the  London  Sunday 
School  Union  was  formed,  a  society  still  exist- 
ing and  in  efficient  action,  though  limited  by  its 
plan  to  the  city  and  its  immediate  vicinity.  In 
L809,  the  Hibernian  Sunday  School  Society-was 
formed.  In  1816,  the  New  York  Sunday  School 
Union  was  formed;  and,  in  1817,  the  Philadel- 
phia Sunday  and  Adult  School  Union.  The 
latter  was  merged  in  the  formation  of  the  Amer- 
ican Sunday  School  Union,  in  1824.  In  1826, 
the  Sunday  School  Union  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  was  organized  in  New  York; 
and,  in  1827,  the  Sunday  School  Union  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  <  'hurch,  in  the  same  city. 
Since  that  period,  several  other  Sunday-school 
societies  and  unions  have*  been  formed  in  the  in- 
terest of  different  denominations  of  Christians, 
both  in  America  and  iif  Europe.  Prominent 
among  them  maybe  Darned  the  Massachusetts 
Sunday  School  Society,  located  in  Boston,  and 
supported  by  the  Congregational  churches  of 
the  United  States.  The  enlistment  of  the  press 
as  an  agency  of  help  to  Sunday-schools,  was  an 
event  of  the  highest  importance.  For  a  con- 
siderable period,  all  efforts  in  their  behalf  were 
made  at  great  disadvantage,  for  lack  of  suitable 
books  of  every  kind,  nut  excepting  copies  of  the 
Sacred  Scriptures.  The  formation  of  the  Brit- 
ish and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  1804,  and. 
subsequently,  of  numerous  other  societies  of  a 
similar  design,  tended  to  a  gradual  supply  of  the 
Scriptures,  in  forms  an  I  at  prices  adapted  to  ex- 
tensive use  in  Sunday  schools.  Aside  from  Tes- 
taments and  Bibles,  and  the  elementary  instruc- 
tion books  preparatory  to  their  use.  the  first 
publications  extensively  introduced  into  Sunday- 
schools  were  used  as  rewards.  They  were  small 
tracts  and  story  books,  in  paper  covers,  of  a  very 
int'enurquality,  only  such  being  then  attainable. 
A  In  mi  I  s  I  it.  the  Religious  Tract  Society  of  Lon- 
don began  issuing  children's  books  of  an  im- 
■  proved  style  as  to  paper,  cuts,  and  matter,  with 
special  reference  to  Sunday-school  patronage. 
The  demand  for  such  books  increased  with  their 
production,  so  that  the  society  named  has  gone 
on  to  the  present  day,  constantly  enlarging  the 
list  and  improving  the  quality  of  its  publications 
designed  for  the  young,  and  also  for  teachers  and 
adult  persons  engag    I    in    Sunday. schools.     In 


respei 


it  has  done  a  work  of  inestimable 

iday-schools  of  Great  Britain.— 

It  is,  however,  in  the  United  States  that  the 

greatest  work  has  been  done  in  the  preparation 

and   publication    of     Sunday-school    literature. 

There. circulating  libraries  and  juvenile  religions 

books  were  first  extensively  adopted  as  auxil- 
iaries of  Sunday-school  work.  There,  too,  not 
only  Sunday-school  library  books,  but  period- 


icals and  requisites  of  every  description  have 
been  published  in  the  greatest  profusion,  as  well 
as  with  great  elegance  and  cheapness.  Not  only 
have  the  Sunday-school  unions  made  a  specialty 
of  such  publications,  but  various  other  religious 
publication  societies,  e.  g.  the  American  Tract 
Society  of  the  Presbyterian  and  Baptist  Boards 
of  Publication;  and,  indeed,  many  private  pub- 
lishers have  issued  large  lists  of  books  designed 
for  youth  and  children.  In  fact,  the  Sunday  - 
school  libraries  of  the  United  States  have  become 
so  numerous  and  important,  as  to  secure  enu- 
meration in  the  official  census  of  the  govern- 
ment, with  the  following  result,  in  1870  :  Sun- 
day-school libraries.  33,580  ;  volumes,  8,346,153. 
This  aggregate,  large  as  it  is.  does  not  include 
the  State  of  Connecticut,  and,  for  other  reasons, 
is  evidently  far  below  the  facts  in  the  case  at 
the  present  time.  No  other  libraries  are  so 
widely  diffused  as  those  of  Sunday-schools. 
They  are  not.  only  found  in  cities,  where  most 
great  libraries  are  located,  but  in  the  remotest 
sections  and  neighborhoods  of  the  land,  and 
every-where  circulated  without  charge  to  those 
who  desire  to  read  them.  In  so  vast  an  aggre- 
gate of  volumes,  it  would  not  be  strange,  if  there 
were  some  of  an  indifferent  and,  possibly,  even 
of  a  bad  character.  But  such  would  prove  only 
exceptions  to  the  general  rule  that  Sunday-school 
libraries  furnish  wholesome  as  well  as  attractive 
reading  to  millions  of  children  and  youth,  thus 
projecting  the  influence  of  the  schools  into  the 
week-day  life  of  the  scholars  who  attend  them. 
Most  of  the  American  Sunday-school  unions 
not  only  publish  books,  but  maintain  depart- 
ments of  missionary  effort  for  the  purpose  of 
founding  new  and  aiding  needy  schools.  In  this 
manner,  they  ,are  constantly  enlarging  the 
sphere  of  Sunday-school  work  and  influence. 
The  sums  of  money  expended  by  these  societies 
are,  in  the  aggregate,  very  large,  but  yet  small 
when  compared  with  the  larger  amounts  locally 
contributed  for  the  same  objects. — To  pass  from 
external  to  internal  agencies  which  have  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  success  of  Sunday-schools, 
mention  may  be  made  of  music,  infant  classes, 
and  measures  for  the  training  arid  special  quali- 
fication of  teachers.  The  practice  of  devoting 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  time  allotted  to 
Sunday-schools  to  the  singing  of  hymns,  origi- 
nated very  early,  and  has  been  continued  to  the 
present  day.  It  has  proved  at  once  a  meaDS  of 
attracting  children  to  the  schools,  and  an  easy 
and  pleasant  method  of  impressing  sacred  truth 
upon  their  memory. — In  1788,  the  Rev.  John 
Mosby  recorded  in  his  journal  the  opinion  that 
there  were  not  to  be  "found  together  in  any 
chapel,  cathedral,  or  music  room  within  the  four 
seas,  such  a  set,  of  singers,  as  the  boys  and  girls 
selected  out  of  our  Sunday-schools  in  Bolton,  in 
which  they  had  been  accurately  taught." —  "  Be- 
sides." said  he,  in  concluding  his  record,  "the 
spirit  with  which  they  all  sing,  and  the  beauty 
of  many  of  them  so  suits  the  melody,  that  1  defy 
any  to  exceed  it,  except  the  singing  of  angels  in 
I  our  Father's  house."     The  venerable  man  had 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


79i> 


evidently  caught  the  enthusiasm  which  pervaded 
the  children,  and  which,  from  that  day  to  this, 
has  been  a  great  source  of  power  throughout  the 
Sunday-school  world.  In  later  years,  hymns  and 
tunes  specially  designed  for  the  young  have  been 
composed  and  published  in  great  numbers,  and 
their  use  has  become  so  common  and  so  popular, 
as  to  have  greatly  influenced  the  singing  in  the 
churches  of  all  denominations  of  Christians. — ■ 
Iiit'aiit-i  lass  instruction  has  had.  by  far.  its  widest 
field  and  largest  success  as  a  branch  of  Sunday- 
school  effort.  By  means  of  oral  instruction, 
simple  music,  and  diversified  object  lessons,  it 
has  been  found  practicable  to  secure  the  regular 
attendance  of  vast  numbers  of  children  of  in- 
fantile years,  and  to  hold  them  under  profitable 
instruction  till  of  sufficient  age  to  be  promoted 
to  higher  classes. --For  a  long  period,  the  most 
that  was  thought  possible  to  be  done  for  the 
training  and  special  instruction  of  Sunday- 
school  teachers,  was  sought  to  be  accomplished 
through  pastors'  and  superintendents'  Bible 
classes.  But  after  the  establishment  of  teachers' 
institutes  for  the  higher  instruction  of  the  teach- 
ers of  public  schools,  the  query  was  raised 
whether  something  analogous  might  not  be  de- 
vised for  the  special  improvement  of  Sunday- 
school  teachers.  With  a  joint  reference  to  that 
design,  and  the  kindred  one  of  deepening  and 
widening  public  interest  in  the  Sunday-school 
enterprise,  a  system  of  conventions  was  projected, 
which,  from  small  beginnings,  has  grown  to  grand 
proportions.  In  these  conventions,  lectures  are 
given  on  important  topics,  apparatus  and  new 
publications  are  exhibited  and  explained,  and 
model  and  normal  classes  are  taught  by  skilled 
instructors.  Wherever  practicable,  as  in  small 
towns  or  villages.  Sunday-school  teachers  are  in- 
vited to  attend  in  mass.  ( 'onventions  for  larger 
districts,  counties,  ami  states  are  composed  of 
delegates  who  are  supposed  to  be  representative 
persons  from  their  several  localities.  So  en- 
couraging have  been  the  results  following  Sun- 
day-school conventions,  that  they  have  been  ex- 
panded so  as  to  transcend  even  the  bounds  of 
large  states,  and  to  enlist  national  and  even  in- 
ternational representation.  A  world's  convention 
met  in  London  in  18G2,  and  a  German  national 
convention  in  Hamburg  in  1874.  In  the  United 
States,  in  1875,  twenty-one  state  conventions 
were  held,  besides  one  national  and  one  inter- 
national convention.  One  result  of  these  large 
conventions  has  been  the  extensive  adoption, 
since  1  872,  of  a  system  of  international  lessons 
for  Bible  study.  Uniform  schemes  of  simul- 
taneous study  had  been  previously  adopted,  to 
a  considerable  extent,  both  in  Great  Britain  and 
America.  The  international  use  of  systems 
prepared  by  joint  committees  has,  undoubtedly, 
given  increased  interest  and  impetus  to  Scriptural 
studies  throughout  the  Protestant  world.  This 
kind  of  simultaneous  study  has  been  further 
popularized  by  the  publication  of  notes  and 
comments  on  the  uniform  lessons  in  hundreds  of 
periodicals  throughout  various  countries  and  in 
different  languages.     The  one  serious  defect  of 


the  convention  system  is  the  brevity  of  time 
during  which  conventions  can  be  held.  Kfforts 
have  been  made,  within  a  few  years  past,  to 
remedy  this,  by  holding  Sunday-school  as^em- 
blies  to  continue  in  session  from  one  to  three 
weeks  at  a  time.  The  Chautauqua  Sunday- 
School  Assembly  has  now  held  three  successful 
and  largely-attended  annual  sessions,  at  which 
hundreds  of  persons  have  participated  in  thor- 
ough and  systematic  Bible  study,  with  a  degree 
of  enthusiasm  which  has  so  far  become  con- 
tagious, as  to  result  in  permanent  arrangements 
for  similar  annual  assemblies,  at  summer  resorts, 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States.  Should 
these  assemblies  become  a  permanent  feature  of 
the  American  Sunday-school  enterprise,  as  now 
seems  probable,  they  will  go  far  towards  form- 
ing a  parallel  with  the  normal  schools  of  the 
various  states  for  the  training  of  public-school 
teachers,  and  thus  largely  contribute  to  the  con- 
tinued  elevation  of  the  character,  and  increase  of 
the  efficiency,  of  Sunday  school  instruction. — It 
is,  perhaps,  difficult  to  determine  whether  Sun- 
day-schools are  more  indebted  to  modern  archi- 
tecture for  helps  toward  their  development,  or 
modern  church  architecture  to  Sunday-schools 
for  the  material  improvements  they  have  de- 
manded in  recognition  of  the  wants  and  welfare 
of  children.  Certain  it  is  that  no  church  edifice 
is  now  considered  complete,  or  properly  adapted 
to  its  objects,  that  does  not  embrace,  within  it- 
self, or  some  contiguous  structure,  ample  rooms 
and  fixtures  for  the  accommodation  of  infant 
classes,  youths'  classes,  and  Bible  classes,  includ- 
ing a  general  assembly  room  for  the  Sunday- 
school,  as  a  whole.  These  provisions  already 
exist  in  thousands  of  beautiful  churches,  which 
thus  stand  as  monuments  of  the  Sunday-school 
idea,  and  are.  also,  suggestive  of  other  improve- 
ments likely  to  be  introduced  hereafter. 

Past  Progress  and  Present  Position  of  Sun- 
day-Schools.— There  are  two  modrs  of  indicating 
the  progressive  advance  of  Sun. lay-schools  and 
the  position  to  which  they  have  now  attained. 
The  one  is  by  general  statements,  and  the  other, 
by  the  comparative  showing  of  such  numerical 
statistics  as  are  available.  As  neither  of  these 
modes  is  fully  adequate,  both  will  here  be  em- 
ployed to  a  limited  extent,  in  order  that  they 
may,  as  far  as  possible,  supplement  each  other. 
Going  back  to  the  beginning  of  1781 — less  than 
100  years — we  find  no  such  institution  as  the 
Sunday-school  known  in  any  part  of  the  world. 
At  the  present  time.  Sunday-schools  are  found 
in  active  operation  in  all  Protestant  countries 
and  missions  throughout  the  world.  They  have 
also  been  adopted  by  Roman  Catholics  and 
Jews,  in  all  Protestant  countries.  Not  to  speak 
of  the  influence  of  Sunday-schools,  in  the  relig- 
ious bodies  last  named,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
great  majority  both  of  the  members,  ministers, 
and  missionaries  of  the  Protestant  world  are,  at 
this  time,  the  alumni oi  Sunday-schools,  and  are 
found  among  their  grateful  and  active  support- 
ers. In  passing  from  general  though  significant 
statements  like  these,  to  such  showings  as  may 


SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 


be  made  in  figures,  it  seems  to  be 
explain  that  .Sunday-school  statistics  as  minute 
and  comprehensive  as  are  now  seen  to  be  desir- 
able, are  not  in  existence.  Governments  have  not 
been  interested  to  collect  them,  and  comparative- 
ly few  of  the  promoters  of  Sunday-schools  have 
recognized  their  importance.  Hence,  even  up  to 
this  time,  there  has  been  little  uniformity  in 
methods,  and  still  less  co-operation  in  making  up 
comprehensive  exhibits  of  numbers  and  results. 
The  most,  therefore,  that  has  been  as  yet  pos- 
sible in  the  way  of  such  exhibits,  has  been  to 
form  estimates  based  upon  accurate  statistics 
taken  within  certain  districts  or  churches,  and 
to  extend  the  pro  rata  outward.  The  earliest 
Sunday-school  estimate  on  record  is  that  of  the 
Sunday  School  Society  of  London,  which,  in 
1  "si!,  live  years  after  the  opening  of  Raikes's  first 
school,  estimated  that  250,000  scholars  were  al- 
ready enrolled  in  Sunday-schools.  About  40 
years  later  (1827),  the  American  Sunday  School 
Union  estimated  that  the  number  of  Sunday- 
school  scholars  in  different  countries  reached  the 
number  of  1 ,250,000.  From  about  that  period, 
the  growth  of  the  Sunday-school  enterprise  was 
more  rapid  than  previously,  so  that  the  second 
quarter  of  the  current  century  witnessed  re- 
markable progress  in  it.  About  the  middle  of 
the  century,  an  effort  was  made  in  England  un- 
der government  sanction  to  ascertain  the  num- 
ber and  attendance  of  the  Sunday-schools  in 
that  country.  On  a  given  Sunday,  the  30th  of 
March,  1851,  the  Sunday-schools  of  England  and 
Wales  were  simultaneously  inspected;  and  there 
were  found,  in  23,514  schools,  302,000  teachers 
and  2,280,000  scholars.  The  number  of  enrolled 
scholars  was  2,407,409,  or  about  three-fifths  of 
the  number  of  children  enumerated  by  the  cen- 
sus of  the  country,  between  the  ages  of  five  and 
fifteen.  A  similar  proportion  of  children  in 
American  Sunday -schools,  at  the  same  period, 
would  have  reached  the  number  of  3,000.000. 
If  to  those  aggregates,  the  probable  number  of 
Sunday  scholars  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  other 
countries,  at  the  same  date,  be  added,  it  seems 
quite  safe  to  believe  that  there  were  in  Sunday- 
schools  throughout  the  world,  at  the  end  of 
1850,  not  less  than  6,000,000  of  scholars.  Simi- 
lar estimates  made  at  the  end  of  another  quarter 
of  a  century,  indicate  that,  at  the  end  of  1875, 
there  were  in  operation,  in  all  countries,  110,000 
Sunday-schools,  embracing  1,500,000  teachers 
and  10,000,000  scholars.  One  statistician  of 
some  prominence  has  estimated  that  there  are, 
in  the  United  States  alone,  not  less  than  N1,N58 
Sunday-schools  and  (i,8(i9,fi96  scholars.  On  that 
basis,  the  above  aggregate  for  all  countries  might 
safely  be  enlarged.  Unquestionably, the  propor- 
tion of  Sunday  school  scholars  to  the  population, 
or  to  the  membership  of  churches,  is  greater  in 
that  country  than  in  any  other.  Hence,  it  seems 
appropriate  that  there  should  exist  in  New  York 
a  Foreign  Sunday-school  Union,  having  for  its 
design  the  promotion  of  Sunday-schools  abroad, 
particularly  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  That 
society,  though  of  recent  origin,  is  in  vigorous 


SUPERVISION 

operation,  and  hopeful  of  increasing  results  from 
year  to  year. 

SUPERIOR  INSTRUCTION,  a  term  used 
to  denote  instruction  of  the  highest  grade,  or 
that  given  in  colleges  and  universities,  both  in 
the  academic  course,  or  in  special  or  post-graduate 
courses. 

SUPERVISION,  School,  constitutes  one 
of  the  most  essential  elements  of  an  efficient  school 
system.  The  supervision  which  is  necessarily 
given  by  the  principal  of  the  school  to  the  work 
performed  by  his  assistants  is  not  here  referred 
to,  but  that  which  is  usually  assigned  to  a  super- 
intendent of  schools,  whose  special  function  it  is 
to  see  that  every  school  under  his  jurisdiction  is 
efficient  both  in  discipline  and  instruction.  As 
a  general  rule,  no  extensive  work  employing  a 
large  number  of  operatives,  each  performing  cer- 
tain prescribed  duties,  which  contribute  toward 
the  accomplishment  of  a  general  result,  can  be 
carried  on  efficiently  without  constant  supervi- 
sion. School  supervision  is  needed  for  two  pur- 
poses :  (1)  to  enforce  the  general  rules  and  reg- 
ulations prescribed  by  school  authorities;  and 
(2)  to  see  that  the  proper  methods  of  instruction 
are  employed,  ami  that  the  teaching  is  made  ef- 
fective. To  attain  these  objects,  the  schools  must 
be  both  iiifsjierlnl  and  r.rnminril  By  inspection 
the  superintendent  keeps  himself  informed  in  re- 
gard to  the  discipline  of  the  school  and  the 
methods  of  instruction  employed  by  the  teachers; 
by  formal  examinations  at  stated  periods,  he  is 
enabled  to  ascertain,  to  a  certain  extent,  the 
actual  result  of  the  teaching,  that  is,  its  effect 
on  the  pupils'  minds,  both  as  to  imparting  in- 
formation and  training.  Both  of  these  are  con- 
sidered indispensable.  "An  inspection,"  says 
Superintendent  I'liilbrick.  of  Boston, "is  a  visita- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  observation,  of  oversight, 
of  superintendence.  Its  aim  is  to  discover,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  the  tone  and  spirit  of  the 
school,  the  conduct  and  application  of  the  pupils, 
the  management  and  methods  of  the  teacher,  and 
the  fitness  and  condition  of  the  premises.  Good 
inspection  commends  excellences,  gently  indicates 
faults,  defects,  and  errors,  and  suggests  improve- 
ments as  occasion  requires.  *  *  *  An  examina- 
tion is  different  from  an  inspection,  both  in  its 
aims  and  methods.  An  examination  isathorough 
scrutiny  and  investigation  in  regard  to  certain 
definitely  determined  matters  for  a  specific  pur- 
pose." The  best  methods  of  teaching,  if  not  uni- 
formly and  diligently  employed,  will  not  impress 
the  pupils'  minds  ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  the 
pupils  may  gain  considerable  knowledge  of  the 
prescribed  branches  of  study,  but  not  in  such  a 
way  as  to  cultivate  proper  habits  of  thought. 
Regular  examinations,  besides  ascertaining  the 
merits  and  qualifications  of  the  teachers,  afford 
a  wholesome  stimulus,  when  judiciously  and 
skillfully  conducted,  and  afford  a  definite  aim 
toward  which  their  efforts  may  be  directed.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  attempted  by  incompetent  and 
indiscreet  persons,  supervision  of  this  and  every 
other  kind  may  do  much  harm.  The  qualities 
necessary  for  a  good  examiner  are  well  defined 


SWARTHMORE  COLLEGE 

by  Supt.  Philbrick  :  "In  the  first  place,  he  should 
be  independent,  or,  to  speak  more  precisely,  he 
should  not  be  dependent  upon  the  teaching 
corps.  He  ought  to  have  had  experience  in 
teaching;  ami  if  he  has  had  experience  in  grades 
similar  to  those  in  which  he  examines,  so  much 
the  better.  His  mind  ought  to  be  liberalized 
by  a  wide  range  of  educational  reading  and 
study.  He  ought  to  have  a  good  deal  of  practical 
common  sense.  I  le  should  be  more  inclined  to 
look  on  the  bright  side  of  things  than  on  the 
dark  side.  He  should  look  sharper  for  merits 
than  for  demerits.  He  should  fear  only  two 
things:  he  should  fear  to  do  injustice,  and  he 
should  fear  himself .  lie. should  be  eminent  for 
good  breeding,  as  a  guaranty  of  respectful  treat- 
ment from  teachers  and  pupils.  And  to  make 
sure  of  the  requisite  sympathy,  like  Burke's  law- 
giver, he  ought  to  have  a  heart  full  of  sensibility. 
In  one  word,  for  the  successful  exercise  of  this 
delicate  and  most  useful  function,  the  very  best 
educators  are  demanded."  The  objection  has 
sometimes  been  urged  against  examinations  of 
this  kind,  that  they  encourage  cramming ;  but 
this  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  character 
of  the  examinations  themselves.  —  See  Payne, 
"School  Supervision  (Cin.  and  X.V.,  L875);  Thir- 
lieth  Semi-Annual  Keporto/lhe  Superintendent 
of  the  Pvblic  Schools  of  Boston  (Boston,  1876). 
(See  also  Examinations.) 

SWARTHMORE  COLLEGE,  at  Swarth- 
more,  Elelaware  Co.,  Pa.,  was  founded  in  1869, 
for  the  education  of  both  sexes,  who  here  pur- 
sue together  the  same  courses  of  study,  and  re- 
ceive the  same  degrees.  It  is  under  the  control 
of  the  Society  of  Friends.  It  is  supported  by 
the  fees  of  students,  and  the  income  of  an  en- 
dowment of  about  $75,000.  For  resident  stu- 
dents, the  price  of  board  and  tuition  is  $350  a 
year.  For  day  scholars  thj  price  is  $200  a 
year.  The  libraries  contain  about  3,000  vol- 
umes. The  institution  embraces  a  preparatory 
and  a  collegiate  department.  The  latter  has  a 
classical  section,  with  an  ancient  course  leading 
to  the  degree  of  A.  B.,  a  modern  course,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Literature;  and 
a  scientific  section,  with  a  chemical  and  an  en- 
gineering course,  each  leading  to  the  degree  of 
B.  S.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  19  instructors 
and  237  students,  of  whom  90  (56  classical,  26 
scientific,  and  8  pursuing  an  irregular  or  partial 
course)  were  of  collegiate  grade.  The  presidents 
have  been  Edward  Parrish,  1869 — 71,  and 
Edward  H.  Magill,  A.  M.,  since  1871. 

SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY,  two  king- 
doms iu  Europe,  united  under  one  sovereign, 
but  otherwise  independent  of  each  other  in  their 
constitution.  Conjointly  with  Denmark,  they 
constitute  the  Scandinavian  branch  of  the  Teu- 
tonic or  Germanic  nations.  Nearly  the  entire 
population  of  both  kingdoms  belong  to  the 
Lutheran  Church.  The  area  of  Sweden,  is 
171,761  square  miles,  and,  in  1876,  its  popula- 
tion was  4,383,291  ;  the  area  of  Norway  is 
122,280  square  miles,  and  its  population,  accord- 
ingly the  same  census,  was  1,802,882. 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY       801 

T.  Sweden.  —  Educational  History.-—  During 
the  middle  ages,  Sweden  compared  favorably,  in 

regard  to  education,  with  the  countries  of  central 
and  southern  Europe.  A  larger  proportion  of 
boys  and  girls  than  in  most  other  countries  re- 
ceived an  education  in  convenl  schools,  and 
home  education  was  of  a  superior  character.  In 
the  Hith  century,  the  cause  of  education  began 
to  make  rapid  progress,,  and  many  common 
schools,  called  pcedagogia,  were  established, 
which  were  at  first  of  the  primary,  but  soon  of 
a  higher  grade.  The  church  order  of  1571  con- 
tained a  chapter  entitled.  "  How  schools  should 
be  taught,"  which  must  be  regarded  as  the  first 
Swedish  school  law.  Gustavus  Adolphus  estab- 
lished the  first  gymnasium.  His  daughter,  the 
learned  <  'lnistina.  promulgated,  in  1643,  a  school 
order,  dividing  the  schools  into  children's  (ele- 
mentary) and  higher  schools.  In  addition  to 
these,  there  were  so-called  "writing  classes," 
which  may  be  regarded  as  the  germ  of  the 
burgher  and  real  schools.  The  school  order  of 
1693  provided  that  no  one  should  be  permitted 
to  marry,  without  a  knowledge  of  Luther's  small 
catechism.  This  largely  increased  the  demand  on 
the  part  of  the  peasantry  for  the  establishment 
of  more  schools.  Teachers,  however,  as  well  as 
schools  continued  in  an  unsatisfactory  condition 
until  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  In 
1820,  the  consistories  and  the  clergy  were  in- 
structed to  see  that  no  unfit  persons  were  ap- 
pointed teachers;  and,  in  1824.  a  new  school 
order  provided  for  the  introduction  of  the  Lan- 
casterian  system.  In  1842,  the  present  school 
law  was  introduced.  It  provides  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  stationary  school  in  every  church 
district  or  parish  ;  but,  in  case  of  the  extreme 
poverty  of  a  parish,  or  when  other  local  circum- 
stances prevent  the  establishment  of  a  station- 
ary school,  instruction  may  be  imparted  in  a 
migratory  school.  Attendance  at  school  is  obli-.\ 
gatory  for  all  children  of  school  age.  A  teach- 
ers' seminary  is  to  be  established  'in  the  chief 
town  of  every  diocese.  In  1858,  the  support  of 
a  higher  elementary  school  was  made  obligatory 
in  villages  and  districts  having  more  than  60  pu- 
pils. A  system  of  state  supervision  was  provided  \ 
for  in  1851.  In  1864,  the  Peasants'  or  People's 
High  Schools  were  established  on  the  plan  of  the 
Danish  schools  of  that  name.  (See  Denmark.) 

Primary  Instruction.—  According  to  the  law 
of  1842,  primary  instruction  is  imparted  in 
stationary  and  migratory  schools,  besides  which 
there  are  schools  for  young  children,  generally 
under  a  female  teacher.  Besides  the  school 
board  of  the  district,  there  are  one  or  more  in- 
spectors for  each  diocese,  who  are  appointed  by 
the  minister  of  instruction.  The  local  manage- 
ment of  the  rural  schools  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
committee,  of  which  the  oldest  clergyman  is  the 
chairman,  whose  vote  in  the  election  of  a  teacher 
counts  as  much  as  one  half  of  all  the  votes  cast. 
In  the  cities  of  Stockholm,  Gothenburg,  and  Norr- 
kdping,  the  schools  are  governed  by  special  laws  ; 
and,  in  each  of  the  cities,  they  are  under  the  man- 
agement of  a  board  of  education.     The  salaries 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 


of  the  teachers  are  very  small.  The  course  of 
studies  in  the  teachers'  seminaries  extends  over 
three  years,  and  comprises  religion,  the  Swedish 
language,  arithmetic  and  geometry,  history,  geog- 
raphy, natural  science,  pedagogy,  penmanship, 
drawing,  music,  gymnastics,  military  drill,  gar- 
dening, and  fruit  culture.  In  every  seminary, 
there  is  a  rector  and  at  least  three  assistant 
teachers,  besides  special  assistants  for  music, 
drawing,  gymnastics,  and  military  drill.  In  1875, 
there  were  8,123  primary  schools,  with  606,876 
children.  The  number  of  teachers'  seminaries  in 
1875,  was  10. 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  secondary  schools 
are  either  higher  or  complete  schools,  with  7 
classes,  or  lower  or  incomplete  schools,  with  2, 
3,  or  5  classes  each.  From  the  first  class  up, 
counting  the  lowest  class  as  the  first,  the  schol- 
ars are  separated  into  two  departments, — the 
classical  and  the  real,  of  which  the  former  cor- 
responds to  the  Latin  school  and  the  gymnasium; 
and  the  latter  to  the  real  school.  The  school 
year  comprises  36  weeks,  and  scholars  are  ad- 
mitted only  at  the  opening  of  the  schools  in  the 
autumn.  All  pupils  must  be  at  least  nine  years 
of  age.  The  immediate  direction  of  the  schools 
is  in  the  hands  of  the  rector  and  the  council  of 
teachers.  The  bishop,  as  ephorus  of  all  the 
schools  in  his  diocese,  stands  above  the  council 
of  teachers.  All  matters  that  cannot  be  decided 
by  these  authorities  must  be  submitted  to  the 
ministry  of  instruction,  and  by  the  ministry  to 
the  king  for  a  final  decision.  The  king  is,  there- 
fore, the  highest  school  authority,  and  possesses, 
in  school  matters,  both  legislative  and  executive 
power.  All  matters  pertaining  to  secondary 
schools  are  arranged  by  the  bureau  of  the  min- 
istry of  instruction,  the  chief  of  the  bureau  acting 
as  inspector-general  of  all  the  secondary  schools 
in  the  kingdom,  which  he  must  visit  from  time 
to  time.  For  the  two  lower  classes,  there  are 
class  teachers,  for  the  two  highest,  teachers  of 
special  subjects;  and,  in  the  intermediate  classes, 
a  mixed  system  prevails.  The  course  of  studies 
comprises  religion,  Swedish,  Litin,  ({reek,  lie- 
brew,  French,  German,  English,  mathematics, 
general  history,  natural  philosophy  and  mechan- 
ics, chemistry  and  mineralogy,  history,  geog- 
raphy, mental  philosophy, penmanship,  and,  draw- 
ing. Of  these,  the  ancient  languages  are  not 
taught  in  the  real  department ;  nor  are  chemis- 
try and  mineralogy  taught  in  the  classical  de- 
partment. English  and  Hebrew  are  optional  in 
the  chemical  department,  no  special  time  being 
assigned  for  them.  During  the  last  few  years 
the  study  of  German  has  made  great  progress. 
In  1872,  there  were  98  schools,  with  12,356  pu- 
pils and  076  teachers. 

Superior  Instruction. — Sweden  has  two  uni- 
versities,—at  Upsal  and  at  Lund,  with  1 68  pro- 
fessors and  2,080  students,  in  1871.  Of  these. 
409  studied  theology,  207  law,  188  medicine, 
and  1,276  philosophy. 

Sp:-i,,l  Instruction.— \n  1871,  Stockholm  had 
an  industrial  school,  with  1,765  students,  the 
Royal  Technical  Institute,  a  college  of  pharmacy, 


a  royal  college  of  surgery,  an  academy  of  fine- 
arts,  and  a  royal  academy  of  music.  There  were 
also  2  academies  of  agriculture,  at  Ultuna  and 
Alnarp,  2!)  lower  agricultural  schools,  an  acad- 
emy of  forestry,  7  lower  schools  of  forestry,  9 
schools  of  navigation.  5  technical  schools,  4  ele- 
mentary technical  schools,  2  elementary  schools 
of  mining,  the  Chalmers  Industrial  School  in 
Gothenburg,  2  schools  for  nurses,  2  schools  of 
veterinary  surgery,  and  various  military  schools.. 
The  military  schools  are  under  the  direction  of 
the  ministry  of  war ;  and  the  other  special 
schools,  partly  under  the  ministry  of  the  interior, 
and  partly  under  that  of  finance. 

II.  Norway.— Educational  History.— lAttle 
was  done  for  public  instruction  in  Norway  prior 
to  the  18th  century.  In  1736,  a  royal  decree 
provided  that  no  children  should  be  admitted  to 
continuation,  who  had  not  been  instructed  in 
the  elements  of  Christianity.  A  school  law, 
based  on  this  provision,  was  passed  in  1739,  but 
modified  in  1741.  Since  the  establishment  of 
Norwegian  independence,  in  lsl4.  the  Storthing, 
or  national  legislature,  has  been  actively  engaged 
in  promoting  public  instruction.  A  compre- 
hensive school  law  was  promulgated  in  1827  ;  a 
special  law  on  city  schools  appeared  in  1848.  In 
1860,  the  schools  were  re-organized  under  a  new 
law,  which,  with  a  few  additions,  made  in  1869, 
is  still  in  force.  Children  must  attend  school 
from  their  eighth  year  until  they  are  confirmed. 
Those  wdio  receive  private  instruction,  must  at- 
tend the  examinations  of  the  schools,  and,  if 
found  deficient,  must  attend  school. 

Primary  Instruction. —  Primary  schools  are 
divided  into  loircr  schools  and  higher  schools. 
Norway  is  divided,  for  school  purposes,  into  591 
communities,  of  which,  in  1875,  57  were  city, 
and  434,  country  communities.  The  communi- 
ties are  again  subdivided  into  circles,  of  which, 
in  1874,  there  were  6,371.  Wherever  30  chil- 
dren can  attend  school,  a  separate  school-house 
must  be  procured  for  them.  Whenever  the 
houses  of  a  circle  are  too  far  apart,  or  if,  for  any 
other  cause,  a  permanent  school  does  not  seem 
advisable,  a  migratory  school  must  be  supported. 
This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  numerous 
valleys  on  the  coast,  which  are  virtually  shut  off 
from  each  other.  The  studies  pursued  in  the 
primary  schools,  are  reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
religion,  music,  and  gymnastics  and  military 
drill,  wdierever  the  latter  is  possible.  All  chil- 
dren must  attend  school  12  weeks  in  the  year, 
or  in  some  migratory  schools,  9  weeks.  Children 
who  have  reached  the  fourteenth  year,  and  are 
backward  in  their  education,  must  receive  special 
instruction,  until  they  are  prepared  to  enter  the 
schools;  and  the  necessary  expense  must  be  borne 
by  the  parents.  The  school  authorities  may  also 
establish  infant  schools  and  industrial  schools. — 
Hi'jInT  schools  maybe  organized  either  in  con- 
nection with  lower  schools,  oi  in  connection  with 
teachers'  seminaries, or  independently.  Whenever 
the  course  of  study  extends  over  more  than  two 
years,  the  school  must  be  divided  into  two  de- 
partments, the  first  of  which  comprises  the  first 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY 

two  years,  and  the  other,  the  remainder.  When- 
ever necessary,  the  two  departments  may  be  situ- 
ated in  different  parts  of  the  district  Besides 
the  studies  of  the  lower  school,  there  are  taught 
in  the  higher  school  the  native  tongue  (Danish), 
geography,  history,   natural    sciences,  drawing, 

and  surveying.     In   the  higher  depart nt,  are 

still  further  added,  mathematics,  agriculture, 
and  a  foreign  language,  where  it  is  desirable. 
No  child  under  12  years  of  age  is  admitted  to 
the  higher  school.  The  schools  in  a  community 
are  under  the  direction  of  a  school  board,  of 
which  the  clergyman  is  chairman,  which  board 
has  charge  of  all  school  mattei's,  while  the  clergy- 
man, in  particular,  must  superintend  the  instruc- 
tion given  in  the  schools.  The  board  has  also 
power  to  appoint  agents,  who  must  see  thai 
all  children  of  school  age  attend  schools.  The 
provost  has  charge  of  the  schools  in  his  district: 
and  the  directory  of  the  stift,  or  ecclesiastical 
province,  of  the  schools  in  the  cant.  The  kino; 
appoints  a  number  of  inspectors.  The  inspector 
is  entitled  to  a  seat  in  the  directory  of  the  stifl, 
whenever  school  matters  are  under  deliberation. 
The  direct  supervision  over  the  schools  of  a  stift 
is  exercised  by  the  inspector  in  conjunction  with  j 
the  bishop.  Burgher  and  real  schools  are.  in 
some  ca-ies.  but  little  above  the  higher  common 
schools;  in  others,  they  correspond  to  the  Ger- 
man realschulef  one.  the  Latin  and  real  school 
at  Frederiksstad,  prepares  its  pupils  for  the  uni- 
versity. Of  teachers'  seminaries,  there  are  two 
classes:  higher  or  stift  seminaries,  and  the  so- 
called  teachers'  schools.  In  the  higher  seminaries, 
the  course  of  study  comprises  religion,  the  native 
tongue,  arithmetic,  music,  geography,  history,  J 
natural  sciences,  penmanship,  drawing,  gymnas- 
tics, and  pedagogics.  A  model  school  exists  in 
connection  with  each  seminary.  In  the  Teachers' 
Schools,  the  course  of  study  requires  from  1  to 
1 J  years.  In  1874,  there  were  in  Norway,  ex- 
clusive of  Christiania,  4.277  permanent  common 
schools.  2.094  migratory  schools,  131  work  schools 
for  girls,  4  general  work  schools,  and  1 3  infant 
schools.  The  number  of  children  of  school  age 
was  213,908  ;  the  number  of  children  in  per- 
manent schools,  109,737;  in  migratory  schools, 
36,577  ;  the  number  of  children  instructed  out- 
side of  the  district  schools.  3,235  ;  and  children 
not  attending  school,  4,419.  The  expenditures 
for  primary  schools  amounted  to  $673,052,  to- 
ward which  the  state  contributed  $91,875.  The 
number  of  burgher  and  real-schools,  in  1867,  was 
35,  with  159  teachers  and  2.531  pupils.  The 
number  of  stifl  seminaries,  in  the  same  year,  was 
6,  with  about  300  pupils;  and  the  Teachers' 
Schools  were  15,  with  217  pupils.  Besides  these, 
a  seminary  for  female  teachers  has  been  estab- 
lished in  Christiania.  Pen  aunts  or  People's  Uinh 
Seliiuils  have  been  recently  established  in  Norway 
on  the  same  plan  as  those  in  Denmark  (q.  v.). 
Of  these,  in  1870,  there  were  11.  In  1867,  there 
were,  also,  20  Sunday-schools,  with  1520  pupils, 
and  27  asylums,  with  2,876  children. 

Seeiim/nr//  lustre,  tit, a.  -  -Secondary  instruction 
is  imparted   in   middle  schools   and  gymnasia. 


SWITZERLAND 


so:; 


The  latter  are  divided  into  Latin  and  real  gym- 
nasia.    The  middle  schools  prepare  scholars  for 

the  gymnasia.     The  course   of   study  prises 

religion,  the  native  tongue,  German,  Latin,  En- 
glish, French,  history,  geography,  the-  natural-sci- 
ences, mathematics,  drawing,  and  penmanship. 
In  the  Latin  gymnasia,  the  studies  comprise  re- 
ligion, the  native  tongue,  ancient  Norwegian, 
Latin,  Greek,  French  and  English,  history,  and 
mathematics.  In  the  real  gymnasia,  Latin  and 
Greek  are  omitted;  while  geography,  natural 
sciences,  and  drawing  are  added. and  more  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  mathematics  and  the  modern  lan- 
guages. Besides  the  state  schools,  there  are 
also  private  schools  for  secondary  instruction. 
There  were,  in  1875,  16  secondary  schools,  with 
160  teachers  and  2.099  pupils.  The  number  of 
private  scl Is.  in  1870,  was  fi.  of  which  I.  with 

Superior  Instruction. — Norway  has  one  uni- 
versity, at  Christiania.  which  was  founded  in 
1811.  It  had.  iii  1874,  978  students.  Connected 
with  the  university  is  a  library,  also  large  scientific 
collections,  and  an  astronomical  and  a  magnetic 
observatory.  The  lectures  are  entirely  gratui- 
tous, and  matriculation  at  the  university  is  made 
dependent  upon  a  previous  examination. 

Special  Instruction. — Agricultural  schools  are 
found  in  almost  every  province,  supported  by 
the  provincial  authorities ;  while  a  higher  agri- 
cultural school  is  supported  in  Aas,  near  ( Ihris- 
tiania.  by  the  government.  The  navigation 
schools,  of  which  there  are  6,  necessarily  occupy 
a  prominent  place  in  a  country  situated  like 
Norway.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  military  high 
school,  a  military  and  naval  school,  a  polytech- 
nic school,  in  Norten,  and  a  drawing  school,  in 
Christiania. —  See  Schmid,  Encyclopadie ;  Bar- 
nard, National  Education,  vol.  n.:  Report  on 
the  Systems  of  Public  Instruction  inSweden  and 
Norway,  published  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation (Washington,  1871);  and  Report  of  the 
I".  S.  i  bmmissioner  of  Education  for  1873  nml 

SWITZERLAND,  a  federal  republic  of 
Europe,  having  an  area  of  15.992  square  mill's. 
and  a  population,  in  1870,  of  2,669,147.  It  is 
composed  of  22  cantons,  3  of  which  are  each 
subdivided  into  2  sovereign  half-cantons.  About 
59  per  cent  of  the  population  are  Protestants, 
and  almost  41  per  cent,  Catholics.  The  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  (about  69  per  cent)  are  of 
German  nationality;  nearly  24  per  cent  speak 
French ;  the  canton  Ticino  and  a  part  of  the 
canton  Orisons  are  Italian.  In  the  latter  canton, 
there  are  also  about  9,000  families  that  speak 
Romansch. 

Educational  History. — At  the  beginning  of 
the  middle  ages,  we  find  within  the  present 
boundaries  of  Switzerland  some  of  the  most 
famous  monasteries  of  the  Benedictine  order.  (See 
Beneoicttnes.)  Later,  the  university  of  Basel 
occupied  a  high  rank  among  the  earliest  univer- 
sities of  Europe.  After  the  Reformation  in  the 
Kith  century,  the  canton  Zurich  took  the  lead  in 
the  regulation  of  school  affairs  by  forbidding  any 


SWITZERLAND 


one  to  keep  school  without  permission  of  the 
city  council.  Several  other  cantons  could,  in 
the  Kith  century,  boast  of  good  schools ;  but 
down  to  1830,  there  was  a  lack  of  efficiency  in 
the  organization  of  the  public-school  system ; 
and  schools,  more  than  in  many  other  countries, 
were  left  to  private  enterprise.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century,  the  educational 
achievements  of  Pestalozzi,  Felleuberg,  Wehrli, 
Girard,  and  others  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
civilized  world.  Not  only  were  hundreds  of 
pupils  sent  to  Swiss  institutions  from  various 
countries,  even  from  America,  to  obtain  a  good 
education,  but  young  teachers  repaired  there,  in 
large  numbers,  to  study  the  new  educational 
methods.  On  the  shores  of  the  lake  of  Geneva, 
a  large  number  of  private  institutions  arose  to 
supply  the  universal  demand  at  that  time  for 
instruction  in  the  French  language.  The  increase 
of  these  institutions  stimulated  an  eagerness  to 
educate  boys  and  girls  as  private  tutors  and  gov- 
ernesses; and  for  a  long  time,  French  Switzerland 
furnished  Europe  with  a  larger  supply  of  this 
class  of  teachers  than  any  other  country. — Great 
progress  began  to  be  made,  about  1830,  in  most 
of  the  Protestant  and  mixed  cantons.  In  addition 
to  the  mediaeval  university  of  Basel,  new  univer- 
sities, after  the  German  model,  were  established 
at  Zurich  and  Bern;  and,  in  French  Switzerland, 
the  academies  at  Geneva,  Lausanne,  and  Neuf- 
chatel  endeavored  to  rival  th^  best  institutions 
of  the  kind  in  France. — In  1848,  the  federal  con- 
stitution of  Switzerland,  for  the  first  time,  took 
notice  of  educational  affairs,  which  until  then 
had  been  under  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the 
cantons,  by  providing  for  the  foundation  of  a 
federal  university.  In  1877,  this  project  had  not 
yet  been  executed.  In  1851,  the  federal  assem- 
bly resolved  to  establish  in  Zurich  a  federal  poly- 
technic school.  Since  then,  a  growing  desire  has 
been  evinced,  especially  among  teachers,  that  the 
federal  government  should  exercise  an  authority 
in  school  matters.  Accordingly,  the  new  federal 
constitution,  adopted  in  1874,  contains  the  fol- 
lowing provision  in  regard  to  schools  :  "  The 
Bund  (confederation)  is  authorized  to  establish, 
besides  the  existing  polytechnic  school,  a  univer- 
sity and  other  higher  institutions  of  learning,  or 
to  aid  such  institutions.  The  cantons  shall  pro- 
vide satisfactory  primary  instruction,  which 
shall  be  under  the  exclusive  control  of  the  govern- 
ment. Primary  instruction  shall  be  obligatory 
and  free  in  all  the  schools.  The  public  schools 
shall  be  open  to  children  of  all  creeds.  Cantons 
that  fail  to  observe  these  provisions  shall  be  pro- 
ceeded against  by  the  Bund.  No  one  shall  be 
forced  to  receive  any  religious  education  or 
to  perform  any  religious  ceremony.  The  religious 
education  of  children,  up  to  the  age  of  1G,  shall 
be  left  to  their  parents  or  guardians." 

Primary  Schools. — The  primary  schools  in 
the  Swiss  cantons  are  generally  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  communities.  In  1871,  there  were, 
in  all  Switzerland,  5,088  primary  schools,  with 
411,760  pupils  (205.228  boys,  200.532  girls)  and 
5,750  male  and  1,72  1  female  teachers.     Of  these 


schools,  3,924  were  mixed;  578,  boys' schools ; 
and  58(i.  girls'  schools.  In  58.1  per  cent  of  the 
schools,  the  German  language  is  the  medium  of 
instruction;  in  31  per  cent,  French  ;  in  9.0  per 
cent,  Italian;  and  in  1.3  per  cent,  Romanseh.  The 
expenditure  for  primary  schools  amounted,  in 
1871,  to  900,000  francs.  In  most  of  the  can- 
tons, the  elementary-school  systems  have  been 
re-organized  by  school  laws  enacted  since  1870. 
According  to  the  new  school  law  of  Zurich,  pro- 
mulgated in  1872,  which  has  served  as  the  basis 
of  a  number  of  school  laws  in  other  countries, 
the  communal  school  comprises  nine  annual 
classes,  instead  of  six  classes  as  before  that 
time.  The  chief  branches  of  instruction  in  the 
primary  schools  of  Switzerland  are  language  and 
object  lessons,  the  latter  receiving  more  attention 
than  in  most  other  countries  of  Europe.  The 
other  studies  of  a  primary  school  are  religion, 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  drawing,  singing, 
and  gymnastics.  The  real  schools  add  to  these 
studies  geometry,  history,  natural  history,  and 
composition.  Industrial  schools,  in  which  boys 
learn  the  elements  of  a  trade  or  of  agriculture, 
and  girls  are  instructed  in  needle-work,  are 
numerous  in  every  part  of  Switzerland.  For  the 
education  of  teachers,  there  were,  in  1875,  32 
teachers'  seminaries,  the  course  of  studies  in 
which  embraces  pedagogy,  religion,  German, 
French,  arithmetic, geometry, history,  geography, 
natural  history,  singing,  playing  on  a  musical 
instrument,  penmanship,  drawing,  gymnastics, 
military  exercises,  and  agriculture.  The  larger 
institutions  have  four  annual  classes.  In  the  can- 
tons of  Zurich,  Vaud,  Bern,  and  Aargau,  pen- 
sions for  superannuated  teachers  are  obligatory; 
in  Schaffhausen,  Glarus,  and  the  city  of  Basel, 
they  are  only  permitted.  The  following  table  ex- 
hibits the  number  of  schools,  and  the  number  of 
male  and  female  teachers;  also  the  proportion  of 
to  the  total  population: 


No. 
of 

teNac 

of 

J::| 

(£  bi'~ 

Cantons 

2 

1 

1    Zurich 

369 

163 

29 
74 
26 
24 
32 
28 
303 
127 

74 

70 
16 
302 
324 
334 
185 
440 
670 
404 
188 
70 

665 

1.098 

249 

37 

57 

16 

65 
41 
248 
1S7 
48 
111 
115 
86 
18 
406 
388 
505 
240 
209 

281 
146 

604 

15 
9 
44 
2f 
17 

22 
89 
6 
10 

2 

4 
13 

64 

33 

2 

266 

205 
169 

54 

156 

128 

150 

6.  Unterwalden,  Upper. . 

7.  Unterwalden,  Lower.. 

8.  Glarus 

134 
126 
152 

164 

154 

66 

13.  Basel  Country 

195 

192 

13.  App.iizell.  Outer  lib... 
16.  Appenzell,  Inner  Ith. . 

188 
133 
156 

166 

158 

185 

142 

142 

172 

23.  Geneva 

72 

SWITZERLAND 

Secondary  Instruction. — The  gymnasia  and 
real  schools  of  a  higher  grade  are  very  differently 
organized  in  the  several  cantons  of  Switzerland. 
The  state  institutions  in  which  a  complete  gym- 
nasium is  combined  with  a  real  school,  under 
one  direction,  are  called  cantonal  schools.  In 
1873,  there  were,  in  Switzerland,  07  gymnasia, 
colleges,  and  pro-gymnasia,  with  an  aggregate  of 
4,900  pupils:  and  41  industrial  and  real  schools 
of  a  higher  grade,  with  3,800  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction. —  Switzerland  hail,  in 
1876,  four  universities, — those  of  Basel.  Zurich. 
Bern,  and  Geneva.  That  of  Basel  was  founded 
in  14G0;  of  Zurich,  in  1833;  of  Bern,  in  1834. 
Geneva  has  had  a  higher  institution  of  learning 
since  1559  ;  but  it  did  not  become  a  complete 
university  until  1K75.  The  number  of  students, 
in  1876,  was,  in  Zurich,  328;  in  Hern,  385;  in 
Basel.  158;  and  in  Geneva,  235.  All  these  uni- 
versities have  the  four  faculties  of  theology,  law. 
medicine,  and  philosophy.  The  the.  .logical  faculty 
of  each  of  the  universities  belongs  to  the 
Reformed  Church;  Bern  has  also,  since  1874. an 
Old  Catholic  faculty  of  theology.  At  the  uni- 
versitiesof  Zurich  and  ( Jeneva,  the  philosophical 
faculty  is  divided  into  two  sect  ions:  one  com- 
prising philology,  philosophy,  and  history;  and 
the  other,  mathematics  and  natural  science.  In 
Bern,  the  medical  faculty  is  divided  into  a  med- 
ical and  a  veterinary  section.  —  Besides  the  uni- 
versities, there  are  3  academies,  or  incomplete 
universities,  —  at  Lausanne.  Neufchatel,  and 
Pribourg.  That  of  Lausanne  has  faculties  of 
Reformed  theology,  law,  science,  and  literature  ; 
that  of  Neufchatel.  law,  science,  and  literature: 
that  of  Fribourg,  ( 'atholic  theology  and  law.  The 
universities  of  Bern  and  Zurich  were  among  the 
first  in  Europe  to  admit  female  students ;  and 
their  example  has  been  followed  by  the  university 
of  Geneva.  In  1875,  Bern  and  Zurich  had  an 
aggregate  of  63,  and  Geneva,  24  female  students. 
Among  those  in  Bern  and  Zurich,  39  were 
Russians,  8  Americans,  5  Austrians,  4  Germans, 
and  3  Servians. 

Special  and  Professional  S.  hools. — The  Poly- 
technic School,  at  Zurich,  is  the  only  Swiss 
school  under  the  control  of  the  federal  authorities. 
It  comprises  eight  departments :  architecture, 
civil  engineering,  industrial  mechanics,  industrial 
chemistry,  agriculture  and  forestry,  a  normal 
school  of  mathematics  and  natural  sciences,  a 
school  of  literature,  moral  sciences,  and  political 
economy,  and  a  preparatory  course  in  mathe- 
matics. The  other  technical  schools  are  the 
technical  department  in  the  academy  of  Lau- 
sanne,  and  the  depart  men!  of  architecture  in  the 
lyceum  of  Lugano.  The  lyceum  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, at  Einsiedeln.  has  a  philosophical  and  a 
theological  department.  There  is,  also,  a  philo- 
sophical department,  connected  with  the  lyceum 
of  Lugano.  There  are  six  Catholic  theological 
seminaries;  a  Reformed  theological  faculty,  at 
Neufchatel  ;  and  theological  schools  of  the  Free 
Evangelical  Church,  at  Lausanne  and  Geneva. 
There  is  a  veterinary  school  at  Zurich  ;  an  in- 
dustrial school  of  higher  grade,  at  AVmterthur  ; 


SYRACUSE  UNIVERSITY        805 

a  school  for  watch-makers,  at  Geneva ;  several 

commercial  schools  ;  seven   agricultural  scl Is  ; 

and  a  school  of  fine  arts,  in  Geneva.  There 
were  also,  in  1875,  13  institutions  for  deaf- 
mutes,  with  233  boys  and  159  girls;  two  in- 
stitutions for  the  blind,  in  Zurich  and  Bern, 
with  58  boys  and  54  girls ;  and  one  asylum  for 
the  blind,  in  Lausanne. — See  Schmid,  Encydo- 
pddie,  art.  Schweiz ;  Barnard,  National  Edu- 
cation, vol.  ii. ;  Beer,  Das  Unterrichtswesen  der 
Schweiz  (Vienna,  L868) ;  Kinkki.in,  Statistik 
i/rs  Unterrichtswesens  in  der  Schweiz  im  Jahre 
1871  (Basel,  7  vols.,  1874,  seq.);  Wibth,  AUge- 
meine  Beschreibung  und  Statistik  der  Schweiz, 
vol.  „,.:  Das  Unterrichlswesen;  also  the  annual 
reports  on  the  educational  condition  of  Switzer- 
land, in  the  /W./7'«/<se/„T  .lahrcshcrichl. 

SYMPATHY,  an  instinctive  feeling  of  in- 
terest in  and  affection  for  others,  which  prompts 
a  correspondence  of  emotions.  Persons  in  sym- 
pathy readily  discern  the  mental  states  of  one 
another,  and  evince  by  their  actions  that  they 
suffer,  mentally,  the  same  distress,  and  feel  the 
same  joy.  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  and  define 
the  source  and  basis  of  this  sympathetic  relation- 
ship ;  but  personal  influence  greatly  depends 
upon  it.  It  is  natural  to  some  persons  to  be  in 
sympathy  with  others;  they  seem  to  exert  a 
kind  of  positive  influence,  drawing  and  binding 
all  around  then  i  to  themselves.  ( It  hers,  on  the  con- 
trary, seem  to  be  negative  in  their  influence;  they 
repel  instead  of  attracting.  They  are  cold  and 
indifferent  to  others;  or.  if  otherwise,  uncon- 
sciously show-  that  their  apparent  interest  is 
feigned,  not  felt,  proceeding  from  asenseof  duty, 
not  from  natural  warmth  of  feeling.  —  The 
teacher,  above  all  others,  should  be  sympathetic, 
because  so  much  of  his  success  depends  upon 
personal  influence.  He  should  habitually  strive 
to  cultivate  this  quality,  feeling  assured  that  the 
measure  of  his  professional  skill  and  efficiency 
is  the  degree  of  sympathetic  regard  with  which 
he  inspires  his  pupils.  (See  Antipathy,  and 
Love.) 

SYRACUSE  UNIVERSITY,  in  Syracuse, 
X.  Y.,  chartered  in  1870,  is  under  Methodist 
Episcopal  control.  Genesee  College,  at  Lima, 
chartered  in  1849,  was  merged  in  it.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  tuition  fees  and  the  income  of  an  en- 
dowment of  $150,000.  The  value  of  its  buildings 
and  grounds  is  $300,000.  It  has  valuable  mu- 
seums, and  libraries  containing  9.000  volumes, 
The  university  consists  of  (1)  The  College 
of  the  Liberal  Arts,  opened  in  1871  ;  (2)  The 
-Medical  College,  opened  in  1872;  (3)  The 
College  of  the  Fine  Arts,  opened  in  1873. 
Other  colleges  are  contemplated  by  the  charter. 
All  the  colleges  of  the  university  are  open  for 
the  admission  of  women  on  the  same  terms  as 
men.  The  following  seminaries,  in  different  parts 
of  the  state,  have  entered  into  the  relation  of 
gymnasia  or  preparatory  schools  to  the  universi- 
ty :  The  Hudson  River  Institute  and  Female 
College,  at  Claverack  ;  The  ( lazenoi  ia  Seminary, 
at  Cazenovia  ;  The  Ives  Seminary,  at  Antwerp; 
The  Amenia  Seminary,  at  Amenia ;   and  The 


806  TABOR   COLLEGE 

Onondaga  Academy,  at  Onondaga  Valley.  The 
courses  in  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts,  with  the 
degrees  conferred  on  their  completion,  are  as  fol- 
lows: classical,  A.  B.;  Lttin-scieutific  and  Greek- 
scientific,  Ph.  B.;  scientific,  B.  S.  The  College  of 
the  Fine  Arts  is  intended  ultimately  to  include  in- 
struction in  all  the  fine  arts,  consisting  of  (1)  the 
formative  arts, — architecture,  sculpture,  paint- 
ing, engraving,  and  the  various  forms  of  indus- 
trial art,  and  (2)  the  sounding  arts, — music, 
poetry  and  belles-lettres,  and  oratory.  At  present, 
courses  of  instruction  in  architecture,  painting 
and  engraving  are  all  that  have  been  organized. 
For  the  advanced  degrees,  in  either  college,  a 


TEACHERS'   INSTITUTE  , 

post  graduate  course  of  one  year  may  be  pursued. 
The  cost  of  tuition  in  the  College  of  Liberal  Arts 
is  S60  a  year  (to  children  of  clergymen,  $30);  in 
the  other  colleges  tuition  is  $100  a  year.  The 
number  of  instructors  and  students,  in  1876 — 7, 
was  as  follows  :  Liberal  Arts,  11  instructors  and 
155  students;  Fine  Arts,  9  instructors  and  24 
students;  Medical  School,  15  instructors  and 
58  students ;  total,  35  instructors  and  237  stu- 
dents.— The  number  of  pupils  in  the  gymnasia 
preparing  for  college  was  165.  The  chancellors 
of  the  university  have  been  as  follows:  Alexander 
Winchell,  LL.  D.,  1872—4,  and  the  Rev.  Erastus 
0.  Haven,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  since  1874. 


TABOK  COLLEGE,  at  Tabor,  Fremont 
Co.,  Iowa,  chartered  in  1854,  is  controlled  by 
Congregationalists.  It  was  opened  aa  an  acad- 
emy in  1857,  and  as  a  college  in  1866.  It  is 
supported  by  the  income  of  an  endowment  of 
$50,000,  and  by  tuition  fees,  ordinarily  from 
§20  to  $25  a  year.  It  has  a  library  of  3,500 
volumes,  and  embraces  the  following  depart- 
ments: (1)  College  Department,  including  a 
classical  and  a  scientific  course  of  four  years 
each;  (2)  Ladies'  Department,  with  a  four 
years'  course  ;  (3)  Teachers'  Department,  with  a 
two  years'  course  ;  (4)  Preparatory  1  >epartment, 
with  facilities  for  fitting  for  the  higher  depart- 
ments; (5)  Musical  Department.  Females  are 
also  admitted  to  the  college  department.  In 
1874 — 5,  there  were  14  instructors  and  246  stu- 
dents;  namely,  college,  24;  preparatory,  104; 
ladies"  department,  89  ;  teachers'  department, 
15  ;  music,  15.  The  Rev.  Wm.  M.  Brooks,  A.  M., 
is  (1877)  the  president. 

TALLADEGA  COLLEGE,  at  Talladega, 
'  Ala.,  chartered  in  1*69,  is  under  the  control  of 
the  American  Missionary  Association.  It  is 
supported  chiefly  by  contributions  from  the 
Congregational  churches  in  the  North.  It  was 
established,  especially,  for  colored  youth  of  both 
sexes,  and  comprises  a  primary,  a  normal,  a  pre- 
paratory, a  collegiate  and  a  theological  depart- 
ment. In  1875 — 6,  there  were  12  instructors 
and  247  students  :  preparatory ,  1 5  ;  theological, 
14;  normal,  46;  grammar,  25;  intermediate  and 
primarv,  147.  The  Rev.  E.  P.  Lord,  A.  M..  is 
(1877) 'the  principal. 

TASMANIA.     See  Australian  Colonies. 

TAYLOR,  Isaac,  an  English  author,  born 
in  Lavenham,  Aug.  17.,  1787  ;  died  in  Stanford 
Rivers,  June  28.,  1865.  He  was  educated  a 
artist,  but  relinquished  that  pursuit  and  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  In  1818.  he  began  his 
literary  career  by  contributions  to  the  Eclectic 
Review,  and,  in  1865,  he  contributed  to  Good 
M'on/s.  The  Natural  Ifistori/  of  Enthusiasm, 
which  appeared  in  1829,  was  published  anony- 
mously,and  was  received  with  extraordinary  favor. 
In  1 836,  appeared  Home  Education,  a  work  of 
unusual  interest  to  educators  by  reason  of  its 
correct  analysis  of  the  human  mind,  and  its  illus- 


tration of  the  true  order  of  the  development  of 
its  powers.  It  is  hardly  too  much  to  say  that 
this  book  is  invaluable  to  the  teacher  who  would 
learn  the  right  method  to  be  pursued  in  educa- 
tion, or  the  rationale  of  that  method.  Its  general 
conclusions  are  universally  accepted  by  modern 
educators  ;  while  the  detailed  methods  given  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  mental  faculties,  and  the 
illustrations  of  their  unconscious  exercise,  are 
exceedingly  suggestive  and  interesting.  Mr. 
Taylor  was  the  author  of  several  other  works, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  Tlte  Elements 
of  Thought  (1822),  and  Tlte  Work!  of  Mind 
(1857). 

TEACHER,  a  person  who  ussists  another  in 


■quiring  knowledge  or  prac- 
-t cachet's  office  is,  for  the 


tical  skill.  A  scl 
most  part, confined  to  aiding  the  pupil  in  acquir- 
ing knowledge,  with  the  twofold  object  of 
(1)  mental  discipline,  and  (2)  imparting  valuable 
information.  \ft  Inch  of  these  is  to  be  considered 
of  primary  importance  depends  upon  the  grade 
of  the  instruction  and  the  subject  taught.  Al- 
though teaching  is  only  a  part  of  education,  the 
teacher  should  be  an  educator,  since  he  is  re- 
quired to  perforin  an  office  which  bears  an  im- 
portant relation  to  the  general  development,  or 
education,  of  the  child ;  and,  consequently,  he 
should  clearly  understand  the  nature  of  that  re- 
lation. In  other  words,  no  person  can  be  merely 
a  teacher  ;  he  must,  to  be  truly  efficient,  educate 
while  he  teaches.  Indeed,  he  cannot  but  do  so. 
His  example,  and  his  personal  influence  of  every 
kind,  will  necessarily  educate  —  will  tend  to 
form,  permanently,  the  character  of  his  pupil, 
either  for  good  or  evil.  This  consideration  should 
determine  the  qualifications  of  the  teacher,  which 
should  not  consist  merely  in  scholarship,  book- 
learning,  or  intellectual  culture,  but  that  assem- 
blage of  personal  qualities  and  accomplishments 
(including  scholarship)  which  will  render  his  in- 
fluence in  every  respect  effective  and  salutary. 
(Sic  Didactics,  Education,  and  Instruction.) 

TEACHERS'  INSTITUTE,  the  name 
given,  in  the  I  'nited  States,  to  an  assemblage  of 
teachers  of  elementary  or  district  schools,  called 
together  temporarily  for  the  purpose  of  receiv- 
ing professional  instruction.     Such  meetings  are 


TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES 


SOT 


licld  under  the  direction  of  the  school  authorities, 
usually  the  state,  county,  or  town  superintend- 
ent ;  and  quite  often  there  is  a  provision  of  law 
requiring  the  teachers  employed  in  the  common 
schools  to  attend,  and  permitting  a  continuance 
of  their  salaries  during  such  attendance.  Ateach- 
ers'  institute  is  usually  conducted  by  an  experi- 
enced teacher,  having  special  skill  for  the  work. 
This  requires  a  good  knowledge  of  the  practice 
and  theory  of  teaching,  especially  as  applied  to 
the  ordinary  branches  of  common-school  educa- 
tion ;  it  also  needs  ability  as  a  lecturer.  Teach- 
ers' institutes  are  designed  to  serve  as  a  substi- 
tute for,  or  as  complementary  to,  normal  in- 
struction ;  and  as  such  they  constitute  a  valuable 
agency  in  connection  with  a  system  of  common- 
school  instruction.  —  See  Bates,  Method  of 
Teachers  Institutes  (New  York),  and  Institute 
Lectures  (New  York);  Fowi.e,  The  Teachers' 
Institute  (New  York) ;  Phelps,  The  Teachers' 
Hand-Book  (New  York). 

TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES.  Schools  for 
the  education  and  training  of  teachers  are  called 
teachers'  seminaries  in  Germany,  Russia,  Fin- 
land. Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  the  Ger- 
man cantons  of  Switzerland;  traiiiimj  seliool.;, 
in  Austria  and  the  Netherlands;  preparatory 
schools,  in  Hungary;  and  normal  schools,  in 
France,  Great  Britain,  Italy.  Spain.  Portugal, 
Greece,  Roumama,  the  French  cantons  of  Switzer- 
land, and  the  United  States.  In  Great  Brit- 
ain, the  name  train  ing  college  is  very  generally 
used. — The  first  establishment  of  the  kind  of 
which  there  is  any  accurate  account,  was  the 
Institute  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Christian 
Schools,  founded,  in  1681,  by  the  abbe  de  la 
Salle,  canon  of  the  eathedr.il  at  Reims.  —  In 
16!)T,  August  Hermann  Francke,  in  connection 
with  his  orphan  school  at  Halle,  founded  a 
teacliers'  class,  composed  of  poor  students  who 
assisted  him  in  the  work  of  instruction  in  return 
for  their  board  and  lodging.  From  this  class  he 
.selected,  in  1704,  twelve  pupils  who  exhibited 
'the  right  basis  of  piety,  knowledge,  and  aptness 
to  teach",  and  constituted  them  his  seminarium 
prceceptorum.  These  pupil-teachers  were  trained 
for  two  years ;  and  such  was  their  aptitude  for 
teaching  that  their  fame  was  spread  over  the 
greater  part  of  Germany,  and  hundreds  flocke  I 
to  Francke's  school  to  study  his  improved 
methods  and  superior  organization.  Johann  Ju- 
lius Hecker,  a  pupil  of  Francke's,  established  a 
teachers'  seminary  at  Stettin,  in  Pomerania.  in 
1735,  and  another  in  Berlin,  in  1748.  Hecker 
worked  under  the  patronage  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  who  issued  a  royai  ordinance  that  all 
vacancies  in  the  schools  on  the  crown-lands 
should  be  filled  by  teachers  trained  in  the  Berlin 
seminary.  In  addition  to  this,  he  granted  an 
annual  stipend  to  twelve  of  the  graduates,  a 
number  afterwards  increased  to  sixty.  The 
teachers'  seminaries  at  Rekahn,  in  Brandenburg, 
became  the  model  schools  of  Germany.  From 
Prussia,  the  system  gradually  spread  over  the 
greater  part  of  Furope.  It  was  introduced  into 
Hanover  in  1757;  into  Austria  in  1767;  into 


Switzerland  in  1805  ;  into  France  in  1808  ;  into 
Holland  in  1816;  into  England  in  1842;  and 
into  Belgium  in  1843.  Since  then,  it  has  been 
introduced  into  the  remaining  countries  of 
Europe;  into  North  and  South  America ;  and 
into  British  India  and  Japan. — As  Prussia  was 
the  first  nation  to  adopt  and  enforce  the  special 
training  of  teachers,  the  following  provisions  of 
the  Prussian  law  of  1819  will  serve  to  explain 
the  aims  and  purposes  of  teachers  seminaries, 
not  only  in  Prussia  itself  but  in  all  the  counties 
into  which  they  have  been  introduced  :  (1)  No 
seminary  for  teachers  in  the  primary  schools 
shall  admit  more  than  seventy  pupil-teachers. 
(2)  In  every  department  in  which  the  number  of 
Catholics  and  Protestants  are  about  equal,  there 
shall  be,  as  often  as  circumstances  will  permit,  a 
teachers'  seminary  for  the  members  of  each  de- 
nomination ;  but  where  the  inequality  is  very 
marked,  the  teachers  of  the  least  numerous  de- 
nomination shall  be  obtained  from  the  teachers' 
seminaries  belonging  to  that  denomination  in  a 
neighboring  department,  or  from  smaller  estab- 
lishments, in  the  same  department,  annexed  to  an 
elementary  primary  school.  Teachers'  seminaries 
for  the  simultaneous  education  of  persons  of  dif- 
ferent religious  belief  shall  be  permitted  when 
the  pupil-teachers  can  obtain,  close  at  hand,  suit- 
able instruction  in  the  doctrines  of  their  own 
church.  (3)  '1  he  teachers'  seminaries  shall  be 
established,  whenever  it  is  possible,  in  small 
towns,  so  as  to  preserve  the  pupil  teachers 
from  the  dissipations,  temptations,  and  habits 
of  life  which  are  not  suitable  to  their  future 
profession,  but  without  subjecting  them  to  a  mo- 
nastic seclusion ;  but  the  town  must  not  be 
too  small,  in  order  that  they  may  profit  by 
the  vicinity  of  several  elementary  and  superior 
primary  schools.  (6)  No  young  man  can  be 
received  into  a  teachers'  seminary  who  has  not 
passed  through  a  course  of  instruction  in  an  ele- 
mentary primary  school :  nor  can  any  young  man 
be  received,  of  the  excellence  of  whose  moral 
character  there  is  the  least  ground  of  suspicion. 
The  age  of  admission  into  the  teachers'  semi- 
naries shall  be  from  sixteen  to  eighteen  years. 

(7)  As  to  the  methods  of  instruction,  the  direct- 
ors of  the  teachers' seminaries  shall  rather  seek 
to  conduct  the  pupil-teachers  by  their  own  ex- 
perience to  simple  and  clear  principles,  than  to 
give  them  theories  for  their  guidance:  and,  with 
tills  end  in  view,  primary  schools  shall  be  joined 
to  all  the  teachers'  seminaries,  where  the  pupil- 
teachers  may  be  practiced  in  the  act  of  teaching. 

(8)  In  each  teachers  seminary,  the  course  of  in- 
struction shall  last  three  years,  of  which  the  first 
shall  be  devoted  to  the  continuation  of  the 
course  of  instruction  which  the  pupils  com- 
menced in  the  primary  schools ;  the  second,  to 
instruction  of  a  higher  order:  and  the  third, 
to  practice  in  the  primary  school  attached  to 
the  establishment.  From  the  law  of  1819,  and 
truth  tin-  general  regulations,  the  following  pro- 
visions have  been  gathered  :  No  young  man  is 
allowed  to  conduct  a  primary  school  until  he 
has  obtained  a  certificate  of  his  capacity  to  fulfill 


TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES 


the  important  duties  of  a  school-master.  The 
examination  of  the  candidates  for  these  certifi- 
cates is  conducted  by  commissions,  composed  of 
two  laymen  and  two  clergymen,  or  two  priests. 
The  provincial  consistories  nominate  the  lay 
members,  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  the 
respective  provinces  nominate  the  clerical  mem- 
bers for  the  examination  of  the  religious  edu- 
cation of  the  Protestant  candidates;  and  the 
Roman  Catholic  bishop  nominates  the  two  priests 
who  examine  the  Roman  Catholic  candidates. 
The  members  of  these  commissions  are  nomi- 
nated for  three  years,  but  they  can  afterward  be 
continued  in  office  if  advisable.  These  certifi- 
cates are  not  valid  until  they  have  been  ratified 
by  the  superior  authorities,  that  is,  by  the  pro- 
vincial consistories.  Tin'  provincial  authorities 
can  re-examine  the  candidates,  if  they  think  that 
there  is  any  reason  to  doubt  what  is  specified  in 
the  certificate  granted  by  the  committee  of  ex- 
amination, and  can  declare  them  incompetent; 
and  they  can  require  the  local  authorities  to  pro- 
ceed to  another  examination,  if  they  are  not 
satisfied  with  the  character  of  any  of  the  can- 
didates. Young  women  who  are  candidates  for 
the  situation  of  school-mistress  arc  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  same  kind  of  examination  "before 
they  can  obtain  the  certificate  enabling  them  to 
take  charge  of  a  girls'  school. — The  provincial 
consistories  have  the  power  to  send  any  master 
of  a  primary  school  who  appears  to  be  in  need 
of  further  instruction,  to  a  teachers' seminary  for 
the  time  that  may  appear  requisite  to  give  him 
the  necessary  additional  instruction.  During  his 
absence,  his  place  is  supplied  by  a  student 
from  the  teachers'  seminary,  who  receives  a 
temporary  certificate.  The  expenses  of  the  mas- 
ters who  attend  for  a  second  time  the  teach- 
ers' seminaries  are  generally  defrayed  by  the 
educational  authorities.  The  school-masters  are 
encouraged  to  continue  their  education  by  the 
hope  of  preferment  to  better  situations,  or  to 
superior  schools  ;  but  before  they  can  attain  this 
preferment,  they  must  pass  a  second  examina- 
tion, conducted  by  the  same  authorities  that  eon- 
ducted  the  former. — Teachers  who  show  them- 
selves entitled  to  promotion  to  the  position  of 
directors  of  teachers'  seminaries,  are  authorized 
to  travel,  both  in  Prussia  and  in  other  countries, 
for  the  purpose  of  extending  their  knowledge  of 
the  organization,  instruction,  and  discipline  of 
schools.  A  valuable  ordinance,  passed  in  1826, 
and  renewed  in  1846,  requires  every  director  of 
a  teachers'  seminary,  once  a  year,  to  visit  a 
certain  portion  of  the  schools  within  his  circuit. 
He  thus  makes  himself  acquainted  witli  the 
condition  of  the  schools,  listens  to  the  instruc- 
tion, takes  part  in  the  same,  and  gives  to  the 
teachers  such  hints  for  improvement  as  his  ob- 
servation may  suggest.  The  results  of  In-  yearly 
visits,  he  presents,  in  the  form  of  a  report   to 

the   sel 1   authorities  of   the   province,  —  To 

render  the  efficacy  of  the  teachers'  seminaries 
more  complete,  it  is  provided  that,  at  the  end  of 
three  years  after  leaving  the  seminary,  young 
teachers  shall  return  to  pass  a  second  examina- 


tion.— Before  a  young  man  is  eligible  for  exam- 
ination to  enter  a  teachers'  seminary,  he  must, 
forward  to  the  director  or  principal  (1)  a  certifi- 
cate signed  by  a  priest  or  minister,  certifying 
that  his  character  and  past  life  have  been  moral 
and  blameless,  ('-')  a  certificate  from  a  physician 
attesting  his  freedom  from  chronic  complaints 
and  the  soundness  of  his  health  ami  constitution, 
(3)  a  certificate  of  his  having  been  vaccinated 
within  two  years,  (4)  a  certificate  of  his  baptism 
(if  a  Christian),  and  (5)  a  certificate,  signed  by 
two  or  more  teachers,  of  his  previous  industrious 
and  moral  habits  and  sufficient  ability  for  the 
teacher's  profession.  The  subjects  in  which  the 
candidates  are  examined  are  Biblical  history, 
the  history  of  Christianity,  Luther's  catechism, 
writing,  reading,  arithmetic  I  mental  and  written), 
grammar,  geography,  German  history,  natural 
history,  the  first  principles  of  physics,  singing, 
and  the  violin.  A\  hen  the  examination  is  fin- 
ished, a  list  of  the  candidates  is  made  out  in  the 
order  of  their  standing ;  and  from  this,  as  many 
of  the  highest  are  elected  students  of  the  semi- 
nary as  will  fill  the  vacancies  of  that  year, 
occasioned  by  the  departure  of  those  who  have 
left  to  take  charge  of  village  schools.  The  course 
of  instruction  is  twofold. — intellectual  and  in- 
dustrial. The  intellectual  course  consists  in  a 
review  of,  and  a  continuation  in,  the  subjects 
above  mentioned,  to  which  are  added  botany, 
pedagogy,  drawing,  Latin  and  French,  and  very 
often  English  also.  A  knowledge  of  these  lan- 
guages is  not  required  for  a  teat  hers  diploma; 
but.  without  a  thorough  familiarity  with  the 
other  subjects  of  study,  he  cannot  be  licensed  to 
I  each.  The  industrial  training  consists  of  the  per- 
formance of  all  the  ordinary  household  work, — 
preparing  the  meals,  taking  care  of  the  sleeping 
apartments,  pruning  the  fruit-trees  and  culti- 
vating, in  the  lands  always  attached  to  the  semi- 
naries, the  vegetables  necessary  for  the  use  of  the 
household.  At  the  end  of  the  third  year,  the 
young  men  are  examined,  and  marked  1,  2,  or  3, 
ur  are  rejected.  Those  marked  1  are  entitled 
to  teach  as  principals ;  and  those  marked  2  or 
3  are  only  permitted  to  act  in  the  capacity  of 


The  increase  in  the  number  of  teachers'  semi- 
naries in  Europe,  during  the  past  twenty-five 
veal's,  has  been  very  marked.  The  number  report- 
ed, in  1875,  in  the  different  European  countries, 
British  India,  and  the  British  Colonies,  was  as 
follows  : 


.  64 
.   63 
.101 
.    73 

.'lis 

.  IE 

'.  10 
.     7 

'.     6 

Hungary 

Luxemburg 

<  Itlitr  (i.Tinau  statrn 

Prance 

Italy 

Russia 

Finland 

Sweden 

Norway 

Kntil  .ml 

Portugal 

Rmimania 

Suit/erlaiul 

British  ('..lenieB 

Ireland 

Total t 

Normal  Schools  in  the  United  States. — Massa- 
chusetts was  the  first  state  of  the  American 
Union  to  introduce  the  system  of  teachers'  semi- 


TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES 


naries,  or  normal  schools.  The  people  of  New 
England  became  familiar  with  the  Prussian  sys- 
tem through  the  exertions  of  the  Rev.  (  'haiics 
Brooks  who  had  obtained  his  knowledge  of  it 
from  Ur.  Julius,  whose  acquaintance  he  had  ac- 
cidentally formed  while  crossing  the  Atlantic 
Ocem.  Dr.  Julius  had  been  sent  to  the  United 
,  States  by  the  Prussian  government  to  study  pris- 
on discipline  ;  and  it  was  while  on  a  voyage  to 
Europe  that  he  explained  to  Mr.  Brooks  the 
method  of  training  teachers  for  the  country 
schools.  Mr.  Brooks  was  so  impressed  and  inter- 
ested that  he  resolved  to  investigate  for  himself 
the  Prussian  system  of  teachers' seminaries.  This 
he  did  with  great  care  and  attention  to  all  the 
details.  After  his  return  to  the  United  States, 
he  devoted  three  years  to  the  diffusion  of  his 
ideas  concerning  the  necessity  and  importance, 
of  institutions  for  the  education  and  training  of 
teachers.  He  enlisted  in  the  cause  a  considerable 
number  of  able  men,  among  whom  were  John 
Quincy  Adams  and  Daniel  Webster.  Finally, 
the  legislature  of  Massachusetts  was  prevailed 
upon  to  establish  a  state  board  of  education, 
with  Horace  Maun  as  its  secretary,  and  to  make 
an  appropriation  to  institute  two  state  normal 
schools.  Mr.  Mann  became  the  ardent  advocate 
of  teachers' seminaries,  institutes,  ami  all  other 
means  of  educating  and  training  teachers  for  their 
work.  Early  in  the  present  century,  De  Witt 
Clinton  recommended  the  establishment  of  teach- 
ers'seminaries  in  the  state  of  New  York.  The 
Public  School  Society  of  the  city  of  New  York 
founded,  in  1834,  a  Saturday  Normal  School  for 
teachers ;  but  this  was  only  a  high  school  in 
which  were  taught  the  elementary  branches  of 
an  English  education.  The  first  public  normal 
school  established  in  the  United  States  was  the 
one  opened  at  Lexington  (afterwards  removed 
to  Framingham,  Mass.),  July  3  ,  1839,  under  the 
principalship  of  Cyrus  Peirce  (q.  v.);  although  S. 
R.  Hall  (q.  v.)  had  opened  a  teachers'  seminary  of 
a  private  character  as  early  as  1823.  From  that 
time  till  1850,  only  seven  schools  were  founded  : 
three  in  Massachusetts,  and  one  each  in  New 
York,  Maine,  Ohio,  and  Illinois.  During  the  next 
decade,  from  1  Sol)  to  lsiill,  but  twelve  normal 
schools  were  established,  three  in  Ohio,  two  in 
Massachusetts,  two  in  Illinois,  and  one  each  in 
Connecticut.  Michigan,  Missouri,  New  Jersey, 
and  Pennsylvania.  Between  1860  and  L870, 
fifty-two  schools  for  teachers  were  established  ; 
and,  from  1870  to  the  close  of  1875,  sixty-six 
normal  schools  were  founded.  Very  many  of 
these  schools  have  connected  with  them  model 
schools,  or  schools  of  practice,  sometimes  called 
training  schools,  in  which  the  students  of  the 
normal  school  proper  are  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity, under  the  supervision  and  direction  of 
experienced  teachers,  of  putting  in  practice 
to  some  extent,  the  pedagogic  principles  and 
rules  which  they  have  acquired  theoretically,  so 
as  to  be  invpared  for  actual  work  on  emerging 
as  graduates  from  the  normal  school.  Such  schools 
constitute  a  part  of  the  means  of  professional 
training,  as  indispensable  to  the  teacher  as  the 


hospital  and  cliitiqite  to  the  young  and  inexperi- 
'  enced  physician.     The  following  table  exhibits 
the  statistics  of   normal  schools  in  the  United 
States  for  L876. 


NAME 


Alabama 

Kansas 

>• 

Louisiana '. 

Mas'-arlmsetts 

V.l:,,sk, 

New  York..'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
North  Carolina K. 

Rhode  Ulaii.l 

411 

13 

782 

2-1 

:t.,l 

9 

1  -71 

72 

•J' 'J 

7 

1  ... 

!► 

2<i! 

1(1 

4  l..s 

16 

:i,24* 

S3 

351 
West  Virginia  fi  734 

Wisconsin  5        1,027 

District  of  Columbia 3  104 

Utah  Territory . 

Total' ....    137      2»,0ua    1,046 

Teachers'  seminaries  have  exercised  the  most 
beneficial  influence  in  the  communities  in  which 
they  exist.  The  moral  effect  of  the  instruction 
of  trained  and  educated  teachers  on  the  rising 
generation  is  incalculable.  The  gaiu  in  time, 
the  better  and  simpler  methods  of  teaching,  the 
knowledge  of  the  children's  physical. mental, and 
moral  nature,  the  good  order,  thorough  organiza- 
tion, and  general  spirit  of  harmony  and  humanity 
\\  hich  are  the  results  of  a  thorough  study  of  the 
theory  and  practice  of  teaching,  combine  to  con- 
stitute the  teachers'  seminary  one  of  the  most 
useful  and  economic  institutions  of  modern  civil- 
ization. The  teachers'  seminaries  of  Prussia 
have  filled  the  country  schools  of  that  nation 
with  school-masters  whose  education,  talents  and 
attainments  have  caused  them,  in  the  words  of 
an  enlightened  English  traveler,  "to  be  respected 
by  the  whole  community."  Prior  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  such  seminaries,  these  country 
schools  were  taught  by  "ignorant  tailors,  shoe- 
makers, common  soldiers,  and  old  women."  To 
a  great  extent,  the  normal  schools  of  the  United 
States  have  exercised  a  similar  influence  in  till- 
ing teachers' positions  with   a  superior  class  of 

men  and  women.      Although  the  normal  scl Is 

of   the    United   States  cannot   yet    furnish   one- 
tenth  of   the  number  of  teachers  required  for 


810 


TEACHERS'  SEMINARIES 


the  common  schools,  they  exercise  a  powerful, 
though  indirect, influence  in  creatiiigaik'iiiand  for 
better  teachers,  and  in  imparting  and  diffusing 
a  knowledge  of  better  methods  of  instruction. 
Intelligent  statesmen  in  Europe  and  America 
have  used  their  best  efforts  to  establish  teachers' 
seminaries,  wherever  the  state  has  undertaken  the 
education  of  the  masses  at  public  expense,  as  a 
measure  of  wisdom  and  economy.  Experience 
has  demonstrated  the  fact  that,  owing  to  the 
material  on  which  the  teacher  operates  —  the 
childish  mind  —  the  profession  of  teaching  dif- 
fers from  other  professions,  and  cannot  fall  under 
the  law  of  supply  and  demand,  but  requires  the 
special  interposition  of  private  corporations  or 
of  government  itself. 

The  following  table  shows  the  location  etc.  of 
the  normal  schools  in  the  United  States. 

Normal  Schools  in  the  United  States. 


Stat.i  Ni.rmal  School 

Rust  Normal  Institute. . . 

Lincoln  Normal  Univ 

N.  D.,  Talladega  College.. 

5  N.  D.,  Arkansas  Ind.  Univ. 

6  Pino  Bluff  Normal  Inst. . . 

7  State  Normal  School 

!  State  Normal  School 

of  Delaware  College 


Del.  St  ,lo  Normal  Univ.. 
N.  D.  of  Atlanta  Univ 

Normal  School 

Evan.Luth.N  irmal  School 
Southern  111.  Normal  Univ 
Chicago  Normal  School. . 
"  D.  of  Rock  River  I'niv.  Dixon,  111. 

ik  Co.  Normal  School. .  Englewood,  111.. 
EngliahN.S.  Galena.  111. 


ormal.  Ill 

Peoria,  111 

Goshen,  Ind 

Kentlaud,  Intl.... 
La  Grange,  Ind, . . . 
Terre  Haute,  Ind.. 
Valparaiso,  Ind...  , 


Salem.  Iowa 

Concordia,  Kan 

Emporia,  Kan 

Leavenworth,  Kan. 

Berea,  Ky 

Carlisle,  Ky 

Louisville,  Ky 


Slate  Norni.il University 

Peoria  Co.  Normal  School. 

Normal  and  Class.  School. 

N.W.  Normal  School 

La  Grange  Co.  Nor.  School 
Ind.  state  Normal  School. 
N.  Ind.  Normal  School  and 

Business  Institute  .... 
E.  Iowa  Normal  School.  .  . 
Chair  of  Didactics,   Iowa 

State  University 

Nor.  Inst.  (Wnittier  Coll. 
Kan.  State  Normal  School 

State  Normal  School 

Leavenworth  St.  N.  S 

N.  D.  of  Berea  College 

Kentucky  Normal  School. 
LouisvilleTraiuingS.  !,,,,  ] 
Miiidcnllig'il'nbli,  s, Cool  Minden.La, 
N.  D.,  New  Oilcans  Univ..|New  Orleans,   La... 
N.  D„  Straight  University  New  Orleans,  La. . . . 

Peabody  Normal  Sent New  Orleans,  La 

Eastern  State  N.  S c'astine.  Me. 

State  Normal  School Farniington,  Me,... 

D.,  Main  Central  Inst..  Pittsfield,  Me....... 

D.,  Oak  Grove  Seminars  \  assalboro.  Me.. 

It. N.S.forCol. Teachers  Baltimore,  Md 

M.  Stato  Normal  School..  Baltimore,  Md 

St.  Catherine's  Nor.  Inst.  Baltimore.  Md 

Boston  Normal  School...  Boston,  Mass 

Mass.  Normal  Art  School.  Boston,  Mass 

State  Normal  School Bridgewater,  M:iss. 

Framitigham  Stat.-  N.S...  Franiingham,  Mass. 

Stato  Normal  School Salem,  Mass 

Westfield  State  N.S Wcstneld,   Mass.... 

State  Normal   School Worcester,   Mass. 

Michigan  State  N.S Ypsilanti,  Mich 


54  State  N.  s.  at  Maukato Mankato.  Minn... 

r..-.  state  X.  s.  at  St.  clou. I...  St.  Cloud.  Minn  ... 
5li  First  State  Norma]  School  Winona,  Minn.  .  . 

57  Mississippi  state  N.S Holly  Springs.  Mis 

.r>s  Tougaloo  I'll.  ,v  state  N.  S.  Tougaloo,  Miss.  .  . 

59  Normal  Institute Bolivar,  Mo 

60S.  E.  Missouri   State  N.  S.  Cape  Girardeau,  M 

61  N.  C.  Univ  of  Missouri. .  Columbia,  Mo 

62  Fruitland  Normal    lust...  Jackson,  Mo......! 

63  X.  D.,  Lincolu  Institute..  Jefferson  City,  Mo. 
I'd  N.  Missouri  State  N.  S. . . .  Kirksville,  Mo 

65  Normal  School St.  Louis,  Mo 

66  State  N   S.  District  No.  2    Warrciisburg,  Mo. 

67  Nebraska  State   N.  S Peru,  Neb 1867  « 

68  N.  H.  State  Normal  School  I  lvmouth.   N.  H 1870- 

C.'.i  State  Normal  School Trenton,  N.J 1855- 

7UN.Y.  State  Normal  School  Albany.  NY 1844  . 

71  State  Normal  School Brockport.  N.  Y 1867- 

.72  State  Normal  School Buffalo,  NY 1871  ■ 

73  State  Normal  and  T.  S  .  .  .  Cortland,  N.  Y 

74  State  Normal  and  T.  S...  Fredonia,  N.  Y 

75  State  Normal  and  T.  S. . . .  Geneseo,  N.  Y 

76,Female  Normal  College.. .  New  York.  N.  Y 

77  Oswego  State  Nor  amlT.S.  Oswego,  N.  Y 

78  State  Normal  and  T.  S... .  Potsdam.  N.  Y 

79  Ray's  Normal  Institute..  Kernersville.  N.  C. 
8il  EHeiidale  Teachers'   Inst    Little  River,  X.c. 

81  Shaw  University Raleigh.  N.  C 

82  Tilstou  Normal  School Wilmington,  N.  C... 

S3  Xorthwestern  Ohio  N    S..  Ada,  Ohio 

84  Ohio.N.K.,v  Business  Inst    Bloomnigburgh.Oh 

85  Cincinnati  Normal  Si  hool  cincmiiati,  Ohio 1868 

so  Hopedale  Normal  S.l 1    Hopedale,  Ohio 1852 

87  National  Normals, 1    .  I.i.iii,,.,,,  Ohio 1855 

88  Western  Rescue  N    s.         Milan.  Ohio 1852 

S'.i  N.  D.  Mt.  Unii.  .     ,1.  _■■       Mt    Onion,  Ohio.. ..  ."7  1846 

'.'"Orwell  Normal   Ii.-titut.     orw.ll.  Ohio 1865 

'Jl  .Southern  Ohio  N    s Pleasantville,  Ohio. 

'.'J  Republic  Norm.ds.  I,..,  l       K,  ,.lll.llc,  Ohio 

S3  Ohio  Central  N.  s Worthington,  Ohio 

94.X.  S.  of  Wilberlorc.    Dnil    X.nia.  nlin. 

96  Allegheny  Normal    Inst..  .  Allegheny  ( 'it  v,  Pa.. 

'.'7  Bloomsburg  State   N.S...  Blooinsbiirg    'pa... 

98  Northwestern  State  X 

'■instate  Normal  School. 
Ill"  Keystone  state  N.  S.. 
101  Central  N.  S.  Association.  Lock 

I".' state  Normal    School Mansfield,  Pa 

111!  Southwestern  N.  C Sagamore,   Pa 

1114  State  Normal   School...    ,  Millers  ville,  1 

1115  Snyder  Co.  Normal  Inst      Selin's  Grove. 
me  riimb.  Valley  State  N 


Edenboro',  Pa. 

Indiana.  Pa 

Kutztown,  Pa. 


Shipponsburgh.  Pa...  1873- 


Hi;  Westchester  State 

108  Rhode  Island  N.S Providence,  R.  I. 

109  Avery  Normal  Institute..  Charleston,  S.  C. 
llii  State  Normal  School Columbia,  S.  C. 

111  Nor.orT.S.  for  Fre.dmeii  Kuoxville,  Tenn 

112  Freedmeiis  Normal  Inst   Maryville,  Tenn. 

113  New  Providence  Institute1 

|      MaryviUe  College Maryville,  Tenn. 

114  Le  Movne  Normal  School.  Memphis.  Tenn... 
115.N.  D.  of  Fisk  Umversitv  Nashville,  Tenn.. 
116N.  D.  Central  T.nn.  Coll  .  Nashville,  Tenn.  . 
117  State  Normal  University.  Nashville.  Tenn. . 

lis  State  Normal  School    .  .'.  .  (astleton,  Vt 

119. Johnson  Normal  s.  hool.    Johnson,  Vt 

PJllState  Normal   S,  1 1 Randolph,  Vt 

121  HamptonXormalaudAgri 

cultural  Institute Hampton.  Va 

122  Richmond  Normal  School  Richmond.  Va.... 

123  Fairmouut  State  X.  S Fairmouut.  W.  Ye 


1875 

1867  — 
1867 


ill. 


1839      l..,s,.,,,    Normals,! I        ,     Whitewater.  Wis... 

1V,4      131  Km.lercart.  .,  N.  S Washington,  D.  C. 

1S39  '  135  N.  D,  Howard  Iniversitv  Washington.  D.  C. 
1774  136  Washington  Nor.  School  .  Washington.  D.  C. 
1852  |  137  St. George's  NormalSchool  St.  George,  Utah.. 


.  1868  — 
1.1873 
.  1870  — 
.  1871  — 
.  1866— 
.  1875 
.  1870 
.  1868— 

.'  1867 
.  1873 
.  1875 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION 


811 


TECHNICAL  EDUCATION  has  fur  its 
object  the  improvement  of  the  various  arts  and 
trades  by  imparting  the  requisite  scientific 
knowledge  and  practical  skill  for  their  successful 
prosecution.  Two  great  classes  of  t rades  to  which 
it  may  be  applied,  may  be  noticed:  (1)  work- 
ing trades  (including  chemical  trades,  as  dyeing, 
tanning,  etc.;  mechanical  trades,  as  watch-making, 
carpentry, etc.;  artistic  trades. as  of  the  decorator, 
jeweler, engraver,  etc.) ,  and  (2)  commercial  trades, 
as  of  the  iron-monger  and  retailer  of  glass,  ce- 
ramic wares,  etc.  'Hie  higher  branches, — those  in 
which  the  value  of  the  product  consists  rather 
in  the  labor  and  skill  bestowed  than  in  the  ma- 
terial used,  and  those  involving  the  exercise  of 
taste,  have  been  naturally  found  to  exhibit  most 
improvement,  under  a  proper  system  of  instruc- 
tion, and,  in  this  aspect,  may  be  said  to  need 
most  a  special  training.  The  International  Kx- 
hibition  in  London,  in  1851,  which  revealed  the 
superiority  of  the  Continental  nations  in  all 
that  relates  to  the  application  of  art  and  beauty 
to  manufactures,  gave  a  special  impulse  to  tech- 
nical education.  This  superiority  was  traced 
directly  to  the  facilities  for  special  instruction 
afforded  to  manufacturers,  artisans,  anil  others, 
especially  in  France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland, 
(the  need  of  which  has  been  increasingly  felt 
with  the  progress  of  modern  inventions),  the  ad- 
vance of  science,  and  the  decay,  in  England,  of  the 
system  of  apprenticeship.  A  theoretical  knowl- 
edge of  principles,  in  addition  to  mere  manual 
dexterity  and  empirical  insight,  has  become 
more  than  ever  necessary.  Among  the  branches 
generally  requisite,  are  drawing,  geometry,  and 
chemistry.  Experience  has  proved  that,  to  be 
in  the  highest  degree  efficient,  technical  educa- 
tion must  begin  in  the  primary  school,  and  be 
based  on  general  literary  culture.  In  continental 
Europe,  technical  schoois  are  generally  supported 
by  the  government,  either  local  or  general.  The 
means  of  instruction  include  lectures,  evening 
schools  and  Sunday-schools,  museums,  etc.  In 
Great  Britain,  mechanics'  institutes  are  a  prom- 
inent feature.  These  generally  have  a  library,  a 
reading-room,  and  evening  classes  in  various 
branches.  In  Germany,  there  are,  among  inferior 
institutions,  handicraft  schools,  further-improve- 
ment schools,  etc.,  in  which,  sometimes,  the  com- 
mon-school branches  are  taught  to  apprentices 
and  journeymen,  and,  sometimes,  instruction  is 
given  in  geometry,  drawing,  and  other  special 
branches,  as  a  qualification  for  the  practice  of  the 
lower  trades.  The  higher  institutions  impart  tech- 
nical instruction  calculated  to  aid  in  the  pursuit 
<ji  the  higher  trades.  They  generally  presuppose 
such  a  training  as  is  given,  for  instance,  in  the 
higher  real  schools.  Some  are  connected  with  the 
real  schools  as  their  higher  classes;  some  are 
separate  institutions,  with  three  or  four  classes  or 
courses,  either  similar  to  gymnasia,  or  between 
these  and  the  universities ;  others  are,  in  form, 
technical  universities  on  the  plan  of  the  Poly- 
technic School  of  Paris.  The  branches  taught 
are  mathematics,  mechanics,  physics,  chemistry, 
natural   history,   technology,  di awing,  modeling. 


etc.  There  are  many  special  schools  for  appren- 
tices on  the  Continent  (giving  instruction  to 
weavers,  watch-makers,  machinists,  etc..  according 
to  the  needs  of  the  locality),  in  which  labor  per- 
formed under  the  direction  of  expi  rienced work- 
men occupies  a  large  part  of  the  time,  while  the 
rest  is  devoted  to  studies  immediately  bear- 
ing on  the  art  or  industry  taught.  In  West 
Flanders,  Belgium,  there  are  communal  schools 
for  apprentice  weavers,  in  jwhich  primary  and 
religious  instruction  is  joined  with  manual  labor. 
In  the  power-loom  weaving  school  of  Mulhouse. 
Alsace,  instruction  is  given  of  a  grade  to  prepare 
superintendents  of  factories.  The  most  impor- 
tant agency  in  the  direction  of  technical  educa- 
tion in  Great  Britain  is  found  in  the  numerous 
art  schools  that  have  sprung  up  in  various  parts 
of  the  kingdom,  at  the  head  of  which  are  those 
of  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  These  have 
been  instrumental  in  diffusing  a  knowledge  of 
industrial  drawing,  and  their  effects  have  been 
widely  felt.  The  establishment  of  a  central 
technical  university  (with  subordinate  colleges, 
etc.,  in  regular  gradation)  has  been  advocated. 
In  the  United  States,  but  little  has  been  done  to- 
ward technical  education.  There  are  mechanics' 
associations  in  various  cities,  which  afford,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  means  for  the  general  or 
technical  improvement  of  the  working  classes,  and 
numerous  business  colleges,  in  which  a  knowl- 
edge of  book-keeping  and  other  business  opera- 
tions is  imparted.  Industrial  training  is  given 
in  Girard  College,  Philadelphia.  The  Worcester 
County  Free  Institute  of  Industrial  Science  (see 
Science,  Schools  of)  may  be  classed  as  a  tech- 
nical school.  Industrial  art  is  taught  in  the 
schools  of  the  Cooper  Union  (New  York),  in 
the  Philadelphia  School  of  Design  fur 'Women, 
and  in  various  scientific  schools.  In  1870,  the 
state  of  Massachusetts  provided  by  law  that 
"  Any  city  or  town  may.  and  every  city  and 
town  having  more  than  ten  thousand  inhabitants 
shall,  annually  make  provision  for  giving  free 
instruction  in  industrial  or  mechanical  drawing 
to  persons  over  fifteen  years  of  age.  either  in 
day- or  evening-schools,   under  the  direction  of 

the  school-committee."  Under  this  act,  < sider- 

able  progress  has  been  made.  A  similar  law  was 
enacted  in  the  state  of  New  York  in  1875. 
Among  Euro] ican  institutions,  the  following  may 
be  mentioned:  in  Austria-Hungary,  the  Imperial 
Royal  Commercial  and  Nautical  Academy,  in 
Triest,  the  Commercial  High  School,  in  Vienna, 
the  commercial  academics  in  Prague.  liratz,  and 
Buda-Pesth.  the  Imperial  Royal  Technical  In- 
stitute, in  Cracow,  the  School  of  Industrial  Arts 
and  the  School  for  Architects  and  Machinists,  in 
Vienna,  the  schools  for  artisans  in  Gratz,  Prague, 
Briinn,  Bielitz,  Czernowitz,  and  Kaschan,  the 
Higher  Weaving  School,  in  Briinn,  and  numer- 
ous inferior  schools,  special  and  general,  for  arti- 
sans, etc.;  in  Germany,  the  higher  commercial 
institutions  in  Berlin.  Breslau.  Dautzic.  Coblentz, 
Frankfort,  Hanover,  Augsburg,  Leipsic,  Dres- 
den, Chemnitz,  Gera,  Rostock,  Brunswick,  Ham- 
burg, and  Lubeck.  the  technical  schools  in  Fran- 


812  TEMPER 

kenberg  and  Mittweida,  the  30  royal  and  pro- 
vincial schools  of  trades  in  Prussia,  the  superior 
school  for  artisans  in  Chemnitz,  the  commercial 
and  industrial  art  schools  in  Munich  and  Nurem- 
berg, the  art-industry  school  in  Offenbach,  the 
8  art  and  architectural  schools  in  Prussia,  the 
14  architectural  schools  in  the  other  states, 
the  8  superior  weaving  schools,  the  royal  school 
of  pattern  drawing  in  Berlin,  the  school  of 
modeling  and  ornamental  and  pattern  drawing 
in  Dresden,  the  21  navigation  schools,  and  the 
numerous  inferior  schools  of  commerce  and 
trades;  in  France,  the  12  professional  schools 
(ecoles  prqfeKniiiiiiu'lli'it),  the  schools  of  arts  and 
trades  (ecoles  des  arts  el  metiers)  at  Aix,  Angers, 
and  Ohalons-sur-Marne,the  courses  of  instruction 
in  the  application  of  the  sciences  to  industry,  and 
in  drawing,  in  various  cities,  the  watch-making 
schools  at  Cluses  and  Besancon,  the  school  of 
tobacco-manufacture  and  the  superior  commer- 
cial school  in  Paris,  numerous  inferior  commer- 
cial schools.  and  the  42  hydrographic  schools 
(for  the  instruction  of  seamen  for  the  mercantile 
marine)  ;  in  Italv.  the  71  technical  or  trades  in- 


TENNESSEE 

is  opposed  to  peevishness  and  sullenness,  which 
seem  to  be  characteristic  of  certain  minds.  As 
good  temper  predisposes  to  docility,  so  ill-temper 
is  directly  antagonistic  to  it ;  hence,  the  educator 
must  cultivate  the  former  in  the  mind  of  his 
pupil,  and  strive  to  eradicate  the  latter.  In 
dealing  with  this  fault,  the  utmost  patience  is 
requisite  ;  since  any  exhibition  of  ill  temper  on 
the  part  of  the  educator  will,  from  the  force  of 
example,  as  well  as  from  the  additional  irritation 
caused  by  it.  aggravate  the  difficulty,  and  foster 
the  natural  failing  in  the  pupil's  mind  into  a 
confirmed  vice.  Allowance  must  always  be 
made  for  the  natural  peculiarities  of  children  ; 
since  these  cannot  be  immediately  or  forcibly  re- 
pressed, but  must,  by  careful  training,  be  brought 
under  self-control,  which  is  one  of  the  earliest 
lessons  to  be  taught,  but  one  of  the  last  objects 
attained  in  education.  Discouragement  may 
sometimes  take  the  form  of  ill  temper ;  and,  in 
such  a  case,  the  teacher  must  make  concessions, 
and  give  special  attention  to  remove  the  feeling 
and  restore  confidence.  A  violent,  irascible,  or 
stubborn  temper  in  the  pupil  is  to  be  met  with 
calmness  and  firmness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher; 
and  very  often  the  marked  contrast  between  his 
manner' and  that  of  the  pupil  will  serve  to  recall 


special  trades:  in  the  Netherlands,  the  42  inter- 
mediate schools  for  the  working  classes,  the  30 
drawing  and   handicraft   schools,  the  school   of 

trade  and  industry  in    Amsterdam,  the  scl I 

for  architects  at  Bois-le-Duc,  and  the  9  naviga- 
tion schools  ;  in  Belgium,  the  superior  i mer- 

cial  institute  in  Antwerp,  the  26  industrial 
schools  (including  the  pi 


sell. 


riliur 


tlon  schools  m  .\ 
land,  the  technii 
watch-making  school  in  Geneva,  and  the  com- 
mercial  schools  in  various  places.  According  to 
the  regulation  of  March  21.,  1870,  the  Prussian 
schools  of  trades  thereafter  organized,  consist 
of  three  classes  (each  with  a  course  of  one 
year),  two  Jower  and  one  higher  ;  the  last  is  the 
special  class,  and  embraces  four  departments 
(one  for  the  instruction  of  candidates  for  higher 
technical  institutions,  one  of  architecture,  one 
for  mechanical  trades,  and  one  for  chemical 
trades).  The  complete  technical  institutes  in 
Italy  have  four  departments  (physico-mathemat- 

ical,  agricultural,  commercial,  and    1 k-keep- 

ing);  a  few  have  a  fifth  dep; 

j._?ll     mi „i  1?    •      ■ 


feelingof  shame  at  his  haste o 

will  tend   so  strongly  as  this 

to  cure  the  vice, 

our  ii  really  li  ails  the  child 

to  punish  himself 

for  his  fault.     Ill  temper  that 

talcs  the  form  of 

obstinacy,  is  the  most  difficult 

to  deal  with  ;  and 

it  is  this  that  Locke  reserves 

IS   the  special   and 

only  case  for  the  use  of  the 
this  should  not,  however.be 
Will  scarcely  ever  be  needed,  i 

rod.      A   resort  to 

hastily  made,  and 
the  circumstances 

the  educator.     In  school,  un 
not  always  the  case,  the  tea 

if  another  Kind  by 
ortunately,  this  is 
her  being  obliged 

promptly  to  choose  between  t 
quest  of  his  stubborn  pupil. 

ie  immediate  con- 

tion  of  his  school.     (See  Cow 

>ral  Punishment.) 

TENNESSEE,    one  of  t 

ie  southern  states 

of  the  American  1  nion,  admi 

tted  in  1796.     Its 

area,  according  to  the  feden 

census,  is  45,000 

square  miles  ;  and  its  popula 

ion,  in   1870,  was 

re  whites.  322,331, 

colored  persons,  and  70,  India 

is. 

Educati dEistonj.-  Th< 

first  incorporated 

seminary  of  learning  in  the  vi 

lley  of  the  Missis- 

sippi  was  founded  at  Nashvilli 

.in  1785.  In  1806, 

trial.  Those  at  Fabriano  anc 
of  mechanics  and  construction 
Girgenti  has  a  department  fi 
dustry. — See  Walter  Smith 
Scholastic  and  Industrial  (Boi 


'/:/,, 


,,!  r, 


,,/  /■;/» 


and   I  'n  ieles  B.  Stetson, 
(Boston,  I  S7(i). 

TEMPER,  the  disposition  or  constitution  of 
the  mind,  in  relation  particularly  to  the  affec- 
tions and  the  passions.  Good  temper  implies  a 
serenity  of  mind,  and  a  natural  or  habitual 
cheerfulness,  which  is  not  easily  disturbed.     It 


ward,  Greene  College.  In  1795,  Washington 
College  was  founded.  In  1806,  an  act  of  Con- 
gress provided  that  the  state  should  appropriate 
100,000  acres  for  the  use  of  two  colleges  to  be 
established,  one  in  cast,  and  one  in  west  Tennes- 
see; 100,000  acres /or  academies,  and  640  acres 
in  each  trad  6  miles  square,  when  existing  claims 
would  permit  it,  for  the  use  of  schools.  The  first 
attempt  to  create  a  school  fund  was  made  in  1823, 
when  the  vacant  lands  north  and  east  of  the 


TKNNF.SSKK 


813 


congressional  reservation  line  were  sold,  and  the 
money  was  paid  into  the  Bank  of  Tennessee,  to 
••remain  and  constitute  a  perpetual  and  exclusive 
fund  for  the  establishment  and  promotion  of 
common  schools  in  each  and  every  county  in  the 
state."  The  taxes  on  these  lands  were,  also,  to 
form  a  part  of  this  perpetual  fund.  <  lonsiderable 
additions  were  made  to  the  school  fund  by  the 
act  of  1827.  In  1835,  the  revised  constitution 
declared  it  to  be  the  duty  of  the  state  to  preserve 
the  school  fund  inviolate,  and  to  "cherish  litera- 
ture and  science;  knowledge,  learning,  and  virtue 
being  essential  to  the  preservation  of  republican 
institutions."  By  the  acts  of  1837  and  1838, 
and  those  of  subsequent  years,  the  school  fund 
was  made  a  part  of  the  capital  of  the  Bank  of 
Tennessee;  and  $18,000  of  the  dividends  was 
annually  set  apart  for  the  use  of  academies,  him! 
$100,000  for  the  support  of  common  schools, 
the  faith  of  the  state  being  pledged  for  such  an- 
nual appropriations.  An  act,  passed  in  1844  and 
amended  in  184C,  directed  that  certain  school 
lands  iu  the  state  should  be  sold,  and  the  pre  ><  v>  ■>  U 
paid  into  the  Bank  of  Tennessee.    The  principal 

was  to  be  invested  by  the  bank  in  the  I Is  of 

the  state,  if  obtainable  at  par  value  or  less, 
the  interest  paid  by  the  bank  or  realized  upon 
the  investment,  to  be  annually  paid  over  to  the 
districts  or  townships  to  which  the  lands  belonged, 
according  to  the  amount  of  deposits  belonging  to 
each.  In  1858,  the  amount  of  the  school  fund 
to  be  made  a  part  of  the  capital  of  the  Bank  of 
Tennessee,  was  limited  to  sl  .."ion. 000  ;  while  the 
fund  was  increased  by  the  sale  of  lands  for  taxes, 
escheated  lands,  etc.  The  annual  distribution, 
however,  of  the  interest  of  this  fund,  which 
amounted  to  about  $90,000,  was  not  productive 
of  much  good,  owing  to  the  want  of  a  proper 
school  system,  with  competent  officers  to  super- 
intend it.  In  18(13,  according  to  the  last  state- 
ment of  the  Bank  of  Tennessee,  this  fund  con- 
sisted of  $663,752.65  in  gold  and  silver.  This, 
amount,  "put  up  in  kegs  and  boxes,  and  sealed", 
was  removed  from  the  state  during  that  year, 
and  nearly  all  of  it  was  deposited  in  the  different 
banks  of  Augusta,  Ga. ;  and  the  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  legislature  to  investigate  the  re- 
moval of  the  fund,  reported  that  §50.000  of  it 
must  be  looked  upon  as  lost.  It  was  further 
shown  that,  by  the  failure  of  the  Tennessee 
National  Bank",  6200,000  of  the  $612,250  in  1". 
S.  7-30  bonds,  deposited  as  a  part  of  the  school 
fund,  in  1866,  was  also  lost.— The  first  attempt 
toward  a  well-considered  public-school  system 
was  made  in  1867  ;  but,  owing  to  the  disturbed 
political  condition  of  the  state,  it  did  not  prove 
acceptable  to  the  people.  Under  the  law  of  1867, 
four  kinds  of  school  officers  were  created, — 
school-fund  commissioners,  a  state  superintend- 
ent,county  superintendents,  ami  district  directors. 
Teachers  were  examined  and  paid  by  the  county 
superintendent,  on  the  order  of  the  district  clerk. 
Separate  free  schools  were  maintained  for  white 
and  colored  persons  between  the  ages  of  6  and  20 
years,  the  money  for  their  maintenance  (consist- 
ing of  a  yearly  tax  and  the  interest  of  the  per- 


manent fund)  being  paid  by  the  state  treasurer  to 
the  county  superintendents.  Whatever  additional 
money  was  needed  was  to  be  raised  by  district 
taxes,  or  in  any  way  which  did  not  interfere 
with  free  tuition,  prevention  of  which  constituted 
a  bar  to  the  state  appropriation.  Many  obstacles 
existed  to  the  carrying  out  of  the  provisions  of 
this  law.  chief  among  which  were  the  want  of  a 
school  census,  the  lack  of   reports  of  previi  ius 

systems,  the.  poverty  of    the  people,  the  al st 

utter  want  of  trained  teachers,  and  the  great 
destruction  of  school  property  caused  by  the  war. 
The  legislature,  accordingly,  in  1MI9 — 70,  re- 
pealed the  act  of  1867  ;  and  the  state  returned 
io  the  "county  system",  by  which  each  county 
was  empowered  to  establish  and  maintain  schools 
or  not,  according  to  its  pleasure.  The  school 
fund,  at  that  time,  exclusive  of  interest,  amount- 
ed to  SI  >s7.1  54.36,  of  which  $3*7.1 54.36  was 
derived  from  the  sale  of  school  lands.  By  an 
act  subsequent  to  that  passed  by  the  legislature 
of  1869 — 70,  the  state  treasurer  was  made  state 
superintendent,  ex  officio;  but  as  no  special  duties 
were  assigned  to  liim.andashe  had  no  authority. 
the  office  was  of  little  practical  value.  Aided, 
however,  by  the  trustees  of  the  Peabody  fund, 
he  engaged  an  assistant,  who,  in  1872,  endeav- 
ored to  awaken  public  interest  on  the  subject  of 
education.  His  report  showed  that,  while  in  some 
counties  considerable  attention  was  given  to  the 
schools,  not  one-fifth  of  the  educable  children  of 
the  state  had  any  facilities  for  acquiring  even  an 
elementary  education.  Inl873,itwasdirecti  d  thai 
the  school  fund,  amounting  to  82.51 2.500,  with 
the  unpaid  interest  thereon  to  January  I ..  1873, 
the  whole  estimated  to  amount  to  $3,269,606, 
should  be  funded  into  one  bond,  bearing  6  per 
cent  interest  payable  semi-annually  by  the  state 
treasurer.  At  the  same  time,  a  new  school  law 
was  passed,  which  has  continued  in  force  to  the 
present  time. — The  state  superintendents  have 
been,  William  Morrow,  until  1873  ;  John  M. 
Fleming,  from  1873  to  1875  ;  and  Leon  Trous- 
dale, noV  in  office,  appointed  in  1875. 

School  System-  By  an  act  of  the  legislature 
approved  March  23.,  1875,  the  governor  is 
directed  "to  appoint,  a  state  board  of  education 
to  consist  of  six  members,  two  of  whom  shall  be 
appointed  for  six  years,  two  for  four  years,  and 
two  for  two  years  ;  and  after  the  expiration  of 
their  first  terms  of  office,  their  successors  shall 
be  appointed  for  six  years.  The  governor  of  the 
state  shall  be,  ex  officio,  a  member,  and  president 
of  said  board."  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  board 
to  make  a  report  to  the  assembly  of  the  condi- 
tion of  the  schools.  The  principal  school  officer 
is  the  stale  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
who  is  appointed  by  the  governor  for  two  years. 
He  is  required  to  discharge  all  the  duties  usually 
devolving  upon  that  officer,  and  to  make  an- 
nually "a  detailed  report  of  his  official  proceed- 
ings." The  county  courts  elect  biennially  county 
superintendents,  whose  duty  it  is  to  visit  the 
schools  in  their  respective  counties,  keep  the 
school  records,  and  see  that  the  rules  laid  down 
by  the  state  superiutendent  are  duly  enforced. 


814 


TENNESSEE 


The  salary  of  the  county  superintendent  is  fixed 
by  the  county  court,  and.  therefore,  varies  con- 
siderably, sometimes  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
amount  to  a  virtual  annulment  of  the  office. 
This  undue  power  of  the  county  court,  in  this 
and  in  other  respects,  enables  it  to  thwart  the 
general  school  law.  District  directors,  three  in 
number,  are  elected  for  three  years,  in  each  dis- 
trict. They  employ  teachers,  exercise  a  detailed 
supervision  over  the  schools,  and  disburse  the 
school  moneys  apportioned  to  their  districts.  The 
total  annual  income  of  the  permanent  school 
fund  is  about  §600,000.  To  this  is  added  a  poll 
tax  of  $1,  and  a  tax  of  one  mill  upon  every 
dollar  of  taxable  property  in  the  state.  When- 
ever the  money  derived  from  the  school  fund 
and  state  tax  is. not  sufficient  to  keep  a  public 
school  for  five  months  in  the  year,  in  any  school- 
district,  the  county  court  is  required  to  levy  an  j 
additional  tax  for  the  purpose,  or  may  submit 
the  proposition  to  do  so  to  a  vote  of  the  people. 
He  may  also  levy  a  tax  to  prolong  the  schools 
beyond  the  five  months:  hut  this  must  not  exceed 
the  entire  state  tax.  The  schools  are  free  to  all 
persons  between  the  ages  of  6  and  18  years,  re- 
siding within  the  school-district,  the  only  distinc- 
tion between  the  races  being  that  "white  and 
colored  persons  shall  not  be  taught  in  the  same 
school,  but  in  separate  schools,  under  the  same 
general  regulations  as  to  management,  usefulness, 
and  efficiency."  Colored  children  are  counted 
alike  with  the  white  children  in  the  apportion- 
ment of  the  school  money ;  and  adult  colored 
persons  are  eligible  as  teachers,  school  directors. 
and  county  or  state  superintendents.  The  school 
course  comprises  orthography,  reading,  writiug, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  elementary 
geology  of  Tennessee,  history  of  the  United 
States,  and  vocal  music,  the  last  being  optional. 
A  feature  peculiar  to  the  school  system  of  this 
state  is  that  of  consolidated  schools,  or  schools  in 
which  the  branches  prescribed  by  law  for  the 
common  schools  are  taught  free  of  expense,  in 
connection  with  other  and  higher  branches,  for 
which  a  tuition  fee  is  charged.  This  method  has 
tended  to  popularize  the  common  schools  by 
keeping  them  before  that  class  of  the  people  who 
ordinarily  would  send  their  children  to  distant 
localities  for  more  advanced  instruction.  Of 
such  schools.  174  were  in  operation  in  1875. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
schools  in  the  state,  in  1875,  was  3.942,  of  which 
3,127  were  for  white  children.  770,  for  colored 
children,  and  45,  unclassified.  The  school  revenue 
was  as  follows: 

From  the  state t212.840.57 

"      enmities :t<;o.:;i;:i.s7 

"       other  sources 167,106.19 

Total $740,316.63 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows : 

For  teachers'  salaries $582,918.11 

Building    and   repairing 

schooMiouses 44,406.44 

Salaries, if  county  super- 
intendents         16,384.64 

Other  expenses.. 


Total 


The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  for  the 
same  year  are  the  following  : 

Number  of  children  between  6  and  18  years     426,612 
Number  of  pupils  enrolled  in  public  schools     199,058 

Average  attendance 136,805. 

Number  of  teachers  white,  male 2,561 

"      female 823 

"  "  colored,  male 564 

"      female 217 

"  "  unclassified 45 

Total 77.  4,21<T 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers $30.85 

Normal  Instruction. — By  the  law  of  March, 
1875.  the  state  board  of  education  is  required  to 
establish  a  normal  school  or  schools ;  no  pupil 
must  be  admitted  therein  who  is  under  ID  or 
over  30  years  of  age,  and  who  has  not  passed 
such  examination  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the 
board  of  education.  City  superintendents,  or 
county  superintendents,  on  consultation  with  the 
directors  of  the  school-districts  of  their  respective 
counties,  may  recommend  certain  pupils  of  the. 
public  schools  for  admission  to  the  normal 
schools  ;  and  the  pupils  so  recommended,  on 
passing  a  satisfactory  examination,  have  prece- 
dence over  all  other  applicants.  Separate  normal 
schools  tor  white  and  colored  students  are  author- 
ized by  the  law.  The  Normal  University,  estab- 
lished under  this  law,  was  opened  Dec.,  1.,  1875, 
at  Nashville.  The  trustees  of  the  Cniversity  of 
Nashville  gave  the  use  of  their  college  buildings, 
grounds,  etc.  for  two  years,  and  also  the  income 
of  their  permanent  fund,  and  that  of  the  Mont- 
gomery Bell  Academy,  amounting  in  all  to 
$6,000  per  annum,  on  condition  that  the  academy 
should  he  made  a  model  and  training  school  to 
the  proposed  university.  To  this  was  added  an 
annual  appropriation  of  $6,000,  for  two  years,  by 
the  agent  of  the  Peabody  fund.  Normal  instruc- 
tion for  colored  students  is  afforded  in  the  Nash- 
ville Normal  and  Theological  Institute,  the 
Freedmen's  Normal  Institute,  at  Maryville,  Fisk 
University,  the  ( 'cntral  Tennessee  College,  at 
Nashville,  and  the  normal  and  training  school, 
at  Knoxville.  A  normal  school  for  the  training 
of  colored  teachers  has  recently  been  established 
at  Jonesboro,  the  building  previously  occupied 
by  the  Holston  Male  Institute  having  been  pur- 
chased for  its  accommodation.  There  are,  be- 
sides, normal  classes  in  many  of  the  higher  in- 
stitutions of  learning  in  the  state. — Though  no- 
provision  is  made  by  law  for  the  support  of  teach- 
ers' institutes,  they  have  been  organized  in  sev- 
eral counties.  There  is  also  a  state  teachers'  as- 
snrintitm  which  holds  annual  meetings, and  which 
has  already  exerted  an  important  influence  upon 
the  progress  of  popular  education  in  the  state. 

Secondary  Instruction. — There  are  many  high 
schools  and  academies  in  the  state,  chiefly  in  the 
cities  ami  larger  towns;  Nashville.  Memphis. 
Shelbyville,  Chattanooga,  Gallatin,  and  Mur- 
freesboro.each  containing  such  schools  or  depart- 
ments. There  arc  many  other  secondary  schools 
in  the  state,  chiefly  private  schools  or  prepara- 
tory departments  of  colleges.  There  are,  also, 
several  business  colleges. 


TENNESSEE 

Superior  Instruction. — The  chief  colleges  and 
universities  of  the  state  are  enumerated  in  the 

following  table  : 


TEXAS 


815 


When 

Denomi- 

NAME 

Location 

°ed  " 

Beach  Grove  College. . . 

BeachGrove 

l  869 

Non-sect. 

Bethel  College 

McKenzie 

1847 

Cumb.  Pres. 

Central  Tennessee  Coll. 

Nashville 

1866 

Meth.   Ems. 

^Christian  BrothiTsVoll. 

Memphis 

1K7-2 

R.  C. 

'Cumberland  university 

1842 

Climb.  Prcs. 

East  Tennessee  Univ.... 

Knoxville 

1840 

Non-sect. 

Tiast  Tenn.  Wesl.  Univ.. 

Athena 

Meth.  Epis. 

Fisk  University 

Nashville 

l.si'ii; 

Nou-sect. 

Greeueville  and  Tuseu 

lum  CoUege 

Greenevillo 

1868 

Jliwassee  College 

Sweetwater 

IS. Ml 

M.E..  South 

1868 

Presb. 

Manchester  Culleeo 

Manchester 

TVIarvville  Col] .... 

JUos'hcim  M  and  1'.  Inst 

Marywlle 

1  870 

Presb. 

S.  W.  Bapt.s:    1  in. 

S.  W.  Presb.  1  toll 

'Stewart  College  

University  of  Nashville 

University  of  the  South 

Si    W.lliee 

Pmt.  Enis. 

Vanderbilt  University. . 

Nashville 

1873 

M.  E.  South 

There  are  several  institutions  for  the  higher 
education  of  women  in  the  state  ;  of  which,  17 
reported,  in  187"),  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, 119  instructors,  and  1.467  students,  91(3 
of  whom  were  pursuing  collegiate  studies. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction.— -The 
Tennessee  Agricultural  College  was  established. 
in  1869,  as  a  part  of  the  East  Tennessee  Uni- 
versity (q.  v.).  The  average  attendance  is  300. 
The  Nashville  Normal  and  Theological  Institute 
was  opened  by  the  American  Baptist  Home 
Mission  Society  in  1866.  It  is  specially  intended 
for  colored  pupils  of  both  sexes.  Theological  in- 
struction is  also  given  in  Vanderbilt  University, 
at  the  Central  Tennessee  College. at  Cumberland 
University,  at  Fisk  University,  and  at  Nashville 
Institute.  A  law  school  is  maintained  in  Vander- 
bilt University,  anil  at  the  Cumberland  Univer- 
sity ;  and  a  medical  and  surgical  school,  in  con- 
nection with  the  University  of  Nashville  and 
Vanderbilt  University. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Tennessee  School 
for  the  Blind  was  established  at  Nashville  in 
18-13,  by  an  annual  appropriation  of  $1,500  for 
2  years.  This  was  increased  by  private  contri- 
butions;  and,  in  1846,  a  law  was  passed  making 
two  annual  appropriations  of  S-.oOO.  In  1848, 
the  sum  of  $5,000  was  directed  to  be  paid  out  of 
the  state  treasury  for  two  years.  The  civil  war 
not  only  put  a  stop  to  further  pi-ogress,  but  al- 
most obliterated  the  school  by  entirely  destroying 
the  school  building.  In  1806,  however,  it"  was 
re-established  by  the  general  assembly;  and,  by 
liberal  appropriations  since  then,  it  has  been 
placed  among  the  first  institutions  of  the  kind  in 
the  country.  It  has  a  library  of  1 ,000  volumes. 
The  Tennessee  School  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb 
is  located  at  Knoxville.  It  was  established  in 
1 844,  and  was  maintained,  for  a  long  time,  chiefly 
by  voluntary  contributions.  It  is  now  chiefly  sup- 
ported by  an  annual  state  appropriation  of  §5,000, 
and  an  additional  allowance  for  each  indigent 
pupil  admitted.  It  can  accommodate  1 50  pupils. 


,  one  of  the  southern  states  of  the 
American  Union,  originally  a  part  of  Mexico, 
but  acknowledged  as  an  independent  republic  in 
183(i.  It  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1845. 
Its  area  is  274,356  sq.  m. ;  and  its  population, 
in  1870,  was  818,899,  of  whom  253,475  were 
colored  persons. 

Educational  History. — Six  years  before  the 
admission  of  Texas  into  the  Union,  measures 
were  taken  to  establish  schools  by  setting 
apart  a  portion  of  the  public  lands  in  each 
county  for  school  purposes.  The  first  constitu- 
tion of  the  state  directed  the  legislature  to  pro- 
vide for  the  establishment  of  schools,  and  created 
for  their  maintenance  a  permanent  fund  by  con- 
finning  all  previous  grants  of  land  and  funds. 
In  1858,  this  fund  was  further  increased  by  the 
sale  of  public  lands;  but  the  act  authorizing 
this  sale  was  subsequently  repealed.  The  con- 
vention of  I8(j(i  made  provision  for  the  appoint- 
ment or  election  of  a  board  of  education  and  a 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  ;  and  the 
new  constitution  of  the  state,  adopted  in  1869, 
directed  that  the  legislature  should  make  suitable 
provision  for  the  support  of  a  system  of  public 
schools,  "for  the  gratuitous  instruction  of  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  state,  between  the  ages  of  6 
and  18  years."  It  also  provided  that  a  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction  should  be  appointed 
by  the  governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  senate 
for  one  term  of  four  years,  and  afterwards  should 
be  elected  by  the  people.  Under  this  law,  a 
nomination  was  made  by  the  governor,  but  was 
not  agreed  to  by  the  senate.  The  school  bill, 
also,  was  rejected  by  the  same  body.  Under 
the  school  law  of  August  13..  1870,  each  organ- 
ized county  became  a  school-district,  and  the  5 
justices  of  the  peace  composing  the  county  court, 
were  constituted,  ex  officio,  a  board  of  school 
directors.  They  were  required  to  appoint  a 
board  of  school  trustees  and  a  board  of  exam- 
iners, in  each  county,  to  divide  the  county  into 
as  many  sub-districts  as  might  be  necessary, 
to  locate  school-houses,  and  to  levy  a  tax  not  ex- 
ceeding one  per  cent  on  all  taxable  property,  for 
the  purpose  of  building  school-houses.  The  in- 
action of  the  county  courts,  however,  led  to  the 
enactment  of  a  new  law,  April  24.,  1871,  by 
which  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
with  the  consent  of  the  governor,  was  charged 
with  the  appointment  of  35  supervisors  of  edu- 
cation, each  of  whom  was  intrusted  with  the 
control  of  a  district  composed  of  several  coun- 
ties. Each  supervisor  was  authorized  to  appoint 
a  board  of  school  directors  for  each  county  in 
his  district,  the  duties  of  such  boards  being  pre- 
scribed by  the  state  board  of  education.  The 
duty  of  subdividing  the  counties  into  school- 
districts  was  vested  in  the  supervisor.  This  law 
remained  in  force  till  1873,  when  a  new  law  was 
substituted  which  contained  so  many  uncon- 
stitutional features  that  it  failed  to  receive  the 
governor's  approval.  In  1874.  the  law  was 
again  changed,  but  the  result  was  still  unsatis- 
factory ;  and,  August  19.,  I87<i,  an  entirely  new 
law  was  passed,  which  remains  in  force  at  the 


!S16  TE 

present  time.  The  first  state  superintendent 
■was  J.  C.  De  Gress,  appointed  in  April,  1871  ; 
his  successor  was  O.  N.  Ilollingswoitii.  who  was 
appointed  in  January,  1874,  for  4  years. 

School  System. — The  state  board  of  education 
consists  of  the  governor,  comptroller,  and  secre- 
tary of  state.  The  governor  is.  ex  officio,  presi- 
dent of  the  board,  its  only  other  officer  being  a 
secretary  who  is  appointed  by  the  board,  "  if,  in 
their  judgment,  the  educational  interests  of  the 
state  require"  it,  at  an  annual  salary  of  $1,500. 
Upon  this  board  devolve  all  the  duties  .usually 
performed  by  such  bodies,  as  well  as  those  dis- 
charged in  other  states  by  state  superintendents. 
In  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  schools,  this 
board  deals  directly  with  the  teachers  and  local 
school  officers,  except  in  the  disbursing  of  the 
school  moneys,  which  is  done  through  the  county 
treasurers.  Within  the  several  counties  of  the 
state,  school  communities  are  permitted  to  be 
organised  for  the  purpose  of  availing  themselves 
of  the  benefits  of  the  public-school  fund.  These 
communities  consist  of  any  number  of  parents 
and  guardians  of  children  to  be  educated.  They 
are  required  to  make  out  and  sign,  in  person,  a 
list  containing  the  names  and  ages  of  children  to 
be  instructed,  and  to  send  it  with  an  application 
to  the  county  judge.  This  officer,  on  satisfactory 
evidence  that  the  list  is  correct  and  the  applica- 
tion made  in  good  faith,  must  sanction  "  the 
establishing  of  said  school  community,  and  des- 
ignate it  by  its  name  and  number."  Any  in- 
corporated city  or  town,  however,  may  have  ex- 
clusive control  of  the  public  schools  within 
its  limits,  provided  it  is  so  determined  by  a 
majority  vote  of  the  property  tax-payers,  in 
which  case  the  council  or  board  of  aldermen  is 
invested  with  exclusive  power  to  maintain,  reg- 
ulate, control,  and  govern  all  the  public  free 
schools  established  within  the  limits  of  said  city 
or  town.  Three  trustees  are  appointed  in  each 
school  community  by  the  county  judge,  whose 
duties  are  to  employ  teachers,  and  look  after 
the  general  interests  and  management  of  the 
under- their  charge.  County  boards  of 
',  also  appointed  by  the  county 
judge  annually.  They  consist  of  "  three  well- 
educated  citizens  of  the  county,"  who  are  re- 
quired to  examine  applicants  for  the  position  of 
teacher,  the  certificate  resulting  from  such  exam- 
ination being  given  by  the  county  judge  on  rec- 
ommendation of  the  board  of  examiners.  The 
available  school  fund  is  declared  to  consist  of 
one-fourth  of  the  "occupation  and  ad  valorem 
taxes"  assessed  since  March  30.,  1870  ;  one-fourth 
of  all  the  "ad  valorem  and  occupation  taxes" 
that  may  hereafter  be  collected,  each  exclusive 
of  the  cost  of  collection  ;  all  poll  taxes  due  since 
March  30.,  1870,  or  collectable  thereafter;  the 
interest  arising  on  any  bonds  and  funds,  and  all 
the  interest  derivable  from  the  sale  of  lands,  pre- 
viously set  apart  as  a  permanent  school  fund, 
and  all  conveyances,  devises,  and  bequests  of 
property,  made  by  any  one  for  the  benefit  of 
the  schools.  Separate  schools  are  provided  by 
law  for  white  and  colored  children,  the  available 


school  fund  being  divided  between  them  pro 
rata.  Sectarianism  is  strictly  prohibited.  The 
selection  of  text-books  is  left  with  the  teachers, 
•■  subject  to  the  approval  of  their  community 
trustees,  and  having  due  regard  to  the  conveni- 
ence of  the  parents  in  respect  to  books  already 
purchased."  The  daily  school  session  is  7  hours, 
but  may  be  extended  by  agreement  between  the 
teacher  and  trustees.  The  school  year  is  for  the 
same  reason  indefinite.  All  children  between 
the  ages  of  8  and  14  years  are  entitled  to  the 
benefits  of  the  public  schools. 

Educational  Condition.  —  During  the  year 
1875,  public  schools  were  maintained  in  130 
counties;  but  reports  were  received  from  only 
97.  In  the  latter,  there  were  2,024  schools,  and 
the  number  of  school-houses  built  during  the 
year  was  158.  Owing  to  the  vast  extent  of  ter- 
ritory, the  sparseness  of  the  population,  the  in- 
difference to  the  public  schools  in  some  parts  of 
the  state,  and  the  want  of  reports  from  school 
officers,  the  items  of  school  revenue  for  the  year 
1875  are  not  accurately  reported.  Two  items  only 
are  given  by  the  state  superintendent  to  aid  in 
making  an  approximate  estimate  of  what  the 
receipts  should  be  : 

Annum!  1-vied  by  boards  of  school  directors. $244,879 
Additional  amount    necessary  to  be  b  \  ii  d  to 
meet  outstanding  liabilities  due   teachers 

for  the  year $50,598 

The  agent  of  the  Peabody  fund  has  also  dis- 
tributed to  six  public  schools  the  sum  of  $2,250. 
The  expenses  incurred  were  as  follows  : 

For  teachers'  salaries $030,334 

"    sites,  and  building,  repairing,  and  furnish- 
ing school-houses 59,358 

For  other  expenses 36,544 

Total .$726,236 

The  other  principal  items  of  school  statistics 
for  1875,  are  as  follows : 
Estimated  enrollment  of  school  children  (6  to 

18  years) 1st, 705 

"         average  attendance 125,224 

number  of  schools 3,898 

"  "        "teachers 4,030 

Actual  enrollment  in  97  counties 124,567 

Average  attendance     "        "        84,415 

Number  of  teachers      "         "        3,100 

Number  of  schools        "        "        2,924 

Average  teachers'  salary  per  month $53 

Normal  Instruction. — No  system  for  the 
training  of  teachers  has  yet  been  devised  by  the 
state.  The  only  institution  which  furnishes  nor- 
mal instruction  is  Wiley  University,  at  Marshall, 
which  has  a  department  for  the  training  of  col- 
ored teachers.  A  state  teachers'  institute  was 
organized  in  1872,  at  the  close  of  the  educational 
convention  held  that  year  at  Austin.  This  led 
to  the  organization  of  25  county  institutes  the 
same  year.  Since  that  time,  institutes  have  been 
held  occasionally. 

Secondary  Instruction. — In  1875,  twelve  acad- 
emies and  seminaries  were  known  to  exist  in  the 
state,  furnishing  employment  to  20  instructors, 
and  instruction  to  1,106  pupils.  Preparatory 
schools  existing  independently  of,  or  in  connec- 
tion with,  the  colleges  of  the  state,  reported. during 
the  same  year,  an  attendance  of  1,350  students. 


TEXT-BOOKS 

Superior  Instruction.-— Tim  principal  colleges 
and  universities  of  the  state  are  enumerated  in 
the  following  table  : 


Austin  roller lluiitsvilli' 

"   iversity..      • 

<  'nil,-. 


IM'.I     1'1-,-j.l.. 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS        81 T 

selection  of  books,  so  that  they  may  be  suited  to 

the   mental    status   and    grade    of   culture  (if   liis 

pupils  in  regard  to  the  following  points:  (1)  lan- 
guage and  style ;  (2)  arrangemenl  of  topics  and 
general  treatment  of  the  subject,  and  (3)  adapt- 
ability  to  the  time  and  general  opportunities  of 

often  entirely  defeated  bva  disregard  .if  the  first 


bey 1  the 

less,  but  p< 
either  beco 
neglects  it  a 


Wiley  University .Marshall  I   is?:.    M.  Epis. 

In  1875,  there  were  nine  institutions  in  the 
state  for  the  superior  instruction  of  women, 
three  of  which  conferred  degrees.  Among  the 
principal  institutions  of  this  kind,  are  the  An- 
drew Female  College  of  lluntsville.  the  Bryan 
Female  Seminary  of  Bryan,  the  Chapel  Hill 
Female  College,  the  Lamar  Female  Seminary  of 
Paris,  the  Galveston  Female  High  School,  and 
the  Austin  Collegiate  Female  Institute,  the  Bay- 
lor Female  College  of  Independence,  the  Waco 
Female  College,  and  the  Nazareth  Convent  of 
Victoria. 

Scientific  ami  Professional  Instruction.— The 
only  institution  for  instruction  of  this  kind, 
aside  from  that  furnished  by  special  depart- 
ments in  the  colleges  anil  universities,  is  the 
Agricultural  anil  .Mechanical  College  of  Texas, 
which  was  established  a  few  years  since  at  Bry- 
an. Some  progress  was  made  toward  erecting 
buildings  for  its  use;  but,  a  discovery  being  made 
of  defects  in  the  law  concerning  it,  work  was  en- 
tirely suspended  in  1871.  The  Texas  Medical 
College  and  Hospital  at  Galveston  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1871.  The  American  Dental  College  is 
situated  at  Austin.  It  was  opened  in  1873.  In- 
struction in  theology  is  also  given  in  a  special 
department  of  Baylor  University. 

Special  Instruction. — The  Texas  Institution 
for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb  was  opened  in  18;")".  at 
Austin.  It  is  open  for  the  education  of  every! 
deaf-mute  resident  of  the  state  between  the  ages 
of  10  and  21)  years,  if  of  sound  mind,  good  char- 
acter, and  general  good  health.  Hoard  and  tui- 
tion are  furnished  gratuitously  by  the  state.  The 
term  of  instruction  is  seven  years,  the  branches 
taught  beinj  those  which  are  common  to  such  > 
institutions.  The  Texas  Institution  for  the  Edu- 
cation of  the  Blind  is  situated  at  Austin,  where 
it  was  founded  in  L856. 

TEXT-BOOKS,  for  educational  purposes, 
are  books  designed  to  be  used  by  pupils  in 
connection  with  the  instruction  given  by  the 
teacher.  Their  purpose  is  threefold  :  (1)  to  aid 
the  teacher,  by  affording  to  the  pupil  independ- 
ent sources  of  information  and  instruments  of 
study ;  (2)  to  aid  the  pupil,  in  acquiring  habits 
of  self-reliance  in  study ;  and  (3)  to  enable  the 
pupil  to  learn  how  to  use  books,  as  a  means  of 
self-culture.  These  objects  dictate  the  mode  of 
constructing  school  text-books;  and  should  all 
be  carefully  kept  in  view  by  the  teacher  hi  the  j 


sgusted   with   the  study  and 

■  book,  under  the  impression 
ng   knowledge;  and  thus   his 

owing  cautions  should  be  par- 

by  teachers  in  the  use  of  text- 
ik  should  not  be  permitted  to 
ler,  its  use  being  always  pre- 
1.  and  supplemented  by  oral 


in  the  pupils  mind,  to  the  subject. the  impression 
being  constantly  inculcated  by  the  teacher  that 
it  is  the  subject  that  is  studied,  and  that  the 
book  is  only  an  instrument  of  the  study,  or  an 
auxiliary  to  it;  (3)  it  should  not  be  allowed  to 
supersede  the  necessity  of  acquiring  knowledge, 
as  far  as  possible,  by  personal  experience,  par- 
ticularly in  elementary  education.  In  advanced 
instruction,  it  will  always  be  found  that  those 
will  use  text-books  most  effectively  who  have  ac- 
quired the  most  knowledge  without  them.     (See 

THEOLOGICAL   SCHOOLS.— The  earli- 


est i 


win. 


sof 


for 


then 
the  i 

struetion  in  I  'hristian  theology  sprung  up  accord- 
ing to  ecclesiastical  tradition,  about  the  close  of 
the  apostolic  period.  At  the  close  of  the  2d  cent- 
ury,  the  school  of  Alexandria  began  to  be  cele- 
brated throughout  the  Christian  world.  (See 
Alexandrian  School.)  Other  schools  of  the  kind, 
though  of   less  prominence,  existed  during  the 


\i 


cia. 11 
■  '■tit  in 


1  Carthage.  At  the  end  of  the  5th 
,-  all  of  the  schools  of  the  East  had 
greatly  declined,  or  had  become  extinct.  In  the 
West,  the  monasterium  dericorum,  founded  by 
Augustine,  at  Hippo,  was  the  beginning  of  a 
diocesan  seminary,  and  as  such  marks  a  consider- 
able progress  in  the  history  of  theological  schools. 
A  number  of  similar  institutions  arose  in  various 
countries  of  southern  Europe,  and  served  as  the 
chief  agency  for  training  candidates  for  the  sec- 
ular priesthood ;  while  the  convent  and  cloister 
schools  supplied  whatever  education  was  given  to 
persons  subjecting  themselves  to  monastic  vows. 


The  chief  study  in  the  theological  schools  of  this 
period  was  ecclesiastical  Latin.  Greek  and  He- 
brew being  rarely  studied.  A  considerable 
improvement  begins  with  the  establishment 
of  universities,  after  the  middle  of  the  J  3th 
century.     The  appointment  of  faculties  of  theol- 


818 


THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS 


ogy  in  the  principal  universities  had  the  effect 
to  improve  greatly  the  general  education  of  the 
clergy  ;  but,  at  the  same  time,  it  reduced  to  com- 
parative unimportance  the  schools  of  the  bishops 
and  of  the  convents.  Nevertheless,  from  that 
period  to  the  present,  the  Roman  ( latholic  <  Ihurch 
has  continued  to  recognize  the  three  kinds  of 
theological  education  already  named.  Faculties 
of  catholic  theology  are  at  present  (1877)  con- 
nected with  8  universities  of  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary ( Vienna,  Gratz.  Innspruck,  Prague,  Lemberg, 
Cracow,  Pesth,  and  A  gram)  ;  with  7  of  the  Ger- 
man Empire  (Breslau.  Bonn,  Munich,  Minister. 
AVurtzburg,  Tubingen,  and  Freiburg);  with  1  in 
England  (the  new  Catholic  university  of  London, 
founded  in  1875)  ;  with  1  in  Belgium  (the  free 
Catholic  university  <>f  I.om.tim:  with  1  in  France 
(the  new  free  Catholic  universities  in  Paris.  An- 
gers, Lyons,  and  Lille)  ;  and  with  1  in  Portugal 
(Ooimbra).  In  France,  there  are,  moreover,  6  iso- 
lated faculties  under  control  of  the  government. 
At  the  Italian  and  Spanish  universities  the  theo- 
logical faculties  have  been  abolished.  Beside  these 
faculties  of  theology,  there  are  a  number  of  in- 
dependent theological  schools,  of  which  especially 
the  Collegia  Romano,  in  Rome,  attracts  students 
from  all  Roman  Catholic  countries.  Episcopal 
seminaries  in  which  theology  is  taught  are  con- 
nected with  nearly  all  episcopal  sirs,  and  every 
order  of  monks  has  one  or  several  theological 
schools  for  its  own  novices.  In  the  United  States, 
according  to  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of 
Education  for  1875,  the  Catholic  Church  had 
18  theological  seminaries,  or  theological  depart- 
ments of  colleges.  A  faculty  of  Old  Catholic 
theology  has  been  established  in  connection  with 
the  university  of  Bern;  and.  in  187(1.  the  ma- 
jority of  the  Catholic  faculty  at  the  university 
of  Bonn,  were  likewise  Old  Catholics.  (See  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church.) 

In  the  Greek  Church,  the  standard  of  theolog- 
ical education  is  very  low,  not  only  among  the 
monks,  but  among  tin1  secular  clergy.  The  only 
faculties  of  theology  connected  with  complete 
universities,  are  at  Athens  (founded  in  1837)  and 
at  Czernowitz  in  Austria  (founded  in  1875). 
None  of  the  Russian  universities  has  a  faculty  of 
Greek  theology,  which  is  taught  in  the  five  eccle- 
siastical academies  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 
Kasau,  Kief,  and  YVilna.  anil  in  the  seminaries 
connected  with  the  episcopal  sees.  Of  schools  of 
Greek  theology,  mostly  in  connection  with  the 
episcopal  sees,  there  are,  moreover,  1  in  Austria, 
5  in  Hungary,  4  in  Greece,  8  in  Roumania,  1  in 
Servia,  1  in  Montenegro,  and  a  large  number  in 
Turkey. 

Theological  education  among  the  Protestants 
of  Europe  has  been  not  a  little  diversified  as  to 
method.  In  all  the  countries  iu  which  great  uni- 
versities have  existed,  professorships  of  various 
branches  of  theology  have  been  maintained  since 
the  days  of  the  Reformation.  1  fence,  the  clergy 
of  the  state  churches  have  usually  gone  to  the 
universities  to  obtain  theological  instruction.  In 
the  ( rerman  Empire,  faculties  of  Protestant  theol- 
ogy are  attached  to  the  universities  of  Berlin, 


Bonn,  Breslau,  Erlangen,  Giessen,  Greifswald, 
Gottingen,  Halle,  I  leidelbcrg,  Jena.  Kiel,  Konigs- 
berg.  Leipsic,  Marburg.  Rostock,  Strasbourg,  and 
Tubingen.   In  Holland,  there  are  three,  at  (iron- 


in  N. 


pat :  and  in  Switzerland  4,  at  Basel,  Zurich.  Bern, 
and  <  leneva.  France  lias  a  faculty  of  Protestant 
theology  supported  by  the  state,  at  Montauban, 
and  a  free  theological  school  at  Paris  (founded 
in  1S74)  ;  and  Austria.  1  at  Vienna.  Switzer- 
land has  .'i  theological  schools,  at  Lausanne.  Neuf- 
chatel,  and  Geneva.  Germany  leads  not  only  in 
the  number,  but  also  in  the  prominence  and  in- 
fluence of  the  theological  schools,  which,  to  a 
larger  extent  than  the  schools  of  any  other 
country,  are  visited  by  students  from  all  parts 
,4  the  Protestant  world  While  the  evangelical 
churches  in  the  Cited  States.  England,  and 
other  countries  readily  acknowledge  the  superior 
scholarship  of  German  theological  schools,  they 
deplore  the  departure  of  many  of  them  from  the 
creed  of  the  Reformation,  and  from  what  they 
regard  as  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christian- 
ity. In  England,  the  theological  instruction  given 
at  the  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  has 
been  more  uniform  and  conservative,  but  far  less, 
influential,  than  that  of  the  German  universi- 
ties. In  fact,  owing  to  the  peculiar  organization 
of  the  English  universities,  each  one  being  an 
aggregation  of  a  number  of  colleges,  there  has 
been  a  lack  of  concentration  and  control  in  refer- 
ence to  theological  study  which  has  tended  to- 
keep  the  standard  very  low.  In  neither  of  the 
universities  named  has  there  been  an  organized 
theological  faculty  or  a  well-planned,  obligatory 
course  of  instruction.  As  in  literature  and 
science,  so  in  theology,  the  actual  teaching  has 
been  mostly  done  by  tutors.  There  have  been, 
in  both  universities,  professors  of  divinity  and 
Hebrew  since  the  16th.  century,  but  the  profess- 
ors, as  such,  have  had  little  to  do  with  instruc- 
tion or  discipline.  Attendance  on  their  lectures 
was  not  obligatory,  except  in  a  few  merely  formal 
instances.  For  the  purpose  of  being  admitted  to- 
holy  orders,  it  was  necessary  for  Bachelors  of 
Arts,  to  attend  the  lectures  of  the  regiw  pro- 
fessor of  divinity  for  a  short  time,  unless  they 
obtained  a  dispensation.  In  1842.  professorships 
of  ecclesiastical  history  and  of  pastoral  theology 
were  established  at  Oxford.  The  university  of 
Dublin  was  organized  under  a  charter  from 
Queen  Elizabeth,  very  much  after  the  model  of 
the  English  universities.  A  regius  professorship 
of  divinity  was  founded  in  1607,  a  professorship 
of  Hebrew,  in  1637,  and  a  king's  lectureship  in 
divinity,  in  1718.  In  1838,  a  professorship  of 
Biblical  Greek  was  added,  and.  in  1850,  a  pro- 
fessorship of  ecclesiastical  history. 

The  fact  that  the  English  universities  ex- 
clude from  their  advantages  all  students  not 
members  of  the  Establish)  1  Church,  has  made 
it  necessary  for  the  various  sects  of  Dissenters 
that  desired  theological  instruction  for  their 
ministerial  candidates,  to  establish  institutions. 


THEOLOGICAL   SCHOOLS 

of  their  own.  'Phis  has  boon  done  by  the  In- 
dependents, the  Wesleyans,  the  Baptists,  and.  per- 
haps, some  other  religious  bodies,  In  nearly  all. 
if  not  all.  institutions  thus  established,  provision 
is  made  for  preliminary  classical  instruction.  The 

Scottish  universities,  with  il sception  of  that 

of  Edinburgh, were  founded  before  the  Reforma- 
tion. After  that  event,  a  scheme  of  theological 
education  was  proposed,  at  the  university  of  St. 
Andrews,  which  was  theoretically  a  great  im- 
provement upon  the  irregular  and  incomplete 
methods  of  theological  instruction  previously  pre- 
vailing in  the  universities everv-where.  St. Mary's 
College  was  appointed  solely  to  the  teaching  of 
theology  and  the  languages  connected  with  it. 
The  course  of  study  was  to  be  completed  in  four 
years,  under  the  instruction  of  a  principal  and 
four  professors,  each  of  the  professors  having 
under  his  care  only  the  students  of  one  year. 
The  students  were  required  to  attend  the  lect- 
ures of  three  professors  every  day  during  the 
continuance  of  their  theological  course.  Although 
this  scheme  was  not  found  in  all  respects  practi- 
cable, yet  it  had  its  influence  upon  the  other 
Scottish  universities,  at  Glasgow.  Aberdeen,  and 
Edinburgh,  in  each  of  which,  several  professor- 
ships of  divinity  and  auxiliary  topics  have  been 
constantly  maintained,  with  some  effort  towards 
systematic  instruction.  After  the  disruption  of 
the  Established  Church  of  Scotland,  the  Free 
Church  established  a  divinity  school  in  Edin- 
burgh, called  the  New  College  of  Free  Church. 

A  prime  object  recognized  in  the  foundation 
of  the  earliest  colleges  in  the  United  States, 
such  as  Harvard  and  Yale,  was  to  provide  general 
education  for  candidates  for  the  university.  No 
professors  of  divinity  were  appointed,  nor  were 
theological  topics  introduced  into  the  courses  of 
study  ;  but  the  presidents  of  the  colleges  were 
usually  ministers  of  distinguished  ability,  who 
were  expected,  by  their  presence  and  their 
preaching,  to  exert  a  wholesome  religious  influ- 
ence upon  their  students  generally,  and  to  be 
able  to  give  timely  and  special  counsel  to  any 
young  men  among  them  who  might  contemplate 
devoting  themselves  to  the  work  of  the  ministry. 
Dr.  Dwight,  at  Yale  College,  taught  theology  in 
his  Sunday  sermons  which  were  so  prepared  and 
arranged  as  to  form,  when  completed,  a  body  of 
divinity.  Some  candidates  for  the  ministry  went 
directly  from  the  college  into  ministerial  service, 
and  others,  without  having  attended  college  at 
all.  But  the  more  general  custom  was  for  minis- 
terial candidates  to  pursue  a  limited  course  of 
theological  reading  and  study,  uuder  the  di- 
rection of  some  influential  pastor. 

As  society  became  more  settled,  and  the 
wants  of  the  older  churches  became  better  de- 
fined, the  necessity  of  schools  specially  devoted 
to  theological  instruction  began  to  be  felt  almost 
simultaneously  in  several  denominations.  The 
first  actual  experiment  in  public  theological  in- 
struction was  commenced  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  John 
M.  Mason  of  New  York,  in  1804.  Dr.  Mason 
had,  after  graduation  at  an  American  college,  and 
about  a  year  spent  in  the  private  study  of  theol- 


THERMOMETRY 


Sl'J 


ogy.  gone  to  Scotland  to  pursue  a  more  complete 
course  in  one  of  the  universities.  As  a  result. 
he.  subsequently,  when  a  pastor  in  New  York 
city,  felt  called  upon  to  devote  a  portion  of  his 
time  to  the  systematic  instruction  of  ministerial 
candidates,  in  the  original  languages  of  the  Hible. 
He,  also,  delivered  lectures  on  the  standard 
1  topics  of  divinity.  For  years  he  carried  on  this 
i  course  of  instruction  almost  single-handed,  in 
t  fact  until  disabled  by  failing  health.  The  first 
regularly  organized  "theological  seminary  in  the 
United  States  was  that  formed  by  the  Congre- 
gationalists  at  Andover,  Mass.,  in  1808.  A  foun- 
dation had  previously  existed  at  New  Brunswick, 
X.  J.,  uniler  the  auspices  of  the  Reformed  Dutch 
Church,  Imt  it  remained  for  a  long  time  unoc- 
cupied. In  1812,  the  Presbyterians  commenced 
their  theological  seminary  at  Princeton.  Inl817, 
the  General  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  was  founded  in  New  York. 
Since  the  dates  named,  most  of  the  larger 
Churches  of  the  United  States  have  founded 
theological  schools.  The  total  number  of  theo- 
logical departments  and  seminaries  in  the  Cnited 
States,  according  to  the  Report  of  the  U.  S. 
Commissioner  of  Education  for  1875,  was  123, 
having  G15  instructors  and  5,234  students. 

As  to  the  methods  pursued  in  the  theological 
schools  of  the  United  States,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  no  uniformity,  but  a  general  similarity, pre- 
vails. In  nearly  all.  primary  attention  is  given 
to  the  study  of  Hebrew  and  New  Testament 
Greek,  as  the  foundation  of  an  enlightened 
Scriptural  exegesis.  In  the  departments  of  eccle- 
siastical history,  and  systematic  and  practical 
theology,  instruction  is  given  largely  by  lectures, 
with  references  to  text-books,  and  collateral 
reading.  In  all  the  fully-organized  seminaries, 
the  course  of  study  extends  through  three  years, 
and  is  planned  in  reference  to  the  attainments 
of  graduates  of  colleges,  although  partial-course 
students  atv  admitted  on  specified  conditions. 

THERMOMETRY,  Educational.  Human 
thermometry  is  the  art  of  measuring  the  heat 
evolved  by  the  body,  and  the  science  of  calcu- 
lating thereby  a  person's  vitality  and  working 
power.  Physicians  now  use  thermometers  to 
ascertain  mathematically  the  existence  and  prog- 
ress of  disease,  instead  of  depending  upon  con- 
jecture, as  formerly.  The  same  may  also  be  done 
by  teachers,  in  order  to  appreciate  exactly  the 
working  capacity  of  their  pupils ;  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  contagious  diseases  in  the  school,  and 
to  warn  ignorant  or  thoughtless  parents  of  the  be- 
ginning of  illness  in  their  children  ;  and.  more- 
over, to  discover  the  existence  of  disease  when 
it  is  purposely  concealed.  The  means  of  doing 
this  is  afforded  by  thermometry  and  thermog- 
raphy, the  instruments  employed  being  a  ther- 
mometer and  a  thermograph,  to  indicate  and  re- 
cord the  degree  of  heat.  There  are  several  kinds 
of  thermometers.  That  is.  however,  of  special  value 
in  education,  the  scale  of  which  is  based  on  some 
physical  phenomenon,  as  the  melting  of  snow. 
In  the  physiological  thermometer,  the  health- 
point  is  marked  zero  or  norme,  as  seen  in  the 


THERMOMETRY 


'owing  scheme 

ofh 

itman  temperature  (tak 

the  physiological  scale). 

7° 

Only  two  alleged  cases. 

6° 

(ienVrally  fatal. 

Above 

Often  fatal. 

THE 

4° 

High  fever. 

NOKME 

3° 

Considerable  fever. 

2° 

Moderate  fever. 

1° 

Suspicious. 

The  Norme   0 

Standard  of  health 

r  o.5° 

Subnormal. 

Below          1° 

Depression. 

THE              \  2° 

Collapse. 
Algid  collapse. 

NORME 

3o    (0 

[i"-6°  Fatal. 
There  are  different  instruments  adapted  to  dif- 
ferent thermometries!  researches  :  (1)  the  physi- 
ological thermometer,  which,  when  introduced 
into  a  natural  cavity,  as  the  mouth,  or  into  an 
artificial  one.  as  the  closed  axilla,  indicates  the 
rate  of  evolution  of  the  central  heat ;  (2)  the 
surface  thermometer,  used  to  differentiate  the 
superficial  heat  of  two  bodies,  or  of  two  parts  of 
the  surface  of  the  same  body ;  (3)  the  ther mo- 
scope,  which,  in  a  few  seconds,  renders  evident 
differences  of  temperature  which  could  not  other- 
wise be  perceived  (unless  with  the  help  of  some 
very  expensive  thermo-electric  apparatus  ;  (4)  the 
hand,  an  absolutely  inexpensive  apparatus,  but  of 
inestimable  value  to  those  who  have  early  ap- 
preciated the  importance  of  educating  the  senses. 
The  trained  hand  can  be  used  as  a  central  or  as 
a  surface  thermometer.  It  cannot,  of  course, 
give  its  findings  in  figures :  but  it  adds,  to  a 
pretty  accurate  idea  of  the  heat  evolved,  an  esti- 
mate of  the  depth  or  superficiality  of  the  in- 
flammation, of  the  tension  of  the  tissues,  and  of 
other  signs  that  are  like  commentaries  to  the 
uslion  (feverish  burning).  The  hand  has,  morever, 
above  every  instrument,  the  advantage  of  being 
used,  at  will,  for  the  most  informal  and  unsus- 
pected diagnosis,  in  greetings,  etc. ;  and  when 
such  desultory  exploration  has  revealed  an  anom- 
alous degree  of  temperature,  the  thermometer 
may  be  used  to  ascertain  the  exact  condition. — 
Thermograph;/  is  the  method  of  recording  the 
phenomena  of  usttoii. in  the  order  most  favorable 
to  show  their  significance.  Normalthermography 
is  the  work  of  the  mother ;  pathological  thermog- 
raphy, of  the  physician,  aided  by  the  mother  or 
nurse  ;  and  school  thermography,  of  the  teacher, 
who  thus  contributes  his  share  to  the  natural 
history  of  his  pupils. —  Human  thermometry 
should  constitute  a  part  of  every  system  of  ped- 
agogy studied  in  the  normal  school ;  so  that  every 
teacher  may  conduct  his  school,  and  teach  his 
pupils,  on  this  uiathcmatico-physiological  basis, 
ascertaining  constantly  the  power  of  endurance  of 
every  pupil  during  the  various  exercises ;  for, 
since  mental  force  is  but  converted  physical  force, 
it  is  measurable  by  the  expenditure  of  caloric 
found  necessary  for  the  various  intellectual  proc- 

;  of  Children  (1871) :  Prevention  of  the 
I  of  Contagious  Diseases  among  Children 
by  the  Indications  of  Thermometry  (London. 
L873);  Manual  of  Thermometry  for  Mothers, 
Nurses,  'Teachers,  etc.  (N.  Y.,  1873). 


TRINITY  COLLEGE 

THIEL  COLLEGE  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church,  at  Greenville,  Pa.,  is  under 
the  care  of  the  Pittsburgh  Synod.  It  was  found- 
ed by  Lewis  Thiel.  as  an  academy,  at  Philips- 
burg,  in  1866,  chartered  as  a  college,  in  1870, 
and  removed  to  its  present  site,  in  1871.  Its 
permanent  endowment  is  over  $60,000,  chiefly 
derived  from  the  benefactions  of  its  founder.  It 
has  a  library  of  nearly  4,11110  volumes.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is §4(1  per  annum.  It  hasan  academic  and 
a  collegiate  department.  A  lailii's'  course  has  been 
also  established,  embracing  the  studies  of  the 
collegiate  department,  except  that  Greek  is  op- 
tional, and  French  may  be  taken  in  the  place  of 
German.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  6  instructors 
and  70  students  (21  collegiate  and  49  academic). 
The  Rev.  Henry  W.  Roth,  A.  M.,  is  (1877)  the 
president 

TOPICAL  METHOD.  See  Catechetical 
Method. 

TOUGALOO  UNIVERSITY. at  Tougaloo, 
Mis;.,  near  Jackson,  was  founded  in  1869,  and 
chartered  in  1871.  It  was  especially  designed 
for  the  education  of  colored  youth  of  both  sexes, 
but  is  open  to  all.  The  expenses,  including  tui- 
tion, board,  etc.,  are  less  than  $12  a  month.  A 
farm  of  five  hundred  acres  attached  to  the  uni- 
versity, is  cultivated  mainly  by  the  labor  of  stu- 
dents, who  thus  pay  a  portion  of  their  expenses. 
It  has  in  operation  a  normal,  an  intermediate, 
and  a  primary  department,  its  normal  depart- 
ment being  recognized  as  one  of  the  state  normal 
schools.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  5  instructors 
and  217  students  (normal  and  intermediate, 
125  ;  primary,  92).  Prof.  L.  A. Darling  is  (1877) 
the  president. 

TRAINING,  a  department  of  education,  in 
which  the  chief  element  is  exercise,  or  practice; 
the  object  being  to  impart  practical  skill,  or 
facility  in  any  bodily  or  mental  operation.  No 
teaching  can  be  effectual  that  is  not  supplemented 
by  training  ;  that  is  to  say.  not  only  is  the  under- 
standing of  the  pupil  to  be  addressed,  but  the 
principle  of  habit  to  be  appealed  to.  (SeeHABlT.) 

TRAINING  SCHOOLS.  See  Teachers' 
Seminaries. 

TRINITY  COLLEGE,  in  Hartford,  Ct., 
under  Protestant  Episcopal  control,  was  char- 
tend  as  Washington  College  in  1823,  and 
opened  in  1 824.  1  he  name  was  changed  in 
1845.  It  has  property  to  the  value  of  over 
SI. ooo.ooo.  a  library  of  18.000  volumes,  and  a 
valuable  cabinet.  '1  here  is  a  large  number  of 
scholarships,  nearly  all  designed  to  aid  students 
in  preparing  for  the  ministry  of  the  church. 
Besides  the  classical  course,  in  which  the  studies 
are  all  prescribed,  there  are  special  courses,  lead- 
ing to  the  degree  of  B.  S.  In  1875 — 6,  there 
were  13  instructors  and  83  students.  The  presi- 
dents have  been  as  follows:  the  Rt.  Rev.  Thomas 
C.  Brownell,  D.  D.,  1824—31 ;  the  Rev.  N.  S. 
Wheaton,  D.  D.,  1831—7;  the  Rev.  Silas  Tot- 
ten,  D.  1)..  1837— 48;  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  Wil- 
liams. D.  D.,  1848—53;  the  Rev.  Daniel  R. 
Goodwin,  D.D.,  1853—60  ;  Samuel  Eliot,  1861 
— ±;  the  Rt,  Rev.  J.  B.  Kerfoot,  1864—6  ;  the 


TRINITY  COLLEGE 

"Rev.  Abner  Jackson,  D.  P.,  who  was  succeeded 
by  the  Rev.  T.  1!.  Pynchon,  D.  1).,  the  present 
incumbent  (1876). 

TRINITY  COLLEGE,  at  Trinity.  Ran- 
dolph Co.,  X.  C,  founded  in  1852,  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
South.  The  name  of  the  post-office  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  institution.  The  college  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  (040  to  $60  per  annum)  and  funds 
contributed  by  the  North  Carolina  Conference. 
It  has  property  to  the  value  of  $45,000,  and 
libraries  containing  10,000  volumes.  The  chapel 
for  public  exercises  is  said  to  be  perfect  in  acous- 
tics, and  the  finest  auditorium  in  the  Southern 
states.  The  whole  course  of  instruction  is  em- 
braced in  eleven  schools  :  Latin,  Greek,  mathe- 
matics, English  literature,  natural  science,  mental 
and  moral  philosophy,  modern  languages,  theol- 
ogy, engineering  and  architecture,  analytical 
chemistry,  and  law.  The  studies  of  any  school, 
or  any  special  study,  may  be  pursued  exclusively, 
if  desired.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  5  instructors 
and  140  students.  The  Rev.  B.  Craven,  D.  D., 
LL.  D.,  has  been  the  president  from  the  organi- 
zation of  the  college. 

TRINITY  UNIVERSITY,  at  Tehuacana. 
Tex.,  under  the  control  of  Cumberland  Presby- 
terians, was  organized  in  1869,  and  chartered  in 
1370,  its  principal  design  being  to  furnish  an  edu- 
cated ministry.  It  has  an  endowment  of  $15,000, 
and  libraries  containing  about  .'(,0011  volumes.  It 
comprises  a  collegiate,  a  preparatory,  and  a  com- 
mercial course,  open  to  both  sexes.  In  L875— 6, 
there  were  13  instructors  and  372  students  (197 
preparatory  and  1  7."'  collegiate).  The  Rev.  W. 
E.  Beeson,  1).  !>.,  is  (1876)  the  president. 

TRIVIUM.     See  Arts. 

TROTZENDORF,  Valentine  Friedland, 
a  distinguished  German  educator,  born  at  Trotz- 
endorf  in  Silesia,  in  141)0;  died  in  1556.  His 
father's  name  was  Friedland,  which  he  changed 
into  the  name  of  his  birthplace.  After  studying 
the  classical  languages  at  Leipsic,  and  spending 
five  years  with  Luther,  he  entered,  in  1523, 
the  school  at  Goldberg  as  a  teacher,  and  ulti- 
mately became  its  rector,  in  which  position  he 
continued  till  within  two  years  of  his  death. 
Under  his  direction,  the  school  of  Goldberg  be- 
came one  of  the  most  famous  educational  insti- 
tutions of  the  age,  being  attended  by  scholars 
from  many  countries  of  Europe.  It  was  emi- 
nently a  classical  school,  German,  the  real  stud- 
ies, and  mathematics  occupying  a  subordinate 
place  in  the  curriculum.  Assistant  teachers 
were  seldom  employed,  teachers  for  the  lower 
classes  being  generally  selected  from  among  the 
students  in  the  upper  classes.  Biographies  of 
Trotzendorf  have  been  written  by  Pinzger  (Hei- 
delberg, 1825),  and  Loschke  (Breslau,  1856). — 
See  Barnard,  German  Teachers  mill  Educators. 

TRUANT  LAWS,  legislative  enactments 
having  for  their  object  to  prevent  truancy  from 
school.  Such  laws,  particularly  in  large  cities, 
have  been  of  great  service,  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  compulsory  attendance  legislation. 
(See  Compi-lsory  Education.) 


TURKEY 


821 


TUFTS  COLLEGE,  in  Medford.  Mass., 
chartered  in  L852,  and  opened  in  L854,  is  under 
Universalis!  control.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees  ($70  a  year),  and  the  income  of  an  endow- 
ment of  over  W.ooo.ooo.  The  library  contains 
over  lli.HOO  volumes  and  5,000  pamphlets. 
There  are  also  good  collections  of  minerals, 
shells,  birds,  and  botanical  specimens,  'there 
are  twenty-seven  scholarships  in  the  gift  of  the 
college,  fifteen  of  $60,  and  twelve  of  $100  each. 
It  has  a  classical  course  of  four  years,  a  course 
for  the  degree  of  Bachelor  of  Philosophy,  also  of 
four  years,  and  an  engineering  course  of  three 
years.  A  divinity  school  was  organized  in  1867. 
The  theological  students  receive  tuition  and  the 
use  of  rooms  free.  In  1875 — 6,  the  collegiate  de- 
partment had  10  professors,  1  instructor,  and  73 
students;  namely,  classical  course,  56;  engineer- 
ing, 12  ;  philosophical,  2  ;  resident  graduates,  3. 
The  divinity  school  had  3  professors,  1  instruct- 
or, 3  lecturers,  and  23  students.  The  whole  num- 
ber of  alumni  of  the  college  was  225  ;  of  the 
divinity  school,  21.  The  presidents  have  been  as 
follows;  the  Rev.  Hosea  Ballou,  2d,  1).  P., 
1853—61;  the  Rev.  Alonzo  A.  Miner,  P.P., 
LL.  !>.,  1862—76;  and  the  Rev.  Elmer  I!. 
Capen,  si:ice  1876. 

TURKEY,  an  empire,  embracing  extensive 
territories  in  Europe.  Asia,  and  Africa,  with  an 
aggregate  area  of  about  2,230,000  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  40.000,000.  The 
greater  part  of  the  population  of  the  whole  em- 
pire are  Mohammedans;  but, in  European  Turkey 
( 'hristianity  predominates.  The  chief  dependen- 
cies of  the  empire, —  Servia,  Roumania,  and 
Egypt,  are  treated  of  in  special  articles  of  this 
work. 

Educational  History. — Up  to  Is  Id,  public  in-  ' 
struct  ion  was  wholly  left  to  the  several  religious 
denominations;  but  since  then,  the  government 
has  made  some  efforts  to  promote  the  cause  of 
education,  and  especially  to  organize  a  school 
system  for  the  Mohammedan  population.  A 
radical  reform  was  attempted  by  means  of  a 
comprehensive  school  law.  issued  in  1869;  but 
most  of  the  provisions  have,  thus  far,  remained  a 
dead  letter.  'I  he  M ohammedan  schools,  in  par- 
ticular, have  hardly  been  improved  in  any  way. 
The  schools  connected  with  the  Greek  churches 
have  received  sonic  good  teachers,  educated  at 
the  university  of  Athens,  or  in  the  academies  of 
Greece.  The  Armenian  schools, have  been  greatly 
benefited  by  the  educational  efforts  of  the  Prot- 
estant American  missionaries.  The  religious 
order  of  the  Mekhitarists,  which  belongs  to  the 
United  Armenian  Church,  and  has  its  chief 
seats  at  Venice  and  Vienna,  has  done  much  for 
the  education  of  the  numerous  Armenian  pop- 
ulation; and  has.  in  particular,  educated  some  of 
the  best  Turkish  scholars  in  the  government 
employ.  French  and  Italian  missionaries  have 
established  a  number  of  ( 'atholic  institutions  of 
different  grades.  The  Jews  of  Turkey,  with  the 
aid  of  wealthy  co-religionists  in  other  countries, 
have  also  increased  the  number  and  improved 
the  condition  of  their  schools  ;  and  the  progress 


822     UNION  CHRISTIAN  COLLEGE 

of  the  Christian  ami  .Jewish  schools  has  given  a 
great  impulse  to  educational  progress  among  the 
native  Turks.  The  provisions  of  the  educational 
law  of  1869  are  as  follows  :  Primary  instruc- 
tion is  made  obligatory  for  boys  from  6  to  11, 
and  for  girls  from  6  to  10  years  of  age.  Every 
village  and  every  ward  of  a  town  is  required 
to  have  at  least  one  primary  school.  Primary 
schools  are  of  two  kinds,  —  common  primary  and 
superior  primary.  Whenever  the  number  of 
pupils  is  sufficient  to  warrant  it,  separate  schools 
are  to  be  established  for  Mohammedans  and  for 
Christians,  for  boys  and  for  girls.  Religious  in- 
struction in  the  Koran,  or  in  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, constitutes  a  part  of  the  regular  course. 
The  school  system  is  under  the  control  of  the 
Imperial  Council  of  Education.  The  school 
authorities  in  the  provinces  and  departments 
are  composed  of  Mohammedans  and  of  persons 
of  other  religious  belief,  the  number  of  each  be- 
ing equal. 

Primary  Schools. — Primary  schools,  of  some 
kind,  are  quite  generally  met  with  in  towns,  and 
even  in  villages  ;  but  reliable  statistics  in  regard 
to  them  are  wanting.  The  city  of  Constantinople 
had,  according  to  the  latest  accounts,  454  primary 
schools,  of  all  denominations,  with  33,000  pupils. 
The  total  number  of  superior  primary  schools 
in  Turkey  was  95,  with  about  7,600  pupils.  The 
establishment  of  normal  schools  was  also  pro- 
vided for  in  the  law  of  1869,  previous  to  which 
time  teachers  generally  received  their  education 
in  the  superior  primary,  or  in  secondary  schools. 


UNION  UNIVERSITY 

Secondary,  Superior,  and  Special  Schools. — 
The  law  of  1869  also  provides  for  a  complete 
system  of  secondary  schools.  Of  these  there 
are  two  kinds,  —  preparatory  schools,  and  lyce- 
ums.  Every  town  with  more  than  1,000  houses 
is  required  to  have  a  preparatory  school ;  and 
the  chief  town  of  every  province,  a  lyceum.  The 
course  of  instruction  in  the  former  lasts  3  years; 
in  the  latter,  6  years.  The  lyceum  has  a  gram- 
mar division  for  2  years,  and  a  superior  (4  years') 
division;  the  latter  is  again  divided  into  a  liter- 
ary and  a  scientific  section.  The  lyceum  at 
Galata-Serai  is  under  the  direction  of  French 
scholars,  and  the  medium  of  instruction  is 
French.  Various  secondary  schools  have  also 
been  established  by  several  Christian  denomina- 
tions. A  university,  organized  after  the  model 
of  the  universities  of  continental  Europe,  and 
embracing,  for  the  present,  three  faculties 
(literature,  law.  and  natural  science  and  mathe- 
matics), was  opened,  in  1870,  in  Constantinople. 
The  medium  of  instruction  is  the  Turkish  lan- 
guage ;  but  the  use  of  French  is  permitted. 
Constantinople  has  a  school  of  surveying  and 
architecture,  a  school  of  engineering  and  artillery, 
a  medical  school,  a  law  school,  a  military  school, 
and  a  school  of  military  surgery.  On  the  island 
of  Chalki,  there  is  a  naval  academy.  There  are 
numerous  schools  of  theology  in  connection  with 
the  mosques,  for  Mohammedans,  and.  in  connec- 
tion with  Episcopal  sees  and  monasteries,  for  the 
education  of  priests  of  the  Creek,  Catholic,  and 
Armenian  churches. 


UNION    CHRISTIAN    COLLEGE,    at 

Merom,  Ind.,  founded  in  1858,  is  under  the 
control  of  the  Christian  denomination.  It  has 
an  endowment  of  $100,000;  of  which  $20,000 
is  at  present  non-productive.  The  cost  of  tui- 
tion is  from  $18  to  824  a  year.  Both  sexes  are 
admitted.  The  curriculum  embraces  an  academic 
course,  requiring  2  years,  a  scientific  course,  4 
years,  and  a  classical  course,  6  years.  A  prepara- 
tory school  is  also  connected  with  the  college. 
There  is  a  course  in  normal  instruction,  also  in 
music  and  book-keeping.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were 
9  instructors  and  130  students.  The  presidents 
have  been:  Rev.  N.  Summerbell.  I).  1).,  1860 
—65;  Rev.  Thomas  Holmes,  D.  I).,  1865— 75; 
and  Rev.  T.  C.  Smith,  M.  A.,  since  1875. 

UNION  UNIVERSITY,  in  the  state  of 
Xew  \  ork,  incorporated  in  1873,  comprises 
Union  College,  with  its  preparatory  classical  in- 
stitute and  school  of  civil  engineering,  in  Sche- 
nectady, and  the  Medical  ( 'ollege.  the  Law  School, 
and  the  Dudley  Observatory,  in  Albany.  Union 
college  was  incorporated  in  1795,  and  was  so 
called  because  several  religious  denominations 
co-operated  in  its  establishment.  It  is  supported 
by  tuition  fees  (from  $75  to  $100  a  year)  aud 
the  income  of  endowments,  amounting  to  about 
$428,000.  It  has  a  library  of  18.000  volumes, 
and   valuable    chemical    and   philosophical   ap- 


paratus and  collections  in  natural  history. 
Numerous  scholarships  have  been  founded  for 
the  benefit  of  indigent  students.  There  is  a 
classical,  a  scientific,  and  an  eclectic  course.  The 
engineering  school  was  founded  in  1845.  The 
extensive  garden  and  farm  of  the  college  afford 
facilities  for  instruction  in  agriculture.  Military 
drill  and  gymnastic  training  were  early  intro- 
duced. The  Medical  <  'ollege  was  established  in 
1838,  and  the  Law  School  in  1851.  The  Dudley 
Observatory,  incorporated  in  1852  and  inaugu- 
rated in  1856,  is  furnished  with  the  best  astro- 
nomical instruments,  and  has  a  meteorological  de- 
partment. The  number  of  instructors  and  stu- 
dents, in  1875 — 6,  was  as  follows  :  Collegiate, 
18  instructors  and  175  students;  engineering 
school,  4  instructors  and  35  students :  medical 
college,  16  instructors  and  123  students;  law- 
school,  6  instructors  and  93  students ;  total, 
44  instructors  and  426  students.  The  following 
have  been  the  presidents  of  the  College  and  Uni- 
versity :  the  Rev.  John  Blair  Smith,  D.  D., 
1795 — 9;  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Edwards,  D.  D., 
1799 — 1801  ;  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Maxcy,  D.  D., 
1802—4;  the  Rev.  Eliphalet  Nott,  D.  I).,  1804 
— 66;  the  Rev.  Lawrence  P.  Dickok,  D.  D., 
1866—8  ;  the  Rev.  Charles  A.  Aiken,  D.  D., 
1869—71  ;  and  the  Rev.  Eliphalet  Nott  Potter, 
D.  D.,  since  1871. 


UNITARIANS 

UNITARIANS  are  a  body  of  Christians 
-who  reject  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  assert 
the  absolute  unity  of  God.  They  deny  the  deity 
of  Christ  and  his  equality  with  God  the  Father, 
but  do  not  reject  his  divinity,  or  any  exalted 
rank  consistent  with  his  subordination  to  God. 
They  reject  the  doctrine  of  total  depravity  and 
moral  inability,  and  of  the  necessity  of  a  vicarious 
atonement.  'They  have  no  written  creed,  and  in- 
dividual Unitarians  differ  greatly  on  many 
points.  Arianisni,  originating  in  the  4th  cent- 
ury, was  the  parent  of  Soeinianism.  in  the  16th  ; 
and  from  the  latter.  [Tnitarianism  has  descended. 
Persecution  confined  Socinianisni.at  the  close  of 
the  17th  century,  to  Transylvania,  where  there 
are  now  over  LOO  congregations  of  Unitarians, 
with  nearly  60,000  members.  They  have  a  col- 
lege at  Klausenburg.  They  are  governed  by  an 
■ecclesiastical  council  and  a  bishop.  In  England, 
the  growth  of  the  denomination  warranted  the 
foundation,  in  1825,  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Unitarian  Association.  In  the  United  King- 
•dom,  there  are  now  not  far  from  400  congrega- 
tions. The  Unitarians  have  a  college  in  Lon- 
don, and  another  in  Manchester.  The  American 
Unitarian  Association  was  also  organized  in 
1825.  It  was  incorporated  in  1847,  and  has  its 
headquarters  in  Boston.  The  National  Confer- 
ence of  Unitarian  and  other  Christian  Churches 
was  organized  in  1865.  In  the  United  States, 
the  Unitarians  separate.  1  from  the  Congregation- 
.alists.  They  have  about  350  or  360  congrega- 
tions throughout  the  country,  the  denomination 
being  most  numerous  in  Massachusetts, especially 
in  Boston  and  its  vicinity,  where  it  took  its  rise. 
Except  in  Transylvania,  the  Unitarians  have  a 
congregational  form  of  church  government.  In 
the  United  States,  the  denomination  has  always 
been  largely  constituted  from  the  most  highly 
•educated  portion  of  the  community;  and  its 
members  have  been  noted  for  their  public 
spirit,  and  their  interest  in  educational  and 
benevolent  affairs.  The  Society  for  Promoting 
Theological  Education  (headquarters  in  Boston) 
was  organized  in  1816,and  incorporated  in  1831. 
It  aims  to  enlarge  the  apparatus  of  theological 
instruction,  and  to  afford  assistance  to  merito- 
rious theological  students.  The  American  Uni- 
tarian Association  has  a  committee  on  theolog- 
ical education,  and  aids  young  men  in  preparing 
for  the  ministry.  The  Unitarian  Sunday-School 
Society  (Boston)  was  instituted  in  1*27.  Since 
the  early  years  of  the  century,  the  authorities  of 
Harvard  University  have  been  largely  Unita- 
rians, but  the  institution  has  never  been  under 
denominational  control.  The  Harvard  Divinity 
School  was  systematically  established  in  lslO. 
In  1876 — 7.  it  had  4  professors,  5  other  instruct- 
ors, 23  students,  and  a  library  of  17.00(1  vol- 
umes. The  Meadville  Theological  School,  at 
Meadville,  Pa.,  was  chartered  in  1846,  and 
organized  in  1847.  In  1876 — 7,  it  had  4  res- 
ident and  3  non-resident  professors,  12  students, 
and  a  library  of  12,000  volumes.  Unitarians 
have  a  share  likewise  in  the  control  of  Antioch 
College,  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio. 


UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST      823 

UNITED    BRETHREN    IN    CHRIST. 

This  church  was  founded  by  Philipp  Wilhelni 
Otterbein,  a  minister  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church,  who  was  born  .lime  4.,  1726,  at  Dillen- 
linrg,  Germany,  and, in  1752, came  to  the  United 
States,  being  one  of  the  six  young  men  who  ac- 
companied the  Rev.  Michael  Schlatter,  the 
pioneer  missionary  of  the  German  1,'eformed 
Church.  (See  Reformed  Church.)  The  church 
which  owes  its  foundation  to  him,  originated  in 
no  doctrinal  disputes,  but  was  the  result  of  the 
growth  of  vital  piety  in  individual  members. 
The  name  arose  from  the  circumstance  that,  at 
a  great  revival  meeting,  when  both  Otterbein 
and  Martin Boehm. a  minister  ot  the  Mennonites, 
were  preaching,  Otterbein  clasped  Boehm  in  his 
arms,  with  the  words,  "  We  arc  brethren."  In 
L800,  the  words  -in  Christ"  were  added  to 
••  United  Brethren,"  in  order  to  distinguish  the 
church  from  the  Moravians,  who  were  also 
called  United  Brethren.  The  church,  in  1876, 
had,  in  43  annual  conferences.  1,952  ministers 
and  L43.88]  members.  —  When  Otterbein,  in 
1774,  organized,  in  Baltimore,  an  independent 
church,  wdiose  doctrines  and  discipline,  with 
some  slight  modifications,  became  the  doctrines 
and  discipline  of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ, 
one  of  the  articles  of  the  church  provided  for 
the  establishment  of  a  German  school.  The 
fathers  of  the  church  had,  for  a  long  time, 
serious  doubts  about  the  expediency  of  establish- 
ing denominational  institutions  for  higher  edu- 
cation ;  but,  in  L845,  the  General  Conference 
almost  unanimously  resolved  "  that  proper  meas- 
ures be  adopted  to  establish  an  institution  of 
learning."  In  1846,  the  Scioto  Annual  Con- 
ference appointed  a  committee  to  purchase  from 
the  Methodist  Kpiscopal  Church  the  Blendon 
Young  Men's  Seminary,  at  Westerville,  O.,  and 
thus,  Otterbein  University  (q.v.).the  first  col- 
lege  of  the  church,  was  established.  In  1847, 
the  Allegheny  Conference  resolved  to  establish 
an  institution  at  Mount  Pleasant.  Pa.,  or  Johns- 
town. It  was  finally  located  at  Mount  Pleas- 
ant ;  but,  in  l*5s,  the  buildings  were  sold,  and 
the  interests  transferred  to  Otterbein  University. 
The  seed  thus  planted  rapidly  took  root.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  institution  already  mentioned,  the 
following  have  since  been  established :  Harts- 
ville  University,  Hartsville,  Ind.  (1851)  ;  West- 
ern College.  Western,  Iowa  (1856);  Westfield 
College.  Westfield.  111.  (1S65);  Green  Hill  Sem- 
inary, Poolsville.  Jnd.  (1869);  Avalon  Academy, 
Avalon.  Mo.  (1869);  Smithville  High  School, 
Snuthville,  O. ;  Roanoke  Classical  Seminary, 
Roanoke.  Ind.  (1869);  Lebanon  Valley  College. 
Lebanon,  Pa.  (1866);  Lane  University.  Lecomp- 
toti.Kan.;  Philomath  College.  Philomath.*  Iregon; 
and  KIroy  Seminary,  Elrov.  Wis.  (1874).  The  ag- 
gregate number  of  students  in  these  institutions, 
during  the  year  1875 — 6,  was  over  1,000  males, 
of  whom  about  125  were  preparing  for  the 
ministry,  and  about  600  females ;  the  wholo 
number,  since  their  foundation,  is  about  15,000; 
and  the  total  number  of  graduates,  300.  The 
aggregate  number  of  volumes  in  their  libraries 


24      UNITED  BRETHREN  IN  CHRIST         UNITED  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH 


was  6,000;  the  endowment  funds,  collected  and 
promised,  amounted  to  §300,000.  Co-education 
of  the  sexes  has  been  the  uniform  rule  in  all  the 
institutions  of  the  church.  As  the  fathers  of 
the  church  had  an  impression  that  college  edu- 
cation had  a  tendency  to  make  men  indolent, 
they  connected  a  man  mil  labor  i/ijuir/meHtv/ith 
two  or  more  of  the  institutions  ;  but  the  project 
was  soon  found  to  be  impracticable,  and  was, 
consequently,  abandoned.  — A  still  greater  op- 
position than  to  the  establishment  of  denomina- 
tional colleges  and  high  schools,  was,  for  a  long 
time,  made  to  the  establishment  of  theological 
schools.  The  opponents  of  these  schools  took 
the  ground  that  men  cannot  and  should  not  be 
"trained  for  the  ministry,"  and  the  special 
schools  of  theology  were  represented  by  them  as 
"  priest  factories."  This  feeling,  however,  has 
gradually  lost  ground,  and  has  now  almost  died 
away.  In  1847,  the  Allegheny  Conference  re- 
solved that  thereafter  "  a  good  theoretical  and 
practical  knowledge  of  English  grammar,  a  gen- 
eral knowledge  of  geography,  history  (profane 
and  ecclesiastical,  ancient  and  modern),  and 
theology  should  be  a  test  for  admission  into  the 
itinerancy."  Soon  after,  a  "  course  of  reading  for 
applicants  to  the  ministry"  was  provided ;  and 
they  were  annually  examined  upon  this,  and  pro- 
moted and  ordained,  provided  their  progress 
would  permit.  This  course  was  enlarged  and  im- 
proved from  year  to  year,  and  is  still  the  policy 
of  the  church.  In  1865,  the  bishops,  in  their  report 
to  the  General  Conference,  suggested  that  some 
plan  superior,  if  possible,  to  the  present  "  course 
of  reading"  and  imperfect  method  of  examina- 
tion, should  be  adopted,  and  enjoined  upon  the 
conferences.  The  committee  of  the  » ieneral  <  !<  in- 
ference on  education  reported  in  favor  of  recom- 
mending to  the  trustees  of  Otterbein  University 
the  propriety  of  connecting  with  that  institution 
a  theological  department  as  soon  as  practicable  ; 
but,  as  this  plan  appeared  to  many  too  radical 
an  innovation,  the  General  Conference  com- 
promised on  a  recommendation  to  the  trustees 
of  the  several  colleges  to  connect  with  these 
schools  biblical  <:/-iss"x,  embracing  the  course 
of  reading  recommended  in  the  discipline  of  the 
church.  In  1869,  the  General  Conference  ar- 
ranged for  a  board  of  education,  and  instructed 
this  board  to  establish  a  Biblical  Institute.  In 
1871,  this  school  was  opened  at  Dayton,  0.,  un- 
der the  name  of  the  Union  Biblical  Seminary. 
The  sentiment  in  favor  of  a  theological  school 
increased  so  rapidly,  that  by  the  meeting  of  the 
General  Conference,  in  1873,  every  one  of  the 
annual  conferences  had  endorsed  it.  Aboard 
of  education  was  appointed  in  1873.  It  is  to 
make  annual  reports  of  the  condition  of  the 
educational  work  of  the  church,  with  such  rec- 
ommendations as  may  seem  best  for  all  its  in- 
terests. The  United  Brethren  have  a  well- 
oigainV.ed  Sabbath-scl I  department.  The  num- 
ber of  Sabbath  schools,  in  1876,  was  2,854, 
with  163,43!)  pupils,  officers,  and  teachers.  The 
denominational  book  concern  in  Dayton,  0., 
publishes  several  periodicals,  specially    adapted 


to  Sabbath  schools.  Nearly  every  conference 
is  connected  with  some  one  of  the  colleges, 
and  aids  in  its  maintenance.  A  collection  is 
annually  taken  up  in  each  church  for  gen- 
eral educational  purposes;  while  the  colleges, 
through  instrumentalities  of  their  own  appoint- 
ment, are  annually  adding  to  their  resources. 
The  number  of  students  in  attendance  is  in- 
creasing ;  the  ministers  are  making  better  prep- 
arations for  their  work  ;  and  the  college  gradu- 
ates occupy  influential  positions  in  the  church. 
Much  of  the  credit  of  the  educational  progress 
of  the  church  is  due  to  the  Rev.  Lewis  Davis, 
I).  I).,  for  eighteen  years  president  of  Otterbein 
University,  and  now  ( 1  s77)  senior  professor  in 
the  Union  Biblical  Seminary. 

UNITED  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH, 
the  name  of  a  Protestant  state  church  in  Prus- 
sia and  most  of  the  German  states.  It  was 
formed,  in  1817,  by  the  union  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  churches;  and,  in  1871,  the  en- 
tire population  formerly  connected  with  those 
churches,  except  about  60,000  Lutherans,  be- 
longed to  it.  Although  the  church  has  now 
been  in  existence  for  more  than  half  a  century, 
there  is  still  a  very  great  diversity  in  the  views 
entertained  in  regard  to  the  nature  and  extent 
of  the  Union.  A  large  portion  of  the  Luther- 
ans, in  particular,  look  upon  it  not  as  a  new 
church,  but  merely  as  an  administrative  con- 
federation of  the  existing  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed churches.  The  church  in  Prussia  was 
wdiolly  under  the  administration  of  consistories 
appointed  by  the  state  until  1874,  when  the 
government  began  to  carry  into  effect  the  prin- 
ciple of  ecclesiastical  self-government,  by  circle, 
provincial,  and  national  synods.— As  the  recog- 
nized state  church  in  Prussia  and  other  German 
states,  the  United  Evangelical  Church  co-oper- 
ates with  the  government,  to  a  very  large 
extent,  in  the  control  of  primary,  and,  to  some 
extent,  also,  in  that  of  secondary  schools.  (See 
Germany.)  The  faculties  of  Protestant  theol- 
ogy (see  Theological  Schools)  in  all  the  Ger- 
man  universities,  except  Rostock,  Leipsic,  and 
Erlangen,  are  in  official  connection  with  this 
church ;  and  it  is  universally  admitted  that, 
through  them,  the  church  has  theological  learn- 
ing at  its  command  not  surpassed  by  that  of 
any  other  church. — Besides  the  theological  facul- 
ties, through  which  candidates  for  the  ministry 
receive  their  scientific  education,  the  church  has 
established  a  number  of  preachers'  seminaries, 
some  of  which  are  connected  with  the  theo- 
logical  faculties,  while  others  are  independent  of 
them. — The  church,  during  the  short  period  of  its 
existence,  has  displayed  a  remarkable  zeal  in  the  es- 
tablishment of  reformatory  sch< >< 'Is.  aim >ng  which 
theSaukes  Haus,  founded  by  J.  H.Wichern,  now 
a  member  of  the  Supreme  Ecclesiastical  Council 
of  Merlin.  Ins  gained  a  world-wide  reputation, 
and  served  as  a  model  for  numerous  other  insti- 
tutions in  and  out  of  Germany.  Another  of  the  in- 
institutions  which  owe  their  origin  to  thischurch, 
is  that  of  the  Protestant  deaconesses,  founded  by 
Dr.  Flieduer,  in  Kaiserswerth,  who,  though  chiefly 


UNITED  STATES 


S25 


devoted  to  the  nursing  of  the  sick,  are  also  con-  I 
ducting  a  number  of  reformatory,  industrial, 
and  missionary  schools. — In  Europe,  the  United 
Evangelical  Church  is  confined  to  Germany; 
but,  in  1840,  a  branch  was  established  in  the 
United  States,  which,  in  1874,  had  300  ministers 
and  10,000  communicants.  The  German  lan- 
guage is  still  exclusively  used  in  all  the  congre- 
gations. The  church  has  a  theological  seminary  ] 
in  Wan-en  Co..  Mo.,  and  another  educational 
institution  at  Ehnhurst,  111. 

UNITED  STATES  of  America,  the  must 
powerful  nation  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  and 
the  largest  republic  in  the  world,  having  an  area 
of  more  than  3,600,000  sq.  m..  and  a  population, 
according  to  the  last  decennial  census,  in  1870, 
of  38,925,598,  consisting  of  33,592.245  whites. 
4,886.387  colored  persons,  03,254  Chinese,  and 
383,712  Indians. 

Educational  History.  —  The  character  of  the  i 
early  colonists  of  North  America,  courageous, 
independent,  and  intolerant  of  oppression,  would 
of  itself  furnish  presumptive  evidence  that  the 
cause  of  education  in  the  New  World  was  not 
neglected.  Positive  evidence  on  this  point,  how- 
ever, is  not  wanting.  The  earliest  records  of  the 
colonies  attest  the  solicitude  of  the  settlers  for 
the  proper  instruction  of  their  children.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  the  New  England  colonies ; 
and  a  forcible  illustration  of  it  is  afforded  in  the  | 
early  school  legislation  of  Massachusetts,  partic- 
ularly in  its  famous  school  law  of  1647.  (See 
Massachusetts.)  A  comparison  of  this  law, 
which  enunciates,  as  an  important  principle,  the 
joint  obligation  of  the  family  and  the  state  to 
provide  an  education  for  the  young,  with  the 
school  legislation  of  the  foremost  European 
countries  in  the  18th  century,  entitles  Massa- 
chusetts to  a  place  in  the  front  rank  among  the 
enlightened  communities  of  that  period.  The 
history  of  some  of  the  other  colonies  presents 
facts  equally  interesting  and  creditable.  The 
most  striking  feature  of  the  colonial  school  sys- 
tems was  the  connection  of  the  school  with  the 
church,  the  clergyman,  in  many  cases,  being  the 
school-master.  The  Puritans,  the  Huguenots, 
the  Cavaliers,  the  Dutch  settlers,  and  others 
brought  this  principle  with  them  to  their  new 
homes;  and  the  strength  of  their  religious  con- 
victions  tended  to  perpetuate  it.  (Fora  fuller  ac- 
count of  the  educational  history  of  the  colonies, 
see  the  articles  on  the  thirteen  original  states.) — 
When  the  independence  of  the  United  States 
was  established,  education  was  not  among  the 
subjects  which  were  committed  to  the  control  of 
the  national  government ;  but  each  individual 
state  engaged,  in  its  own  way,  in  the  work  of 
establishing  and  developing  an  educational  sys- 
tem. Massachusetts,  in  the  new  constitution  of 
1780,  and  Connecticut,  by  its  establishment  of 
a  school  fund,  in  1705.  re-asserted  the  principles 
which  had  been  proclaimed  in  the  17th  century. 
and  made  it  the  duty  of  legislatures  and  magis- 
trates to  cherish  the  interests  of  public  schools, 
grammar  schools,  colleges,  and  universities.  New 
Hampshire,  when  amending  its  constitution  in 


1784,  expressed  its  entire  concurrence  in  the 
constitution  of  Massachusetts  ;  and  Vermont,  in 
1793,  declared  that  asufficient  number  of  schools 
should  be  maintained  in  every  town.  Rhode  Is- 
land, which  remained  under  the  colonial  charter 
until  1840,  and  Maine,  which  was  admitted  into 
the  Union  in  1820,  have  since  indorsed  the  same 
principles  ;  so  that  the  people  of  New  England 
may  be  said  to  have  been  unanimous  in  their 
views  ami  in  their  legislation  on  the  subject  of 
public  education.  In'  New  York,  the  progress  of 
the  common-school  system  was  not  so  rapid  as 
in  New  England.  The  constitution  of  1777 
made  an  allusion  to  schools;  but,  in  1785,  the 
legislature  created  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the 
University  of  the  State,  designed  to  promote  the 
establishment  of  academies  and  colleges  ;  and.  in 
1795,  Governor  George  Clinton  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  common-school  system,  of  which 
Horace  Mann,  in  1845,  could  say,  "the  great 
state  of  New  York,  by  means  of  her  county 
superintendents,  state  normal  school,  and  other- 
wise, is  carrying  forward  the  work  of  education 
more  rapidly  than  any  other  state  in  the  Union, 
or  any  other  country  in  the  world."  Pennsyl- 
vania, in  1  790,  required  the  legislature  to  pro- 
vide for  the  establishment  of  schools  throughout. 
the  state,  in  such  a  maimer,  that  the  poor  might 
be  taught  gratis.  New  Jersey,  in  1816,  created 
a  school  fund,  but  a  general  system  of  state. 
county,  and  town  supervision  was  not  adopted 
until  1846.  The  new  states  of  the  North-West 
and  on  the  Pacific  have  each  built  up  a  common- 
school  system  on  the  New  England  basis  ;  and 
the  plan  includes,  in  every  state  except  Ohio,  a 
university  or  high  seminary  of  learning.  In  the 
southern  states  of  the  Union,  the  progress  of 
educational  institutions  has  been  less  satisfactory. 
Thomas  Jefferson,  in  1779,  drafted  a  bill  pro- 
viding a  public-scl 1   system  for   Virginia,  but 

it  was  not  adopted  til  1796,  and  then  with  a  pro- 
viso which  "completely  defeated  it."  'Hie  con- 
stitution of  1851  applied  one  equal  moiety  of 
the  capitation  tax  upon  white  persons  to  the 
purposes  of  education  in  primary  and  free 
schools;  but,  neither  in  Virginia,  nor  in  any  other 
Southern  state,  were  there  schools,  of  any  grade, 
which  could  compete,  in  number  or  efficiency, 
with  the  best  schools  of  the  North.  When  the 
civil  war  broke  out.  in  1861,  several  of  the 
Southern  states  were  still  entirely  without  any 
system  of  common  schools.  The  rapid  growth  of 
the  slave  population  for  which  no  education  was 
provided,  placed  the  Southern  states  among  the 
most  illiterate  countries  of  Christendom.  After 
the  close  of  the  civil  war,  school  systems  rapidly 
developed  in  that  section,  most  of  them  fully  rec- 
ognizing the  essential  principles  of  free  popular 
education.  Virginia.  Tennessee.  Kentucky,  and 
Missouri  have  Cspecially  made  progress  in  the 
organization  of  effective  systems  of  public  in- 
struction ;  while,  in  most  of  the  others,  consider- 
able progress  has  been  made. —  At  the  time  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the  schools  of 
New  England  generally,  and  the  great  majority 
of  the  schools  in  the   other  original  states,  were 


UNITED  STATES 


of  an  exclusively  Protest  ant  character  ;  and  the 
reading  of  the  authorized  version  of  the  Bible,  the 
singing  of  hymns,  the  saying  of  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
or  other  religious  services,  at  the  teacher's  dis- 
cretion, constituted  a  part  of  the  scholastic  ex- 
ercises. When  the  vast  influx  of  Irish  ami  ( icrman 
immigrants  had  given  to  many  of  the  states  a 
numerous  Roman  Catholic  population,  two  ob- 
jections were  raised  to  the  prevailing  school  sys- 
tem. Protesting  against  Catholic  pupils' being 
obliged  to  listen  to  the  reading  of  a  sectarian  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible,  and  to  the  use  of  hymns  and 
forms  of  prayer  not  sanctioned  by  their  Church, 
and  arguing  that,  according  to  the  principles  of 
the  Catholic  Church,  religious  and  secular  instruc- 
tion should  go  hand  in  hand,  the  Catholics  asked 
for  a  division  of  the  school  fund,  and  thus  com- 
menced a  heated  controversy  which  is  not  yet 
ended.  (See  Denominational  Schools.)  This  agi- 
tation has,  on  the  one  hand,  led  to  the  abandon- 
ment of  all  religious  exercises  in  the  public 
schools,  except  the  reading  of  the  Bible  without 
note  or  comment;  and  even  this  now  meets  with 
considerable  opposition,  and,  in  some  places,  has 
been  abolished.  (See  Bible.)  On  the  other  hand, 
the  expression  of  public  opinion  has  been  very 
decided  against  the  support  of  denominational 
schools  by  public  moneys,  and  in  favor  of  the 
continued  support  and  encouragement  of  the 
common-school  system  on  a  free  secular  basis. 
The  president  of  the  United  States,  in  his  mes- 
sage to  ('.ingress.  Dec.  7..  1ST."),  advised,  "that  a 
Constitutional  amendment  be  submitted  to  the 
legislatures  of  the  several  states  for  ratification, 
making  it  the  duty  of  each  of  the  several  states, 
to  establish  and  forever  maintain  full  public 
schools,  adequate  to  the  education  of  all  the 
children  in  rudimentary  branches,  within  their 
respective  limits,  irrespective  of  sex,  color,  birth- 
place, or  religion  ;  forbidding  the  teaching,  in 
said  schools,  of  religious,  atheistic,  or  pagan  ten- 
ets, and  prohibiting  the  granting  of  any  school 
fund  or  school  taxes,  or  any  part  thereof,  either 
by  legislative,  municipal,  or  other  authority,  for 
the  benefit  or  in  aid,  directly  or  indirectly,  of 
any  religious  sect  or  denomination"  ;  but  this 
recommendation  was  not  acted  on.  Properly 
speaking,  the  United  States  has  no  public-school 
system,  the  function  performed  by  the  general 
government  having  always  been  that  of  fostering 
public  education  without  assuming  any  control 
of  it.     i  See  Bureau  op  Education.) 

Congressional  Land  Grants.  —  The  earliest 
action  of  this  nature,  was  that  of  the  ordinance 
for  the  government  of  the  North-West  Ter- 
ritory, passed  in  1 785.  By  this  the  sixteenth 
section  (one  square  mile)  in  every  township 
was  set  apart  for  the  maintenance  of  common 
.schools,  this  action  being  accompanied  with  the 
declaration  that  "  religion,  morality,  and  knowl- 
edge being  necessary  to  good  government  and 
the  happiness  of  mankind. schools  and  the  means 
of  education  shall  be  forever  encouraged."  The 
states  which  have  received  the  Kith  section  under 
this  law,  are  Ohio,  Louisiana,  Indiana,  Missis- 
sippi, Illinois,    Alabama,   Maine,  Missouri,  Ar- 


kansas, Michigan,  Florida,  Iowa,  Texas,  and 
Wisconsin.  In  1787,  this  ordinance  was  re- 
newed, and  the  grant  was  increased  by  two  town- 
ships of  land  to  be  given  to  each  state  "for  the 
purpose  of  a  university."  In  1789,  after  the 
adoption  of  the  federal  constitution,  this  or- 
dinance was  confirmed  ;  and,  accordingly,  every 
slate  that  has  been  organized  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century,  has  received  at  least 
two  townships  for  the  encouragement  of  higher 
education,  while  Ohio  received  three — one  while 
in  its  territorial  condition,  and  two  as  a  state; 
and  Florida  and  Wisconsin  each  received  four. 
In  L806,  the  first  appropriation  was  made  for 
the  education  of  the  Indians ;  and,  from  that 
time  to  1870,  the  sum  expended  for  this  purpose 
has  been  §8,000.(1(10.  In  183(i,  the  surplus  fund 
in  the  United  States  Treasury,  amounting  to 
about  §15,000,000  was  loaned  indefinitely  to  the 
older  states  for  educational  purposes;  and,  in 
many,  this  now  constitutes  a  permanent  school 
fund  (United  States  Deposit  fund).  By  the 
act  of  1841,  sixteen  states  have  received  each 
500,000  acres  of  land,  as  follows  :  Alabama.  Ar- 
kansas, California.  Florida.  Illinois,  Iowa,  Kan- 
sas, Louisiana.  Michigan.  Minnesota,  Mississippi, 
Missouri,  Nebraska.  Nevada,  Oregon,  and  Wis- 
consin. A  large  portion  of  the  proceeds  of  the  sale 
of  these  lands  was  devoted  to  common-school  pur- 
poses. From  the  beginning  of  the  present  century 
down  to  1848,  each  state  admitted  into  the 
Union  has  received  the  10th  section  for  the  sup- 
port of  common  schools.  In  that  year,  the  3b'th 
section  was  a  Ided  to  the  Kith  for  the  same  pur- 
pose, the  territory  of  Oregon  being  the  first  to 
receive  it.  Since  that  time,  each  new  territory 
and  state  has  received  two  sections.  Under  the 
acts  of  184JI,  1850, and  1800,apart  of  the  public 
domain,  amounting  to  62,428,413  acres  known 
as  "swamp  lands",  was  given  to  the  states  of 
Alabama,  Arkansas,  California.  Florida.  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Louisiana.  Michigan,  Minnesota, 
Mississippi,  Missouri.  Ohio,  and  Wisconsin.  A 
portion  of  the  proceeds  of  this  land,  also,  was 
devoted  to  the  cause  of  education.  The  land 
granted  by  the  general  government,  from  1785 
to  1862,  amounts  to  nearly  140,000,00(1  acres; 
the  proceeds  of  nearly  all  of  which  have  been 
devoted  to  school  purposes.  In  18(!2,  a  further 
grant  was  made,  each  state  receiving  30,000 
acres  for  each  senator  and  representative  in 
Congress,  the  amount  derived  from  the  sale  of 
such  lands  to  be  converted  into  a  perpetual 
fund  for  the  maintenance  of  at  least  one  college 
in  each  state,  in  which  the  distinctive  object 
should  be.  "without  excluding  other  scientific 
and  classical  studies,  and  including  military 
tactics,  to  teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are 
related  to  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  in 
such  manner  as  the  legislatures  of  the  states  may 
respectively  prescribe,  in  order  to  promote  the 
liberal  and  practical  education  of  the  industrial 
classes  in  the  several  pursuits  and  professions  of 
life."  The  amount,  of  land  subject  to  the  dis- 
posal of  the  states  by  this  law.  is  9,510,000  acres. 
Thirty-seven  states  have  thus  far  (1877)  taken 


UNITED  STATES 


827 


advantage  of  the  liberal  provisions  of  this  law  ; 
and  many  institutions  have  been  opened,  in  most 
cases,  independently,  but  in  some,  as  departments 
of  colleges  or  universities  existing  at  the  time. 
These  are  the  institutions  usually  known  as 
agricultural  colleges;  though  erroneously,  since 
the  law  for  their  foundation  does  not  exclude 
classical  studies,  hut  expressly  declares  that  the 
intention  of  the  Government  is  to  promote  the 
"liberal"  as  well  as  practical  education  of  the  in- 
dustrial classes.    (See  Agricultural  Colleges.) 

Bureau  of  Education,  etc. — In  1867,  the  na- 
tional bureau  was  established  "for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  such  statistics  and  facts  as  shall  show  the 
condition  and  progress  of  education,  in  the  several 
states  and  territories,  and  of  diffusing  such  in- 
formation respecting  the  organization  and  man- 
agement of  sell. ml  systems  and  methods  of  teach- 
ing as  shall  aid  the  people  of  the  United  States 
in  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of  efficient 
school  systems,  and  otherwise  promote  the  cause 
of  education  throughout  the  country."  (See 
Bureau  of  Education-.) — In  1865,  the  Freed- 
men's  Bureau  was  established  by  the  government, 
for  the  purpose  of  watching  over  the  interests  of 
4.000,001)  slaves  freed  by  the  proclamation  of 
emancipation,  and  preparing  them  for  citizen- 
ship. In  1869,  the  Bureau  was  abolished,  ex- 
cept the  educational  department,  which  was  con- 
tinued till  1870.  The  result  of  its  five  years' 
work  has  been  the  establishment  of  many  in- 
stitutions for  the  superior  instruction  of  the 
freedmen  in  the  Southern  States,  mention  of 
which  is  made  under  their  respective  titles.  The 
field  abandoned  by  it  has  since  been  occupied 
by  several  societies  and  associations,  chiefly  re- 
ligious.    (See  Freedmbn's  Schools.) 

Free-School  Systems.  The  idea  of  providing 
public  instruction'  for  all  children  at  the  expense 
of  the  community  is  by  no  means  novel,  for  we 
find  it  in  the  celebrated  school  law  of  Massachu- 
setts, already  referred  to ;  but  the  complete  pre- 
dominance of  the  principle  is  a  fact  of  recent 
date.  In  1*05.  rate-bills  were  in  use  in 
New  York,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Michigan;  but  a  vigorous  agitation 
against  this  system  ensued;  and,  in  1871, 
the  rate-bill  had  entirely  disappeard.  But 
while  free  common  schools  are  now  found 
throughout  the  American  I'nion.  and  the  citizens 
may  be  said  to  be  practically  unanimous  in  their 
support,  a  radical  difference  of  opinion  continues 
to  prevail  in  regard  to  the  extension  which 
should  be  given  to  the  application  of  the  system. 
While  in  many  states  secondary  and  even  su- 
perior schools  are  included  within  the  plan,  the 
restriction  of  state  support  to  elementary  schools 
has  many  supporters. — In  the  New  England 
states,  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa.  Missouri.  Ohio, 
and  some  other  states,  the  township  has  always 
been  the  political  unit  upon  which  has  devolved 
the  obligation  to  make  provision  for  education ; 
but,  in  most  of  the  states,  the  township,  for  a 
time,  almost  disappeared  as  an  element  in  the 
organization  of  the  school  system,  the  only  di- 
visions   being    (1)    the    county,    and    (2)    the 


school-districts  into  which  the  county  was  divid- 
ed. After  an  extended  trial  of  the  district 
system,  most  of  the  states  have  re-organized  their 
school  systems  on  the  township  plan.  1  hi  town- 
ship schools  are  under  the  control  ot  local  boards 
which  are  variously  styled  school  committees, 
school  visitors,  school  directors,  school  trustees, 
school  commissioners,  school  boards,  and  pru- 
dential committees.  These  boards  are  generally 
elected  by  the  people,  but  in  some  <;,>,>.  1 1 1.  \  are 
appointed  by  the  governor  of  the  state.  Of 
late,  compulsory  education  laws  have  been  passed 
in  a  number  of  the  states  :  but  while  the  principle 
appeal's  to  gain  favor,  it  is  found  to  be  difficult 
to  enforce  the  laws.  Twenty-three  states,  in 
1875,  had  each  a  state  board  of  education  for 
the  general  regulation  of  their  public  school 
system.-  :  and  ail  the  states  and  territories  (Dela- 
ware, since  1875)  have  state  superintendents  of 
public  schools.— The  expenses  for  the  support  of 
the  public  schools  are  defrayed  (1)  from  state 
school  funds  (in  1875.  $81;486,158  in  the  states, 
and  $323,236  in  the  territories),  accumulated, 
for  the  most  part,  from  Dational  grants  of  lands 
and  from  appropriations  made,  from  time  to 
time,  by  tile  state  legislatures;  (2)  from  state 
school  taxes,  which  are  raised  in  a  majority  of 
the  states,  and  apportioned  among  the  school 
districts;  and  (3)  chiefly  from  local  taxes.  To 
these  regular  sources  of  income,  must  be  added 
another  which  occupies  an  important  position  in 
the  school  finances  ;  that  is  (4)  donations.  The 
total  income  of  the  states,  according  to  the  report 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  for  1875,  was 
$87,527,278,  and  of  the  territories.  $1,121,672. 
There  is  an  immense  difference  in  the  amount 
of  expenditure  for  the  schools  of  different  states, 
ranging  from  S--  /«•/■  vtrpittioi  the  school  popu- 
lation, in  some  states,  to  $1  in  Florida.  Virginia, 
South  Carolina.  Tennessee,  and  ( Georgia.  In  the 
number  and  amount  of  gifts  for  the  promotion  of 
learning,  this  country  is  unequaled  by  any  other 
on  the  globe.  In  187;"),  the  sum  total  of  donations 
reported  to  the  Bureau  of  Education  in  Wash- 
ington was  .$4,120,502  ;  in  1874,  §0,053,304  ;  in 
1872,  $11,226,977.— The  total  school  population 
of  the  states  and  territories  amounted,  in  1875, 
to  14,007,522.  The  number  enrolled,  which  in 
the  public  schools  naturally  comprises  chiefly  the 
population  between  the  ages  of  5  or  6  and  15.  was 
8,756,659;theaveragedailyattendance,  1,251,808. 
The  private  schools  in  the  states,  as  far  as  they 
were  heard  from,  reported  180.635  pupils.  In 
the  northern  and  western  states,  there  are  but 
few  native  American  children  who  do  not  attend 
school  during  any  part  of  their  lives;  and.  in  most 
of  these  states,  the  enrollment  of  children  (includ- 
ing those  of  private  schools)  exceeds  the  whole 
number  between  the  ages  of  5  and  15.  (For  detailed 
statistics,  see  School  Census.) — The  total  num- 
ber of  teachers  reported  in  1875,  was  249,262,  a 
large  majority  of  whom  were  females.  The 
necessity  of  schools  for  training  teachers  is 
of  comparatively  recent  recognition,  but  now 
the  number  of  normal  schools  is  rapidly  increas- 
ing. (See  Teachers'  Seminaries.)  They  are  sup- 


828 


UNITED  .STATES 


plemented  especially  by  Teachers'  Institutes, 
which  have  become  a  prominent  and  universal 
feature  of  the  American  school  system.  The 
highest  average  monthly  compensation  of  male 
teachers  is  $113  (in  Massachusetts),  the  lowest 
S27  (in  Alabama);  the  highest  compensation  of 
female  teachers  $100  (in  Arizona);  the  lowest  in 
Maine,  $18.  Alabama,.  Delaware,  Kentucky, 
Nevada,  and  Texas  report  the  same  payment 
of  salaries  for  male  and  female  teachers. 

Grades  of  Instruction.  —  The  division  of 
schools  into  the  three  grades  of  primary,  sec- 
ondary, and  superior  schools  does  not  fully  cor- 
respond, in  the  United  States,  to  that  usual  in 
most  of  the  European  states.  American  colleges 
and  universities,  which  are  designated  as  superior 
schools,  correspond,  on  the  whole,  to  the  higher 
classes  of  the  gymnasium  rather  than  to  the 
university  of  continental  Europe.  (See  Col- 
lege, and  University.)  The  boundary  line 
between  secondary  and  primary  schools  is  not 
sharply  drawn;  and  the  difference  in  the  names 
applied  in  different  states  and  cities  to  the  sub- 
divisions of  elementary  schools  renders  an 
account  of  primary  and  secondary  instruction  of 
the  United  States' exceedingly  difficult.  In  New 
York  <  'ity,  the  elementary  schools  are  divided  in- 
to primary  and  grammar  departments.  In  Phila- 
delphia, the  schools  are  divided  into  four  grades 
or  departments. — primary,  secondary,  grammar, 
and  high.  In  Boston,  Cleveland,  and  Chicago, 
tin-  departments  of  the  schools  are  high,  grammar, 
and  primary:  in  Cincinnati,  they  are  known  as 
high,  intermediate,  and  district;  and  in  St.  Louis 
as  high,  normal,  and  district.  In  nearly  all  the 
cities,  the  several  departments  of  elementary  in- 
struction are  divided  into  grades;  and,  even 
in  the  smaller  towns,  grading  is  quite  commonly 
adopted,  though  some  states  report  that  the  prog- 
ress of  the  grading  system  is  but  slow.  The 
kindergarten  is  rapidly  gaining  favor  as  an  insti- 
tution for  preparing  young  children  for  the  pri- 
mary school;  and.  at  the  close  of  1875,  the  num- 
ber was  reported  as  95,  against  42  in  1873,  with 
2,809  pupils,  against  1,272  in  1873.— Within  the 
last  twenty  years,  the  public  high  school,  both  for 
boys  and  girls,  has  become  the  favorite  method 
of  securing  secondary  instruction  ;  and,  in  the 
western  states,  it  is  now  almost  the  exclusive 
method.  (See  High  Schools.)  In  Michigan  and 
Indiana,  the  public  high  schools  already  have 
a  recognized  position  as  proper  feeders  of  the 
freshman  classes  in  the  universities  of  these  two 
states;  and  several  others  of  the  western  states 
are  taking  measures  to  adopt  the  same  system  ; 
while,  throughout  the  eastern  states,  the  public 
high  school  is  supplying  a  demand  which 
it  is  beyond  the  power  of  the  endowed  or  tuition 
schools,  usually  known  as  academics,  to  meet. 
In  New  York  and  Maine,  an  alliance  has  been 
effected  between  a  number  of  academies  and  the 
state  and  city  systems,  and  the  same  is  now  at- 
tempted in  Texas.  The  total  number  of  sec- 
ondary (endowed  or  tuition)  schools  reported  to 
the  Bureau  of  Education,  at  Washington,  in  1S71 , 
was  638,  with  80,227  pupils  ;  in  1873,  944,  with 


118,570  pupils  ;  in  1875,  1,143  with  108,235  pu- 
pils. Of  the  1,143  institutions,  in  1875,  there 
were  215  for  boys,  311  for  girls,  and  617  for 
boys  and  girls  together.  The  number  of  prepara- 
tory schools  reported  in  1875  was  102, with  12. '.154 
pupils.  The  schools  for  the  superior  instruction 
of  women  have  increased  with  a  rapidity  which 
is  one  of  the  most  marked  features  of  the  edu- 
cational progress  of  the  United  States.  The 
number  of  institutions  rose  from  33  in  1870  to 
222  in  1875  ;  the  number  of  teachers,  from  378 
to  2,405  ;  the  number  of  pupils,  from  5,337  to 
23,795.  The  aggregate  number  of  graduates  in 
1875  was  17,379;  and  the  number  of  degrees 
conferred,  490. — The  number  of  universities  and 
colleges  is  also  rapidly  increasing,  being,  in 
1875,  355,  against  266  in  1870.  The  number  of 
instructors,  in  the  same  time,  rose  from  2,823  to 
3.999;  and  of  pupils,  from  49.163  to  58,894.  An 
elevation  of  the  standard  for  admission  was 
proposed,  in  1873,  by  some  of  the  leading  col- 
leges, and  has  since  made  considerable  progress. 
There  is,  at  the  same  time,  a  strong  disposition 
to  relinquish  the  rigid  uniformity  of  the  old 
college  curriculum,  and  to  allow  the  pupils  a 
greater  liberty  in  the  selection  of  their  studies. 
An  organization  for  holding  annual  intercol- 
legiate contests  in  oratory  was  formed,  in  1874, 
in  Illinois;  and,  in  1875,  a  kindred  association 
was  organized  among  the  students  of  some  of 
the  eastern  colleges.  (See  College.) 

/  'rqfessional and  Special  Schools.—  All  classes 
of  professional  schools  are  now  increasing  in  the 
United  States  with  great  rapidity.  In  1870, 
there  were  17  schools  of  science,  with  1,413  stu- 
dents; while,  in  1875,  there  were  74,  with  7,157 
students.  The  schools  of  theology,  in  the  same 
period,  increased,  from  80,  with  3.254  students,  to 
123,  with  5.234  students  ;  the  law  schools,  from 
28  to  43;  the  schools  of  medicine,  from  63  to  106. 
There  were,  in  1875,  also  41  institutions  for  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  with  5,087  pupils;  29  institu- 
tions for  the  blind,  with  2.054  pupils;  154  or- 
phan asylums,  with  14.118  inmates;  17  soldiers' 
orphans' homes,  with  2,382  inmates;  12  infant 
asylums,  with  2,816  infants;  24  industrial 
schools,  with  5,268  inmates;  47  reform  schools, 
with  8,111  male  and  2,559  female  inmates. 
(For  a  fuller  account  of  these  institutions,  see 
the  articles  Agricultural  Colleges,  Blind, 
Education  of  the,  Deaf-Mutes,  Industrial, 
Schools,  Law  Schools,  Medical  Schools,  Or- 
phan Asylums,  Pharmaceutical  Schools,  Re- 
form Schools,  Scientific  Schools,  and  Theo- 
logical Schools.) 

Educational  Periodicals. — A  list  of  all  the 
educational  periodicals  which  appeared  after 
1811  and  prior  to  1865,  is  given  in  Barnard's 
Journal  qf  Education,  1865.  In  1876.  116  edu- 
cational periodicals  were  issued  in  different  parts 
of  the  Union. 

Literature. — One  of  the  most  valuable  sources 
of  information  for  the  history  of  education  in 
America  is  Barnard's  American  Journal  of 
E,l,„;,iio„  (begun  in  1856  ;  24th  vol.,1876).  Since 
1867,  the  official  reports  published  by  the  U.  S. 


UNIVERSALISTS 


Bureau  of  Education  present  the  material  for 
a  knowledge  of  the  educational  condition  of  the 
country  with  a  completeness  which  leaves  little  to 
be  desired,  and  are  worthy  of  a  comparison  with 
the  official  publications  of  any  country  of  Eu- 
rope. See  also  (in. max.  Education  in  America, 
1776—1876,  in  North  American  Review,  1876; 
Lawrence,  Educational  Progress,  in  Harper's 
Monthly,  Nov.,  1875.  Ajnong  foreign  works 
on  education  in  the  United  States  may  be  men- 
tioned the  report  made  to  the  English  government 
by  the  Rev.  James  Fraser,  who,  in  18(55,  spent  six 
months  in  studying  the  educational  institutions  of 
the  country;  Lwai.i  \r.  /.'  /,■(.<■'/■»■  //■//  <  ■/«/■.  »/..'.  .• 
Hippeau,  L'Instruclion  publique  aux  tUats 
Unit;  Wimmer,  Die  Kirche  und  die  Schide  in 
2ford-Amerika(Lsiipa.,18a3);Si  hut.  Amerika, 

ill,'  jiil/i/ise/,eii,  s,iei,ll.  II   inn!    hii-rl,    i   "'      '      .  ; ; 

Zustande  (Berlin,  1854)  :  l>n,,v.  Ueber Mule, 
deutsche  Schide,  amerikanische  Sell  ■  und 
deittsch-canerikanische  Schule  (Leips.,  1866); 
Troschel,  Vblkscharakter  und  Bildungsanstal- 

ten  der  Xiirilmiii-rikiiiirr  I  Berlin.  l.siiT):  I-'iivn- 
cis  Adams,  The.  Free  School  System  of  Ae 
United  States  (London,  1875) ;  Rio.:.  National 
Education  (London,  1873). —  On  the  peculiar 
features  of  the  American  school  system,  see  A 
Statement  of  the  Theory  cf  Education  in  the 
United  St  ,/,,<,/  America  (Washington.  Is74b 

UNIVERSALISTS  are  distinguished  from 
other  Christians  by  their  belief  in  the  final  sal- 
vation of  all  human  souls.  Rev.  John  Murray, 
who  came  from  England  in  1770.  is  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  the  denomination  in  this  coun- 
try;  but  no  general  denominational  organization 
-was  made  until  1785.  The  organization  and 
government  of  the  body  are  essentially  congre- 
gational. Societies  and  churches  are  in  many 
respects  independent.  The  present  organized 
strength  of  the  denomination  is  exhibited  in  the 
following  summary  for  the  United  States  and 
Canada :  1  general  convention ;  22  state  con- 
ventions ;  69  associations ;  880  parishes,  em- 
bracing 41.029  families;  656  church  organiza- 
tions, having  32,947  members ;  640  Sunday- 
schools,  having  59,463  teachers  and  pupils  ;  756 
church  edifices,  with  a  property,  above  indebted- 
ness, of  $7,465,495 ;  and  706  ministers,  includ- 
ing licentiates  and  the  superannuated.  The 
early  preachers  of  the  denomination  were  not 
generally  men  of  liberal  education.  They  even 
looked  with  distrust  upon  colleges  and  divinity 
schools,  because  of  the  support  which  these  in- 
stitutions gave,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  religious 
doctrines,  which  Universalists  deemed  false  and 
pernicious  in  their  influence.  The  free-school 
system  of  instruction  received,  however,  the 
hearty  approval  of  the  growing  denomination,  as 
being  in  perfect  harmony  with  its  cherished  be- 
lief in  the  common  nature  and  common  destiny 
of  man.  Universalists  have  ever,  therefore,  been 
steadfast  and  zealous  in  their  defense  and  sup- 
port of  common  schools.  Many  faithful  and 
laborious  school  superintendents  and  teachers 
are  found  among  the  clergy  and  educated  lay- 
men. They  would  retain  the  Bible  in  the  schools, 


but  would  be  unwilling  that  it  should  be  used  and 
interpreted  in  the  special  interest  of  any  denomina- 
tion. They  would  have  education  Christian,  but 
not  narrowly  sectarian.  In  the  first  efforts  of 
Universalists  to  establish  schools  under  their 
control  and  patronage,  thev  were  mainly  desirous 
of  founding  institutions  which,  while  tliey  should 
be  Christian,  should  be  kept  free  from  obnoxious 
religious  teachings  and  hurtful  superstitions. 
Thev  detested  illiheralit y  and  bigotry,  and  were 
tardy,. perhaps,  in  comprehending  the  full  duty 
which,  in  the  matter  of  education,  a  Christian 
denomination  owes  alike  to  itself,  to  the  church, 
and  to  the  world.  In  later  years,  they  have 
manifested  much  interest  and  zeal  in  founding 
and  endowing  denominational  schools.  In  not  a 
few  cases,  schools  have  been  commenced  and 
continued  fora  time,  and  then  closed  from  lack 
of  patronage  or  endowments.  Sometimes,  enter- 
prises begun  have  been  merged  in  others  that 
promised  a  higher  and  better  success.  As  the 
result  of  many  efforts.  —  some  abortive,  and 
others  partially  successful. —  Universalists  have 
now  under  their  control,  seven  academies,  five 
colleges,  and  two  divinity  schools.  —  The  first 
successful  movement  to  found  an  institution  of 
learning,  was  made  in  the  state  of  Maine  in  1830, 
under  the  guidance  of  the  Rev.Wm.  A.  Drew,  and 
the  Rev.  S.  lirimblecoin.  men  of  high  culture,  and 
experienced  teachers.  It  resulted  in  the  incor- 
poration ot  Westbrook  Seminary,  in  1831,  and 
in  the  opening  of  a  school  for  both  sexes,  under 
the  instruction  of  the  Rev.  8.  Brimblecom,  in 
1834.  After  many  struggles,  the  seminary  was 
permanently  established,  and  its  accommodations 
were  made  ample.  It  has  earned  and  enjoys  a  wide 
reputation.  The  female  department  is  collegiate 
in  character,  and  degrees  are  conferred  upon 
female  graduates  by  state  authority.  In  the  same 
year,  ls.'ll.  through  the  exertions  of  the  Rev. 
Stephen  R.  Smith.  Clinton  Liberal  Institute  was 
incorporated,  in  the  state  of  New  York,  and 
funds  were  raised  to  erect  a  suitable  building.  It 
was  opened  for  both  sexes  in  1832.  two  years  be- 
fore the  Westbrook  Seminary  was  put  in  opera- 
tion. It  offers  superior  opportunities  to  students. 
The  female  department  occupies  a  separate 
building.  Loth  departments  have  been  effective 
in  educational  work.  Funds  have  recently  been 
raised  to  erect  a  large  edifice  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  both  sexes.  The  other  academies  of  the 
denomination  are:  in  Vermont,  the  Green  Mount- 
ain Perkins  Institute,  incorporated  in  1848,  and 
Goddard  Seminary,  chartered  in  1863:  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, 1  lean  Academy,  chartered  in  1865; 
in  Wisconsin,  Jefferson  Liberal  Institute,  incor- 
porated in  18(56;  and.  in  Iowa.  Mitchell  Semi- 
nary, chartered  in  1871.  Males  and  females  are 
admitted  to  all.  The  denomination  has  no  acad- 
emy for  one  sex  only.  Goddard  Seminary 
has  a  very  pleasant  location.  The  school  build- 
ing is  large,  of  commanding  architecture,  and 
affords  excellent  accommodations  for  students. 
Bean  Academy  is.  in  its  buildings  and  ap- 
pointments, unsurpassed  by  any  institution  of 
its  grade  in   New   England.     Dr.  Oliver  Dean, 


UNIYERSALISTS 


whose  name  it  bears,  left  a  large  bequest  for  its 
endowment. —  Tufts  College,  in  Massachusetts, 
chartered  in  1852,  and  organized  under  the  Rev. 
Hosea  Ballou,  2d,  D.  1).,  its  first  president,  in 
1854,  was  the  first  college  founded  by  Univers- 
alists.  Its  appointments  and  courses  of  study- 
are  those  of  an  American  university.  Lombard 
University,  in  Illinois,  was  chartered  as  an  acad- 
emy, by  the  name  of  The  Illinois  liberal  Insti- 
tute, in  1851.  It  was  opened  for  students  in 
1852,  received  college  powers  by  legislative  en- 
actment in  1853,  ;nid  the  name  of  Lombard 
University,  with  university  powers,  in  1857. 
St.  Lawrence  University,  in  Canton,  N.  Y..  was 
chartered  in  1856.  Its  collegiate  department 
was  opened  and  placed  under  the  charge  of  the 
Rev.  J.  S.  Lee,  D.  D.,  in  1859.  The  preparatory  de- 
partment was  given  up  in  I8fi4.  IJuehtel  College, 
in  Akron,  Ohio  (assets  .-=:!0n,000)  the  Rev.  S.  H. 
McCollester,  P.  D..  president,  and  Smithson  Col- 
lege in  Indiana  (assets  SI  00,00(1)  were  chartered 
in  1S71.  They  have  elegant  and  commodious 
buildings,  with  superior  school  accommodations. 
— Before  theological  schools  were  instituted  by 
Universalists.  young  men  desirous  of  entering 
the  ministry,  were  accustomed  to  avail  them- 
selves of  the  instruction  and  libraries  of  influen- 
tial clergymen.  The  first  theological  school 
known  in  the  denomination,  was  the  enterprise 
of  a  single  individual,  and  was  temporary  in  its 
duration.  It  was  opened,  in  1845.  by  the  Rev. 
Thomas  J.  Sawyer,  D.  D.,  at  that  time  principal 
of  Clinton  Liberal  Institute.  It  was  continued 
by  him  till  1854,  during  which  time  about  25 
students  were  carried  through  systematic  courses 
of  theological  study,  and  inducted  into  the 
Christian  ministry.  Among  them,  are  some  of 
the  most  highly  esteemed  clergymen  of  the  order. 
St.  Lawrence  Theological  School,  a  department 
of  St.  Lawrence  University,  was  the  first  per- 
manently established  divinity  school.  It  was 
chartered  in  L856,and  opened  in  1858,  underthe 
charge  of  the  Rev.  Ebenezer  Fisher,  I>  D.,  who 
still  continues  in  the  position.  It  has  a  gooil 
endowment,  a  large  library.  :!  professors,  and,  at 
the  present  time,  has  in  attendance  25  students. 
Tufts  Divinity  School,  connected  with  Tufts<  'ol 
lege,  was  chartered  in  1x57.  and  organized  in  1868, 
— the  Rev.  Thomas  J.  Sawyer.  I).  D..  principal. 
It  has  4  regular  professors,  and  3  non-resident 
professors  or  lecturers ;  the  present  attendance 
of  students,  is  33. — The  amount  of  property  de- 
voted to  denominational  schools. — including  acad- 
emies, colleges,  and  divinitv  schools,  is  estimated 
at  $2,385,000.  The  number  of  teachers  con- 
nected with  them,  is  99;  and  the  number  of 
students,  1,036.  —  Sunday-schools— reported  as 
numbering  640 — are,  as  a  rule,  maintained  in 
connection  with  all  the  churches,  and  a  deep  in- 
terest is  fell  and  manifested  in  them.  The  at- 
tendance of  pupils  is  generally  large,  and  the 
classification  complete.  Instruction  is  made 
easy  and  effective  by  the  use  of  catechisms 
adapted  to  pupils  of  different  ages,  uniform  les- 
son and  other  papers,  and  well-selected  libraries. 
State  and  other  Sunday-school  organizations,  the 


normal  training  of  teachers,  public  meetings, 
celebrations,  exhibitions,  and  concerts  manifest 
and  intensify  the  interest  felt  by  young  and  old 
in  this  class  of  schools,  which  are  regarded  as  an 
effective  means  of  imparting  religious  instruc- 
tion. There  is.  at  the  present  time,  no  organiza- 
tion called  an  education  society,  c ected  with 

the  Universalist  body  of  Christians  :  but  each 
'  state  convention  is.  by  constitutional  provision, 
required  to  devote  special  attention  to  the  edu- 
cational interests  of  the  denomination,  within  its. 
territorial  limits,  including  Sunday-schools  and 
the  best  methods  for  their  management ;  and  the 
trustees  of  the  General  Convention  are  directed 
to  present  in  their  annual  report  "a  general 
Statement  as  to  the  condition  and  wants  of  the 
church,  with  respect  to  education  and  whatever 
else  concents  its  interests,  with  such  suggestions 
as  they  may  deem  proper."  It  is  also  provided 
that  "every  school,  academy,  or  college,  main- 
tained at  its  expense,  or  conducted  under  the 
management  of  Universalists.  shall  send  a  copy 
of  its  annual  report  to  the  secretary  of  the  state 
wherein  it  is  situated,  and  to  the  secretary  of  its 
convention.  T  he  General  Convention  controls, 
also,  the  expenditure  of  the  income  from  the  so- 
called  Murray  Centenary  Fund,  of  $120,000, 
which  is  appropriated  to  aid  in  the  education  of 
the  clergy,  and  for  other  purposes  connected 
with  the  extension  and  upbuilding  of  the  <  hurch. 
The  amount  of  convention  aid  rendered  to  stu- 
dents in  1876,  was  $7,200.  The  denomination 
has  been  honored  by  the  services  of  teachers 
of  distinguished  ability,  great  experience,  and 
wide  reputation.  The  Rev.  T.  Clowes,  LL.  D., 
one  of  the  early  principals  of  Clinton  Liberal 
Institute  was  a  superior  scholar,  and  noted  for 
critical  and  learned  research  :  the  Rev.  D.  M. 
Knapen  is  the  author  of  a  work  on  mathematics, 
and  Prof.  George  Robert  Perkins,  LL.  D.,  the 
author  of  valuable  mathematical  text-books.  The 
Rev.  H.  B.  Maglathlin  is  known  as  the  editor  of 
the  Creenleaf  series  and  of  other  mathematical 
works.  The  Rev.  Otis  A .  Skinner.  I  >.  1  >..  second 
president  of  Lombard  University,  as  a  teacher, 
and  as  a  superintendent  of  schools,  and  for  emi- 
nent services  in  raising  funds  for  the  establish- 
ment of  Tufts  ( 'ollege.  is  held  in  grateful  re- 
membrance. Prof.  J.  V.  N.  Standish,  of  Lom- 
bard University,  is  widely  known  as  a  teacher 
of  mathematics,  and  as  a  conductor  of  teachers' 
institutes.  The  Rev.  J.  S.  Lee,  1  >.  P..  a  graduate 
of  Amherst  < 'ollege.  in  1845.  has.  in  various  ca- 
pacities, given  28  years  to  educational  work  in 
the  Universalist  denomination.  The  Rev.  James 
I".  Weston.  D.D.,  has,  also, been  28  years  a  teacher 
in  denominational  schools.  The  Rev.  Alonzo  A. 
Miner.  D.D.,  LLP.,  is  distinguished  as  a  divine 
and  a  reformer,  as  well  as  a  veteran  educator. 
Be  opened,  and  successfully  taught  for  several 
years,  the  Unity  Scientific  Military  Academy,  and 
was  the  second  president  of  Tufts  College,  retain- 
ing the  position  for  12  years.  As  a  member  of 
the  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  and  as  a 
lecturer,  he  has  also  rendered  valuable  service  to 
the  cause  of  education. 


rxiVF.iisnv 


UNIVERSITY,  a  name  first  given,  in  the 
middle  ages,  to  institutions  for  superior  instruc 
tion.  In"  the  second  half  of  the  12th  century,  a 
free  union  of  students  of  medicine  was  forine.l 
in  Salerno  (1150),  ami  another  of  students  of 
law  in  Bologna  1 1  L58).  The  students  had  equal 
rights  with  the  professors  in  these  unions; 
which  soon  attracted  such  crowds  that,  in 
Bologna,  the  studies  of  medicine  and  theology 
were  added;  and,  in    Salerno,  those  of  law  and 

philosophy.     'Phis  was  the  origin  of  the  [em 

European  university.  At  the  university  of 
Bologna,  as  well  as  at  the  universities  of    Padua 

and  Naples,  which  were  early  established,  the 
study  of  law  remained  predominant,  ecclesias- 
tical and  secular  bra   •■/■  reta  and  leges,    being 

eagerly  studied  in  order  to  obtain  high  oiliees  in 
church  and  state. — In  Paris,  a  university  arose 
from  the  cathedral  school,  and,  as  the  chief  seat 
of  scholasticism,  soon  attained  the  rank  of  the 
foremost  university  of  western  Europe.  The 
formation  of  nations  and  of  faculties  exerted 
a  decisive  influence  upon  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  university.  As  scholars  from  all 
parts  of  the  Christian  world  flocked  to  Paris  ' 
in  large  numbers,  and  the  government  of  the 
state  took  no  notice  of  them,  they  found  it  I 
necessary  to  form  national  groups  for  the  pur- 
pose of  self  government.  Thus,  the  four  nations 
of  the  Gallicans  (including  Spaniards.  Italians. 
Greeks,  and  Orientals),  the  Pieards.  the  Nor- 
mans, and  the  English  (including  Germans  and 

Northmen)    were   for 1.      The    formation  of 

special  faculties  was  caused  by  the  Mendicants; 
orders,  which  early  recognized  the  importance  of 
the  rising  university,  ami.  as  teachers  of  theology 
and  ecclesiastical  law,  assumed,  in  regard  to  the 
nations,  an  independent  position.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  complications  which  were  pro- 
duced by  their  teaching,  the  professors  of  theol- 
ogy (about  1270).  and,  somewhat  later,  those  of 
medicine  and  of  ecclesiastical  law,  formed  a 
union,  and  in  this  way  organized  three  distinct 
faculties.  The  faculties  represented,  therefore, 
special  sciences  ;  while  the  four  nations,  as  a 
continuation  and  enlargement  of  the  former 
cathedral  school,  represented  the  Iriviwm  and  the 
quadxivium,  or  the  preparatory  sciences.  Fol- 
lowing, at  length,  the  example  of  the  other  facul- 
ties, the  nation*  gradually  transformed  them- 
selves into  the  faculty  of  the  liberal  arts,  which, 
for  a  time,  occupied  a  position  inferior  to  that 
of  the  older  faculties.  These  developments 
made  the  university  of  Paris  the  great  literary 
center  of  Europe  ;  and,  at  times,  it  was  attended 
by  more  than  20,000  students. — In  Germany, 
the  first  university  was  founded  by  the  emperor 
Charles  IV.  at  Prague,  in  134-8.  It  was  fol- 
lowed, in  the  course  of  the  14th  and  15th  cent- 
uries, by  many  others,  as  follows:  that  of  Vien- 
na (1365),  Heidelberg  (originallv  founded  in 
134fi,but  not  opened  until  1  3s(i).  ( 'ologne  (13SS), 
Erfurt  (1392),  Wurtzburg,  Leipsic,  Rostock, 
Greifswalde,  Freiburg.  Treves,  Tubingen,  and 
Mayence.  The  German  universities,  which  owed 
their  establishment  to  the  liberality  of  princes, 


became  the  chief  nurseries  i  if  the  humanist  ie  stud- 
ies, and  thus  prepared  the  way  for  the  K    I, hum 

tion  in  the  16tl nturv.     The  new  high  schools 

were  called  universitates  (universities  no1  orig 
inally  as  universitates  literarum,  embracing  the 
universality  of  sciences   bul  as  i  nivi    -<   ttes  ma 

teachers  and  scholars).   'I  hex  were  nol  regarded 


ie  universities 

were  entirely   independent   corpi 

•ations.      The 

nations,  as  well  as  the  faculties. 

ad  their  own 

Statutes,  seals,  and  treasuries.     At 

the  head  of  a 

nation,  was  a  procurator:  at  the  1 

■ad  of  the  en- 

tire  university,  a  rector.     The  sti 

dents  lived  in 

special  halls  called  colleges  (in  Gei 

r^/:::.,;'. 

ofh^raSrS^ThSitS 

a,:  1  sup:  rin 

tended  in  their  daily  life.  Instruction  was  im- 
parted by  means  of  lectures  and  disputations. 
The  independence  of  the  universities  led  to  the 
organization  of  a  system  of  academic  degrees,  in- 
tended to  mark  the  various  steps  from  the  ma- 
turity of  the  student  to  the  qualification  of  the 
academic  teacher.  At  the  Italian  universities, 
the  students,  for  a  long  time,  chose  their  own 
professors;  but,  gradually,  the  authorization  to 
teach  was  limited  to  those  who  had  been  duly 
licensed,  or  acquired  the  degree  of  licentiate. 
After  the  Reformation  in  the  16th  century,  the 
number  of  universities  in  Germany  rapidly  in- 
creased, as  every  prince  was  anxious  to  have  his 
own.  and  as  there  was,  moreover)  a  rivalry  be- 
tween the  Catholic,  Lutheran,  and  Reformed 
churches.  The  Protestant  universities,  having 
no  connection  with  the  Pope,  became  altogether 
national  institutions;  and.  gradually,  the  Cath- 
olic universities  were  likewise  regarded  by  the 
state  authorities  as  being  exclusively  subject  to 
state  jurisdiction.  In  the  case  of  the  faculties 
of  Catholic  theology  alone,  some  rights  of  super- 
intendence were  conceded  to  the  bishops  of  the 


until  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution,  a  con- 
siderable number  of  privileges;  and  a  remnant  of 
academic  jurisdiction  lias,  in  some  countries, 
maintained  itself  to  the  present  day.  —  The 
Latin  language  continued  for  a  long  time  to  be 
exclusively  used  in  the  lectures  of  the  university, 
but.  from  the  beginning  of  the  1  Jth  century,  it 
gradually  gave  way  to  the  native  tongues.  By 
this  change,  the  universities  became  more  in- 
timately associated  with  the  entire  literary  and 
educational  progress  of  the  European  countries, 
and  began  to  exert  a  more  direct  influence  upon 
primary  as  well  as  secondary  instruction. — While 
the  European  universities  maybe  said  to  have 
been  the  leaders  in  the  wonderful  progress  which 
the  world's  literature,  in  all  its  departments,  has 
made  during  the  18th  and  19th  centuries,  their 


s:j2 


UNIVERSITY 


course  of  studies  has  been  steadily  expanded. 
Though  the  mediaeval  division  into  four  facul- 
ties has  been  generally  retained,  the  number  of 
subjects  taught  in  each  faculty  has  been  greatly 
enlarged.  In  some  universities,  the  faculty  of 
arts  or  of  philosophy  has  been  subdivided  into 
two  sections  ;  in  some,  new  faculties  (of  political 
economy,  or  of  natural  sciences)  have  been  added 
to  these  four  traditional  ones  ;  in  some,  there 
are  two  distinct  theological  faculties  (one  Prot- 
estant and  one  Catholic)  ;  in  others,  the  theolog- 
ical faculty  has  been  abolished. — It  is  generally 
agreed  that,  in  the  present  century,  the  univer- 
sities of  Germany  have  attained  the  highest  stage 
of  development.  Recently,  however,  the  Catholic 
Church  has  availed  herself  of  the  new  educatii  inal 
law  to  establish  a  number  of  free  ( 'atholie  univer- 
sities which,  as  schools  of  superior  instruction, 
have  the  same  organization  as  those  in  other 
countries  of  Europe.  All  of  them  are  under  the 
sole  and  absolute  control  of  the  state  government, 
and  they  represent  the  highest  or  superior  stage 
of  the  system  of  instruction  which  the  state 
organizes  for  the  rising  generation.  The  uni- 
versity, as  a  school  of  superior  instruction,  is 
sharply  distinguished  from  the  secondary  school, 
or  gymnasium.  The  state  requires  that  many 
classes  of  its  officers  should  have  spent  three  or 
four  years  at  a  university  ;  and  admission  to  the 
university  is  made  contingent  upon  passing  a 
successful  examination  at  one  of  the  state  gym- 
nasia. (See  Germany.)  The  universities  of  Switz- 
erland, Austria,  the  Netherlands,  Belgium,  the 
Scandinavian  kingdoms,  Russia,  and  <i recce, 
also  those  of  Italy.  Spain,  and  Portugal,  agree 
substantially  with  the  German  institutions, 
having  four  or  more  faculties,  and  being  schools 
of  superior  instruction.  Those  of  recent  origin, 
like  the  universities  of  Athens  and  Christiania, 
have  been  wholly  fashioned  after  German  mod- 
els. The  universities  in  the  British  isles,  and  in 
the  British  possessions,  materially  differ  from 
those  of  continental  Europe,  and  some  of  them 
confine  themselves  to  examinations  and  the  con- 
ferring of  degrees.  (See  England,  Scotland, 
Ireland,  Cambridge,  London,  and  Oxford.) — 
The  universities  of  France  were  abolished  in 
1793; and,  in  the  school  legislation  of  Napoleon  I.. 
the  name  University  of  France  was  used  in  a 
different  sense,  being  applied  to  the  entire  sys- 
tem of  public  instruction.  (See  France.)  The 
states  of  Central  and  South  America  have  a 
number  of  institutions  called  universities,  but 
most  of  them  have  nothing  in  common  with  the 
universities  of  Europe  except  the  name.  In 
Turkey,  China,  Japan,  and  a  number  of  other 
countries,  efforts  have  recently  been  made  to 
organize,  or  re-organize,  Bohools  of  superior  in- 
struction after  the  model  ol  the  European  univer- 
sities; but  all  those  in.-tiiiitions  are  still  in  their 
infancy,or,  at  least,  are  not  yet  worthy  of  acom- 
parison  with  universities.  In  the  United  States, 
the  term  university  is  generally  used  in  the  same 
sense  as  that  of  college.  (See  Colleges.)  Infor- 
mation in  regard  to  the  universities  of  the  United 
States  is  given  in  the  special  articles  in  this  work 


UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE 

on  important  institutions  of  that  class.  The 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  at  Baltimore,  which 
was  opened  in  187(1,  is  to  be  conducted  after  the 
( ierman  plan.  The  establishment  of  a  National 
University,  at  "Washington,  to  be,  in  the  fullest 
sense  of  the  won),  an  institution  for  superior  in- 
struction, has  been  for  several  years  agitated. 
An  account  of  the  universities  of  each  impor- 
tant country  of  the  world,  embracing  the  latest 
statistics,  is  given  in  the  articles  in  this  work 
upon  the  several  countries.  The  articles  on  the 
different  classes  of  professional  schools  (Theo- 
logical, Law,  Medical,  Pharmaceutical,  etc.) 
refer  to  the  development  of  the  different  facul- 
ties.—See  Malden,  Origin  of  Universities  and 
AcademicI>egrees(laiidon,lS3o);  II.  von  Syisel, 
THedeulschen  unddieausw&rtigenDhiversitaten 
(Bonn,  L868);  Db  Vibtviixe,  Hisloire  des  uni- 
versites  en  France  (Paris.  1847);  Barnard,  His- 
tory of  German  Universities,  translated  from 
Karl  von  Raumer  (N.  Y.,  1859)  ;  Sciiaff,  Ger- 
man,,, its  Universities  etc.  (Phila.,  1857);  Hart, 
German  Universities  (N.Y..  1874). 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  (London)  was 
opened  in  Oct.,  1828,  under  the  title  of  The 
University  of  London.  The  object  of  its  pro- 
moters was  to  found,  in  the  metropolis,  a  seat  of 
learning  where  all,  without  distinction  of  creed, 
might  obtain  a  liberal  education,  whilst  remain- 
ing under  the  care  of  their  parents  or  friends 
at  home.  No  religious  instruction  is  given  with- 
in the  college  walls,  that  being  regarded  as  a 
home  matter,  for  which  parents  and  guardians 
must  hold  themselves  responsible;  and  thus  it 
has  been  found  possible  to  admit  on  terms  of 
perfect  equality  all  races  and  creeds. 

If  the  original  intention  had  been  adhered  to, 
the  college  would  have  resembled  a  Scotch  uni- 
versity, in  which  the  teaching  body  and  the  body 
that  grants  degrees  are  the  same ;  but,  when, 
year  after  year,  the  application  to  the  govern- 
ment for  a  charter  giving  the  right  to  confer  de- 
grees, was  resisted  by  the  older  universities,  and 
by  various  medical  bodies  in  the  metropolis,  a 
compromise  was  at  length  agreed  to,  in  1836.  By 
this  compromise,  the  institution  which  is  now 
known  as  University  ( 'ollcge,  resigned  its  first 
title  of  University  of  London  in  favor  of  a  new 
body  to  be  created  by  the  Crown,  which  should 
confer  degrees  upon  students  coining  up  to  be 
examined  from  such  colleges,  in  town  and  coun- 
try, as  might,  from  time  to  time,  be  affiliated  to 
the  university.  The  close  connection  originally 
existing  between  University  College  and  the 
University  proper,  has  been  maintained,  about 
thirty-two  per  cent  of  the  '2. 665  degrees  held  by 
graduates  at  the  end  of  1873,  having  been  con- 
ferred on  students  from  the  college. 

In  University  College,  there  are  faculties  of 
arts,  of  laws,  of  science,  and  of  medicine,  with 
an  engineering  department,  and  a  fine  arts  de- 
partment. These  are  served  by  about  44  profess- 
ors. In  the  session  ending  midsummer,  1875, 
there  were  565  students  in  the  faculties  of  arts, 
of  laws,  and  of  science,  including  the  fine  arts 
and  the  engineering  departments,  and  335  stu- 


UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE 

dents  in  the  faculty  of  medicine.  In  1832,  a 
school  for  boys  was  established  in  connection 
with  the  college,  and  placed  under  the  head- 
mastership  of  the  late  professors  Key  and  -Mai- 
den. In  this  school,  there  were,  in  1874—5, 
706  pupils,  the  greatest  number  in  anyone  term 
that  session  being  589.  Among  the  professors 
in  the  college,  there  have  been  many  men  of 
high  eminence.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned 
Augustus  De  Morgan,  who,  for  34  years,  was 
professor  of  mathematics.  Many  of  his  pupils 
afterwards,  at  Cambridge,  achieved  the  highest 
honors,  four,  at  least,  becoming  senior  wrang- 
lers, among  them,   Todhunter    and    Routh. 

The  entire  government  of  tin liege  is  vested 

in  the  council,  a  body  of  'J  t  gentlemen  who  are 
appointed  by  the  members  of  the  college  from 
themselves,  and  of  whom  6  retire  every  year; 
but  the  senate,  which  consists  of  the  professors 
presided  over  by  a  member  of  council,  often 
exerts,  by  its  advice,  great  influence  upon  the 
decisions  of  the  council.  The  presidents  of  council 
have  been  successively  Lord  Brougham,  George 
Grote,  and  Lord  Belper. 

The  college,  as  yet,  has  received  no  help  from 
the  public  funds.  It  originated  entirely  in  the 
efforts  of  private  individuals.  Its  capital  was 
subscribed  in  £100  shares,  of  which,  in  1843, 
there  were  1,710,  the  number  of  subscribers  be- 
ing 1.072.  The  original  deed  of  settlement  pro- 
vided that  the   share-holders   might 


UPPER  IOWA  UNIVERSITY     833 

|  ics,  and  chemistry.  In  1875 — 6,  these  classes 
numbered  17.  and  were  attended  by  394  ladies. 
Very   few   of  the    professorships   are    endowed; 


many  of  the 
■Iv  on  fees,  are  r 


j   rely 
royal 


the  college  sll 
grants,  both  t 
teaching  of  seit 


count    amo 


amounted  to  £2,978. 

part,  to  special  purp 
professorships).  Th 
in  1874—5,  was  ov. 
from  the  school  for  1 


dividend  not  exceeding  4  per  cent;  but.  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  no  dividend  was  ever  paid,  and, 
in  1869.  an  act.  of  parliament  was  obtained  which 
divested  the  college  of  its  proprietary  character, 
and  enlarged  its  powers  by  enabling  it  to  give 
instruction  in  the  fine  arts,  and  to  teach  women 
as  well  as  men.  The  subscribers,  or  those  to 
whom  they  have  transferred  or  bequeathed  their 
shares,  constitute,  with  the  fellows  and  life- 
governors,  the  members  of  the  college,  and,  at 
their  annual  meeting,  till  the  vacancies  in  the 
council.  In  the  course  of  years,  many  of  the 
shares  had  been  ceded  or  forfeited,  and  lapsed 
shares  were  bestowed  upon  distinguished  grad- 
uates of  the  college,  styled  fellows,  or  upon  per- 
sons of  eminence  who  might  advantageously  be 
associated  in  the  government  of  the  college,  and 
who  were  styled  life-governors.  The  first  fellows 
were  chosen  in  1843;  the  life-governors  are  of 
much  more  recent  origin,  having  been  appointed 
subsequently  to  the  act  of   parliament. 

The  fine  art  or  Slade  scl Is  (called  into  exist- 
ence by  the  munificent  bequest  of  Mr.  Felix 
Slade)  have  been  very  successful,  so  that  already 
the  accommodation  provided  is  not  sufficient. 
The  number  of  students,  male  and  female,  in 
1874 — 5,  was  220.  Ladies  are.  for  the  present, 
admitted  equally  with  gentlemen  to  the  classes 
of  political  economy,  jurisprudence.  Roman  law, 
and  geology.  A  ladies'  association,  with  the 
concurrence  of  the  council,  arranges  separate 
classes  also  for  ladies  (taught,  for  the  most  part, 
by  the  professors)  in  the  following  subjects: 
French,  German,  Greek,  mathematics,  Latin, 
Italian,  history,  hygiene.  English  literature,  phys- 


ssors. 

share  capital  of  the  college, 

d  bequests  have  been  added. 

expenditure  on  capital  ac- 

i,  appropriated,  for  the  most 

•s  (as  to  scholarships  and 

amount    received   in  fees. 

£27,000,   nearly  one-half 

ys.    These  figures  refer  to 

every  part  of  the  college  except  the  hospital. 

The  eastern  portion  of  the  buildings,  about 
400  feet  in  length,  was  erected  first.  In  the  center 
of  this,  is  a  handsome  Corinthian  portico,  with 
a  dome.  During  the  last  eight  years,  the  south 
wing,  which  is  occupied  by  the  school,  has  been 
commenced,  and  nearly  completed.  By  means 
of  the  Slade  bequest,  a  portion  of  the  north 
wing  has  also  been  built.  The  hospital,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  Gower  street,  completes  the  quad- 
rangle; it  was  opened  in  1834.  At  University 
Hall,  near  the  College,  are  rooms  for  30  students; 
this  is  connected  with  the  college,  but  under  dif- 
ferent management. —  See  Penny  Cyclopaedia, 
art.  University  CoUege;  yearly  Reports  and  Cal- 
endars of  the  College;  Fifth  Report  of  the  Royal 
Commission  on  Scientific  Instruction  (1874).' 

UNIVERSITY  COLLEGE  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, CaL,  founded  in  1859,  is  under  Presby- 
terian control.  It  embraces  a  primary,  a  higher 
English,  a  classical  preparatory,  and  a  collegiate 
department.  Females  arc  admitted  to  the  lower 
departments.  The  cost  of  tuition  ranges  from  $6 
to  SI  5  a  month;  but  there  is  an  extra  charge  for 
modern  languages,  book-keeping,  drawing,  and 
music.  In  1*71  5,  there  were  7  instructors  and 
principals  have  been  as  fol- 
o.  Burrows,  I).  D.;  the  Rev. 
.  D.;  the  Rev.  Win.  Alexan- 
Kev.  .lames  Matthews,  D.D., 

UPPER  IOWA  UNIVERSITY,  at  Fay- 
ette, Iowa,  under  Methodist  Episcopal  control, 
was  opened  as  a  seminary  Jan.  L.  1857,  and 
chartered  as  a  college  in  I860.  It  is  supported 
by  tuition  tees  and  the  income  of  an  endowment 
of  $15,000.  It  has  libraries  containing  about 
2,000  volumes.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  There 
are  six  departments  :  collegiate  (with  a  classical 
and  a  scientific  course),  preparatory,  English, 
commercial,  of  music,  and  of  fine  arts.  In  1875 
— 6,  there  were  9  instructors  and  243  students 
(deducting  repetitions),  as  follows  :  collegiate, 
3d;  preparatory,  56;  English,  115;  commercial, 
48;  music,  50;  painting,  16.  The  presidents 
have   been    as    follows :   the  Rev.  "William  II. 


the  I 
V.  Vi 
'.!>.;  : 


s;U 


URBANA    rMYEliSITY 


UTAH 


Poor,  A.  M.,  1856—7  ;  the  Rev.  Lucius  H.  Bug- 
bee,  D.  D.,  1857—60;  the  Rev.  'William  Brush, 
D.  D.,  1860— 9  ;  the  Rev.  Charles  X.  Stowers, 
A.  M.,  1869—70;  Byron  W.  McLain,  Ph.  D., 
1870—2;  the  Rev.  Rhoderic  Norton.  A.  M.. 
1872—3;  the  Rev.  J.  W.  Bissell,  A.  M.  (vice- 
president)  L873  I  ;  and  the  Rev.  J.  W.  Bis- 
seU,  A.  M.,  president,  since  1874. 

URBANA  UNIVERSITY,  at  Urbana, 
Ohio,  founded  in  1  *.",().  is  under  Swedenborgian 
control.  It  had  a  large  attendance  of  pupils  of 
both  sexes  during  the  first  ten  years.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  the  attendance  fell  off,  and 
the  collegiate  department  was  discontinued.  The 
college  was  re-established,  and  the  faculty  re- 
organized in  1871.  "  The  Union  of  Revelation 
and  Science  upon  the  basis  of  the  theology  given 
in  the  writings  of  Emmanuel  Swedenborg  is  the 
distinctive  principle  of  the  New  Church  Uni- 
versity." It  is  supported  chiefly  by  tuition  fees 
and  annual  contributions.  It  has  an  invested 
fund  of  §  10.000.  and  about  §20.000  subscribed 
toward  an  endowment  of  $50,000.  There  are 
extensive  botanical  collections,  a  cabinet  of  min- 
erals and  fossils,  apparatus,  and  libraries  contain- 
ing 5,000  volumes.  The  university  embraces 
three  departments:  the  grammar  school,  the 
college,  and  the  school  qfiheology.  The  school/or 
girls  is  to  be  re-organized  as  soon  as  the  means 
can  be  provided.  The  college  .has  a  classical 
course  of  four  years,  and  a  scientific  course  of 
three  years.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  from  $36  to 
$60  a  year.  In  1875 — li,  there  were  6  instruct- 
ors and  34  students  (17  collegiate  and  17  belong- 
ing to  the  grammar  school).  The  presidents  !ia\e 
been:  Mil,,' Q.  William.  A.M..  L853  -7;  the  Ret 
Chauncey  Giles,  A.  M..  1858—69;  the  Rev. 
Frank  Sewall,  A.  M., since  1870. 

URSINUS  COLLEGE,  at  Freeland,  Mont 
gomery  Co.,  I'a..  chartered  in  L869  and  opened  in 
1870,  is  under  the  patronage  of  the  Reformed 
(German)  Church.  The  post  office  is  College- 
ville.  The  college  is  chiefly  supported  by  tuition 
fees  (from  8  10  to  Sis  a  year)  and  contributions. 
The  institution  has  an  academic  or  preparatory 
department,  a  collegiate  department  (classical 
course  of  four  years  and  scientific  course  of  ,'i 
years), and  a  theological  department.  The  libraries 
contain  6,500  volumes,  In  1876 — 7,  there  were 
10  instructors  and  122  students  (15  theological, 
41  collegiate,  and  66  academic).  The  Rev.  J. 
II.  A.  Bamberger.  1).  I).,  is  (1877)  the  president. 

URUGUAY,  a  republic  of  South  America, 
having  an  area  of  Oil, soil  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  about  300,000.  The  state  religion 
is  the  Roman  Catholic,  to  which  almost  the 
whole  population  belongs,  but  other  creeds  are 
tolerated.  Uruguay  has  been  an  independent 
state  since  1828. 

The  instruction  given  in  the  government 
schools,  which  are  few,  is  of  a  very  inferior  kind. 
The  foreigners,  Germans,  French,  English,  and 
others,  have  their  own  schools,  which  are  of  a 
much  higher  order.  A  female  school  exists  in 
connection  with  the  convent  of  the  order  of 
Saint  Francis  of  Sales,  in  Montevideo. 


Serimthirii  iiinlfin-limi  is  in  a  similarly  de- 
pressed state.  The  Colegio  of  Montevideo  forms 
a  part  of  tiieUniversidad -mayor  dela  TtepvMiea. 


ontevideo.-   Bee 
imerika;  Woys 
ile  undkirchlicJ 

V.UI.LVM.    La  11 

ii.  Mit 
uLebei 

the  majority  of   the    students   are  only  youth, 

numerous  degrees   of  LL.  I),  are  granted  every 

year.  The  university  is  tree,  and  is  well  attended. 

There  is  also,  in  connection  with  the  university, 

a  free  primary  school  for  poor  children.  Another 

colegio  has  been  recentlj  established  in  La  Union, 

a  short  distance  from  M 

Encyclopadie,  art.  Slid, 

theilungen  uber  das  sozi: 

in    Uruguay   (1864)  :    ' 

Oi-ientaldel  Uruguay  (Montevideo.  1873). 

UTAH,  one  of  the  territories  of  the  United 
States,  forming  a  part  of  the  land  acquired,  in 
1848,  from  Mexico.  Its  area  is  84,476  sq.  m. j 
and  its  population. in  lsTO.vuis  sf,.7st;.of  whom 
118  were  colored  persons,  445,  Chinese,  and  179, 
civilized  Indians. 

Educational  History. — The  first  step  taken 
1>\  the  people  of  the  territory  for  the  promotion 
of  education,  was  an  act  passed  by  the  provi- 
sional government  in  1851,  incorporating  the 
University  of  Deseret,  with  an  annual  appropria- 
tion of  §5,000.  This  contemplated  not  only  the 
founding  of  a  university,  but  the  establishment 
of  primary  schools  in  connection  with  it.  In 
1851,  the  chancellor  and  board  of  regents  of  the 
university  were  authorized  to  appoint  a  superin- 
tendent of  primary  schools,  to  be  under  their 
supervision,  and  to  be  paid  by  them  a  salary  of 
not  more  than  §1,000.  Owing  to  limited  pat- 
ronage and  want  of  funds,  the  university  had 
only  a  nominal  existence  till  1867,  when  it  was 
re-organized,  and  conducted  as  a  commercial 
college.  At  the  time  of  the  organization  of  the 
territory,  in  1850,  the  16th  and  36th  sections  of 
land  in  each  township  were  set  apart  by  Con- 
gress for  educational  purposes;  and  $5,000  was 
appropriated  for  the  purchase  of  a  library  for 
the  use  of  the  inhabitants.  In  1852,  the  assem- 
bly petitioned  the  general  government  for  an 
appropriation  of  §24,000. for  the  use  of  schools; 
but  it  was  not  granted.  The  same  year,  Con- 
gress was  petitioned  to  make  for  this  territory  the 
same  donations  of  land,  to  settlers,  and  for  edu- 
cational purposes,  as  were  made  to  the  territory 
of  <  Iregon  in  1850.  This  also  was  refused.  The 
rejection  of  a  similar  petition  for  aid  in  establish- 
ing schools,  in  1854,  led  to  the  approval,  by  the 
territorial  governor  and  legislature,  of  an  act, 
which  made  it  the  duty  of  the  chancellor  and 
board  of  regents  of  the  university  to  appoint  a 
territorial  superintendent  of  common  schools, 
who  should  make  an  annual  report  to  the  re- 
gents of  the  number  and  condition  of  the 
schools.  It  was  further  provided  that  county 
courts  should  divide  their  respective  counties 
into  school-districts,  each  of  which  should  elect 
3  trustees,  who  were  to  collect  a  tax  on  all  tax- 
able property  in  the  district,  at  such  rate  as  the 
voters  at  the  district  meeting  should  determine. 


With  the  funds  thus  collected,  the  trustees 
to  establish  and  maintain  the  necessary  mi 
of  schools,  and  make  an  annual  report  of 
official  proceedings  to  the  boards  oi  examin 
of  their  respective  counties.  The  duties  of 
boai'ds,  which  were  appointed  bj  the  a 
courts,  were  to  examine  teachers,  and  mal 
annualreport  of  the  conditionand  statistics i 
schools,  to  the  superintendent  of  common  scl 


every  vcai 


strict 
tally. 


he  build 

mt  the  1 


:ased, 
f  the 
t  per 


ing  lands  for  .el Is 


finances  prevented 
of  ( Jongress,  grant- 
iiniversity  purposes, 
was  passed  in  1855;  and,  to  make  it  effective,  the 
assembly,  in  1859,  passed  an  act  for  the  selection 
of  land  equal  to  two  townships,  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  university.  In  1864,  the  collection  of 
certain  moneys  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
schools  was  authorized  by  tin-  assembly;  and 
this  was  followed,  in  L865,  by  an  .art  "  consol- 
idating and.  amending  the  school  law,-.'  These 
two  acts  were  superseded,  in  1866,  when  a  new 
school  law  was  passed.  Congress  was  again  in- 
effectually petitioned,  in  1 867,  for  a  donation,  to 
the  territory.  <  if  the  lands  included  in  the  recorded 
plots  of  the  several  cities,  towns,  and  villages  of 
the  territory,  to  aid  in  laying  the  foundation  of 
a  common-school  fund.  In  1868,  the  assembly 
passed  au  act  giving  greater  definiteness  to  the 
meaning  of  the  school  law.  The  same  year,  and 
again  in  1870,  attempts  were  made  to  obtain  aid 
from  Congress  for  educational  purposes,  but 
without  success.  In  1874,  the  assembly  passed 
au  act  appropriating  annually  815,000,  for  two 
years,  for  school  purposes;  ami  this,  with  the 
various  enactments  extending  hack  to  1  ,-i'iii.ron- 
Stituted  the  school  law  of  the  territory  till  Feb- 
ruary 18.,  187G,  when  the  present  school  law 
was  approved.  The  first  superintendent  of 
common  schools  in  the  territory  was  Elias  Smith, 
who  was  appointed  under  the  act  of  October, 
1851.  His  successor  was  William  Willes,  ap- 
pointed in  1866.  In  1862,  R.  L.  Campbell  was 
appointed  to  the  office  by  the  chancellor  and 
regents  of  the  university,  and  held  the  office  till 
1866,  when  he  was  elected  territorial  superin- 
tendent, which  office  he  held  till  his  death  in 
1874.  His  successor  was  < ).  II.  Riggs,  the  pres- 
ent incumbent  (1877). 

School  System. — The  new  school  law,  enacted 
in  1876,  provides  for  the  election  of  a  territorial 
superintendent  of  district  schools  for  2  years, 
wdiose  duty  it  is  to  exercise  a  general  super- 
vision similar  to  that  usually  devolving  on  this 
officer.  He  is  required  to  call  a  convention,  to 
be  composed  of  himself,  the  county  superintend- 
ents, and  the  president  of  the  university,  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  what  text-books  shall  be 
used  in  the  schools,  such  books  to  remain  un- 
changed, unless  for  sufficient  cause,  for  5  years 
from  the  time  of  their  adoption.  Conn///  superin- 
tendents are  elected  at  the  same  time,  and  for 
the  same  term,  as  the  territorial  superintendent. 
They  are  required  to  visit  the  schools  at  least 


upon   a    two-thirds  vote  of  the    ret 

district,  to  a  sum  not  exceeding  3 

annum.  There  is  a  board  of  examination,  con- 
sisting of  .'!  persons,  appointed  annually  in  each 
county,  by  the  county  court,  for  the  purpose  of 
examining  teachers  and  granting  certificates. 
The   legislature    is  required   to   make  an  annual 

the  district  .-eho,.l.,.aud.<..lli'0forthernivrrsitv 
of  Deseret,  provided  the  .-aid  university  instruct, 
in  its  normal  department,  free  of  charge,  40  pu- 
pils, apportioned  equally  among  the  counties  of 
the  territory,  Mel,  pupils  pledging  themselves  to 
teach  in  the  district  schools  of  their  respective 
counties,  if  required  by  the  county  superintend- 
ents, as  many  years  as  they  may  have  received 
free  tuition.  The  legal  school  age  is  from  6  to 
16  years.  The  school  year  varies  according  to 
the  district,  the  county  superintendents  and 
trustees  in  each  prescribing  its  length.  The 
studies  pursued  are  spelling,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  geography,  grammar,  book-keeping, 
history,  music,  and  drawing. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school-districts,  in  1875,  was  236  ;  the  number 
of  schools,  296. 

The  receipts  for  the  support  of  schools,  for  the 
year  1875,  were  as  follows  : 

From  territorial  tax $15,000.00 

"     rate  bills  and  other  sources  95,532.70 

"     local  tax 20,267.28 

"     district  tax 4:>,50S.87 


The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 
For  general  school  purpo-es..$13ii,7!i!l.9K 
"    buildings,  repairs,  etc 53,018.87 


S180,368. 


The  school  statistics  for  the  same  year  are  : 
Number  of  children  of  school  age  ( t  to  16  years)  35,696 
"       "         "        enrolled  in  | . 1 1 1 > lie  schools. .  19,278 
"       "        "  •'  "  private  schools.     3,542 

Average  attendance  in  public  schools 13, 4112 

'•  "  "  private  schools 2,4:17 

Number  of  teacher-,  males  and  females 4JS 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers $17.:'.s 

Normal  Instruction. — The  normal  department 
of  the  University  of  Deseret  was  established 
August  23.,  1875,  to  continue  one  year,  the  fund 
for  its  maintenance  being  derived  from  appro- 
priations made  by  the  county  courts.  Applicants 
for  admission  must  be  over  16  years  of  age, 
must  have  a  fair  knowledge  of  reading,  writing. 
spelling,  grammar,  geography,  and  arithmetic, 
and  -one'  natural  tact  for  imparting  instruction. 
The  course  of  study  gives  a  prominent  place 
throughout  to  the  theory  and  practice  of  teach- 
ing.     Ten   counties  are,   thus   far,  represented 


836      VANDBRBILT  UNIVERSITY 

among  the  students,  the  average  daily  attend- 
ance being  30.  The  first  teachers'  association 
was  organized  in  Salt  Lake  City  in  1860.  Since 
that  time,  teachers'  institutes  have  been  organ- 
ized in  several  counties,  but  they  have  not  yet 
been  permanently  established  by  law.  The  Terri- 
torial Teachers'  Association,  of  which  the  terri- 
torial superintendent  is  president,  ex  officio,  was 
organized  in  1870,  and  holds  semi-annual  sessions 
in  Salt  Lake  City.  A  territorial  normal  in- 
stitute was  convened  by  the  superintendent  in 
the  University  of  Deseret,  in  August,  1875,  at 
which  special  attention  was  directed  to  the  best 
methods  of  imparting  instruction. 

Seciiiii/nri/  Instruction. — The  number  of  in- 
stitutions which  afford  anything  beyond  element- 
ary instruction  is  very  limited.  A  number  of 
select  and  mission  schools  and  academies  exist 
in  the  territory.  Of  these,  the  mission  and 
denominational  schools  give  instruction  annually 
to  about  1,250  pupils.  The  Methodists  have 
six,  —  one  each  in  Salt  Lake  City,  Ogden, 
Tooele  City,  Provo,  Nephi,  and  Beaver.  The 
Episcopalians  have  one  in  Salt  Lake  City,  one 
at  Ogden,  and  one  at  Logan.  The  Presbyterians 
have  one  each  at  Salt  Like  City,  Mt.  Pleasant, 
and  Bingham.  The  Catholics  have  one  at  Salt 
Lake  City.     A  commercial  college  was  opened 


YASSAR  COLLEGE 

in  the  winter  of  1875,  in  Salt  Lake  City.  The 
total  number  of  Latter  Day  Saint  Sunday- 
schools,  in  1870,  was  162,  with  2,588  teachers  and 
20,411  pupils. 

Superior  Instruction . — The  University  of  Des- 
eret is  the  only  institution  in  the  territory 
established  for  the  purpose  of  affording  oppor- 
tunity for  higher  education.  It  is  non-sectarian, 
and  provides  3  courses, — a  preliminary,  a  scien- 
tific, and  a  classical  preparatory.  It  has  a  well 
supplied  laboratory,  a  cabinet  of  several  hundred 
specimens,  valuable  mathematical,  philosophical, 
and  chemical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of  3,000 
volumes.  Youth  of  both  sexes,  who  are  unable 
to  bear  the  cost  of  tuition,  are  admitted  free  of 
charge,  on  application  to  the  president.  In 
1875,  the  number  of  instructors  was  4,  and 
the  number  of  students  294, — 171  male,  and 
123  female.  The  Timpanogos  branch  of  the 
university  was  established  at  Provo  City,  in 
1870.  It  was  suspended  in  1875  ;  but  was  re- 
organized the  same  year  under  the  name  of  the 
Brigham  Young  Academy,  the  building  and 
grounds,  valued  at  $15,000.  having  been  donated 
to  the  county  by  Brigham  Young.  It  was  opened 
in  January,  1870.  with  70  students,  since  in- 
creased to  125.  This  is  the  only  school  in  the  terri- 
tory in  which  instruction  in  theology  is  afforded. 


VANDERBILT  UNIVERSITY,  at  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church,  South.    It  was  chartered 

in  1872  as  The  <  entral  University  of  the  .Meth- 
odist Episcopal  Church,  South  ;  the  name  was 
changed,  in  1873, in  honor  of  Cornelius  Vander- 
bilt,  of  New  York,  who  gave  the  institution 
$500,000,  to  which  he  afterward  added  $200,000. 
The  university  was  opened  in  October,  1875. 
The  grounds  and  buildings  cost  $400,000.  The 
site  is  at  the  west  end  of  the  city,  half  a  mile 
from  the  corporation  line.  The  library  contains 
0.000  volumes.  There  are  cabinets  of  fossils, 
minerals,  and  rocks,  an  astronomical  observatory, 
and  valuable  philosophical  and  chemical  appara- 
tus. The  university  is  organized  with  four  dis- 
tinct departments,  as  follows:  (1)  the  depart- 
ment of  philosophy,  science,  and  literature ; 
(2)  the  Biblical  department;  (3)  the  law  depart- 
ment ;  (4)  the  medical  department.  The  first 
department  comprises  10  schools  ;  namely,  Latin, 
Greek,  modern  languages  and  English,  moral 
philosophy,  philosophy  and  criticism,  mathemat- 
ics, physics  and  astronomy,  chemistry,  natural 
history  and  geology,  and  engineering.  The  usual 
degrees  are  conferred.  The  annual  tuition  fees 
are  as  follows  :  Academic  courses,  $70  ;  Biblical 
department,  free ;  law,  $120 ;  medical,  $65. 
There  are  several  scholarships  entitling  the  hold- 
ers to  free  tuition,  and  fellowships  are  to  be 
established.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  20  instruct- 
ors (academic  department,  1 0  ;  Biblical,  3  ; 
law,  3;  medical,  10). and  307  students,  including 
52  in  theology.  25  in  law.  and  115  in   medicine. 


Landon  ( '.  Garland,  LL.  D.,  has  been  the  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  since  its  organization. 

VASSAR  COLLEGE  (for  women),  at 
Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.,  was  chartered  in  1861, 
and  opened  in  1805.  It  was  named  after  Mat- 
thew Ynssar,  of  Poughkeepsie,  its  founder, 
whose  gifts  to  it  amount  to  about  $778,000.  It 
is  not  denominational.  The  name  was  Vassar 
Female  College  till  1867.  The  buildings  are 
situated  on  a  farm  of  about '200  acres,  two  miles 
cast  of  t lie  city.  The  unproductive  property  is 
valued  (July  1.,  1876)  at  $081,280  (real  estate, 
$515,311  ;  personal  property,  $105.  075);  the 
amount  of  productive  funds  (for  library,  cab- 
inets, lectures,  aid  of  students,  and  repairs),  at 
7  per  cent,  is  $281,000.  The  salaries  and  other 
current  expenses  are  paid  from  students'  fees. 
The  charge  for  board  is  $300  per  annum  ;  for 
tuition,  $100.  Liberal  aid  is  afforded,  either  in 
gifts  or  loans,  to  students  of  high  character  and 
superior  scholarship  in  the  regular  course.  The 
college  has  valuable  apparatus  and  cabinets,  an 
art  gallery,  an  astronomical  observatory,  and 
a  library  of  over  10,000  volumes.  The  regular 
course  is  for  four  years.  All  applicants  for  ad- 
mission must  be  at  least  16  years  of  age.  The 
curriculum  embraces  Latin.  Greek,  French,  Ger- 
man, mathematics,  botany,  zoology,  mineralogy, 
geology,  astronomy,  physics,  chemistry,  physiol- 
ogy. English  literature,  rhetoric,  history,  mental 
philosophy,  moral  philosophy,  etc.  The  arts  taught 
in  the  college  are  vocal  and  instrumental  music, 
drawing,  painting,  and  modeling  in  clay  or  wax. 
Students  sufficiently  mature  and  advanced  may 


VENEZUELA 

take  eclectic  courses.  Those  who  complete  the 
regular  course  receive  the  first  or  baccalaureate 
degree  iu  arts.  A  candidate  for  the  second  de- 
gree in  arts  must  pass  an  examination  in  studies 
which  have  been  approved  by  the  faculty  as 
equivalent  to  a  post-graduate  course  of  two  full 
years.  There  is  also  a  preparatory  department.  In 
187.i — II.  there  were  29  instructors  1 7  males)  and 
370  students,  of  whom  205  were  of  the  collegiate 
grade  (2  resident  graduates.  1*3  pursuing  the 
regular  course,  and  20,  special  courses).  The 
presidents  have  been  Milo  P.  Jewett,  LL.  I)., 
1861—4 ;  and  John  II.  Raymond,  LL.  D.,  since 
1864. 

VENEZUELA,  a  republic  of  South  Amer- 
ica, having  an  area  of  368,000  square  miles,  and 
a  population  of  about  1.500,000.  The  religion 
of  the  people  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  others 
are  tolerated. 

The  education  of  the  lower  classes  is  very 
much  neglected.  Primary  instruction  is  left  to 
the  care  of  the  provincial  deputations;  but, 
owing  tn  their  indifference,  the  law  requiring 
every  voter  to  be  able  to  read  and  write,  is  in- 
operative. The  number  of  primary  schools  was 
reported,  in  1  875,  as  5  1 1 .  of  which  only  141  were 
government  schools.  The  attendance  at  the  for- 
mer was  7,064:  at  the  latter,  11,017.  The  new 
constitution  of  1876  provides  that  all  moneys 
formerly  appropriated  for  ecclesiastical  purposes, 
shall  henceforth  be  devoted  to  education.  It  also 
provides  that  no  minister  or  priest,  of  any  de- 
nomination whatever,  shall  be  employed  as  a 
teacher  in  the  public  schools.  The  education  of 
girls  was  for  a  long  time  entirely  neglected  by 
the  government.  Recently,  however,  the  govern- 
ment has  paid  considerable  attention  to  this 
subject.  A  higher  female  school  has  been  estab- 
lished; and.  in  1870,  a  junta  inspectora  was  ap- 
pointed in  Caracas,  preparatory  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  national  female  college. 

Secondary  as  well  as  superior  instruction  is 
in  a  much  more  satisfactory  condition,  owing  to 
the  labors  of  the  Jesuits,  who,  upon  their  expul- 
sion, left  a  prosperous  college  in  Maraeaybo.  in 
which  the  Spanish  language,  the  ancient  lan- 
guages, poetry,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy  were 
taught.  The  university  of  ( 'aracas  was  founded,  in 
1696,  as  a  colegio,  and  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  uni- 
versity in  1722.  For  a  long  time,  the  colegio 
of  Meriila.  which  served  as  a  university  during 
the  18th  century,  competed  successfully  with 
the  university  of  Caracas.  At  present,  both  of 
these  institutions,  as  well  as  the  medical  school 
of  Caracas,  are  under  the  control  of  the  state. 
The  university  of  Caracas  had.  in  1874.  19  pro- 
fessors and  165  students:  and  that  of  Merida.  12 
professors  and  about  1 50  students.  The  revenue 
of  the  endowment  fund  of  the  university  of 
Caracas  amounts  to  about  $30,000.— Secondary 
instruction  is  imparted  in  13  colegios  nacionales, 
the  total  endowment  funds  of  which  amount  to 
about  $260,000.  Law  is  taught  at  Barcelona; 
and.  at  Maraeaybo,  law,  anatomy,  physiology, 
and  navigation.  Besides  the  government  schools, 
there  are  also  the  following  private  institutions : 


837 
I  aracas  ;    the 

the  same  city; 
n  I  a  Guayra  ; 
science,  and  a 


VENTILATION 

A  colegio  for  poor  students,  in 
Colegio  de  la  Independt 
the  '  'olegio  de  la  Praia 

an  elementary  school  for 
school  for  drawing  and 

VENTILATION.  Probably  n.,' subject  con- 
nected with  the  improvement  of  schools  has.  of 
late  years,  been  more  fully  and  earnestly  dis- 
cussed than  that  of  ventilation.  Unfortunately, 
however,  the  results  reached  have  by  no  means 
corresponded  in  importance  to  the  length  or 
vigor  of  the  discussion.  Notwithstanding  the  mi- 
nute and  elaborate  experiments  made  b\  modern 
science  on  this  subject,  it  is  hardly  too  much  to 
say  that  the  only  point  of  agreement  is,  that 
ample  ventilation  is  of  paramount  importance 
in  ili oiioiny  of  the  schoolroom.  Any  recom- 
mendation of  particular  methods  of  effecting 
this,  or  any  appeal  to  statistics  or  experimental 
,  details,  becomes  at  once  the  occasion  for  fresh 
dispute.  The  subject  will  lie  considered  here  under 
the  following  heads:  (I)  The  c litions  favor- 
able to  proper  ventilation:  ill-  The  methods 
employed  to  utilize  those  conditions:  illl)  Some 
of  the  ways  in  which  ventilation  i.-  preu-nted. 

I.  Under  this  head,  will  be  considered  (1)  the 
sources  from  which  a  proper  supply  of  fresh  air 
for  the  school  room  is  to  be  obtained,  and  the 
quality  of  the  air  so  obtained  ;  and  (2)  the  de- 
termination of  the  quantity  needed  by  each  pu- 
pil for  purposes  of  respiration.  That  the  great 
reservoir  of  the  outer  air  which  surrounds  the 
school  room  is  the  only  proper  source  of  supply 
for  the  lungs  of  its  inmates,  requires  no  demon- 
stration :  the  only  question  being  that  which 
concerns  its  purity.  The  direct  and  intimate  con- 
nection which  has  been  ascertained  to  exist  be- 
tween the  air  which  we  breathe  and  the  blood, 
has  been  found  to  extend  to  the  brain,  and 
healthful  intellectual  activity  and  pure  air  are 
now  almost  convertible  terms.  Whatever  causes, 
therefore,  tend  to  vitiate  the  air  surrounding 
the  school  building  should  be  carefully  eliminated. 
(I  lonceming  the  proper  site  of  the  school  build- 
ing, as  regarded  from  a  sanitary  stand-point,  see 
Hyoiexe,  School.)  Another  cause  which,  in 
certain  sites,  and.  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year, 
in  any  site,  may  affect  the  quality  of  the  air  in- 
troduced into  the  school  room,  is  the  height 
above  the  ground  from  which  it  te  drawn.  The 
danger  to  be  apprehended  from  malarial  fever. 
one  of  the  most  insidious  foes  of  the  human 
race  detected  by  modern  sanitary  science,  has 
led  recent  writers  on  the  subject  of  ventilation 
to  recommend  that  the  inlet  for  fresh  air  be 
placed  as  high  as  possible,  so  that  the  lower 
stratum  of  air — that  near  the  ground  or  from  the 
cellar — be  not  admitted. — Much  of  the  difficulty 
which  attaches  to  the  subject  of  ventilation, 
arises  from  the  fact  that  medical  men  who  have 
given  special  attention  to  the  matter,  are  by  no 
means  agreed  as  to  the  amount  of  pure  air 
needed  by  each  person  for  purposes  of  respira- 
tion :  their  estimates  of  the  number  of  cubic 
feet    of   space   required   by  each   pupil  in  the 


VENTILATION 


school  room  where  the  ventilation  is  ample,  vary- 
ing from  300  to  1 .200  From  a  comparative 
examination  of  various  estimates,  it  appeal's  that 
the  average  amount  of  fresh  air  required  by  each 
individual  hourly  is  a1  least  L ,000  cubic  feet.  In 
school  rooms  provided  with  adequate  means  of 
ventilation, this  requires, according  t"  most  sani- 

pupil.^This,  though  hardly  above  tl 
exceeds,  probably,  in  a  majority  < 
most  liberal  allowance  male  by 
officers  who  pride  themselves  on  the 


from  the  fire,  and.  by  warming  the  column  of 
air  in  the  ventilating  flue,  causes  it  to  ascend, 
tending  thus  to  produce  a  vacuum,  which  the 
vitiated  air  of  the  room  flows  in  to  fill.  The 
ventilating  flue  has  two  registers,  one  near 
the  floor,  the  other  near  the  ceiling,  both  of 
which  can   be  controlled  at   pleasure.      A    more 


than  lln  cubic  feet.  The  qi 
admitted  by  the  ventilating 
constant  relation  to  the  size  o 
Dr.  A.  N.  Bell  on  this  po 
the  space,  the  greater  the  necessity  for,  and  the 
larger  the  opening  required  for,  the  admission 
of  fresh  air.  *  *  *  It  has  been  calculated  that, 
with  ordinary  exposure,  an  open  space  equal  to 
5  inches  in  the  square,  will  admit  the  passage  of 
2,000  cubic  feet  hourly:  this,  of  course,  implies 
that  there  should  be  an  equal  amount  of  open 
space  for  the  escape  of  the  air  displaced. ". 

II.  In  considering  the  different  methods  of 
ventilation,  attention  should,  at  the  Bame  time, 
be  given  to  the  method  of  wanning  the  school- 
room ;  since  the  two  subjects  arc  almost  in- 
separably connected.  The  entrance  of  warm  air 
into  a,  room  for  breathing  purposes,  is  inevitably 
attended  by.  and  naturally  suggests,  a  corre- 
sponding exit  of  vitiated  air,  and  points  unmis- 
takably to  the  resulting  current  as  the  t I  effi- 
cient means  for  ventilation.  If  the  question 
were  merely  that  of  determining  the  easiest  way 
of  replacing  a  certain  amount  of   impure,  bj  a 

corresp ling  amount  of  pure,  air,  the  problem 

would  be  one  of  easy  solution  :  since  the  differ- 
ence of  temperature  which  generally  exists  be- 
tween the  outer  air  and  that  of  the  school  room 
furnishes  the  condition  most  favorable  to  venti- 
lation, the  only  agent  needed  being  a  connec- 
tion between  the  two.  which  is  readily  supplied 
by  an  open  door  or  window.  In  summer,  this 
method,  which  may  be  called  the  natural  one.  is 
in  almost  universal  use,  and  is  accompanied  gen- 
erally with  satisfactory  results.  In  winter,  how- 
ever, the  violent  displacement  of  one  atmosphere 
by  the  other,  which  results  from  the  greater  dif- 
ference in  their  temperature,  and  which  immedi- 
ately begins  when  a  connection  is  made  between 
them,  makesitself  felt  in  the  shape  of  dangerous 
drafts.   The   problem  for  the  inventor,  therefore. 


minimum, 

Sgt„em« 

to^chfol 

along  its  middli 

EP£ 

air  space  aroun 
stove  pipe  to  tl 

the  stove  is  use 

us,  bears  a 
torn.     Says 
he   smaller 

room  is  warmei 
the  amount  of 
the  account  of 

rded 


expense  incurred  should  not 
violation  of  the  laws  of  economy,  but  rather  as 
an  observance  of  the  provisions  of  that  true 
economy  which  does  not  look  for  immediate  and 
petty  results,  but  is  fundamental  in  its  action. 
and  conducive  to  the  permanent  benefit  of  teacher 

ing  purposes,  in  small  school  rooms,  the  open 
grate  fire  has  many  advantages ;  but,  of  course, 
it  should  be  carefully  screened,  for  more  elab- 
orate methods  of  ventilation,  with  modifications 
to  suit  circumstances,  sec  the  works  quoted  at 
the  end  of  thiB  article,  in  which  the  subject  is 


of  effective  veliti 


Hyp. 


for.  These  are  principally  two:  (1)  a  ventilating 
apparatus,  originally  inadequate  in  size,  or,  if 
adequate,  the  ineffective  working  of  it.  through 
frequent  derangement ;  (2)  the  overcrowding 
of  the  school  room  after  the  originally  liberal 
estimates  for  air  supply,  based  on  a  smaller 
number  of  pupils,  have  been  made.  Insufficient 
apparatus,  from  either  the  first  or  second  cause 
mentioned  above,  is  one  of  the  commonest  diffi- 
culties with  which  intelligent  school  officers 
have  to  contend:  so  easy  is  it  for  any  one,  in  the 
absence  of  decidedly  bad  results,  to  lose  sight  of 
the  essential  conditions  of  a  healthy  school  room. 
and  so  clamorous  is  the  tax-payer  usually  for 


so  many 

admirable.  Oneof  the  simplest  and  t 

methods  of  ventilation  is  used  it 
nil  li  I  lie  method  of  warming  des 
the  head  of  school  hygiene.  (& 
School.)  It  consists  of  a  chiiun 
Hues,  one  for  the  fire,  the  other  fc 
The  latter  is  separated  from  the  for 
tition  of  metal  which  becomes  heated  by  the  air    perhaps  fatal,  manner. 


In  the  .vcond  ease -that  of 
ame  deleterious  effects  fol- 
paci  being  the  evil  in  both. 
.hers  are,  in  this  way,  fre- 
'hc  number  of  pupils  is  in- 
that  the  evil  is  for  a  long 
nd  not  till  its  effects  have 
in  some  unmistakable,  and 
is  attention  called  to  the 


as  been  said,  the  air  pro-  I 
imposes  should  be  drawn 


probable  cause.- 
vided  for  breat 
from  oufc-of-doo 
sufficient  to  preclude  all  danger  from  exhalations, 

opposite  end  from  th.it  at  which  the  impure  aii 
passes  out.  ami  at  the  top  of  the  room,  but  in 
such  a  way  as  to  prevent  drafts.  This  is  best 
done  by  providing  a  number  of  small  apertures 
the  air  from  which  passes  through  the  vitiated 
air  of  the  room  in  numerous  small  currents 
which  are  imperceptible,  and  which  cause  the 
fresh  air  to  be  evenly  diffused.  If  warmed  by  a 
cellar  furnace,  it  should  not  be  introduced  into 
the  room  by  floor  registers,  since  these  are  always, 
more  or  less,  traps  for  dust,  which  thus,  in  some 
shape,  is  liable  to  be  taken  into  the  lungs,     The 


terrain  whether  its  working  sustains  the  theory 
of  its  construction,  and  should  be  carefully  exam- 


measure,  optional;  but,  as  the  government  became 
settled  in  its  methods,  and  the  number  of  the 
towns  was  increased,  the  legislature  adopted   a 

different    tone,  and,  in    1797,  co anded    the 

u>\\  ns  to  support  schools,  and  later,  in  1 82 1 .  pro- 
vided that  the  grand  jury  of  each  county  should 
impure  annually,  whether  the  several    towns  in 


1   raised  and    properly   expended 

tv  delinquent  town 


and  i  rei 


ined,  from  time  to  ti 
its  constant  efficier, 
book  of  Hygiene  a 
1873);Parkbr,J 
(4th  ed.,  London, 
and  Ventilation  o 


ith  the  view  to  I 

Wilson, A  I/,, 


at  Washington,  January  27.  and  2s.,  1875; 
Buissox,  Rapport  sur  l''i instruction  primaire  a 
Vexposition  universelle  de  Vienne  (Paris,1875); 
The  School  Board  Chronicle  (London.  March 
and  May.  1875);  Robson,  School  Architecture 
(London,  1874). 

VERMONT,  one  of  the  New  England  states 
of  the  American  Union,  into  which  it  was  ad- 
mitted in  1791.  Its  area  is  In. '212  sq.m.;  audits 
population,  in  1870,  was  330,551. 

Education,,!  History.— La  1761,  after  the  ex- 
pulsion of  the  French  from  the  valley  of  Lake 
t'hamplain  and  from  ( lanada  had  given  a  feeling 
of  security  to  the  settlers.  Vermont  began  to  be 
rapidly  filled  with  immigrants.  In  1777,  it  was 
declared  to  be  an  independent  state  ;  a  constitu- 
tion was  adopted,  in  1  778,  and  a  government  or- 
ganized. Some  of  the  towns  had  already  estab- 
lished schools.  Previous  to  L  763,  the  people  of 
Bennington  had  raised  a  school  tax;  and.  (  tetober 
5.,  in  that  year,  the  to*  n  granted  money  to  each 
of  the  three  school-districts  to  aid  in  building 
school-houses.  The  first  constitution  of  Vermont 
declare:!  that  a  school  or  schools  should  be  estab- 
lished in  each  town,  by  the  legislature,  forthe 
instruction  of  youth.  The  first  law  of  the  state 
relating  toschopls  was  enacted  October  22.,  1782, 
by  which  towns  were  empowered  to  form  school- 
districts,  and  to  elect  trustees.  The  districts  were 
authorized  to  choose  officers,  to  hoi  I  property. 
to   establish   schools,    build    school-houses,   etc. 

From  this  beginning,  the  scl I  system  has  been 

gradually  developed,  without  radical  change  ai 
any  time.  By  the  first  school  law.  the  aetioti 
of  the  towns  in  regard  to  the  school  was,  in  great 


latum  mi  the  subject  01  schools  gave  to  the  town 
power  to  divide  its  territory  into  school  distrii  I 
and  to  alter  the  same:    but  otherwise  the  district 

was  independent  of  the  town,  and  it  has  since 

come  under  the  supervision  and  control  of  the 
town  only  by  a  slow  process.  The  first  step  in  this 
direction  was  a  requirement  that  the  town,  in 
the  annual  division  of  the  public  money,  should 
withhold  the  share  otherwise  due.  from  a  district 
that  had  not  supported  a  school  during  the  pre- 
vious year.  Next,  came  the  provision,  introduced 
in  1827,  that  persons  employed  as  teachers  must 
be  licensed  by  town  officers.  The  provisions  re- 
quiring the  selectmen  of  the  town,  in  certain 
cases,  to  set  up  a  school,  and  even  to  build  a 
school-house,  in  and  for  a  district,  and  to  assess 
and  cause  to  be  collected  a  tax  on  the  inhabitants 
contained  in  the  grand  list  of  the  district,  in  or- 
der to  pay  for  the  same,  left  but  a  single  step 
further  in  that  direction.  This  was  taken  in  the 
law  of  1870,  which  permitted  the  (owns  to 
abolish  the  districts,  and  to  intrust  the  manage- 
ment of  the  schools  to  a  committee  chosen  by 
the  town.'  Under  the  first  school  law,  the  dis- 
tricts had  power  to  raise  money  by  a  tax  on  the 
grand  list  or  on  the  scholar;  consequently,  the 
question,  shall  the  school,  after  expending  the 
public  money,  be  supported  wholly  by  a  tax 
based  on  the  grand  list,  and  thus  be  wholly  free, 
annually  arose  for  decision  in  every  school- 
district  in  the  state.  This  question,  probably, 
has  been  more  widely  and  fully  discussed,  through 
a  long  period,  than  any  other  before  the  people 
of  Vermont;  and  the  history  of  the  legislation  on 
the  subject  is  proportionally  important.  The  law 
of  1782  gave  to  the  prudential  committee  of  the 
district  power  to  assess  a  tax,  according  to  the 
grand  list  of  the  district,  sufficient  to  pay  one- 
half  of  all  the  school  expenses,  and  to  the  district 
the  power  to  vote  the  other  half  on  the  basis  of 
the  grand  list,  or  on  the  scholar.  The  revised 
school  law  of  17H7  provided  that  the  district 
might  vote  the  entire  sum  on  either  ba  fa 

1827,  however,  the  power  of  the  district  to  raise 
money  on  the  scholar  to  build  and  repair  school- 
houses,  and,  in  1850,  the  power  to  raise  money 
in  a  similar  way  to  pay  the  wages  of  teachers, 
were  revoked;  and.  in  1864,  it  was  enacted  that 
"All  expenses  incurred  by  school  districts  for  the 
support  of  schools  shall  be  defrayed  by  a  tax 
il] the  grand  list  of  the  district.''  The  deter- 
mination of  the  people,  after  eighty-two  years  of 
discussion,  was.  that  the  public  schools  should  be 
wholly  free.  In  the  law  of  1782,  no  enumeration 
of  studies  to  be  pursued  in  the  common  schools 


840  VER3 

was  made.  In  1797,  English  reading,  writing, 
and  arithmetic  were  specified  as  subjects  to  be 
taught;  in  LS27.  orthography.  English  grammar, 
geography,  history  of  the  United  States,  and 
good  behavior  were  added.  Until  1841,  no  legal 
provision  existed  for  the  maintenance  of  more, 
or  other,  than  one  common  school  in  each  school- 
district.  Instruction  of  the  grade  between  that 
furnished  by  the  common  school  and  that  fur- 
nished by  the  college,  was  provided  for  only  in 
private  schools,  which  existed  at  that  time  in  all 
parts  of  the  state.  Contiguous  districts,  retain- 
ing their  separate  organization,  privileges,  and 
duties  in  reference  to  supporting  each  a  school 
for  the  smaller  children,  were  allowed  to  unite, 
and  constitute  one  school-district,  for  the  purpose 
of  maintaining  a  school  for  the  larger  children. 
Three  yeais  later,  districts  having  more  children 
than  could  be  well  provided  for  in  one  school,  were 
authorized  to  establish  any  required  number  and 
grade  of  schools.  Later  still,  towns  were  empow- 
ered to  establish  districts  for  the  support  of  high 
schools,  and  towns  adopting  the  town  syst  em  were 
permitted  to  establish  schools  of  any  needed  grade. 
The  growth  of  high  and  graded  schools,  during 
the  last  thirty-four  years,  is  the  most  important 
feature  in  the  recent  educational  history  of 
Vermont.  Within  that  period,  public  schools, 
free  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  or  district 
supporting  them,  in  which  instruction  in  the 
higher  branches  of  learning  is  regularly  provided 
for  and  given,  have  been  established  in  at  least 
twenty-seven  towns  ;  while,  in  more  than  a  score 
of  others,  schools  of  two  or  three  departments 
are  regularly  supported.  While,  before  that  time, 
no  student  could  be  prepared  for  college  in 
a  public  school,  to-day  as  many  students  are 
preparing  for  college  in  the  public  schools  as  in 
the  private  schools. — The  supervision  of  schools 
by  the  town  is  involved  in  the  requirement  that 
public  money  be  distributed  to  such  districts 
only  as  support  schools  ;  and  supervision  by  the 
state  is  very  clearly  implied  in  the  requirement 
that  the  grand  jury  in  each  county  shall  ascer- 
tain whether  the  several  towns  of  the  county 
have  raised  and  properly  expended  the  state 
school  tax.  In  1827.  it  was  enacted,  "  that  each 
town  in  this  state  shall  choose  a  superintending 
committee  who  shall  have  the  general  charge  of 
all  the  public  schools  in  said  town."  The  law 
further  made  it  the  duty  of  said  committee  to 
require  full  and  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  good 
moral  character  of  all  instructors  employed  in 
said  town,  and  to  satisfy  themselves,  by  personal 
examination,  of  their  qualifications  for  teaching, 
and  their  capacity  for  the  government  of  schools; 
and  declared  that  no  instructor  should  be  entitled 
to  any  compensation  for  teaching  in  the  public 
schools,  unless  he  had  obtained  from  the  superin- 
tending committee,  or  a  majority  of  them,  a  cer- 
tificate of  qualification.  The  superintending  com- 
mittee were  required  to  visit  the  schools  and  to 
make  careful  examination  thereof,  to  determine 
the  class  books  to  be  used  in  the  aeveral  schools, 
and  to  make  returns  to  the  secretary  of  state. 
The  law  requiring  the  election  of  a  superintend- 


ing committee  was  repealed  in  1833,  but  was 
revived  in  1845  by  an  act  which  provided  for  the 
election  of  town  superintendents,  with  powers 
and  duties  very  similar  to  those  already  described. 
— The  school  law  of  1827  required  the  secre- 
tary of  state  to  collect  school  statistics  from  the 
towns ;  and  the  same  law  provided  that  there 
should  be  annually  chosen  by  the  legislature  a 
board  of  commissioners,  consisting  of  five  per- 
sons, to  be  denominated  the  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners for  Common  Schools.  The  board  of  com- 
missioners were  to  meet  at  least  once  a  year.  They 
were  to  prepare  a  list  of  text-books,  and  to  ad- 
vise  the  superintending  committees  to  select 
from  the  same  for  the  use  of  the  schools;  to  ex- 
amine the  effect  of  the  school  laws  of  the  state, 
and  if,  in  their  opinion,  alterations  in  said  laws 
were  necessary,  to  specify  the  same,  in  their  an- 
nual report  to  the  legislature.  The  board  of 
commissioners  made  a  report  in  1828;  and,  in 
1833,  all  laws  concerning  the  supervision  of 
schools  were  repealed.—  A\  ith  the  restoration  of 
town  supervision,  in  1845.  came  the  restoration 
of  state  supervision  by  a  state  superintendent  of 
common  schools,  annually  elected  by  the  general 
assembly,  whose  duties  were  essentially  the  same 
as  those  of  the  secretary  of  state  and  board  of 
commissioners  under  the  law  of  1 827,except  that 
he  was  not  required  to  recommend  text-books. 
Six  annual  elections  of  state  superindendent, and 
six  annual  reports  by  that  officer,  followed  the 
enactment  of  this  law  ;  but,  in  1851,  the  general 
assembly  refused  to  choose  a  superintendent,  and 
thus,  through  legislative  neglect,  state  super- 
■  ision  of  the  schools  ceased.  It  was  revived,  how- 
ever, under  a  new  law,  in  1856,  which  provided 
for  a  board  of  education.  To  this  board  were  in- 
trusted substantially  the  same  powers  as  those 
granted    to   the  earlier  board  of   commissioners, 

This  officer  was  to  keep  a  record   ol'   the  official 


statutes,  to  visit  all  pails  of  the  state  and  deliver 
hi  noes  on  subjects  pertaining  to  education,  to 
confer  with  town  superintendents  and  visit 
schools  with  them,  to  collect  statistics,  and  to  re- 
port annually.  Afterward,  the  supervision  of  the 
normal  schools,  provided  for  in  1866,  was  com- 
mitted to  the  board  of  education  and  their 
secretary. — 'I  he  control  and  supervision  of  the 
schools  by  a  board  of  education  continued  till 
1-71.  when  it  was  replaced  by  the  present 
system. — The  state  superintendents  have  been  as 
follows :  (under  the  title  of  Superintendent  of 
Common  Schools)  Horace  Eaton,  1845—50; 
Charles  G.  Burnham,  1850—51;  (as  Secretary  of 
the  Board  of  Education)  J.  S.  Adams,  1  856—67; 
A.  E.  Rankin,  1867—70;  John  H.  French, 
1870 — 74;    las   Superintendent   of   Education) 

School  System.  The  supervision  and  control 
of  the  public  schools  of  the  state  are  committed  to 
a  superintendent  of  education,  who  is  elected 
biennially  by  the  legislature.  His  duties  are 
those  discharged  by  the  secretary  of  the  board  of 
education  previous  to  1874.     Town  superintend- 


enls  are  chosen  annually  by  the  people.  They 
are  required  to  visit  the  schools  at  least  once  a 
year,  to  hold  two  examinations  of  teachers  each 
year,  to  grant  certificates,  and   to  report   to  the 

state  superintendent  v  a  year,     Knrh  district 

has  a  moderator,  a  clerk,  a  collector  of  taxes,  a 
treasurer,  one  or  three  auditors,  ami  a  prudential 
committee,  consisting  of  one  or  three  voters  re- 
siding in  the  district.  These  are  all  elected  an- 
nually. The  public  money  belongs  to  the 
towns,  and  is  by  them  distributed  to  the  dis- 
tricts, where  these  exist.  It  is  derived  from 
lands  reserved  for  the  use  of  schools  in  the  orig- 
inal grants  of  the  townships,  from  gifts  to  the 
towns,  from  the  income  derived  from  the  United 
States  deposit  fund,  which  is  apportioned  to  the 
several  towns  according  to  their  population,  and 
from  taxation.  Each  town  using  the  district  sys- 
tem, is  required  to  appropriate  annually  as  public 
money  for  the  use  of  schools.  Buch  a  sum  as 
would  he  raised  by  a  tax  of  nine  cents  on  each 
dollar  of  the  grand  list  of  the  town,  increased  l>y 
one  half  the  income  from  the  United  States  de- 
posit fund.  Towns  using  the  town  system,  are 
required  to  appropriate  as  public  money  all  in- 
come for  school  purposes,  derived  from  any  of 
the  sources  mentioned  above,  except  taxation ; 
and,  in  these  towns,  the  selectmen  may  appropriate 
for  the  support  of  schools  sums  not  exceed- 
ing the  amount  that  would  be  raised  by  a  tax  of 
fifty  cents  on  a  dollar  of  the  grand  list  of  the 
town.  All  other  moneys  raised  for  school  pur- 
poses must  be  voted  by  the  towns  or  by  the  dis- 
quiets. Vermont  has  no  state  school  fund.  Each 
town  is  required  to  support  a  school  or  schools, 
the  organization  of  which  according  to  the  town 
or  district  system,  is  optional.  The  school-dis- 
trict being  the  creation  of  the  town,  is  subject, 
in  every  respect,  to  town  control.  The  public 
schools  are  free  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  towns 
or  districts  supporting  them,  and  ample  facilities 
are  furnished  for  the  establishment  and  support 
of  graded  and  high  schools.  The  studies  pursued 
by  law  in  the  common  schools,  are  reading,  spell- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  English  grammar,  geog- 
raphy, the  history  and  constitution  of  the  United 
States  and  of  Vermont,  and  good  behavior.  The 
legal  school  age  is  from  5  to  20  years ;  the 
school  year,  5  months  or  more.  For  children 
between  the  ages  of  8  and  14  years,  and  for  a 
period  of  3  months,  education  is  compulsory  ; 
and  no  child  of  this  age.  -who  has  resided  a  year 
in  the  state  can,  without  violation  of  the  law,  be 
employed  in  any  mill  or  factory,  unless  he  has 
attended  a  public  school  for  3  months  during 
the  preceding  year. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
organized  school-districts,  in  1874,  was  2,224; 
the  number  of  fractional  districts,  530  :  the 
number  of  common  schools.  2,782.  The  amount 
of  money  received  during  the  school  year  ending 
March  31.,  1876,  was  as  follows  : 

From  local  tax $42,5,958.69 

"     permanent  fund 14,193.83 

"      other  sources 10,006.05 

Total $t-ii, I-.-. ii7 


The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 
For  salaries  of  teachers  1 137,471.27 
■•    sites,   buildings,  and  fur- 
niture      67,010.83 

••    fuel  and  incidentals 60,562.47 

Total $565,044.57 

The  other  chief  items  of  school  statistics  are  : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age '.i'V.77 

enrolled  in  con 

Average  daily  attendance 39,474 

Number  of  teachers,  males 665 

females 3,448 

Total 4,113 

Normal  Instruction.— There  are  three  normal 
schools  in  the  state— at  Castleton,  Randolph, 
and  Johnson.  Their  financial  management,  and 
the  employing  of  teachers  for  them,  is  committed 
to  local  boards  of  trustees.     The  arrangement  of 


of  study  is  intrusted  to  the  respective 
boards  of  trustees  and  the  superintendent  of  edu- 
cation. The  graduation  of  students  is  controlled 
by  aboard  of  examiners,  and  the  teachers  em- 
ployed must  be  nominated  and  approved  by 
the  state  superintendent.  The  graduates  from 
these  schools  are  licensed  to  teach  in  the  state  for  a 
term  of  years.  An  annual  appropriation  of 
$1,500  is  made  by  the  state  to  each  school.— The 
Chittenden  County  Teachers' Association,  organ- 
ized in  1847,  and  the  Vermont  State  Teachers' 
Association,  organized  in  1848,  hold  annual 
meetings. 

Secondary  and  Denominational  Instruction. 
—  In  a  few  of  the  huge  towns,  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics have  established  schools  for  the  separate  edu- 
cation of  their  children,  and  movements  tending 
to  the  same  end,  are  said  to  be  in  progress  in  other 
towns.  Private  schools,  incorporated  as  academies, 
grammar  schools,  seminaries,  etc.,  exist  in  all 
parts  of  the  state.  The  number  of  incorporated 
academies,  county  grammar  schools,  and  academic 
departments  of  graded  schools  is  about  100. 
The  number  of  pupils  pursuing  higher  studies 
was  reported,  in  1875,  as  7,334. 

Superior  Instruction. — Three  institutions  of 
this  grade  exist  in  the  state  as  follows  : 


Mi.MIi-bury  College.... 
Norwich  University.  . .  . 
University  of  Vermont. 


Location       four 


Ml.Mlrliin'N 

Northneld 
Burlington 


The  Vermont  Methodist  Seminary  and  Fe- 
male College,  at  Montpelier,  is  the  only  institu- 
tion in  the  state  exclusively  devoted  to  the  su- 
perior instruction  of  women.  The  value  of  its 
property  is  estimated  at  $80,000.  Inl875.it 
had  8  instructors  and  llili  students.  The  Uni- 
versity of  Vermont  also  furnishes  instruction  to 
women  on  the  same  conditions  as  to  men. 

Professional  and  Scu  ntifi  Instruction.— The 
agricultural  and  scientific  department  of  the 
University  of  Vermont  constitutes  the  State 
Agricultural  College,  established  in  18(15.  It  has 
three  regular  courses. — one  in  theoretical  and  ap 
plied  chemistry, one  in  civil  engineering,  and  one 
in   metallurgy  and  mining  engineering.  There  is. 


842 


VERMONT  UNIVERSITY 


also,  a  literary  and  scientific  course,  and  a  labo- 
ratory course,  the  latter  for  students  in  the  med- 
ical department,  and  for  teachers  in  academies 
who  are  required  to  give  instruction  in  chemistry. 
[n  1875,  the  number  of  instructors  was  7.  and 
the  number  of  students,  'ill.  Instruction  in  sci- 
ence is  also  given  iii  tin'  scientific  department  of 
Norwich  University,  and  instruction  in  medi- 
cine, in  the  department  for  that  purpose  in  the 
University  of  Vermont. 


■in!  Listriirtiiiii.— The  Home  for  Destitute 


Children,  at  Burlington,  was  founded  in  1805, 
its  origin  being  a  small  private  asylum,  opened 
at  that  time  for  seven  indigent  children.  In 
1867,  a  permanent  fund  of  nearly  $50,000,  was 
raised  by  subscription,  and.  in  1875,  a  new 
building'  was  dedicated  and  opeued. 

VERMONT,  University  of,  at  Burling- 
ton. \'t..  was  chartered  in  1791,  and  opened  in 
1800.  In  1865,  the  congressional  land  grant  to 
the  state,  for  the  support  of  an  agricultural  and 
mechanical  college,  was  transferred  to  it,  and  it 
was  incorporated  as  the  University  of  Vermont 
and  Stale  Agricultural  College.  A  medical  de- 
partment was  organized  in  1809.    Itissupported 

other  departments).  The  university  has  a  library 
of  17,000  volumes  anil  a  valuable  cabinet  of 
natural  history.  In  the  academic  department, 
there  is.  besides  the  classical  course,  a  literary- 
scientific  course,  embracing  Latin,  the  modern 
languages,  and  various  branches  of  science,  phys- 
ical, political, mental. and  moral.  In  the  agricult- 
ural and  scientific  department,  there  are  courses 
in  agriculture,  in  chemistry,  in  civil  engineering, 
and  in  metallurgy  and  mining  engineering.  In 
each  department,  special  courses  may  be  pur- 
sued by  those  not  candidates  for  a  degree.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted  to  the  academic  and  scien- 
tific departments.  In  L875  -6,  there  were  '21  in- 
structors (12  in  the  medical  department)  and  Ills 
students  (76  medical).  The  presidents  of  the 
university  have  been  as  follows  :  the  Rev.  Daniel 
Clarke  Sanders,  D.  D.,  1800—14  :  the  Rev.  Sam- 
uel Austin,  D.  D.,  1815—21 ;  the  Rev.  Daniel 
Haskel,  A.  M.,  1821 — 4;  the  Rev.  Willard  Pres- 
ton, D.  D.,  1825—6  ;  the  Rev.  James  Marsh, 
D.D..  |h'.;i;— 33;  the  Rev.  John  Wheeler,  D.  D., 
1833—49;  the  Rev.  Worthington  Smith,  D.  D.. 
1849—55;  the  Rev.  Calvin  Pease,  D.  D.,  1855 
—61  ;  the  Rev.  Joseph  Torrey,  D.  D..  L862— 6; 
James  Burrill  Angell,  LED'..  1866—71;  and 
Matthew  Ibnry  Duekham,  A.  M.,  since  1871. 

VILLANOVA,  Augustinian  Colleg-e  of 
St.    Thomas    of,    coimnoiilv   called    Vilhimiru 


by  the  tecs  of  stude 
tuition,  board,  etc. 
five  months.  The  1 
umes.  In  the  classi 
necessary   for  gradual 


VIRGINIA 

preparatory  classes,  and  four,  to  the  collegiate. 
The  scientific  course  requires  six  years.  There 
is  a  commercial  course  of  two  years.  The  the- 
ological department  has  a  four  years  course.  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  17  instructors  (2  theological) 
and  79  students  (13  theological).  '1  he  presidents 
have  been  as  follows;  (1)  Fatricius  Eugene 
Moriarty,  O.S.A.;  (2)  Jno.  I".  O'Dwyer,  U.S.A.; 
(3)  Win'.  Harnett.  U.S.A.;  (!)  Ambrose  A.  Mul- 
len, 0.  S.  A. ;    (5)  Patrick  A.  Stanton.  U.S.A.: 

(0)  Thomas Galberry,  U.S.A.;  (7)  the  Very  Rev. 
Thomas  C.Middleton,  D.D.,  U.S.A..  the  present 
incumbent  (187 1 ). 

VIRGINIA,  the  oldest  of  the  thirteen  orig- 
inal states  of  the  American  Union,  having  an 
area  of  about  45,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  population, 
according  to  the  federal  census  of  1870,  of 
1,225,163,  of  whom  712.089  were  whites,  and 
512,841  colored  persons. 

Educational  History, — The  history  of  educa- 
tion in  Virginia  may  be  divided  into  periods 
marked  by  the  ureal  political  epochs  of  the  stale: 

(1)  From  1607  to  1776;  (II  From  1 770  to  1865; 
(III)  From  1805  to  the  present  time. 

J.  From  1607  tu  1770. — Among  the  first  cares 
of  the  Virginia  colony  was  the  provision  for 
education.  As  early  as  1  01 9,  some  provision  was 
made  for  a  college,  and  for  a  free  preparatory 

Bel I;     but    the    massacre   of    1022    destroyed 

these  nascent  institutions,  and  left  education 
without  any  organized  form  until  the  creation 
of  the  College 'of  William  and  .Mary,  in  1693. 
During  the  first  three  quarters  of  the  18th 
century,  this  college  served  well  its  objects, 
whilst  the  lower  branches  were  taught  by  clergy- 
men, parents,  and  chance  teachers.  The  germs 
of  Washington  College  and  Hampden  Sidney 
College  were  planted  near  the  close  of  this  pe- 
riod. Some  abortive  efforts  were  made  to  edu- 
cate Indians  and  negroes. 

II.  From  1770  to  1805.— The  education  of 
the  people  was  an  object  of  solicitude  with  the 
Virginia  legislature,  even  during  the  Revolution- 
ary war,  as  was  evinced  by  the  report  of  an  able 
committee,  with  Mr.  Jefferson  at  its  head,  in 
favor  of  a  scheme  of  public  instruction.  The 
plan  reported  was  finally  adopted  in  1790,  with, 
however,  an  important  modification,  which,  by 
changing  it  from  a  mandatory  state  system  to  an 
optional  comity  system,  occasioned  its  failure. 
'1  he  next  public  movement  was  the  creation  of  a 
literary  fund  in  1810,  the  interest  of  which  was 
at  first  devoted  exclusively  to  the  education  of 


B,  and  yielded  an  animal  revenue  of  about 
,000,  of  which  $80,000  was  apportioned 
g  the  counties  for  paying  the  tuition  of 
uior  children,  chiefly  in  private  schools, 
the-  remainder  was'  ultimately  given  to 
tat.-  University  and  the  Military  institute. 


embrace  a   period  of 


seven  years,  three  of  which  are  devoted  to  the  i  their  tuition  fees  at  a  certain  fixed  rate,  whic 


varied  at  differ* 
Multitudes  of 
30,000  in  one 
who  otherwise  < 
of  receiving  thi 
But  badly  qui 
ployed,  the  poo 


;  from  4  to  8  cents  a  day. 
-  sometimes  more  than 
ere  thus  sent  to  sehool, 
ive  had  no  opportunity 
t  elements  of  education, 
lachers  wire  often  em- 
mced  a  feeling  of  humil- 
iation, ignorance  was  but  slightly  diminished, 
and  the  working  of  the  system  was  so  unsatis- 
factory that,  every  few  years,  efforts  were  made 
to  provide  something  better.  In  1829,  an  act 
was  passed  by  the  legislature,  looking  to  a  com- 
bination of  'private  and  public  means  for  the 
maintenance  of  schools  five  to  all.  To  this  end, 
the  school  commissioners  in  any  county  were 
authorized  to  district  the  county,  and  to  offer  to 
contribute  two-fifths  toward  the  cost  of  the 
building  of  a  school-house  in  each  district,  and 
one  hundred  dollars  towards  maintaining  a 
teacher,  if  the  people  would  do  the  rest  by  vol- 
untary contribution.  Ina  few  counties,  the  ex- 
periment was  tried  vigorously,  but  not  with 
much  success  any  where.  Soon  after  the  census 
of  1840  hail  revealed,  for  the  first  time,  the  large 
proportion  of  illiteracy  existing  among  the 
whites,  a  stroii-- an. 1  well-nigh  successful  move- 
ment was  made  to  establish  a  slate  system  of 
public  free  schools;  but,  in  passing  through  the 
legislature,  the  scheme  was  marred, as  Jefferson's 
had  been  before  it.  by  giving  it  the  shape  of  sim- 
ply authorizing  any  county  to  adopt  a  free 
school  system  for  itself.  This  act  was  passed  in 
1846,  and  nine  counties  by  popular  vote  adopted 
the  system;  but,  owing  to  defects,  it  was  not 
satisfactory  anywhere.  The  "Pauper  System'' 
still  prevailed  until  the  revenues  of  the  literary 
Fund  were  applied  to  the  military  defense  oi  the 
state. — Unsatisfactory  as  was  tin'  condition  of 
primary  education  during  this  period,  the  higher 
branches,  on  the  other  hand,  were  studied  by  an 
unusually  large  proportion  of  the  Virginian 
youth.  Many  "young  men  sought  a  liberal  edu- 
cation at  Harvard  and  Yale,  and  especially  at 
Princeton  college,  while  s< 
William  and  Mary,  II.- 
Washington  colleges  sup) 
vanced  education  in  the 
opening  of  the  State  1'niv 
sequently  were  added  Hal 
and  Henry,  Richmond,  and  Roanoke  colleges 
of  which  a  more  particular  account  is  given  else- 
where. A  constantly  increasing  number  of  sec- 
ondary schools  existed  in  the  state,  and  some 
of  them  were  conducted  by  highly  educated 
men.— In  18.1s.  an  institution  was  founded  by 
the  state  for  the  instruction  and  maintenance  oi 
the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the  blind,  and  was  en- 
dowed with  an  annuity  of  $35,000.  The  only 
special  provision  for  female  education  consisted 

of  private  and  de [national  academies. 

HI.  From  1865  to  1875.— At  the  .lose  of 
the  civil  war.  in  1865,  schools  of  all  grades  were 
prostrate  within  the  territory  remaining  to  Vir- 
ginia; but  immediate  efforts  were  made  to  revive 
them,  and  the  census  showed  that  the  general 
school  attendance  in  1870  was  not  greatly  below 


crossed  the  ocean. 
len  Sidney,  and 
the  means  of  ad- 
e  previous  to  the 


that  of  ls<;0.    ]!y  this  time,  however,  about  one- 
sixth  of  the  pupils  were  colored,  owing   to  the 

.-idles  and  bv  the  I'reediuci,,  I. mean.  Increased 
poverty  and'  the  failure  oi  revenue  from  the 
Literary  Fund  occasioned  the  tailing  off  of  at- 
tendance among  the  whites.—  In  L869,  the  new 
state  constitution  prepared  by  the  convention  of 
1867—8,  assembled  under  '  the  Congressional 
Reconstruction  Acts,  became  the  organic  law  of 
the  state.  This  constitution  provided  for  a 
system  of  public  free  schools  to  be  supported  b\ 
taxation,  slate  and  local,  and  by  the  interest 
derived  from  the  Literary  Fund.  The  .system 
was  to  be  administered  impartially  as  between 
the  races,  and  to  be  in  full  operation  by  187G. 
The  first  legislature  which  met  after  the  adop- 
tion of  the  constitution  promptly  took  up  the 
subject,  chose  a  stale  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  and,  on  the  11th  of  July.  1870, 
passed  a  complete  school  law,  embodying  a 
thorough  and  effective  public  free-school  system, 
which  was  immediately  put  into  successful  oper- 
ation, and  has  grown  steadily  in  strength  and 
usefulness. — Before  the  establishment  of  the 
public-school  system  in  Virginia,  we  ascertain, 
from  the  census  of  1860  and  other  sources,  that 
there  were  aboul  67,000  children  attending  school 
in  the  present  limits  of  Virginia,  of  whom  31,500 
were  pauper  children,  whose  instruction  was  paid 
for  out  of  a  portion  of  the  interest  of  the  Liter- 
ary Fund.  The  entire  amount  expended  on 
these  pauper  children  was  $80, 
i  i  ist  1 1  id  ion  received  was  very  rut 
has  been  no  great  change  in  the  aggregate  of 
population  of  the  counties  now  constituting  V  ir 
ginia  since  1850.  It  may, therefore,  be  instructive 
to  observe  the  school  'attendance  iii  all  schools, 
public  and  private,  at  different  periods: 

I;.  L850  51,808  (U.  IS.  Census) 

"    1860 (17,024 

"     INTO ->s,074 

"    1875 207,771  (Va.  School  Returns) 

(If  these,   the  colored  pupils  were  about  10,000 
in  187(1.  and  58,760  in  L875.— 

Almost  immediately  on  the  establishment  of 
the  public-school  system,  in  1870,  the  number 
of  pupils  attending  the  public  schools  alone  was 
more  than  twice  as  great   as   the   total   number 


the 
y.  There 


I Is. 


ng  the  privates 

to  the  I  .  S.  census. 
uberof  pupils  enrolled 
58,974  ;  in  187(1— 71. 
341,  or  an  increase  of 

.     The  en roll nt  of 

led,  while  the  colored 


both 
bites 


increased  from  89,734,  in  L871,  to  L29,54o,  in 
1875;  that  of  the  colored  pupils,  from  38,554, 
in  1871,  to  54,941.  in  187.=).— About  $25,000, 
more  or  less  has  been  annually  distributed  in  the 


844  VIRG 

state  from  the  Peabody  fund.  The  object  and 
conditions  of  distribution  are  the  same  in  Vir- 
ginia as  in  the  other  Southern  States.  The  money 
has  been  exceedingly  useful,  far  more  than  would 
have  been  the  same  amount  forming  part  of  the 
ordinary  local  funds.  There  has  been  but  one 
state  superintendent  in  Virginia,  —  William 
II.  Ruffner,  LL.  1).,  elected  inT^O,  and  still  in 
office  (1877). 

School  Si/stem. — The  system  is  administered 
by  a  state*  board  of  education,  a  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  county  and  city 
superintendents  of  schools,  and  district  trustees. 
The  board  of  education  consists  of  the  gov- 
ernor, the  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 
and  the  attorney-general.  It  controls  the  state 
school  fund,  appoints  and  removes  county  and 
city  superintendents,  and  also  district  trustees, 
the  latter  absolutely,  and  the  former  subject 
to  confirmation  by  the  senate.  The  city  school 
trustees  are  appointed  by  the  city  councils,  but 
are  removable  by  the  state  board.  There  are  no 
popular  votes  in  reference  to  either  school  offi- 
cers or  taxation.  The  state  board  is  the  final 
tribunal  for  the  decision  of  all  appeals  from  the 
action  of  the  state  superintendent.  It  is  also 
charged  with  regulating  uniformity  of  text- 
books, and  all  other  matters  of  detail  not  ex- 
pressly provided  for  by  the  law.  The  super- 
intendent of  public  instruction  is  elected  by  the 
legislature  for  four  years,  and  receives  a  salary 
of  §'2,0(10,  and  §.">00  additional  for  traveling  ex- 
penses. He  is  provided  with  an  office  in  the 
state  capitol,  and  has  two  clerks.  He  is  the  chief 
executive  officer  of  the  school  system.  His  duties 
are  to  see  to  the  enforcement  of  the  school  laws 
and  regulations,  and  to  promote  an  educational 
spirit  among  the  people,  to  interpret  the  school 
laws,  to  decide  appeals  from  the  action  of  the 
county  superintendents,  to  instruct  and  super- 
vise the  school  officers,  to  provide  blanks,  to  ap- 
portion state  school  funds,  to  make  tours  of  in- 
spection, to  require  reports  of  local  officers,  and 
to  make  an  annual  report,  which  goes  to  the 
legislature  through  the  board  of  education,  and 
is  printed  at  state  expense.  County  and  city 
superintendents  are  appointed  for  four  years; 
their  pay  is  graduated  according  to  population 
ami  number  of  schools,  but  outside  of  the  cities 
no  superintendent  can  receive  more  than  $700 
a  year,  to  be  drawn  equally  from  state  and  coun- 
ty funds.  They  are  charged  with  the  usual 
duties  of  such  officers  in  the  most  approved 
school  systems.  There  are  three  district  school 
trustees  in  each  magisterial  district  (which  cor- 
responds to  the  township  in  other  states). 
Besides  the  district  boards,  there  is  a  county 
school  board,  composed  of  all  the  district  trustees, 
with  the  county  superintendent  as  president. 
The  county  board  annually  examines  the  records 
and  vouchers  of  the  district  boards,  and  furnishes 
to  the  supervisors  of  the  county  estimates  for 
the  amounts  wanted  for  school  purposes.  Teach- 
ers are  examined  and  licensed  by  the  county 
superintendent,  and  appointed  by  the  district 
boards  under  written  contracts.  The  six  primary 


branches,  reading,  spelling,  writing,  arithmetic, 
grammar,  and  geography,  are  required  to  be 
taught  in  all  the  public  schools,  and  other  branches 
are  allowed  in  the  rural  districts  under  restric- 
tions. The  law  imposes  no  restriction  on  studies 
or  the  general  management  in  the  larger  cities, 
the  subject  being  regulated  by  the  city  school 
boards.  The  schools  are  free  to  all  children  be- 
tween 5  and  21  years  of  age,  residing  in  the  dis- 
trict, without  charge  for  tuition,  except  that  a 
monthly  charge  of  §2.50  may  be  made  for  the 
higher  branches,  which  are  taught,  under  pre- 
scribed regulations,  in  some  of  the  schools.  Equal 
educational  privileges  are  si 'cured  by  law  to  white 
and  colored  children,  but  they  must  be  taught 
in  separate  schools.  The  minimum  school  term 
is  5  months,  and  1  .">  is  the  minimum  number  of 
pupils  prescribed  to  constitute  a  school.  School- 
houses  are  provided  and  furnished  at  the  expense 
of  the  district.  School/tends  arc  derived  from  the 
state,  the  county,  and  the  district.  The  state  funds 
embrace  the  interest  on  the  Ijterary  Fund,  a 
capitation  tax  of  one  dollar  on  every  male  citizen, 
and  a  tax  of  one  mill  on  every  dollar's  worth 
of  property  in  the  state.  Out  of  the  state  funds 
are  paid  the  expenses  of  the  central  office,  and  a 
portion  of  the  salaries  of  the  county  and  city 
superintendents ;  the  rest  is  apportioned  among 
the  counties  and  cities  to  be  used  exclusively  for 
the  payment  of  teachers,  except  that  the  county 
superintendent's  salary  may  be  supplemented 
from  this  source  in  an  amount  not  exceeding 
that  received  from  the  state.  District  funds 
(where  they  do  not  exceed  a  property  levy  of  5 
cents  on  the  §100)  are  used  exclusively  for  school- 
houses,  furniture,  incidental  expenses,  and  for 
buying  books  for  indigent  children.  Local  funds 
are  raised  by  the  supervisors  on  the  presentation 
of  estimates  from  the  school  boards,  but  the 
estimates  may  be  cut  down  by  the  supervisors. 
Cities  having  more  than  10,00(1  inhabitants  are 
allowed  to  manage  their  own  school  affairs  in 
most  respects. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  wdiole  number 
of  school-districts  in  the  state  is  458  ;  of  public 
schools,  4.185.  The  graded  system  has  been 
adopted  in  all  the  cities  and  towns,  and  in  many 
thickly-settled  country  places  ;  so  that,  in  1875, 
there  were  155  of  such  organizations,  each  hav- 
ing from  2  to  13  teachers.  Some  of  the  higher 
branches  are  usually  taught  in  the  upper  grades. 
The  schools  are,  with  some  exceptions,  for  both 
sexes. 

The  most  important  school  statistics  (for  1875) 
are  the  following  : 

Whole  number  of  pupils  enrolled 184,486 

"  "         "       "    in  average  attendance.  103,927 

Percentage  of  school  population  enrolled 38.2 

No.  of  teachers  in  public  schools 4,262 

Average  number  of  months  schools  were  taught    5.59 

Value  of  public-school  property  $757,181 

Entire  expenditure  for  public  education. . .  .(1,021,396 

Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers $30.48 

Win  ilc  in  i.  of  pupils  in  public  a  ml  pi, yatc  schools  207,771 
"     teachers      "       "         "  "  5,581 

Normal  Instruction. — Legal  provision  has  not 
yet  been  made  for   normal   instruction .     There 


are  three  colored  normal  schools  supported  by 
foreign  means ;  and  normal  courses  are  supplied 
by  some  of  the  colleges.  This  is  the  case  in 
Roanoke  College,  at  Salem,  and  (for  females)  in 
Hollin's  Institute,  and  Marion  Female  College. 
The  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Insti- 
tute is  accomplishing  an  important  work  in  the 
education  of  colored  teachers.     In  1875,  it  had 

Is  instructors  and  243  students. —  Tcochcrs'  in- 
stitutes are  held  in  most  of  the  counties  of  the 
state  ;  and  the  larger  of  these  receive  assistance 

Secondary  Instruction.  —  Three  cities  have 
public  high  schools,  separated  from  the  lower 
grades,  and  organized  somewhat  differently.  But, 
commonly  the  higher  branches  form  a  mere  con- 
tinuation of  tin'  lower,  and  are  somewhat  inter- 


Superior  Instruction. — The  important  insti- 
tutions of  this  grade  are  enumerated  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  : 


Km. tv  \  Hi  my  Cull.. 
Hampden  Nidm  v  I  nil. 
Kamli'li'li  .Mai-mi  lull. 
Kii'linniud   College.  .. 

Itoani'ki'  College 

University  of  Nirginia 
Washout. ill  \  Lee  Uii. 
William  A-  Mar;  foil. . 


npplo 

1874, 


menting  the  public  funds,  a  law,  passed  in 
allows  a  tuition  fee  to  be  charged  of  $2.50  per 
month,  which  is  the  only  fee  allowed  in  con- 
nection with  the  public-school  system.  Efforts 
are  making  to  define  the  limits  of  secondary 
education,  both  public  and  private. 

Private  and  Corporate  Schools.— /Taking  all 
grades  of  education,  about  25,000,  or  less  than 
one-eighth  of  the  school-going  population,  are 
now  educated  outside  of  tin-  state  schools.  The 
number  of  private  schools  (exclusively  primary) 
is  about  050.  They  arc  chiefly  alphabet  schools, 
or  those  intended  for  children  of  from  five  to 
ten  years  of  age.  Then'  are  also  from  l(i0  to  175 
private  schools,  called  academies  or  classical 
schools,  nearly  every  one  of  w  hich  has  a  primary 
department  in  which  a  majority  of  the  pupils  are 
found.  A  few  schools  (including  Mime  orphan 
asylums)  are  supported  by  church  contributions, 
the  most  of  which  are  ( latholic  or  Episcopal.  A 
large  proportion  of  the  academies,  particularly 
those  for  girls,  are  under  some  special  denomi- 
national influence.  Superior  teachers  are  often 
found  iu  these  schools,  both  for  females  and  for 
males.  Female  incorporated  academies  are 
more  numerous,  and  generallj  better  provided 
for  than  those  for  males,  and  some  of  them  are 
called  colleges.  But  as  respects  college  education 
proper,  there  has  been  no  provision  made  for 
girls  from  either  private  or  public  means,  to  be 
compared  with  that  made  for  boys.  The  higher 
branches  are  taught,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 
in  about  seventy  female  schools,  twenty  of 
which  are  incorporated.  There  are  about  sixty 
private  male  schools  for  secondary  instruction, 
only  six  of  which  are  incorporated.  Some  of  the 
corporate  academics  have  small  endowments,  but 
the  great  majority  of  the  schools  are  wholly  de- 
pendent on  tuition  fees  and  board  bills.  Besides 
the  academies  for  one  or  the  other  sex,  there  are 
about  40  in  which  girls  and  boys  are  taught  to- 
gether. There  is  a  very  small  number  of  elee- 
mosynary boarding-schools,  supported  by  the  an- 
nual interest  of  funds  given  by  benevolent  indi- 
viduals. The  number  of  pupils  in  private 
schools,  both  primary  and  secondary,  in  1875, 
was  23,285,  of  whom  19,466  were  white,  and 
3,819,  colored  children. 


Emory  |  183S  |M.  E.  S. 

Hainii.  Sulney         177-i    Preab. 
Ashland  j  1832   M.  E.  S. 

Richmond  \  1841   Baptist 

Salem  ls',3   Lnth. 

Charlottesville       Isl'j    N..11  seet. 
Lexington  1749    Non  Beet. 

Williamsburg        1693   Non  Beet. 
For  further  information   in  regard   to  these  institu- 
tions, see  under  their  respective  titles.) 

There  were  '.)  institutions  for  the  superior  in- 
struction of  women  that  reported  to  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Education  in  1875,  as  follows: 
Albemarle  Female  Institute  (non-sectarian),  at 
Charlottesville;  Farmville  College  (Meth.  Epis. 
S.),at  Farmville:  llollins  Institute  (Baptist), at 
Botetourt  Springs ;  Marion  Female  Institute 
(Evangelical  Lutheran),  at  Marion:  Martha 
Washington  College  (Meth.  Epis.).  at  Abingdon; 
Petersburg  Female  College  (Methodist),  at  Pe- 
tersburg ;  Southern  Female  College  (non-sec- 
tarian), at  Petersburg;  Virginia  Female  Institute 
(non-sectarian),  at  Staunton;  and  Wesleyan 
Female  Institute  (Meth.  Epis.  S.j.at  Staunton. 
Most  of  these  institutions  are  authorized  to 
confer  degrees. 

Professional  and  Scientific  Instruction. — The 
institutions  which  afford  instruction  in  science, 
theology,  law,  and  medicine,  are  enumerated 
below : 

Schools  of  Science. 


NAME 

Location 

'i\ 

H 

y.J 

Hampton  Normal  and  Agri- 
cultural Institute 

New  Market  Polytechnic  In- 

Hampton 

New  Market 

Blaeksburg 
Lexington 

1870 

1872 
1839 

20 
7 

208 

Virginia    Agricultural    and 

Mechanical  College 

Virginia  Military  Institute. 

222 
221 

The  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  In- 
stitute is  a  manual  labor  school,  and  a  reproduc- 
tion of  the  I^ahainaluna  School  in  the  Sand- 
wich Islands.  It  is  intended  for  colored  stu- 
dents of  both  sexes.  The  boys  are  taught 
(besides  the  ordinary  elementary  and  academic 
branches)  farm  work  and  carpenter  work,  and 
the  girls,  sewing  and  domestic  work.  It  was 
established  by  northern  people,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Freedmen's  Bureau,  and  has  received 
probably  $500,000  from  sources  beyond  the 
state.  The  Virginia  Agricultural  and  Mechan- 
ical College  was  opened  in  1S72,  and  is  sup- 
ported almost  exclusively  by  the  proceeds 
of  two-thirds  of  the  land  scrip  donated  by 
Congress,  the  other  third  having  been  as- 
signed to  the  colored  school  at  Hampton — the 
entire  proceeds  of  the  scrip  amounting  to 
about  $30,000.  The  state  legislature  has  given 
$45,000  for  buildings,  and  820,000  was  paid  by 


Sir! 


VIRGINIA 


the  county  where  it  is  located  (Montgomery). 
The  scheme  of  the  college  fixes  it  at  about  the 
grade  of  a  high  school,  with  special  scientific 
and  practical  developments.  It  has  a  three 
years'  curriculum,  bifurcating  after  the  first  year 
into  a  special  agricultural  and  a  special  mechan- 
ical course,  each  of  two  years.  The  Virginia 
Military  Institute  was  opened  at  Lexington,  in 
1839,  on  a  plan  similar  to  that  of  West  Point, 
and  at  once  became  popular.  The  annuity, 
originally  $6,000,  was  subsequently  increased  ;o 
$15,000;  and  the  number  of  cadets,  before  tne 
war  was  about  250  (50  of  them  being  state 
cadets).  The  buildings  were  burned  in  1864; 
but  since  the  war  they  have  been  restored,  and 
the  institution  has  been  more  flourishing  than 
ever.  The  academic  staff  consists  of  1 1  profess- 
ors and  9  assistants,  the  course  of  study,  which 
is  chiefly  of  a  military  and  scientific  character, 
being  arranged  for  four  years.  Instruct  inn  in 
industrial  chemistry,  civil  and  mining  engineer- 
ing, and  agriculture,  is  also  given  in  special  de- 
partments of  the  University  of  Virginia,  and  in 
civil  and  mining  engineering  in  Washington  and 
Lee  University. 

Schools  of  Theology. 


Name 

Location 

When 

Religions 
denomi- 

Kichmnml  Institute.. 
Kt.Jnhu-sTheul  s.-m. 
Thrnl.  Si-m.of  the  Ev. 

Luth.  Church 

Thr.il.    Sem.    of    the 

Prot.  Epis.  Church. 
Union  Tlin.l    s.-iii.  "I 

the  Gen.  Assembly. 

Richmond 
Norfolk 

Salem 

Fairfax  Co. 

Hampden  Sidney 

1868 

1831 
1823 
1824 

t::i|illst 
E.C. 

Luth. 

Pr.  Epis. 

Presb. 

The  Richmond  Institute  was  established  for 
the  purpose  of  preparing  colored  young  men  for 
the  ministry,  or  for  teaching.  The  qualifications 
for  admission  are  a  good  moral  character  and  fair 
intellectual  ability.  The  number  of  instructors, 
in  1875,  was  3  ;  the  number  of  students,  45. 
The  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church,  in  1875,  had  3  instructors 
and  II  students;  the  Theological  Seminary  of 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  during  the 
sameyear.had  5  instructors  and  51  students;  and 
the  Union  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Pres- 
byterian General  Assembly.  4  instructors  and  74 
Students.— Law  is  taught 'in  the  Law  School  of 
the  University  of  Virginia,  and  the  School  of 
Law  and  Equity  of  Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 
versity. In  the  tor r.  t lie  number  of  instruct- 
ors, in  1875,  was  2 :  the  number  of  students,  93; 
in  the  latter,  2  instructors  and  1 7  students. — 
The  Medical  College  of  Virginia,  at  Richmond, 
is  the  only  medical  school  in  the  state  not  con- 
nected with  a  college  or  university.  It  was 
founded  in  1851,  and,  in  1875,  had  18  profess- 
ors and  instructors  and  37  students.  The 
course  of  study  covers  2  years.  Instruction  in 
medicine  is  also  given  in  the  medical  depart- 
ment of  the  University  of  Virginia,  ■which  pro- 
vides a  course  of  a  year,  and,  in  L875,numbered 
50  students  and  5  professors.  The  equipment 
of  the  latter  department  for  medical  instruction 


VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY 

is  very  complete,  and,  in  some  respects,  its  facil- 
ities for  this  purpose  are  unequalled. 

Sjicci'il  /ttxtriirliiui.—'lhv  Institution  for  the 
Education  of  the  I  leaf  and  Dumb,  and  the 
Blind,  was  opened  in  1838,  at  Staunton.  In- 
struction is  given  in  the  elementary  branches  of 
an  English  education,  and  in  several  trades  and 
mechanical  pursuits.  There  were  7  instructors 
and  100  pupils  in  the  deaf-mute  department,  in 
1875;  and  in  the  department  for  the  blind,  8 
instructors  and  employes,  and  1"-'  pupils.  The 
.Miller  .Manual  Labor  School  had  not  been 
opened  up  to  the  summer  of  L876  ;  hut  it  has 
an  endowment  of  £l,lMill.(l(>o  left  tor  its  founda- 
tion by  the  will  of  Samuel  Miller,  of  Lynch- 
burg, who  died  in  1869,  leaving  also  the  sum  of 
$300,000  for  founding  and  maintaining  an 
orphan  asylum  at  Lynchburg,  and  SI 00.000  to 
the  University  of  Virginia  for  an  agricultural 
department.  The  Manual  Labor  School,  in  the 
county  of  Albemarle,  is  for  the  benefit  of  the 
poor  orphan  white  children  of  that  county. 

Educational  Literature.  —  'I  he  Educational 
Journal  (monthly)  is  published  jointly  by  the 
state  association  of  teachers  and  the  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction,  1 2  pages  of  which 
are  official,  and  paid  for  out  of  the  school  funds. 
A  copy  of  the  journal  is  sent  to  each  county 
superintendent,  and  also  to  the  clerk  of  each 
district  school  board. 

VIRGINIA,  University  of,  in  Albemarle 
Co.,  Va.,  a  mile  and  a  half  west  of  Charlottes- 
ville, was  chartered  in  1819  and  opened  in  L824. 
It  owes  its  organization,  plan  of  government,  and 
system  of  instruction  to  'I  nomas  Jefferson.  It  is 
partly  supported  by  an  annual  state  appropri- 
ation of  $30,000,  and  partly  by  tuition  fees.  In 
consideration  of  the  appropriation,  the  university 
receives,  free  of  tuition  in  the  academic  schools, 
students  from  the  state  over  18  years  of  age  who 
have  a  suitable  preparation.  The  tuition  fees  are 
ordinarily  from  §75  to  $110  per  year.  The  uni- 
versity library  contains  36,000  volumes.  Appli- 
cants tor  admission  must  be  at  least  16  years  of 
age.  In  establishing  the  university  of  Virginia 
Mr.  Jefferson,  for  the  first  time  in  America, 
threw  open  the  doors  of  a  University,  in  the  true 
sense  of  the  name,  providing,  as  amply  as  the 
available  means  would  permit,  for  thorough  in- 
struction ///  iinh'jiciiili-iit  srhmils,  in  all  the  chief 
:  branches  of  learning.  Every  student  may  select 
the  schools  he  will  attend,  but  in  the  academic 
department  he  is  required,  as  a  rule,  to  attend  at 
least  three.  The  professors  are  paid  in  part  by 
salaries,  and  in  part  by  tuition  fees  from  pu- 
pils who  attend  their  several  schools.  The 
schools  in  operation  are  as  follows :  1 ,  Latin  ; 
2,  Greek;  3,  modern  languages  ;  4,  moral  philos- 
ophy; 5,  history,  general  literature,  and  rhetoric; 
(i.  mathematics;  7,  natural  philosophy  (including 
mineralogy  and  geology)  ;  s,  general  and  applied 
chemistry;  9,  applied  mathematics,  engineering, 
and  architecture  :  10,  analytical  and  agricultural 
chemistry;  1  I.  natural  history,  experimental  and 
practical  agriculture  ;  12,  comparative  anatomy, 
physiology ,  and  surgery;  13,  anatomy  and  materia 


medica;  14,  medical  jurisprudence,  obstetr 
and  the  practice  of  medicine  ;  15,  chemistry  ; 
pharmacy;  L6,  common  and  statute  law; 
equity,  mercantile,  international,  constitute 
and  civil  law,  and  government.    The  acade 


careful  use  of    the   young   voice,   at    home,    in 
school,  in  the  church,  and  wherever   there  is  any 

vocal  exercises  should  be  within  a   limited  com- 
pass,    neither  too  high  nor  too  low.     All   for- 


of   il      Proficient,    tor  satisf 

ctory   attainments 

in  certain  subjects  of  study 

(2)  Graduate  in  a 

school;   (3)  Bachelor  of  Lett* 

ts;   i  1 1  Bai  helor  of 

Science:  (5)   Hah,.],,,- of  Art 

;  and  (6)  Master  of 

Arts.    The  professional  degri 

■s  are    Bachelor  of 

Law,  Doctor  of  Medicine,  Un 

il  Engineer,  Mining 

fixed  time  is  required   for  tl 

■  ■  attainment  of  a 

degree;  but,  in  some  of  the  p 

course  ci lonly  occupies  1  h 

—6,  there  were  17  instructor 

and  330  students. 

James  F.  Harrison,  M.  1).,  is 

(1877)   the  chair- 

man  of  the  faculty. 

VOICE,  Culture  of  the. 

The  human  voice 

tance  th; 


id  as  the  audible  expression  of 

hysieal  characteristics  of  its  pos- 
sfore,  no  means  employed  in  the 
if  c  lucation  are  of  more  impor- 
that  have  regard  to  its  culture. 
[ts  powers  are  often  widely  misunderstood  and 
misapplied,  som  •times  abused  and  destroyed. 
In  the  very  beginning  of  education,  large  num- 
bers of  hoys,  in  addition  to  marked  inherited 
pei-uliaritii'S,  such  as  defe. 'five  ears,  weak  limes, 
asthmatic  and  husky  bronchial  tubes,  contracted 
chests,  elongated  palates,  and  inflamed,  swollen 
tonsils,  are  permitted  to  indulge  in  the  perni- 
cious habit  of  loud  shouting  and  hurrahing,  and 
in  the  baleful  and  distressing  use  of  the  chest 
tones,  so  frequently  heard  in  the  singing  of  male 
pupils.  Every  hoy  should  be  made  to  under- 
stand that  if  he  thus  abuses  his  voice,  he  must  not 
expect  to  overcome  his  constitutional  defects,  or 
retain  a  tone  which,  even  by  assiduous  practice, 
will  become  agreeable  to  his  audience,  in  read- 
ing, declamation,  or  vocal  music.  Girls,  while  in 
ini!i\  instances  they  have  all  the  inherited  dis- 
advantages above  referred  to,  present,  through 
their  more  delicate  organization  and  guarded 
habits,  far  more  promising  material  for  the  pro- 
duction of  purely  musical  effects.  Parents  and 
teachers  may  well  take  warning,  also,  in  the 
education  of  either  boys  or  girls,  against  a  long- 
continued  strain  upon  their  vocal  chords.  Many 
a  young  voice  has  been  completely  ruined 
by  this  untimely  forcing  of  the  powers  of  the 
youthful  candidate  for  declamatory  or  musical 
honors.  A  child  five  years  of  age,  for  example, 
is  placed  on  a  chair,  to  amuse  a  large  audience, 
by  speaking  or  singing  in  a  forced  utterance, 
and  with  an  unnaturally  loud  chest  tone,  entirely 
beyond  its  years,  or  powers  of  endurance.  Such 
a  tax  upon  its  vocal  chords,  if  long  continued, 
i.s  exceedingly  injurious.  The  medium  or  fal- 
setto tone,  that  most  mellow,  most  musical,  most 
sweet  and  expressive  part  of  the  female  voice,  or 
of  the  unchanged  voice  of  the  boy,  gradually  de- 
teriorates, and  is  finally  lost  by  this  injurious 
process.  The  remedy  for  this  destruction  lies 
in  the  eaily  protection  of  the  health,  and  in  the 


;;  s;::'i 

ng^Ton 

f  it.-.lf 

itactwi 

h   a   sul.u 

ousbody, 

me  deer, 

•at  least, 

££ 

Which     1 

le.     All 

in,  i    ml,. 

mltivated 

tl ugh 

S,  and   of 

shoulder  braces,  trusses,  and  abdominal  sup- 
porters. Exhaling  involves  that  careful  use  of 
the  diaphragm,  which  keeps  the  intercostal 
nerves  and  muscles  in  a  state  of  tension,  in  or- 
der that  the  lungs  may  have  their  fullest  play. 
To  know  when  and  where  to  inhale  and  to 
exhale,  is  as  necessary  to  the  speaker,  in  his 
written  or  extemporaneously  delivered  sen- 
tences, as  it  is  to  the  singer,  in  the  enuncia- 
tion of  his  musical  phrases;  and,  in  such  case, 
it  assumes  the  dignity  of  consummate  art, — 
an  indispensable  and  prime  necessity  to  the  con- 
scientious interpreter  of  either  classic  language 
or  classic  music.  Without  ease,  sustained  repose. 
and  a  method  made  effective  through  long  habit, 
in  the  management  of  the  breath. all  subsequent 
attention  to  details  in  the  art  of  speaking  or 
singing  is  measurably  lost.  Demosthenes,  with 
pebbles  in  his  mouth,  declaiming  to  the  winds 
and  waves  on  the  seashore,  and  Braham,  lifting 
up  his  voice  amid  the  hills  and  forests  of  North- 
umberland, may  profitably  be  remembered  and 
imitated  by  all  students  who  desire  to  remedy 
defects,  and  to  acquire  new  breathing  power. — 
A  graceful  attitude,  and  thorough  skill  in  the 
proper  use  of  the  breath  being  gained,  the  close 
sympathy  always  existing  betwei  n  the  bronchial 
tubes  and  the  stomach  next  demands  attention. 
A  rapid  and  complete  digestion  is  esteemed  by 
all  intelligent  persons  the  greatest  of  physical 
blessings;  and  to  no  one  is  it  a  more  necessary 
condition  of  success  than  to  the  public  speaker 
or  singer.  So  important  is  this  to  the  pro- 
fessional vocalist,  that  those  times,  in  the  daily 
routine  of  duty,  which  find  the  lungs  and 
bronchial  tubes  freest  from  the  oppression  aris- 
ing from  sympathy  with  the  stomach,  in  its 
process  of  digestion,  should  be  selected  for  prac- 
tice. Proceeding  upward  toward  the  organs  of 
articulation,  we  arrive  at  the  trachea,  or  wind- 
pipe, the  larynx,  and  the  pharynx.  It  is  a  pro- 
lific subject  of  discussion  among  speakers  and 
singers,  whether  the  character  of  the  tone  de- 


848 


VOICE 


pends  as  much  upon  the  size  of  the  lungs,  the  I  chromatic,  using  the  medium,  veiled,  or  somber 
bronchial  tubes,  the  windpipe,  the  larynx,  and  tone,  will  gradually  change  this  objectionable 
the  pharynx,  as  it  does  upon  the  condition  of  habit.  There  are  not  wanting  cases,  also,  of 
the  muscles  and  nerves,  and  more  remotely  still  ,  contralto  voices  which  have  been  destroyed  by 
upon  the  general  organization,  temperament,  attempts  to  cultivate  the  tone  and  compass  of 
will,  and  endurance  of  the  speaker  or  singer.  It  the  soprano, — a  process  absurd  and  unnatural 
is  surprising  to  notice  the  compass  and  the  to  the  last  degree.  Notwithstanding  the  efforts 
variety  of  tone  which  the  larynx  can  produce,  of  some  late  authors  to  ignore  the  division  of 
by  using  the  vowels  alone.  Beginning  with  the  the  female  voice  into  at  least  three  different 
lowest  sounds  of  the  base  voice,  and  ascending  registers,  namely,  the  chest,  the  medium  or  fal- 
in  regular  order  through  its  limits,  of  one  and  a  setto,  and  the  head  ;  these  registers  are  now  gen- 
half  or  two  octaves;  through  the  compass  of  erally  recognized  by  the  highest  and  most 
the  baritone,  with  a  similar  register,  though  competent  authorities.  Elaborate  methods  and 
somewhat  higher  in  pitch;  ami.  successively,  studies  for  the  development  of  the.  contralto, 
through  the  registers  assigned  to  the  tenor,  mezzo-soprano,  and  soprano  voices  have  been 
contralto,  mezzo-soprano,  and  soprano  voices,  devised  with  these  three  divisions  constantly 
there  is  embraced  a  compass  of  four  octaves  of  in  view.  Some  even  assert  that  there  are  five 
available  tones,  susceptible  of  cultivation  to  an  distinct  registers,  requiring  as  many  different 
almost  infinite  degree  of  excellence.  Base  voices  modes  of  producing  the  tone, — a  condition  of 
confine  themselves  mainly  to  the  use  of  the  the  larynx  and  pharynx  suggesting  an  expert- 
chest  tones  throughout  their  entire  register ;  but  ness  in  the  management  of  the  voice  which  may 
the  baritones,  by  a  prudent  use  of  the  somber  well  be  deemed  bewildering.  It  is,  however,  too 
tone, and  of  the  medium  register,  greatly  increase  ■  certain  to  admit  of  a  doubt,  that  the  voices  of 
the  pure  quality  and  flexibility  of  the  higher  ,  the  most  accomplished  female  vocalists  living 
portions  of  their  voices.  For  the  orator  or  have  been  trained  by  recognizing  this  division 
declaimer,  there  is  no  quality  of  tone  compar-  \  into  the  chest,  medium  or  falsetto,  and  head 
able  to  that  of  the  orotund  base  or  barytone  registers,  and  are,  moreover,  preserved  in  their 
voice ;  and,  in  the  oratorio  and  opera,  it  is  as-  ,  wonted  availability  by  adhering  to  the  same 
signed  to  characters  of  inherent  dignity  and  |  method.  Allusion  has  been  made  to  the  phar- 
force.  The  tenor  voice,  undoubtedly,  demands  j  ynx,  or  arched  chamber  immediately  back  of  the 
a  combination  of  native  and  acquired  qualities,  palate,  a  most  important  modifier  of  the  voice 
which,  in  some  countries,  are  exceedingly  rare,  in  its  passage  from  the  larynx,  and  the  expan- 
In  its  uncultivated  state  it  is  thin,  reedy,  and  J  sion  and  contraction  of  which  gives  greater  or 
somewhat  nasal ;  but  steady,  persevering  prac-  i  less  volume  of  tone,  especially  if  the  root  of  the 
tice  upon  the  open  vowels  ah,  oh,  and  oo,  soon  tongue  be  not  artificially  enlarged,  so  as  to 
corrects  this  defect,  and  renders  the  tenor,  of  all  :  produce  an  impure  throaliness  of  tone,  frequent- 
male  voices,  the  most  tender  and  expressive.  |  ly  heard  in  voices  imperfectly  cultivated  and 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  by  tenor  voices,  lest  badly  managed.  To  know  the  important  in- 
the  clear  timbre  of  the  chest  tone  be  carried  too  fluence  of  a  healthy  pharynx  under  complete 
high,  thereby  crushing  out  the  delicacy  of  the  control,  it  is  only  necessary  to  compare  the  voice 
real  medium  register,  which  is  the  most  flexible  of  one  possessing  it,  to  that  of  a  vocalist  suffer- 
and  available  part  of  the  tenor  voice.  The  ing  with  a  cold  in  the  head,  or  with  a  catarrhal 
contralto,  mezzo-soprano,  and  soprano  voices  en-  affection  and  swollen  tonsils.  The  difference  in 
counter  a  similar  difficulty,  at  the  very  outset  of  j  the  clearness  of  the  vibrations,  and  in  the  dif- 
their  practice,  in  combining  the  chest  with  the  :  fusive  character  of  the  tone,  is  very  perceptible 
falsetto  or  medium  voice.  While  this  difficulty  and  marked. — A  clear  knowledge  of  the  organs 
-     which  are  employed  in  producing  a  vocal  tone, 


occurs  in  the  higher  register  of  the  male  voice, 
it  is  found  in  the  lower  register  of  the  female 
voice,  and  presents  obstacles  in  the  way  of 
cultivation,  which  nothing  but  long  and  per- 
sistent practice  can  overcome,  though  the  strain 
upon  the  nervous  system  is  far  less  than 
that  experienced  by  the  male  voice.  The 
contralto  yields  to  no  other  female  voice  in 
depth  and  richness  of  tone,  as  is  clearly  evident 
after  listening  to  singers  like  D'Angri  and  Al- 
boni.  Naturally  not  so  flexible  as  the  soprano 
or  mezzo-soprano,  it  is  yet  endowed  with  a  won- 
derful power  in  causing  effects  replete  with  the  worth  remembering,  unlc 
most  ardent  passion,  and  with  the  most  noble    the  meaning  of    the  words 


and  of  the  proper  combination  of  the  registers 
to  secure  power,  purity,  and  equality  throughout 
the  entire  vocal  compass  being  gained,  the  organs 
of  articulation  present  themselves  for  particular 
consideration;  and  this  leads  directly  to  the  sub- 
ject of  musical  elocution.  System  and  facility 
in  breathing,  the  employment  of  all  the  proper 
organs,  in  their  healthy  condition,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  pure  tone,  expertness  in  reading 
music,  and  the  minutest  attention  to  attitude 
and  gesture,  will  all  fail  to  produce  an  impression 
true  conception  of 
id   music,  a  bold 


womanly  feeling.  There  is  a  great  temptation  I  enunciation,  a  distinct  articulation,  a  well- 
to  abuse  the  lower  register  of  the  contralto  ,  rounded  phrasing,  and  an  accurate  intonation 
voice  by  indulging  in  the  disagreeable  habit  of  be  added  to  the  acquirements  of  the  finished 
forcing   the  chest  tones  to   a   point  bordering  \  vocalist.     Conception  relates  to  both  words  and 

U] asculineness,  if   not  positive  coarseness,    music.     If  it  be  necessary  for   the   speaker  to 

The  practice  of  descending  runs,  diatonic  and  ,  study  well  the  signification  of  words,  in  order  to 


get  at  the  true  meaning  of  the  poet,  it  is  even 
more  necessary  for  the  singer  to  do  so,  since  the 
effect  of  melody  and  harmony  upon  all  per- 
sons, is  such  as  tn  deprive  them,  measurably, 
of  the  power,  for  the  time  being,  of  judging  of 
the  signification  of  words'.  The  singer  who  rests 
upon  the  simple  effecl  of  his  melody,  is  certainly 
as  weak  as  the  Bpeaker  who  relies  upon  his  man- 
ner of  uttering  tine  language,  rather  than  upon 
the  strength  of  the  ideas  involved.  A  true  con- 
ception, it  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  is  the 
rarest  of   possessions   : >ng   modern  vocalists. 

only  implies  that  .■•uiij.-i.it ion.  . .r  careful  throw- 


<  JE  849 

tive.  nor  the  adjective  from  the  noun,  by  a  sepa- 

be  separated.     Long  diatonic  or  chromatic  runs, 

1 1 r i H  , ii ii< is.  trills,  anil  e,»/.  n:ns.  must.  however,  lie 


is  well  as 


»1    ,ih, 


which,  n.it  particularly  recognizing  the  inflec- 
tions of  reading  or  declamal is  entirely  ab- 
sorbed in  the  far  mure  permeating  channel  of 
sound,  a  melo  ly  or  recitative  song  according  to 
a  given  key  or  scale.  I  >r.  Bush  alludes  to  this  as 
the  special  advantage  which  the  singer  has  over 
the  speaker.  Slowness  and  quickness  of  utter- 
ance are  also  controlled,  to  so  great  a  degree,  in 
music,  by  the  relations  of  the  notes,  the  bar,  the 
fractional  measure-marks,  and  words  indicating 
varieties  of  movement,  that  there  is  Left  less  lib 
ertj  to  .he  singer  than  to  the  speaker,  in  many 
respects.  Butsuch  curtailment  ofliberty  (which 
liberty,  by  the  way,  is  often  a  clog  to  inex- 
perienced speakers),  and, by  consequence, greater 
concentration  upon  the  characteristics  of  the 
melody,  only  tie  the  singer  to  a  more  vivi.1  con- 
ception of  the  subject,  and  to  a  more  distinct 
pronunciation  of  the  words.  For  the  correction 
of  marked  inelegancies  of  pronunciation,  w  hether 
of  foreign  or  native  growth,  no  means  are  so 
effective  as  the  careful  study  of  the  classic  lan- 
guages, together  with  the  study  of  the  principal 
modern  languages  taught  by  native  professors. 
Of  these  latter,  the  Italian  is' most  musical  in  it- 
self, and,  therefore,  is  most  useful  to  the  sical 

student,  whose  pronunciation  of  his  native  lan- 
guage, particularly  if  he  he  English  or  German, 
will  be  vastly  improved  by  often  reading  and 
singing  in  the  most  euphonious  of  modern  lan- 
guages. Of  distinct  iiiiiriilntinn .  it  may  in  gen- 
eral be  said,  that  the  vowels  only  are  sung,  while 

the  i sonants  are  articulated;  in  other  words, 

that  the  vowels  are  smnj.  and  the  consonants  are 
spoken.  In  vocalizing  alone,  the  larynx. obedient 
to  the  mind  and  will,  performs  unassisted,  save 
by  the  lungs,  trachea,  pharynx,  and  diaphragm, 
all  those  changes  which    promote   power,  puritv. 

sweetness,  an  1  flexibility  of  tone.       S Light 

chano  is  in  the  position  of  the  jaws,  tongue,  and 
lips  are  necessary  in  vocalizing  with  ah,  ee,  oh, 
and  i«)  .■  but  only  the  consonants,  as  initial,  in- 
termediate, or  final  letters,  require  a  constant 
and  vigorous  use  of  the  tongue,  teeth,  and  lips, 
which  are  the  chief  agents  in  acquiring  an  effect- 
ive articulation.  Full  respirations  should  be 
the  rule,  and  partial  respirations  the  exception. 
In  plain  music,  where  one  or  two  notes  are  ap- 
propriated to  a  syllable,  the  article  should  not 
be  separated  from  the  noun  or  qualifying  adjec- 


npncs    eooil 

sinning:  such  a  knowledge  of  the  composer's  idea 
on  I  he  part  nt  the  singer,  as  shall  not  mar.  to  say 
the  least,  cither  the  poetic  or  musical  .symmetry 
of  what  is  sung.  The  singer  should  be  able  to 
analyze  the  phrases  he  sines,  in  order  that,  in 
melodic  and  harmonic  construction,  he  may  dis- 

where  they  end.'  Hut.  if  he  cannot  do  this,  he 
should  be  able,  intuitively  to  grasp  a  musical 
passage  to  the  fullest  extent  of  its  melodic 
proportions,  and  spontaneously  to  present  it 
with  such  accessories  as  shall  make  it  appear  his 
own.  All  the  bright  coloring  which  may  be  im- 
parted by  a  vivid  conception,  a  good  pronuncia 
tion  and  articulation,  will  be  seriously  dimmed 
by  defective  phrasing,  last,  but  byno  means 
least,  there  must  be  the  accurate  intonation 
which  is  the  result  of  a  correct  ear.  Some  per- 
sons do  not  hear  correctly,  concords  becomiiie  to 


~\X\ 


hat 


with  the 
ability.     The 


g  music 
without 
iv  hear- 


defective  ears  are  by  no  means 
of  curse,  to  imitate  musical 
voice,  in  such  cases,  is  an  im] 
commonness  of  the  defect  im  i 
eeed  low  in  the  scale  of  social  be 
where,  in  addition    to    poverty  a 

dation.  there  is  superadded  the  ] 
sence  of  youthful  opportunities  . 
well  sung  or  played.  <  'mild  all 
exception,  be  gladdened,  when 
ing  music  correctly  sung  and  played,  the  num- 
ber of  those  who  pass  through  life  unmoved  "  by 
the  concord  of  sweet  sounds."  would  be  much 
diminished.  It  is  important,  also,  that  the  sounds 
heard  by  children,  be  correct  both  as  to  melody 
and  rhythm,  if  it  be  expected  that  such  children, 
when  grown,  shall  have  a  so-called  good  ear  for 
music.  In  remarking  upon  articulation,  the 
value  of  the  vowel  sounds  ah,  ee,  nh.  and  oo  was 
noticed  :  and  it  is  known  that  a  thorough  scale, 
and  rhythmical  use  of  these,  combined  with  all 
the  consonants  as  initial  and  final  letters,  will 
not  only  develop  a  more  distinct  articulation, 
but  also  a  purer,  more  effective,  and  manageable 
tone.     For  standard  authorities,  on  this  subject. 

see    Rush,    Philosophy   of   the    H I  -     - 

(Phila.,1833);  E ird  Foi  bnij  eu    Pi    <tiol  ri> 

dekiVoixetde  la  Parole  \  Paris,  L866  ;  Emani  i  i 
bu;.  ii.  ]'.,,, I, ■, hi  CI, ,nit  i  l.oiid.mi:    1 !  \ssim.  ,  \rt 
of  Singing  (Boston,  1856)  :   New  Method  (B 
ton,  L869);  Emma  Seilee,  The  Pi 
(I'hila..  1868). 


850 


WABASH  ('( ILL1K  i  K 


WASHINGTON  AND  LEE  UNIVERSITY 


WABASH  COLLEGE,  at  Crawfordsville,  I 
Lid.,  chartered  in  1833,  is  under  Presbyterian 
control.  It  has  productive  funds  to  the  ami  unit 
of  $240,000,  and  libraries  containing  17,000 
volumes.  It  has  an  English  and  commercial,  a 
preparatory,  and  a  collegiate  department,  the  ! 
latter  with  a  classical  and  a  scientific  course. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  from  $24  to  $30  a  year. 
There  are  several  scholarships.  In  1875—6, 
there  were  12  instructors  and  '220  students  (104 
collegiate,  04  preparatory,  and  52  English  and 
commercial).  The  Rev.  Joseph  1\  Tuttle.  D.  [>., 
is  (1877)  the  president. 

WACO  UNIVERSITY,  at  Waco.  Tex., 
founded  in  1861,  is  under  Baptist  control.  ' 
has  a  small  endowment,  but  is  supported  chiefly 
by  tuition  fees,  the  regular  charge  ranging  from 
$15  to  $25  per  term  of  five  months.  The  libra- 
ries contain  about  2,500  volumes.  It  has  a  pre- 
paratory department,  a  collegiate  department 
for  females,  and  a  classical  and  a  scientific  col- 
legiate course  for  males.  In  1875 — 6,  there 
were  11  instructors  and  279  students  (157  males 
and  122  females).  The  Rev.  Rufus  C.  Burle- 
son, D.  I).,  is  (1877)  the  president. 

WAKE  FOREST  COLLEGE,  inWake 
Co.,  N.  C.  founded  in  IS.'U.  is  urn 
control.  It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  ($: 
per  term  of  five  months)  and  the  income  of  an 
endowment  of  $25,000.  The  libraries  contain 
about  8.000  volumes.  The  course  of  study  com- 
prises six  schools — Latin,  Greek,  modern  lan- 
guages, mathematics,  natural  science,  and  moral 
philosophy.  There  is  also  a  preparatory  and  a 
commercial  course.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  5  pro- 
fessors and  91  students.  The  presidents  have 
been:  the  Rev.  Saml.  Wait,  D.D.;  the  Rev.  Wm. 
Hooper,  LL.  I).;  the  Rev.  .lolm  B.  White:  and 
the  Rev.  W.  M.  Wingate,  1).  1).,  the  present  in- 
cumbent (1877). 

WASHINGTON.  See  District  of  Columbia. 

WASHINGTON  COLLEGE,  at  Wash- 
ington, Alameda  Co.,  Cal.,  founded  in  1872,  for 
the  education  of  both  sexes,  is  a  non-sectarian 
institution.  It  has  a  preparatory,  and  an  academic 
department  with  a  four  years'  course.  French, 
Spanish,  German,  Greek,  and  Latin,  instrumental 
and  vocal  music,  painting,  drawing,  etc.  are  op- 
tional studies.  The  institution  is  supported  by 
the  fees  of  students,  the  charge  for  tuition  being 
from  $50  to  $80  a  year.  In  1875—6,  there  were 
10  instructors  and  176  students.  Silas  S.  Har- 
mon, A.  M.,  has  been  the  principal  since  the 
opening  of  the  college. 

WASHINGTON  COLLEGE,  at  Chester- 
town,  Md.,  founded  in  1782,  is  a  non-sectarian 
institution.  There  is  a  preparatory  and  a  col- 
legiate department.  The  cost  of  tuition,  except 
to  holders  of  scholarships,  ranges  from  $40  to 
$60  a  year.  The  library  contains  about  L,300 
volumes.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  3  instructors 
and  37  students  (10  preparatory  and   27  col- 


legiate). The  presidents  have  been  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Wm.  Smith,  the  Rev.  l*r.  Colin  Ferguson,  Dr. 
Clowes,    the    Rev.    I>r.    Waters.    II.  W.  Ringold, 

the  Rev.  A.  J.  Sutton,  R.  C.  Berkeley.and  Wm. 
.1.  Rivers,  the  latter  since  1873. 

WASHINGTON  AND  JEFFERSON 
COLLEGE,  at  Washington,  Pa.,  under  Pres- 
byterian control,  was  formed,  in  1865,  by 
the  consolidation  of  Jefferson  College  (at  Can- 
onslmrg.  chartered  in  1802),  and  Washington 
College  (chartered  in  1806).  The  former  grew 
out  of  the  Canonsburg  Academy,  opened  in  1791; 
the  latter  had  its  origin  in  the  Washington 
Academy,  chartered  in  1787,  and  opened  in 
1789.  The  consolidated  institution  has  an  en- 
dowment of  $220,000,  a  cabinet,  and  libraries 
containing  9,000  volumes.  Tuition  to  holders 
of  scholarships  is  free  ;  to  others  the  fee  is  $24 
a  year.  There  is  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate 
department,  the  latter  haying  a.  classical  and  a 
scientific  course.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  8  pro- 
fessors and  175  students  (140  collegiate  and  35 
preparatory).  The  presidents  have  been  as  fol- 
lows: the  Rev.  Jonathan  Edwards.  D.  D..  LL.  D., 
1866— 9;  the  Rev.  Saml.  J.  Wilson.  D.  D..  LL.  D. 
(pro  tern.),  1869  ;  the  Rev.  James  J.  Brownson, 
D.D.  (pro  tern.),  1870;  and  the  Rev.  Geo.  P. 
Hays,  D.  D..  since  ]s70. 

WASHINGTON  AND  LEE  UNIVER- 
SITY, at  Lexineton.  Va..  was  chartered  in  1  7K2. 
Its  germ  was  a  mathematical  and  classical  school, 


In  L776,  the  name  was  changed  to  Liberty  Hall. 
After  several  removals,  it  was  located  near  Lex- 
ington, in  L785;  and.  in  1803,  it  was  finally  re- 
moved to  its  present  site,  within  the  limits  of 
the  town.  The  first  commencement  was  held 
in  1785.  In  1796,  Washington  donated  to  the 
institution  the  100  shares  of  stock  in  the  old 
James  River  Company,  which  the  legislature 
had  given  him.  and  the  name  was  changed  to 
Washington  College.  In  1803,  the  Cincinnati 
Society  appropriated  their  funds,  nearly  $25,000, 
to  the  college.  During  the  civil  war,  the  insti- 
tution was"  suspended.  Soon  after  the  death 
of  Gen.  Lee,  in  1870,  the  present  name  was 
adopted.  The  university  is  supported  by  tui- 
tion fees  (generally  $70,  a  year,  in  the  aca- 
demic departments,  and  $85,  in  the  professional 
departments),  and  the  income  of  endowments 
amounting  to  $200,000.  It  has  a  library  of 
12,000  volumes,  mineralogies!,  geological,  and 
zoological  cabinets,  and  valuable  philosophical 
and  chemical  apparatus.  The  distinguishing 
features  of  the  university  are  :  (1)  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  course  of  study  into  distinct  elect- 
ive schools  or  departments;  (2)  The  adaptation 
of  the  several  departments  to  certain  courses  of 
study,  to  each  of  which  is  attached  a  correspond- 
ing degree.  No  degrees  are  conferred  in  course; 
but  all  are  based  upon  actual  attainments  in  a 


WASHINGTON  TERRITORY 

completed  course  of  study.  The  full  course  for 
Bachelor  of  Philosophy  is  3  years  ;  for  Bache- 
lor of  Science  and  Arts,  and  Civil  and  Mining 
Engineer,  I  years.  In  1876,  there  were  15  in- 
structors and  196  students.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Win.  Graham,  A.M., 
I  782  96;  Samuel  I,  < lampbell,  M.  1  >..  L796  -  9; 
George  A  Baxter,  D.  D.,  1799—1829;  Louis 
Marshall,  M.  D..  ls:{ii_:;t:  Benry  Vethake, 
I.I..H..  1834—6;  Henry  Ruffner,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
1830—48;  George  .lunkin.  D.  D.,  1848—60; 
Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee,  1865 — 70;  and  Gen.  G. 
\V.  ( histis  Lee,  since  1871. 

WASHINGTON  TERRITORY,  one  of 
the  north-western  territories  of  the  United 
States,  originally  a  pint  of  Oregon,  but  organ- 
ized as  an  independent  territory  in  1853.  Its 
area  is  69,994  sq.m.;  its  population,  in  1870, 
was  37,432,  of  who,,,  22.1!):.  were  whites,  207 
were  colored  persons.  234,  Chinese,  and  14,796, 
Indians. 

Educational  History. — The  first  educational 
act  of  the  territorial  assembly  was  in  1862,  when 
the  University  of  the  Territory  of  Washington 
was  established,  two  townships  of  the  public; 
lauds  having  been  previously  set  apart  by  Con- 
gress for  its  endowment.  Special  legislation  for 
the  advancement  of  school  interests  has,  from 
time  to  time,  taken  place,  but  no  law  securing 
uniformity  in  the  administration  of  the  schools 
was  enacted  till  1872,  when  the  foundation  of 
the  present  school  system  was  laid  by  the  enact- 
ment of  a  general  law.  The  first  territorial 
superintendent  was  Nelson  Rounds,  who  was 
appointed  in  1872.  His  successor  was  J.  P. 
Judson.the  present  incumbent  (1870), appointed 
in  1874. 

School  System. — A  territorial  superintendent 
of  common  schools  is  appointed  biennially  by 
the  governor,  with  the  consent  of  the  council. 
His  duties  are  those  usually  devolving  upon 
general  superintendents.  Count  /superintendents 
are  also  elected  biennially.  They  are  required 
to  possess  the  qualifications  of  a  teacher,  before 
being  eligible.  Three  school  directors,m  each 
district,  are  elected,  one  each  year.  They  make 
out  tax  lists  for  assessments,  build  school-houses, 
employ  teachers,  and  visit  the  schools  twice  each 
session.  The  permanent  school  fund  is  prospect- 
ive only,  being  derivable  from  school  lands  which 
cannot  be  sold  till  the  territory  becomes  a  state. 
The  schools  are  maintained  by  an  annual  four- 
mill  tax  on  every  dollar  of  taxable  property,  a 
county  tax  of  not  more  than  eight  mills,  a  dis- 
trict tax  of  three  mills,  fines  under  criminal 
statutes,  and  private  contributions.  Districts. 
also,  may  levy  a  tax  of  ten  mills  for  building 
and  repairing  school-houses.  Sectarian  instruc- 
tion in  the  common  schools  is  forbidden  by  law. 
The  school  month  consists  of  4  weeks  of  6  days 
each :  the  school  age  is  from  4  to  21  years. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school-districts,  in  1875,  was  207;  and  the  num- 
ber of  districts  in  which  schools  were  kept  was 
219.  The  amount  of  school  moneys  for  distribu- 
tion, in  the  same  year,  was  §53,557. 


WAY  LAND 


851 


The  principal  items  of   school  statistics,  for 

1874 — 5,  are  as  follows: 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 8,360 

"        "        "         enrolled  in  schools 6,699 

"        "    teachers 220 

The  principal  schools  are  at  Olympia,  Port 
Townsend,  Vancouver,  Seattle,  and  Tacoina. 
Teachers'  institutes  have  been  held  in  some 
counties,  and  a  teachers'  association  has  been 
organized.  The  university  at  Seattle  provides  a 
preparatory,  an  academic,  and  a  collegiate  de- 
partment, to  all  of  which  both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted. Holy  Angel's  College  fq.  v.).  at  Van- 
couver, is  controlled  by  the  Roman  Catholics.  It 
has  two  ( ■nurses.-  a  preparatory,  and  a  collegiate. 

WASHINGTON  UNIVERSITY,  at  St, 
Louis,  Mo.,  was  incorporated  in  1853  and  for- 
mally inaugurated  in  1S57.  The  charter  provides 
that  the  institution  shall  be  non-sectarian.  It  is 
supported  by  the  income  of  an  endowment  of 
$500,000,  and  by  tuition  fees  ranging  from  $50 
to  SI  00  a  year.  There  are  several  scholarships, 
entitling  the  holders  to  free  tuition.  The  uni- 
versity comprehends  five  departments  :  the 
academy,  Mary  Institute  (founded  in  1859),  the 
college  (organized  in  1859),  the  polytechnic 
school  (1857).  and  the  law  school  (1867).  The 
course  of  instruction  in  the  academy  extends 
through  five  years,  and  includes  those  studies 
which  are  preparatory  to  the  College  and  the 
Polytechnic  School  of  the  University.  It  has 
also  a  primary  and  a  commercial  class.  Mary 
Institute  is  a  female  seminary.  Its  grounds  and 
buildings  are  distinct  from  those  of  the  other 
departments ;  but  the  chancellor  exercises  a 
general  supervision :  and  instruction  in  the 
languages,  the  higher  mathematics,  and  the  nat- 
ural sciences  is  in  part  given  by  the  professors  of 
the  college  and  the  polytechnic  school.  rl  he  in- 
stitute affords  various  grades  of  instruction  from 
primary  to  collegiate.  The  course  in  the  college 
(4  yrs.)  leads  to  the  degree  of  A.  B.  The  poly- 
technic school  (O'Fallon  Polytechnic  Institute) 
has  six  regular  courses  of  study  (4  yrs.  each),  as 
follows:  (1)  civil  engineering:  (2)  mechanical  en- 
gineering: (3)  chemistry;  (4)  mining  and  metal- 
lurgy; (5)  building  and  architecture;  (6)  a 
general  course.  The  Polytechnic  Institute  also 
carries  on  a  free  evening  school  for  instruc- 
tion in  the  elements  of  technology,  under  the 
immediate  supervision  and  control  of  the  board 
of  directors  of  the  public  schools  of  the  city. 
The  law  school  (St.  Louis  Law  School)  has  a 
library  of  over  2  500  volumes.  The  university 
library  contains  3,000  volumes.  In  1875 — 6,  the 
number  of  instructors  in  all  the  departments  was 
G5 ;  of  students,  902.  The  chancellors  of  the 
university  ha\e  been  Joseph  Cibsun  Hoyt,  1859 
— 03;  Win.  Chauvenet,  1863 — 71;  and  Wm. 
Greenleaf  Eliot.  D.  D.,  since  L871. 

WAYLAND,  Francis,  an  American  clergy- 
man and  educator, born  in  New  York,  March  11., 
1796;  died  in  Providence,  R.I.,  Sept.  30.,  1865. 
He  graduated  at  Union  College  in  lsl3,  studied 
medicine,  and  was  licensed  to  practice:  but.  mean- 
while, his  purpose  was  changed ;  and,  in  1816, 


352 


WAYLAXD 


he  entered  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary. 
The  instructions  of  Prof.  Moses  Stuart  enkindled 
in  his  mind  an  intense  enthusiasm  for  study;  but 
poverty  compelled  him  to  leave  the  institution. 
During  the  next  four  years,  he  was  a  tutor  in 
Union  College;  and,  in  1821,  became  pastor 
of  the  First  Baptist  Chureh.in  Boston.  In  1826, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  and 
natural  history  in  Union  College,  and.  earlv  in 
1827,  was  chosen  president  of  Brown  University, 
and  entered  on  what  was  to  be  the  work  of  his 
life.  The  college  was  in  a  depressed  state.  The 
funds  were  inconsiderable;  there  was  scarcely 
library,  cabinet,  or  apparatus;  and  the  standard 
of  character,  discipline,  and  scholarship  was  low. 
The  new  president  sought,  first  of  all,  to  raise 
the  standard.  In  the  recitation  room,  he  intro- 
duced thoroughness,  exactness,  self-dependence, 
and  freedom  of  inquiry,  lie  aimed  to  teach,  not 
the  text-book,  but  the  subject.  He  encouraged 
questions  germane  to  the  topic.     Finding  that 

the  text-1 ks  in  use  were  inadequate,  he  taught 

by  lectures,  till  in  time  he  created  text-books  in 
the  different  branches,  lie  next  sought  to  in- 
i'Iv.i-i'  !  In    i Material  means  of  instruction.  A  fund 

of  $25, was  raised  for  the  increase  of  the 

library  and  the  apparatus  ;  a  library  building,  a 
laboratory,  and  a  house  for  the  president  were 
erected;  the  library  was  also  increased  by  special 
subscriptions  outside  of  the  fund;  and  several  new 
departments  of  instruction  were  created.     Vet, 

with  the  lapse  of  time,  the  convict grew  in 

the  mind  of  the  president  that  the  college  was 
not  fulfilling  its  destiny.  His  dissatisfaction 
with  the  American  college  was  expressed  in  his 
little  book.  Thoughts  on  the  Present  Collegiate 
System  in  tin-  United  States  (1842  ;  but  no 
remedy  was  suggested.  Gradually,  his  mind 
worked  itself  clear;  and.  in  ls.,0.  his  L'r/,,,,-/  In 
the  Corporation  of  Brown  University  indicat- 
ed both  the  evil  and  the  remedy.  The  Amer- 
ican colleges  were  not  meeting  the  demands  of 
the  American  people.  They  were  molded  by 
the  traditions  of  the  middle  ages  rather  than  by 
the  wants  of  the  L9th  century.  They  were 
offering  an  education  suited  only  to  a  limited 
class,  to  the  members  of  the  learned  professions, 
especially  the  ministry,  and  were  ignoring  the 
large  and  increasing  industrial  classes.  They 
were  setting  at  naught  the  diversityof  character 
ami  Meeds  on  the  part  of  young  Mien.  They 
were  crowding  a  vast  number  oi  studies  into  a 
limited  period  of  time,  and  were  precluding  the 

Th^pr^entproStoeiuTrgrtLSp^S 

Collc-C  .   bv   oife MM".    II,    a    Uailta-.es    to  e\  ,   l\    cla.-s. 


and  not  compelling  ai 

studies  again,!  his  will 
the  st  in lent  the  means  i 
in  whatever  departmei 


WEHRLI 

'  liberal. — The  labors  attending  the  re-organization 
of  the  university  had  been  exhausting  in  the 
extreme;  and,  in  1855,  Dr.  Way  land  felt  com- 
pelled to  resign  the  presidency.  In  1857 — 8.  he 
acted  for  sixteen  months  as  pastor  of  the  First 
Baptist  Church  in  Providence.  The  remainder 
of  his  life  he  passed  in  retirement,  in  study,  and 

Strength    allowed.       In    addition    to    the    works 

Qamed above,  he  published  MoralScience  (1835); 
Politi,  ■    Econom  ,    1837   ;   Limtial s  of  Hit- 


WAYNESBURG  COLLEGE, 
lung.  Pa.,  founded  in  1850,  is  und 
land  Presbyterian  control.  It  is  supp 


ciplesof  the  Report  were  carried  into  practice, 
not  indeed  as  , ipletely  as  the  president  de- 
sired, but  far  enough  to  afford  marked  and  satis- 
factory results.  Dr.  Wa.vlands  views  of  theo- 
logical education  were  similarly  practical   and 


bv  tuition    fees   and   partly  bv  the   inc if  its 

endowments,  amounting  to  $50,000.  The  cost 
of  tuition  is  $20  a  year.  The  libraries  contain 
about  2,000  volumes.  It  has  a  classical,  a  sci- 
entific, a  ladies',  a  normal,  and  a  commercial 
ionise  In  18*75 — 6,  there  were  10  instructors 
and  297  students  (hi1  collegiate.  1 1  5  preparatory, 
and  10(1  unclassified).  The  presidents  have  been 
as  follows  :  the  Rev.  Joshua  Loughran,  A.  M.,  4 
v.ar.,;  the  Rev.  J.  P.  Weethee,  A.  M.,  3  years; 
John  C  Flennckeii,  1  year  ;  and  the  Rev.  A.  B. 
Miller.  D.  D.,  the   present    incumbent,   17    veal's. 

WEAVERVILLE  COLLEGE,  at  Weav- 
erville,  9  m.  X.  of  Asheville,  X.  ('.,  chartered  in 
1873,  is  a  non-sectarian  institution.  It  is  beauti- 
fnlU  situated  in  one  of  the  most  picturesque  re- 
gions of  North  America.  It  has  a  primary,  a 
preparatory,  and  a  collegiate  department,  to  all 
of  which  both  sexes  are  admitted.  The  cost  of 
tuition  ranges  from  $6.50  to  $18  per  session  of 
five  months.  In  1875 — 0,  there  were  7  instruct- 
ors and  1'_'3  students  (collegiate,  21  ;  scientific 
and  preparatory,  71  ;  academic  and  primary,  28). 
The  Rev.  James  S.  Kennedy,  D.D.,  is  (1877)  the 
president. 

WEHRLI,  Johann    Jakob,    a  celebrated 

Swiss  teacher  of  poor-scl Is.  was  born  atEsehi- 

k.iven.  November  II..  17110.  and  died  at  Andwyl, 
.March  15.,  1855.  lie  taught  a  small  school  at 
l.eiiienegg  duriiie  two  winters,  working  in  part 

ant  to  I-'ellenbeig.  in  his  school  at  1 1  of  wyl,  where 
he  remained  twenty-three  years,  bestowing  the 
most  a.,,iduon,  care  upon  the  poor  children  and 
scholars.      (See  HopWYL.)      When    an    advanced 

course  for  teachers  was  established  on  the  plan 

of  the  poor-school.  Wehrli  was  appointed  the 
conductor  of  it.  He  had  become  acquainted  with 
Pestalozzi,  and  interested  in  his  theories  of  edu- 
cation, and  now  applied  himself  with  zeal  to  the 
study  of  the  principles  of  pedagogy,  as  well  as 
to  his  own  culture.  In  order  to  make  the  ad- 
vanced course  of  benefit  to  poor  teachers,  he 
arranged  that  instruction  should  be  given  them 
during  the  morning  and  evening  hours,  so  that 
they  might  work  on  the  farm  during  the  day. 
for  their  support.  Many  persons  from  abroad 
visited  llotwyl.  and  became  acquainted  with 
Wehrli;  pupils  from  the  school  became  teachers 


WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY 

or  founded  schools  in  other  countries,  and  thus 
his  nam.'  became  well  known  outside  of  Switzer- 
land. He  received  several  invitations  to  found 
an  institution  in  Germany,  but  preferred  to  re- 
main in  his  own  country. 

In  1833,  on  tlir  invitation  of  the  government 
of  Thurgau,  he  undertook  the  management  of  a 

be  permitted  to  establish  a  self-supporting  semi 
nary  on  Felleiiherg's  plan.  In  this  school,  a  way 
close  union  of  labor  with  instruction  was  at- 
tempted. Each  student  had  a  parcel  of  land  to 
cultivate,  in  the  planting  of  which  he  was  ex- 
pected to  show  good  taste,  and  had  also  to  per- 
form his  part  of  the  routine  duties  of  the  farm. 
Wclirli  exercised  his  scholars  in  practical  teach- 
ing by  causing  them  to  take  the  part  of  the 
questioner,  himself  going  through  the  lesson 
with  them.  Mis  position  as  director  of  the 
seminar  gave  him  many  opportunities  to  im- 
prove the  general  eireinnstaiie  s  of  the  teachers. 
He  was  consulted  by  the  council  of  education 
on  important  occasions,  and  exercised,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  commission  of  examination,  no  insig- 
nificant influence  upon  the  enactment  of  the 
school  laws,  lie  took  part  in  conferences  and 
conventions  for  the  elevation  of  the  condition 
of  the  peasantry.  His  scheme,  however,  for 
making  the  institution  self-supporting,  through 
the  combination  of  instruction  and  labor,  failed: 
new  views  on  education  began  to  prevail,  while 
his  own  fell  into  disfavor.  Changes  were  pro- 
posed in  the  management  of  the  seminary,  which 
he  could  not  consent  to  advance,  lie  resigned 
his  charge  at  Easter  1853,  and  remove  1  to 
Guggenbiihl.  in  the  parish  of  Andwyl.  followed 
by  twenty  teachers  and  pupils,  wh  ;re,  at  the  age 
of  sixty  years,  he  undertook  to  establish  a  new 
seminary;  bin  his  physical  strength  was  broken, 
and  he  was  not  equal  to  the  moderate  exertions 
that  were  require  1  of  him.  lie  decline  1  steadily 
till  his  death,  about  two  years  afterwards. 

WESLEYAN  UNIVERSITY,  a;  Middle- 
town,  ft.,  the  oldest  college  in  tie-  United 
States  under  the  patronage  and  control  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  was  organized  in 
1830,  and  chartered  in  1831.  Since  1872,  its 
courses  have  been  open  to  both  sexes.  It  has 
an  endowment  of  about  $400,000,  extensive 
astronomical,  physical,  and  chemical  apparatus, 
a  valuable  museum  of  natural  history,  ami  a 
library  of  over  26,000  volumes.  The  cost  of 
tuition  is  $75  a  year.  There  arc  three  regular 
courses,  each  of  four  years  :  a  classical  course,  a 
Latin-scientific  course,  and  a  scientific  course  ; 
and  in  each  there  is  a  considerable  range  of 
elective  studies.  There  are  also  special  and  post- 
graduate courses.  In  1875 — (1,  there  were  14  in- 
structors, and  176  students  ('.» females  i.  The  presi- 
dents have  been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Wilbur 
Fisk,  D.  D.,  1831—9;  the  Rev.  Stephen  Olin, 
D.  D.,  1839—41;  the  Rev.  Nathan  Hangs.  It.  It.. 
1841— 2;  the  Rev.  Stephen  Olin,  D.D.,1842  51; 
Augustus  AYm.  Smith.  1852—7;  the  Rev.  Joseph 
Cummings,  D.  I).,  1857—75;  and  the  Rev.  Cyrus 
Foss,  D.  D.,  since  1875. 


WESTFIELD  COLLEGE 


S;j3 


WESTERN  COLLEGE,  at  Western.  I.inn 
Co.,  Iowa,  was  founded  in  1856  by  the  Church 
of  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ,  which  still 
controls  it.     It  has  an  endowment  of  $16,000, 

but  lias  been  chiefly  supported  by  contributions. 
The  college  and  society  libraries  conlain  1500 
volumes.  The  tuition  and  incidental  fees  arc 
$25.50  a  year.  Both  sexes  arc  admitted.  There  is 
a  classical'  and  a  scientific  course,  and  a  prepara- 

therewere  11  instructors  and  219  students  (132 
males  and  87  females),  of  whom  ,'!7  were  of  col- 
legiate grade.  The  presidents  ha\c  been  as  fol- 
lows :  the  Rev.  Solomon  Weaver,  185(1 — (14:  the 
Rev.  Wm.  Davis.  1864—5;  M.  W.  Bartlett 
(principal),  1865-  6;  II.  R.  Page,  1866—7;  E. 
('.  Ebersole,  A.M.  (principal),  1867—8;  and  the 
Rev.  Ezekiel  B.  Kephart,  A.M..  since  1868. 

WESTERN  MARYLAND  COLLEGE, 
at  Westminster,  Md.,  was  founded  in  1S07  and 
incorporated  in  1868.  It  is  under  the  special 
patronage  of  the  Maryland  Annual  Conference 
of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church.  It  is  sup- 
ported by  contributions  and  the  fees  of  students. 

Tin st  of  tuition  is  from  SIT. ell  to  $30  a  year. 

The  institution  has  libraries  comprising  3,500 
volumes.  Moth  sexes  arc  educated,  but  in  separate 
departments,  though  mainly  by  the  same  pro- 
fessors.    The  collegiate  use  for  males  extends 

over  4  years,  and  for  females.  .'!  vears.  Facilities 
arc  also  afforded  for  theological  instruction.  In 
1876—7,  there  were  13  instructors  and  113 
students  (66   male  and     17    female.    65  collegiate 

and  48  preparatory).    The   Rev.  J.  T.  Ward, 

I),  lb,  has  been  the  president  from  the  com ncc- 

n.cnt  of  the  institution. 

WESTERN  RESERVE  COLLEGE,  at 
Hudson,  ( Ihio.  was  chartered  in  1 826,  and  opened 
the  same  year.  It  is  not  under  ecclesiastical 
control,  but  its  trustees  and  professors  are  all 
connected  with  the  Congregational  or  Presby- 
terian denomination.  It  is  supported  by  tuition 
fees  (from  $25  to  $30  a  yean,  and  the  income  of 
an  endowment  of  $210,000.  It  has  an  astronom- 
ical observatory,  valuable  apparatus,  and  libraries 
containing  11,000  rolumes.  There  is  a  prepar- 
atory ami  a  collegiate  department.  Both  sexes 
are  admitted.  In  1876  7.  there  were  11  in- 
structors and  126  students  (72  collegiate  and  54 
preparatory!.  The  Cleveland  Medical  College, 
established  in  Cleveland  in  1844,18  a  depart- 
ment of  the  institution.  The  presidents  of  the 
college  have  been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Charles 
B.  Starrs,  1830  33;  the  Rev.  George  E.  Pierce, 
D.D.,  1834 — 55;  the  Rev.  Henry  I..  Hitchcock, 
I).  I)..  lSo.-,— 71  ;  and  the  Rev.  Carroll  Cutler, 
I).  I).,  since  1871. 

WESTFIELD  COLLEGE,  at  Westfield, 
111.,  under  the  control  of  the  United  Brethren  in 
Christ,  was  chartered  in  1865,  growing  out  of 
the  Westfield  Seminary,  founded  iii  1861.  Roth 
sexes  are  admitted  and  graduated  on  an  equal 
basis  of  scholarship.  It  has  an  endowment  of 
$85,000.  The  regular  charge  for  tuition  is  $24 
a  year.  There  is  a  preparatory,  a  normal,  a  sci- 
entific, and   a  classical   course.      Facilities   are 


854       WESTMINSTER  COLLEGE 

also  afforded  for  instruction  in  art  and  music. 
In  1876 — 7,  there  were  9  instructors  and  193 
students  (34  collegiate).  The  Rev.  Samuel  B. 
Allen.  D.  D.,  has  been  the  president  since   1869. 

WESTMINSTER  COLLEGE,  at  Fulton, 
Mo.,  founded  in  1853,  is  under  the  control  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  South.  It  is  support- 
ed by  tuition  fees  (from  $30  to  $50  a  year)  and 
the  income  of  an  endowment  of  $86,000.  The 
libraries  contain  about  5,000  volumes.  There  is 
a  classical  and  a  scientific  course  (with  a  col- 
legiate and  a  preparatory  department),  special 
courses,  and  an  English  course.  In  1876 — 7, 
there  were  6  professors  and  99  students  (clas- 
sical, 43;  scientific.  15;  special,  15;  English, 
26).  The  presidents  have  been  :  the  Rev.  S.  S. 
Laws,  LL.  1).;  the  Rev.  John  Montgomery,  D.  D.; 
the  Rev.  N.  L.  Rice,  D.  !>.;  and  the  Rev.  M.  M. 
Fisher.  D.  D.,  the  present  (1877)  incumbent. 

WESTMINSTER  COLLEGE,  at  New 
Wilmington,  Pa.,  chartered  in  1852,  is  under 
United  Presbyterian  control.  It  has  productive 
fuiids  to  the  amount  of  874,0(10,  raised  by  the 
sale  of  scholarships  the  owners  or  hirers  of  which 
are  entitled  to  tuition.  The  libraries  contain 
3,600  volumes.  There  is  a  classical,  a  preparatory, 
and  a  scientific  department.  No  distinction  of 
color  or  sex  is  made  in  the  admission  of  students. 
In  1875—6,  there  were  8  instructors  and  165 
students  (71  classical.  48  preparatory,  and  46 
scientific).  The  presidents  have  been  as  fol- 
lows :  the  Rev.  James  Patterson,  1).  I).,  lsfi.'i — 
66;  the  Rev.  R.  A.  Browne,  I).  D.,  1867—70; 
and  the  Rev.  E.  T.  Jcffers.  I>.  I).,  since  1872. 

WEST  POINT,  the  seat  of  the  United 
Stat's  Military  Academy,  is  a  village  in  Orange 
( 'o..  N.V..  on  the  W.  bank  of  the  Hudson  river.at 
its  passage  through  the  Highlands,  52  in.  above 
New  Fork  City.  The  grounds  over  which  the 
United  Stat  -s  has  jurisdiction,  and  on  which  are 
the  principal  buildings,  occupy  the  plain  of  West 
Point,  160  to  180  ft.  above  the  river,  and  are 
flanked  on  the  west  by  abrupt  hills  and  mountain 
spurs  from  500  to  1,500  ft.  high.  The  point  pro- 
jects into  the  river  with  bold,  rocky  cliffs  on  the 
east  and  north-east,  and  a  more  gentle  slope  on 
the  north.  A  large  area  is  arranged  for  tactical 
instruction  and  parades.  The  academy  was 
established  at  West  Point  by  the  act  of  March 
16.,  1802.  Under  the  present  law,  each  congres- 
sional district,  each  territory,  and  the  District  of 
Columbia  is  entitled  to  have  one  cadet  at  the 
academy,  and  ten  are  also  appointed  yearly  at 
large.  The  appointments  at  large  arc  conferred 
by  the  president;  those  from  each  district  and 
territory,  by  the  secretary  of  war,  on  the  nomi- 
nation of  the  representative  or  delegate  in  Con- 
gress. Candidates  must  be  between  17  and  22 
years  of  age,  must  be  well  versed  in  arithmetic, 
reading,  and  writing,  including  orthography,  and 
must  have  a  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  En- 
glish grammar,  of  descriptive  geography,  partic- 
ularly of  their  own  country,  and  of  the  history  of 
the  United  States.  Upon  entering,  they  agree  to 
serve  eight  years  in  the  U.  S.  army,  unless  sooner 
discharged.     Each  cadet  receives  8540  a  year. 


WEST  VIRGINIA 

against  which  are  charged  his  expenses,  including 
board,  clothing,  books,  and  stationery.  For  the 
purposes  of  military  police,  discipline,  and  in- 
fantry drill,  the  cadets  are  organized  into  a  bat- 

armv  officer,  stvlcd  Commandant  of  Cadets,  the 
battalion  staff  and  the  subordinate  officers  being 
cadets.  Each  company  is  commanded  by  anarmy 
officer,  styled  Assistant  Instructor  of  Infantry 
Tactics.  'I  lie  course  is  for  four  years.  From  about 
dune  20.  to  Sept.  I.,  a  period  corresponding  to 
the  vacation  of  other  institutions,  the  cadets  live 
in  tents  and  devote  themselves  to  military  du- 
ties, riding,  sword  exercise,  practical  military  en- 
gineering, etc.  On  graduation,  they  are  commis- 
sioned in  the  engineers,  ordnance,  artillery,  in- 
fantry, or  cavalry,  according  to  their  qualifica- 
tions. The  academy  is  under  the  care  of  an  army 
officer,  styled  Superintendent,  who  has  a  military 
staff  of  live  officers.  There  are  professors  of 
drawing;  of  mathematics;  of  chemistry,  miner- 
alogy, and  geology  ;  of  the  Spanish  language  ; 
of  natural  and  experimental  philosophy;  of  the 
French  language  ;  of  military  and  civil  engineer- 
ing ;  of  law  ;  and  of  geography,  history,  and 
ethics  (the  chaplain).  There  arc  also  instructors 
of  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry  tactics  (the 
commandant  of  cadets);  of  practical  military 
engineering,  signaling,  and  telegraphy;  and  of 
ordnance  and  gunnery  ;  a  music  teacher,  and  a 
sword  master.  Most  of  these  have  several  as- 
sistants. In  1877,  there  were  51  officers  and  300 
cadets.  The  number  of  graduates  from  1802  to 
1876  was  2,640,  being  less  than  half  of  those 
who  entered  the  academy  during  that  period. 

WEST  VIRGINIA,  one  of  the  states  of 
the  American  Union,  organized,  in  1862,  from 
a  portion  of  Virginia,  and  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  a  separate  state  in  1863.  Its  area  is 
23.000  sq.  in.;  and  its  population,  in  1870,  was 
442,014,  of  whom  17,980  were  colored  persons. 

Educational  History. — The  school  history  of 
the  state  is  of  course  identical  with  that  of  Vir- 
ginia '  q.  v.j.  up  to  the  time  of  their  separation. 
( Ine  of  the  conditions  under  which  the  state  was 
admitted  to  the  Union,  provided  for  the  creation 
of  a  school  fund,  for  the  organization  of  a  free- 
school  system,  and  the  appointment  of  officers 
necessary  for  its  proper  supervision  and  main- 
tenance. In  1865,  this  system  was  established, 
and  remained  in  force  till  1872,  when  the  new 
constitution,  then  adopted,  made  several  changes. 
In  1^73.  the  legislature  amended  the  school  law, 
giving  it  its  present  form. — The  first  statesuper- 
intendepi  was  A.  D.  Williams,  from  1865-9; 
and  his  successors  were  C.  S.  Lewis,  from 
1869—71;  W.  K.  Pendleton,  from  1871—2; 
and  B.  W.  Byrne,  the  present  incumbent  (1877) 
elected  in  L872. 

School  System. — The  supervision  and  man- 
agement of  the  state  are  entrusted  to  a  state 
superintendent,  who  is  elected  by  the  people 
every  four  years.  He  is  required  to  give  direc- 
tions to  the  county  superintendents,  and  to  per- 
form all  the  duties  usually  pertaining  to  the  office, 
making   an   annual    report   to   the   legislature. 


WEST  VIRGINIA 


■County  superintendents  are  elected  for  two 
years.  The  organization  of  the  schools  is  com- 
mitted to  these  officers,  with  power  to  exercise 
a  general  supervision  over  all  subordinate  offi- 
cers. District  boards  of  education,  consisting  of 
a  president  ami  two  commissioners,  are  elected 
for  two  years.  They  have  genera]  control  of  the 
district  schools  in  all  that  relates  to  the  building 
and  repairing  of  school-houses,  the  employment 
of  teachers,  the  determination  of  their  number 
and  salaries,  and  the  limiting  of  the  school  ses- 
sion. District  trustees  are  electe  I  for  two  years. 
They  act  under  the  direction  of  the  district 
board.  They  employ  teachers,  and  report  an- 
nually to  the  board.  Boards  of  ■  ■  ,,„,„■  rs.each 
consisting  of  the  comity  superintendent,  and  two 
teachers  appointed  by  the  president  ol  the  district 
board,  are  convened  iu  every  county  for  the 
purpose  of  examining  teachers  and  issuing  certif- 
icates, valid  for  one  year  iu  the  comity  where 
issued.  These  are  authorized  to  grant  certificates 
of  five  grades.  A  itate  board  if  examiners, 
consisting  of  the  state  superintendent  and  two 
professional  teachers  appointed  by  the  governor, 
also  issues  professional  certificates,  which  entitle 
the  holder  to  teach  anywhere  in  the  state  dur- 
ing life,  such  certificates  being  revocable  by  the 
state  superintendent  for  good  cause.  The  school 
revenue  of  the  state  is  derived  from  (1)  the  in- 
terest on  the  invested  school  fund  ;  ('_')  a  poll  tax 
of  §1  on  all  male  citizens ;  (3)  a  state  tax  of  10 
•cents  on  every  $100  of  real  and  personal 
property  ;  (4)  a  district  tax  for  a  school  fund; 
and  (5)  a  district  tax  for  a  building  fund.  The 
last  two  are  subject  to  a  majority  vote  of  the 

people  of  the  district.     The  e ity  sheriff  acts 

as  treasurer  of  the  school  funds,  collecting  and 
disbursing  "all  school  money  for  the  several 
districts  and  independent  districts  therein." 
Mixed  schools  for  white  ami  colored  children 
are  prohibited;  the  establishment  of  separate 
schools  for  the  latter  being  provided  for,  when- 
ever the  number  in  a  district  exceeds  25.  The 
legal  school  age  is  from  6  to  21  years. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  number  of 
school-districts,  in  1874,  was  321  ;  the  number 
of  sub-districts,  2,845;  the  number  of  independ- 
ent districts,  38. 

The  school  revenue,  in  1874 — 5,  was  : 
I'n, in  -tute  tax $194,791.32 

"      local     '•    541,090.98 

Interest  on  permanent  fund. . .     17,595.20 

Total $753,477.50 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows  : 

For  teachers'  salaries $541,358.83 

"     sites,  buildings,  ai'.d  (limit.    l'Jl  .IP47.3S 
"    other  expenses.  . 5-J.754.3s 


Normal    Instruction.  —  The    state    normal 
school,   known   as    Marshall    College,    at    ilunt- 


into  a  model  school,  and  an  academic  and  a 
normal  department,  and  will  accommodate  200 
students.     The  school  at  West    Liberty  has  ac- 


lts. 


The  appropriation  from  the  Peabody  fund  for 
these  five  schools,  in  1S75.  was  £2.500. —  Teach- 
ers' Institutes  have  been  organized,  principally 
by  the  agent  of  the  Peabody  fund;  and  their 
influence,  in  calling  the  attention  of  teachers  to 
improved  methods  of  teaching  and  school  gov- 
ernment, has  been  very  beneficial.  A  state 
teachers'  association  is  also  in  existence,  which 
holds  annual  meetings.  Normal  institutes,  of 
from  2  to  I  weeks'  duration,  were  held,  during 
1874,  in  15  counties. 

&  condary  Instruction. — The  establishment  of 
high  schools  is  dependent  upon  a  three-fifths 
vote  of  the  citizens  of  each  district.  The  num- 
ber of  these  institutions  is  not  large.  The 
Harper's  Ferry  High  School  for  colored  pupils 
was,  in  1868,  chartered  as  Storer  College,  but 
the  course  of  instruction  hardly  goes  beyond 
that  of  the  ordinary  primary  school.  Many 
grammar  schools  exist,  and  the  studies  usually 
pursued  in  high  schools  are,  to  some  extent,  pur- 
sued in  them.  Besides  these,  there  are  several 
private  schools  and  academies  in  which  secondary 


Total $715,160.59 

The  principal    items  of    school  statistics  are 
as  follows : 

No.  of  children  of  school  age 179,897 

"     "        "        enrolled 115,300 

Average  daily  attendance 79,002 

Number  of  teachers,  males 2,H77 

"        "  females 784 

Total 3,461 

■  of  male  teachers $35.03 

"female       "      $30.77 


Averaee  monthly 


instruction    is  given,     ."-even  pr 


rate  schools  of 


this  grade  reported  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation, in  1875,  a  total  of  32  teachers  and  873 
pupils.  Two  of  the  colleges,  also,  have  prepar- 
atory departments. 

Denominational  and  Parochial  Schools. — 
Several  of  these  arc  in  existence,  principally  un- 
der the  auspices  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  and 
the  German  Protestants.  Five  are  reported  in 
Wheeling  alone,— 3  Roman  Catholic,  and  2  Ger- 
man Protestant. 

Superior  Instruction. — Three  institutions  for 
education  of  this  kind  exist,  as  follows: 


NAME 

Location 

\\  li,  n 
ized 

Religious 

Bethanv  ('"11,'ge 

West  \  irgi  ia  Collegi 

Wist  Virginia  Univ..  . 

Bethany 
1  1,  mingl 
Morgantown 

Isln 

1867 

christian 
Free  W.B. 

There  are  two  colleges  for  women.— the  Park- 
ersburg  Academy  of  the  Visitation,  and  the 
Wheeling  Female  College.  The  former  was 
established  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  in  1866. 
Connected  with  it  is  a  preparatory  school  in 
which  instruction  in  common-school  branches  is 
given  gratuitously.     The  academy  is  well  sup- 


856     WEST  VIRGINIA  UNIVERSITY 

plieil  vvitli  apparatus  and  all  the  means  for  im- 
parting ,-i  higher  education.  It  liad,  in  1875, 
12  inatructors,  in  all  the  departments, and  80  stu- 
dents pursuing  the  college  course.  The  Wheel- 
ing Female  College  provides  a  regular  college 
course  .it  I  years.  he-ides  special  courses.  It  was 
established  in  L865,  is  non-sectarian,  and  has  a 
corps  of  13  instructors  -  I  male  and  It  female— 
and  139  students  in  all  the  departments. 

Prof essimial  and  Scientific  Instruction.— -The 
agricultural  department  of  the  West  Virginia 
University,  at  Moigantown.  is  the  state  institu- 
tion for  instruction  in  agriculture.  It  was  en- 
dowed by  Congress  with  land  scrip  to  the  value 
of  $100,000,  to  which  the  citizens  of  Morgan- 
town  have  added  from  time  to  time.  It  also  re- 
ceives an  annual  appropriation  from  the  legis- 
lature.    It  lias  rive  departments  :  preparatory, 


WHITTIER  COLLEGE 

College,  Oxford,  was  elected  fellow  in  1811,  and 
became  Bampton  lecturer  in  1822.  In  1825,  he 
was  appointed  principal  of  St.  Alban's  Hall,  Ox- 
ford :  in  1  soil,  professor  of  political  economy; 
and.  in  1831,  archbishop  of  Dublin.  In  the  hit - 
ciiergetic  in  all  ques- 
welfareof  Ireland.  He 
if  the  board  of  national 
ch  he  held  till  1853,  re- 


terposraon.ne  was  vi 
tions  which  affected  th 
was  one  of  the  member 

education,  a  position  w 
signing  it  then  because 
of  the  board  from  the 
nil  to  that  time,  acted. 


Ian  on  which  they  had. 
His  activity  in  all  char- 
enterprises,  and  his  energy  as  an  author, 
cry  marked.      I  lis  educational  works  are  : 


/'„/„ 


■  Wirt, 


Lit. 


literary. 


uilic 


agricultural,    and    military..       WHEATON   COLLEGE,  at  Wlieaton.  111. 


Optional  courses  arc  permitted.  Nine  regents 
constitute  the  board  of  management,  and  two 
cadets  from  each  regent's  district  are  entitled  to 
gratuitous  instruction.  St.  Vincent's  College,  al 
Wheeling,  was  established  by  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics, in  1865,  for  the  purpos  >  of  affording  instruc- 
tion in  thcoloev.  It  is  now  teinporarilv suspended. 
WEST  VIRGINIA,  University  of,  at 
Morgantown,  W.  \'a...  was  founded  in  1867.  It 
has  an  endowment  of  s|  10.000,  including  the 
proceeds  of  the  lands  granted  by  Congress  for 
the  support  of  a  state  college  of  agriculture  and 
the  mechanic  arts.  It  is  supported  by  the  in- 
come of  the  endowment,  together  with  tuition 
fees  and  annual  state  appropriations.  Four 
cadets  from  each  judicial  circuit  of  the  state  are 
educated  free  of  cost  for  tuition,  books,  station- 
ery, etc.  Military  drill  is  required  of  them.  For 
others, the  tuition  and  contingent  fees  vary  from 
$21  to  .|30  a  year.  The  institution  has  a  iibrarv 
ot  1,000  volumes.  A  United  States  Bignal  sta- 
tion has  been  established  at  the  university.  The 
instruction  is  embraced  in  six  departments: 
classical,  scientific,  agricultural,  engineering,  and 
military;  and  a  preparatory  department.  The 
agricultural  course  is  for  two  years;  the  other 
courses  are  for  four  years,  [n  the  military  de- 
partment,   besides    tactics,    etc..    the    studies   ale 

those  oi  the  classical  scientific,  or  .other  depart- 
ment. In  1875  6,  there  were  II  instructors 
and  96  students  (39  collegiate  and  ."'7  prepara- 
tory).     The    Rev.  -I.  W.  Scott.  1).  ]>..   I.I,.  D.,  is 

(1877)  acting  president. 
WEST  VIRGINIA  COLLEGE,  at  Flem- 

ington,  Taylor  Co.,  W.  Va..  founded  in  1868,  is 
under  the  control  of  Free  Will  Baptists.  It  is  ! 
supported  by  tuition  fees,  ranging  from  $24  to 
$40  a  year.  It  has  a  preparatory,  a  commercial, 
an  academic,  a  normal,  a  college  preparatory,  I 
and  a  collegiate  course.  Both  sexes  are  ad- 
mitted. In  1876  7,  there  were  5  instructors 
and  75  students.  The  presidents  have  been  the 
Rev.  A.  D.  Williams.  A.M..  L868  70,  and  the 
Rev.  Win.  Colegrove,  A.  M.,  since  1870 

WHATELY,  Richard,  archbishop  of  Dub- 
lin, bom  in  London,  Feb.  1.,  1787;  died  in 
Dublin,  Oct.  8.,  18G3.     I  Ie  was  educated  at  Oriel  I 


was  organized  in  1858,  and  chartered  in  1860. 
It  was  founded  by  Wesleyan  Methodists,  but  is. 

now   under   tin trol   of    Congregationalists. 

It  I  las  productive  funds  to  the  amount  of  $30,000; 
the  liuildings.  grounds,  and  apparatus  are  valued 
at  SI  00,0011;  and  the  libraries  contain  about  2,500 
volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  from  $2  |  to  $30 
a  year.  There  is  a  classical,  and  a  ladies'  col- 
leaiate  course.  Dreparatory  courses,  and  an  En- 


■h-h 


sic, 


i  LBia— b,  there  were   |,  instructors  and  213 

iideut,.  'the  Rev.. athan  Blanchard is (1877) 

ie  president. 

WHEWELL,  William,  an  English  philos- 
iher  and  educator,  born  in  Lancaster,  May  24., 
794;  died  in  Cambridge,  March  5.,  1866.     He 


•isuistry. 


the  latter  ye 


pon   his  ap 


pointment  as  vice-chancellor  of  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  he  resigned  his  professorship. 
His  great  mental  activity  is  shown  by  the  con- 
stant accessions  to  his  stock  of  knowledge,  his 
varied  attainments,  and  the  amount  of  literary 
labor  which  he  performed,  in  the  shape  of  inde- 
pendent works,  besides  reviews,  criticisms,  anil 
translations.  To  this  activity,  his  uninterrupted 
good  health  contributed  not  a  little.  Ilis  edu- 
cational works  are:  Astronomy  and  General 
Physics  (1833);  Thoughts  on  the  Study  of 
Mathematics  (1835);  On  the  Principles  of  En- 
glish  University   Education  (1837) ;   History  of 

the  Tnductivi  & s  (1837);  Philosophy  of  the 

Inductive  Sciences  (1840)  :  On  Liberal  Educa- 
tion (1845  -52);  Lectures  on  tin-  History  of 
Moral  Philosophy  in  England  (1852) ;  Of  the 
Plurality  Of  Worlds  (1853);  TJie  Platonic  Dia- 
logues for  English  'Readers  (1859—61);  and 
Lectures  on  Political  Economy  list;:!). 

WHITTIER  COLLEGE  AND  NOR- 
MAL INSTITUTE,  at  Salem,  Henry  Co., 
Iowa,  founded  in  1867,  is  under  the  care  of  the 


WIOHERN 

Society  of  Friends.  It  is  open  to  botli  sexes, 
and  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  varying  from 
S2  I  t,is;;i)  a  year.  It  has  a  collegiate,  a  normal, 
and  a  business  department.  The  course  of  study 
in  the  firsl  and  sen  ■ml  years  of  the  collegiate  de- 
partment is  regarded  as  preparatory  to  the  sci- 
entific course.  The  third  year  completes  the 
scientific  course,  the  ancient  languages  being 
elective.  This  course  is  soon  to  be  increased, 
and  arrangements  are  in  progress  to  extend  both 
courses  so  as  to  constitute  a  complete  college 
curriculum.  The  classical  course  extends  through 
the  fourth  year.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  5  in- 
structors and  200  students  in  all  the  depart- 
ments. Win.  I Ynn  <  'lark  is  (1877)  the  president. 
WICHEEN,  Johann  Heinrich,  a  German 
philanthropist  and  educator,  was  born  in  Ham- 
burg, in  1  SOS.  lie  studied  theology,  engaged  ;ir 
tively  in  the  different  departments  of  benevolence 
connected  with  the  home  missionary  work  of 
the  Evangelical  Church,  and  especially  interested 

himself  in  the  care  of  \ r  children,  and   in  the 

ameliorate f   the  inmates   of  hospitals  and 

prisons.  He  has  founded  a  number  of  institu- 
tions, the  most  important  of  which  is  thai  called 
the  Rauhes  Hans  (das  Rauhe  Hans),  al  Horn. 
near  Hamburg,  a  house  of  refuge  for  1 leless 


WILLIAM  AND  MARY  COLLEGE     857 

of  schools,  finally  occupying  the  principalship  of 

a  female  se arj   a1    ffiddlebury,  \  t.      After 

her  marriage, she  withdrew  from  the  school  room 
fora  nine:  but,  in  1814,  she  resumed  her  voca- 
t bj    opening  a  boarding-school  at    Middle- 


.  N.  V 
on  a  J 

that  st; 


mod.I  upon  which  niauv  other  institutions  ot  the 
kind havebeen organized.  , Sec  Uitokm  Schools. 

WILBERFORCE  UNIVERSITY,  near 
Xenia.  ()..  founded  in  1863,  is  under  the  control 
of  the  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  It 
has  a  small  endowment.  The  cost  of  tuition 
ranges  from  $4.75  to  .SG.75  per  term  of  14  weeks. 
The  library  contains  l.iNMl  volumes.  The  insti- 
tution is  esj ially  designed  for  the  education  of 

colored  youth  of  both  sexes.  It  embraces  a 
preparatory,  a  normal,  a  collegiate  'classical,  and 
scientific),  a  theological,  and  a  law  department. 
In  1875 — 6,  there  were  12  instructors  and  1. 'is 
students  (96  preparatory,  5  normal.  <i  collegiate, 
and  30  theological).  The  Rt.  Rev.  Daniel  A. 
Payne.  D.D.,  is  (ls77)  the  president. 

WILEY  UNIVERSITY,  at  Marshall. 
Tex.,  was  established, in  L873,by  the  Freedmen's 
Aid  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
for  the  especial  benefit  of  colored  youth  of  both 
sexes,  though  open  to  all  without  regard  to  race 
and  color.  It  is  supported  by  the  Society. 
Tuition  is  free.  Then'  are  the  following  courses  : 
primary,  2  years ;  intermediate,  2  years ;  aca- 
demic and  normal.  2  years  ;  preparatory,  2  years; 
collegiate,  4  years ;  theological.  3  years.  In 
ls7.i — G,  there  were  4  instructors  and  248  stu- 
dents. The  presidents  have  been  the  Rev. 
Francis  C.  Moore,  1873 — 5,  and  the  Rev.  Win. 
II.  Davis,  since  1875. 

WILLARD,  Emma,  a  celebrated  American 
educator,  born  in  Berlin,  Ct.,  in  17S7  :  died  in 
Troy,  N.Y.,  in  1870.  After  many  struggles  to 
obtain  a  liberal  education,  she  commenced  to 
teach  at  the  age  of  17  :  and  her  fitness  for  that 
vocation  was  so  marked  that,  at  the  age  of  20, 
she  received  many  invitations  to  take  the  charge 


afterward  visited  the  schools  of  Germany, Switz- 
erland, France,  and  other  countries.  Mrs.  Wil- 
lard's  improvements  in  text-books  were  numer- 
ous and  valuable.  In  geography,  she  separated 
wdiat  is  to  be  learned  into  two  parts,  thai  which 
can  be  learned  through  the  eye,  i.  e.,  from  the 
map,  and  that  which  is  to  be  learned  from  the 
text.  The  latter  she  treated  comparatively,  the 
length  ot  rivers,  for  instance,  of  one  country  be- 
ing studied  in  connection  with  the  same  feature 
in  other  countries  ;  then  the  size  of  continents, 
islands,  height  of  mountains,  etc..  in  the  same  way. 
She  al-o  invented  a  peculiar  kind  of  time  map 
to  assi.-t  in  the  study  of  history.  The  pl;n  e  \\  In.  ii 
Mrs.  Willard  will  occupy  in  the  annals  of  edu- 
cation in  America,  must  always  be  a  prominent 
one,  not  only  from  the  fact  that  almost  the  whole 
of  her  long  life  was  spent  in  its  service,  and  that 


ot  her  sex  troin  a  participation  m  the  advantages 
of  a  higher  education,  and  for  a  long  time.  In- 
voice and  pen,  was  then-  earnest,  and  almost  ex- 
elusive  advocate.  Very  largely  to  her.  and  to  her 
school,  standing  as  an  evidence  of  the  feasibility 
of  her  demands,  is  the  cause  of  female  education 
indebted,  for  the  victory  it  has  won  over  moss 
grown  prejudice  and  error.  How  great  that 
prejudice  was.  let  the  record  of  her  first  triumphs 
attest,  when  we  are  told  that  the  examination  of 
her  first    female  pupil   in    geometry  caused    "a 


\V: 


ils 


hln 


■  /,,, 


Hi. 


ml. 
(he 

UnUed'States  (1828);  Universal  History  in  Per- 
spective (1837) ;  Tempi  of  Timi  1844);  Last 
Leaves  of  American  History  (1849);  Morals 
for  the  Young  (1857),  besides  numerous  ad- 
dresses, pamphlets,  letters,  and  poems. 

WILLIAM  AND  MARY,  College  of, 
at  Williamsburg,  Va..  next  to  Harvard,  the  old- 
est college  in  the  United  States,  was  formerly  un- 
der Protestant  Episcopal  control,  but  at  present 
is  not  connected  with  any  religious  denomination. 
In  1GG0 — 61,  the  colonial  assembly  passed  an  act 
for  the  establishment  and  endowment  of  a  col- 


358     WILLIAM  AND  MART  COLLEGE 

lege;  and,  in  1693,  a  royal  charter  was  granted, 
the  name  being  derived  from  the  reigning  king 
and  queen.  This  was  the  only  college  charter 
given  in  the  colonies  by  any  of  the  English 
monarchs.  The  first  commencement  exercises 
were  held  in  1700.  In  1776,  it  was  the  wealth- 
iest college  in  the  colonies;  but  the  Revolution 
deprived  it  of  its  chief  endowments.  In  1781, 
the  exercises  were  suspended,  and  the  buildings 
were  alternately  occupied,  before  and  dining  the 
memorable  siege  of  Yorktown,  by  the  British 
and  the  French  and  American  troops.  While 
in  possession  of  the  latter,  the  college  building 
was  injured,  and  the  president's  house  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  The  latter  was  afterward  rebuilt 
at  the  expense  of  the  French  government.  The 
college  was,  probably,  not  closed  more  than  a 
year.  Early  in  May.  1861,  the  existence  of  war 
at  its  threshold  rendered  it  necessary  to  suspend 
the  college  exercises,  and  to  close  its  doors.  The 
college  was  reopened  at  the  close  of  the  war; 
but  the  building  was  not  restored,  nor  the  faculty 
fully  re-organized,  till  L869.  The  college  is  sit- 
uated just  outside  of  the  city  limits.  It  has 
an  endowment  of  about  $60,000,  good  chemical 
and  philosophical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of 
5,000  volumes.  The  cost  of  tuition  is  $40  a 
year.  For  meritorious  young  men  in  limited 
circumstances,  fifteen  scholarships,  exempting 
those  admitted  on  them  from  the  payment  of 
tuition  fees,  have  been  founded.  In  addition  to 
the  above,  each  professor  has  the  power  to 
confer,  as  a  reward  of  merit,  a  scholarship  on 
two  students,  selected  annually.  The  instruction 
is  comprised  in  eight  departments:  Latin; 
Greek;  mathematics;  French;  German;  natural 
philosophy  and  mixed  mathematics;  chemistry, 
geology,  mineralogy  ;  and  physiology  :  moral  and 
intellectual  philosophy  and  belles-lettres.  I  here 
is  also  a  preparatory  department.  In  1875 — (i, 
there  were  7  instructors  and  80  students  (71  col- 
legiate and  15  preparatory).  Thomas  Jefferson, 
James  Monroe,  John  Tyler,  Chief  Justice  Mar- 
shall, Peyton  Randolph,  the  president  of  the  first 
American  Congress,  John  Randolph  of  Roanoke, 
and  Wiufield  Scott  were  graduates  of  this  col- 
lege. The  Visitors  and  Governors  are  the  gen- 
eral governing  body  of  the  college;  and  these 
choose  one  of  their  number  rector.  The  fac- 
ulty, which  is  the  corporation,  appoints  some 
suitable  person  chancellor,  who  is  the  titular 
head  of  the  institution.  The  internal  manage- 
ment is  in  the  hands  of  the  president  and  fac- 
ulty.    Until  1776,  the  chancellors  of  the  college 

were  the  bishops   of    I, Ion.  excepting  in  1704, 

when  the  office  was  conferred  on  the  carl  of 
Hardwicke.  George  Washington  was  chancellor 
from  17ss  to  1799,  and  ex-president  John  Tyler 
from  L859  to  1*0'.!.  I  hiring  the  intervening 
periods,  the  office  was  not  filled.  The  present 
chancellor  (1877).  Hugh  Blair  Grigsby,  LL.  D., 
was  elected  in  1871.  The  presidents  have  been 
as  follows  :  the  Rev.  James  Blair.  D.  D.,  1  693— 
1743;  the  Rev.  William  Dawson,  1743—52; 
the  Rev.  William  Stith,  1752—5;  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Dawson,  1755—61 ;  the  Rev.  William 


WISCONSIN 

Yates,  1761 — 4  ;  the  Rev.  James  Horrocks, 
1764 — 71  :  the  Rev.  John  Camm,  1771 — 7  ;  the 
Rt.  Rev.  James  Madison,  1777—1812  ;  the  Rev. 
John  Bracken,  18L2 — 13  ;  Dr.  John  Augustine 
Smith.  1814—20;  the  Rev.  Win.  II.  Wilmer, 
D.D.,  1826—7;  the  Rev.Adam  P.  Fmpie, D. D., 

I  1827—36  ;  Thomas  R.  Dew,  1836—40  ;  Robert 
Saunders,  1847—8  ;  Benjamin  S.  Ewell,  1848— 
9;  the  lit.  Rev.  John  Johns,  1849—54;  and 
Benjamin  S.  Ewell,  LL.  D..  since  1854. 

WILLIAM  JEWELL  COLLEGE,  at 
Liberty,  Mo.,  founded  in  1849,  is  under  Baptist 
control.   It  is  supported  by  tuition  fees  (from  $30 

.  to  §40  a  year)  and  the  income  of  an  endowment 
of  $100,000.  It  has  a  library  of  3,500  volumes. 
The  college  has  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate 
department,  and  embraces  eight  schools:  Latin, 
Greek,  mathematics  and  astronomy,  modern 
languages,  English  and  history,  natural  science, 
moral  philosophy,  and  theology.  In  1875 — 6, 
there  were  6  instructors   and  137  students,  of 

wl i    16   were    connected   with  the  school  of 

theology.  The  presidents  have  been  as  follows: 
E.  S.  Dulin,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.;  the  Rev.  R.  S.  Thom- 
as, A.  M.;  Win.  Thompson,  LL.  1).;  Thomas 
Iiambaut,  I).  It.,  LI,  D.;  and  W.  R.  Rothwell, 
It.  D.,  the  present  incumbent  (1877). 

WILLIAMS  COLLEGE,  at  Williamstown, 
Mass.,  owes  its  origin  to  the  will  (1755)  of  Col. 
Ephraim  Williams.  'Hie  property  bequeathed 
was  allowed  to  accumulate  till  1785,  when  a 
free  school  was  incorporated,  which  was  opened 
iulT'.ll.  A  college  charter  was  obtained  in 
17'.).".,  and  the   first  commencement  was  held  in 


control.  Its  productive  funds  exceed  .S.'iOO.OOO, 
and  its  funds  for  the  aid  of  needy  students 
amount  to  $90,000.  It  has  a  large  cabinet 
of  natural  history,  chemical,  physical,  and 
astronomical  apparatus,  and  a  library  of 
17,000  volumes,  besides  the  society  libraries. 
The  cost  of  tuition  is  $75  a  year.  It  adheres 
strictly  to  the  old  college  curriculum.  In  1875 
— 6,  there  were  13  instructors  and  170  students. 
The  presidents  have  been  as  follows  :  the  Rev. 
Ebenezer  Fitch,  1793 — 1815;  the  Rev.  Zephaniah 
Swift  Moore,  1815—21  ;  the  Rev.  Edward  Dorr 
Griffin,  L821— 36;  the  Rev.  -Mark  Hopkins,  D. 
H..  LL.  D.,  L836  -72;  and  the  Hon.  Paul  Ansel 
Chadbourne.  D.  D.,  LL.  D..  since  1*72. 

WILMINGTON  COLLEGE,  at  Wil- 
mington, Ohio,  under  the  control  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  was  organized  in  1870,  and  chartered 
in  1 875.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  It  has  a 
small  endowment,  being  supported  chiefly  by 
tuition  fees  ($39  a  year).  There  is  a  preparatory 
and  a  collegiate  department,  with  a  classical  and 
a  scientific  course.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  4 
instructors  and  90  students  (1!)  collegiate  and  71 
preparatory).  The  presidents  have  been  Lewis 
A.  Estes,  1870 — 74,  and  Benjamin  Trueblood, 
since  1874. 

WISCONSIN,  one  of  the  western  states  of 
the  American  Union,  originally  a  part  of  the 
territory  of  the  same  name,  which  was  formed  in 
I  1836,  of  lands  previously  embraced  in  the  terri- 


WISCONSIN 


tory  of  Michigan.  It  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  a  state  in  1848 ;  but,  the  following 
year,  its  limits  were  changed  by  transferring  a 
portion  of  it  to  the  territory  of  Minnesota.  The 
area  of  the  state  i-  53,924  Bq.  m. ;  and  its  pop- 
ulation, in  1870,  was  1,064,985,  of  whom  2,113 
were  colored  persons,  and  1 1,521,  Indians. 

Educational  History.- — The  earliest  schools 
held  in  the  state,  are  believed  to  have  been  con- 
ducted by  the  French  Jesuits  ;  but  the  school  at 
Green  Bay.  of  which  James  Porlier  was  teacher, 
iu  1791,  is  the  first  of  which  there  is  any  definite 
information.  Post  schools,  also,  were  established, 
in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  near  the  torts 
of  the  United  States,  at  which  instruction  was 
given  to  the  children  of  officers,  soldiers,  and 
settlers.  Usually,  they  were  conducted  by  the 
post  chaplains:  hut  oneof  theearlicst  mentioned 
— that  at  Prairie  du  Chien — was  taught  by  a 
sergeant  of  the  garrison.  A  few  years  after, 
Indian  schools  were  opened  by  religious  denomi- 
nations; and,  in  1832,  a  clause  of  the  treaty  con- 
cluded between  the  Winnebago  Indians  and  the 
United  States,  stipulated  that  the  latter  should 
maintain  for  27  years  a  school  near  Prairie  du 
Chien.  for  the  education  of  such  children  as  the 
tribe  might  send  to  it.  In  1830,  the  first  school- 
house  in  the  lead  district  was  built  at  .Mineral 
Point.  This  was  followed  by  others;  but  they 
■were  not  numerous,  the  attention  of  the  in- 
habitants being,  in  great  measure,  absorbed  by 
their  occupation  as  miners.  The  principal  im- 
pulse given  to  the  founding  of  schools,  came 
from  the  settlers  from  the  eastern  states,  who 
sought  the  territory  after  the  financial  distress 
of  L837.  The  first  organized  action  taken  by 
the  territory  in  regard  to  schools,  was  in  l83li, 
when  a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  assembly, 
-to  prohibit  persons  from  trespassing  on  the 
school  lands."  This  was  followed,  shortly  after, 
by  another,  to  "  regulate  the  sale  of  school 
lauds,  and  to  provide  for  organizing,  regulating. 
and  perfecting  common  schools."  In  L839,  this 
law  was  revised,  so  that  every  town  of  not 
less  than  ten  families  was  constituted  a  school- 
district,  and  was  required  to  provide  a  teacher. 
County  commissioners  were  authorized  to  ap- 
point inspectors  in  towns  which  refused  or 
neglected  to  choose  them,  the  duties  of  these  in- 
spectors being  to  lease  the  school  lands,  take 
charge  of  the  school-houses,  and  make  reports 
to  the  county  commissioners  of  the  number  of 
pupils.  Trustees  might  be  elected  iu  each  district, 
to  perform  the  duties  ordinarily  assigned  to  the 
inspectors.  A  tax  of  one-fourth  per  cent  also 
was  authorized  to  be  raised  for  the  building  of 
school-houses  and  the  maintenance  of  the  schools. 
In  1840  and  1841, the  sch  h  >]  laws  were  amended. 
The  office  of  town  commissioner  was  restored, 
superseding  that  of  inspector ;  five  officers, — 
a  clerk,  a  collector,  and  three  trustees,  were 
chosen  in  each  district ;  and  taxes  were  assessed 
in  each  for  the  building  of  school-houses.  By 
this  time,  the  interest  of  the  people  in  the  sub- 
ject of  schools  had  become  very  general.  In 
1845,  a  free  school — the  hrst  in  the  state — was 


founded  at  Kenosha,  by  Col.  M.  Frank.  The 
idea— since  so  familiar  in  the  older  states — of 
taxing  all  assessed  property  for  the  support  of 
common  schools,  was  then  new.  and  met  with 
strenuous  opposition  on  the  part  of  property 
holders  who  had  no  children  to  educate.  After 
many  public  meetings  and  lectures,  devised  for 
the  purpose  of  enlightening  the  public  mind  on 
the  subject,  a  bill  embodying  this  idea  was  intro- 
duced by  Col.  Prank  into  the  territorial  legis- 
lature.and  passed  in  1845.  In  the  constitutional 
convention  held  in  1846,  for  the  purpose  of 
forming  a  constitution  for  the  prospective  state, 
and  again  in  the  convention  of  1848,  the  subject 
of  education  created  much  discussion.  In  1849, 
three  commissioners  were  appointed  to  revise 
the  school  laws,  and  reduce  them  to  one  system 
uniform  in  its  action  throughout  the  state.  The 
earliest  school  fund  was  derived  from  the  sale  of 
lands  granted  by  the  general  government  for 
school  purposes.  These  were  the  sixteenth  sec- 
tion in  every  township,  any  grant  the  purposes 
of  which  had  not  been  specified  by  the  general 
government,  and  the  5lMl,(l(MI  acres  granted  by 
the  act  of  1841.  This  was  further  increased,  in 
1856,  by  the  addition  of  three-fourths  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  swamp  lands  granted  to  the  state 
by  act  of  Congress  iu  1850.  This,  however,  was 
subsequently  diverted  to  the  normal-school  and 
drainage  fund.  The  school  fund  was  also  in- 
creased in  other  ways,  till,  in  1875,  the  total  in- 
come from  it  amounted  to  $184,624.64.  The 
first  state  superintendent  was  Eleazer  Root  (1849 
— 52)  ;  and  his  successors  were  Azel  P.  Ladd 
(1852— 4); H. A. Wright  (1854-  5);A.O.Ban3 
(1855—8);  Lyman  C.  Draper  1858  60  :  J.L. 
Pickard  (1860  64  ;  J.  G.  M  Mynn  (1864-  8); 
A.  J.  Craig  (1868—70)  :  Samuel  Fallows  (1870 

7  1)  :    Edward  Searing,  since  ls74. 

School  System. — The  general  supervision  of 
educational  interests  is  vested  by  the  constitu- 
tion in  a  state  superintendent,  who  is  elected 
biennially.  In  addition  to  the  duties  usually 
devolving  upon  state  superintendents,  he  is  in- 
trusted with  some  that  are  ordinarily  delegated 
to  state  boards  of  education,  lie  is,  also,  a 
member,  ex  officio,  of  the  board  of  regents  of 
the  state  university  and  of  the  normal  school. 
County  superintendents  arc  chosen  biennially. 
They  have  an  oversight  over  school  pro]  erty,  in 
spect  the  schools,  conduct  teachers'  institutes, 
examine  teachers,  and  grant  certificates  of  three 
grades.  In  1875,  the  law  was  so  amended  as  to 
open  the  office  of  county  superintendent  to 
women,  and  several  have  since  been  elected.  An 
independent  system  of  supervision  and  manage- 
ment exists  in  the  cities,  by  which  city  superin- 
tendents are  appointed,  with  powers  ami  duties 
similar,  in  most  respects,  to  those  of  county 
superintendents.  Boards  of  education  are  elect- 
ed in  the  cities,  which,  for  school  purposes, 
have  been  erected  into  independent  districts  by 
charters  from  the  legislature.  These  boards 
choose  a  president,  a  clerk,  and  a  superintend- 
ent, establish  schools,  and  adopt  rules  for  their 
inanageiuent.  The  superintendent  examines  and 


WISCONSIN 


licenses  teachers,  visits  the  schools,  and  makes 
an  annual  report.  The  schools  are  supported 
by  the  income  of  the  state  school  fund,  and 
by  a  tax  levied  in  each  county  to  the  amount 
of  one-half  of  that  received  from  the  state 
for  school  purposes.  Special  school  taxes,  also, 
maybe  authorized  by  the  county  boards  of  su- 
pervisors. No  sectarian  instruction  is  permitted 
in  the  schools.  Five  months  constitute  the  legal 
school  year;  and  20  days,  the  school  month.   The 

EdwxiMonal  Condition. — The  number  of  school- 
districts,  not  including  cities  with  separate  sys- 
tems, is  5,423;  the  number  of  public  schools, 
5,260;  the  number  of  graded  schools,  394.    The 

school  revenue  for  1875  was  as  follows  : 

From  the  school  fund $178,072.00 

"     county  taxes 1 ,637,579.00 

"         "      supervisors' taxes    241,020.00 
"    all  other  sources 200,616.00 

Total $2,258,187.00 

The  expenditures  were  as  follows: 

For  teachers'  salaries 81,350,784.00 

"    building,  repairing,  and 

furnishing  school-houses      .".71  ,:i'.n;.00 
"    all  other  purposes L>41.7, 7.00 


state  certificate.  A  similar  countersigning  of 
the  diploma  renders  it  equivalent  to  a  permanent 
state  certificate.  County  and  city  superintend- 
ents nominate  six  representatives  from  each  as- 
assembly  district  for  admission  to  the  normal 
schools,  tuition  in  which  is  free  to  all.  In  Sep- 
tember,  L875,  the  pe 


Total $1,063,957.00 

The  principal  items  of  school  statistics  are  as 
follows : 

Number  of  children  of  school  age 4ill,N29 

"        "        "       attending  public  schools.  ..279,854 
"        "  teachers  employed  in  the  schools. .     6,22  I 
Average  monthly  salary  of  teachers  in  counties: 

males $43.50 

females  . .   $27.13 
Average  monthly  salary  of  teai  hers  in  cities: 


Normal  Instruction. — The   first    constitution 
of  the  state  provided  for  the  establishment  and 


the  theory  and  practice  of  teaching.  In  1857, 
the  legislature  directed  that  25  per  cent  of  the 
income  of  the  swamp-lands  fund  should  be  ap- 
plied to  the  uses  of  normal  institutes  and  acad- 
emies. In  1865,  one-half  of  the  swamplands 
fund  was  set  apart  as  a  normal-school  fund,  the 
income  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  one- 
fourth,  was  to  be  used  to  establish  and  support 
normal  schools.  In  1870,  the  fourth  which  had 
been  excepted,  was  restored.  In  1866,  a  board 
of  regents  of  normal  schools  was  incorporated; 
and  the  Platteville  Normal  School  was  opened 
in  October  of  that  year.  The  Whitewater  Nor- 
mal School  was  opened  in  IsOS;  the  Oshkosh 
Normal  School,  in  1871;  and  the  River  Palls  Nor- 
mal School,  in  1875.  In  all  these  schools,  there 
are  two  courses  of  study,  an  elementary  course  of 
2  years,  and  an  advanced  course  of  I.  Certificates 
are  given  on  the  completion  of  tie-  first ;  diplomas, 
on  completion  of  the  second.  When  the  holder 
of  a  certificate  has  taught  successfully  one  year 
after  graduation,  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  is  authorized  to  countersign  his  cer- 
tificate, which  makes  it  equivalent  to  a  5  years' 


Mi 


t   fund 

forthesup- 

vaoliei 

the  sum  of 

tion  is 

also  given  in 

d  in  t 

he  Seminary 

of  the  Holy  family,  at  St.  Francis  Station. 

Teachers'  Institutes. —  An  annual  expenditure 
of  §5,000,  by  the  board  of  regents,  is  author- 
ized, for  the  support  of  teachers'  institutes,  of 
which  57  were  held  during  the  year  L875,  the 
number  of  teachers  attending  being  3,668.  The 
average  number  of  days  they  were  in  session, 
was  12.  The  law  of  1871  provides  for  the  hold- 
ing of  normalinstitutes,  of  not  less  than  I  con- 
secutive weeks  each,  and  appropriates  annually 
for  their  support   a  sum   not   exceeding  $2,000. 

Teachers'  Associations-  The  Wisconsin  State 
Teachers'  Association  holds  an  animal  and  a 
semi-annual  meeting.  There  are  also  comity  and 
district  associations,  which  hold  meetings  at 
stated  times. 

Secondary  Instruction.  —  The  need  of  high 
schools,  intermediate  between  the  primary  schools 
and  the  Stat  :  University,  bad  long  been  felt;  and 
an  attempt  was  made,  in  1874,  to  supply  the  de- 
ficiency. The  graded  schools  of  the  state,  in- 
cluding those  in  the  cities,  number  about  400. 
The  law  of  1872  provides  that  "all  graduates  of 
any  graded  school  of  the  state,  who  shall  have 
passed  an  examination  at  such  graded  school 
satisfactory  to  the  faculty  of  the  university,  for 
admission  into  the  sub-freshman  class  and  col- 
lege classes  of  the  university,  shall  be,  at  once 
and  at  all  times,  entitled  to  free  tuition  in  all 
llie  colleges  of  the  university."  Under  this  law, 
13  graduates  entered  the  'university  in  1874; 
but  only  a  few  graded  schools  in  the  state  are 
yet  qualified  to  act  as  preparatory  schools  for 
the  university.  Under  the  new  law,  admission 
to  the  high  schools  wherever  established  is 
granted  after  a  satisfactory  examination,  the 
minimum  standard  for  which  has  been  prescribed 
by  the  state  superintendent.  Three  courses  of 
instruction,  also,  have  been  laid  down  by  him: 
two  designed  for  the  high  schools  of  towns- 
having  a  population  of  6,000  or  more,  and  com- 
prising 4  years ;  the  third,  of  3  years,  and  in- 
tended for  districts  having  each  a.  population  of 
less  than  6,000. — The  number  of  pupils  attend- 
ing private  schools  and  academies,  in  1875,  was 
III, 733.  .Many  such  institutions  are  known  to 
exist  in  the  state;  but  their  independence  of 
the  school  system  renders  it  difficult  to  procure 
statistics  in  regard  to  them.  Seven  business  col- 
leges, located  in  the  principal  cities,  in  1875. 
reported  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  an 
attendance  of  more  than  1300  students,  under 
the  instruction  of  26  teachers.  The  prepar- 
atory departments  of  10  colleges  reported  an 
aggregate  attendance  of  1,359  students, — 1,007 
males  and  352  females. 


WISCONSIN 


Superior  Instruction. — The  following  are  the 

chief  colleges  and  universities  ii 

the  state  : 

When 

Religions 

NAME 

Location 

ed 

denomi- 

Beloit  College 

B.-l..it 

1845 

Cong. 

c'arn.ll  roll,.-,-.      .. 

1846 

GalesyilleTJniv 

Gales  ville 

1859    Meth.  Epis. 

l.uvi'i  ace  Uuiv 

1847 

■\I.  t li .   Ki.is. 
.th  Iiavlitn 

Milton  College 

Milton 

1867 

1864 

Luth. 

Pi  .  Nono  i    ill.  ] 

I:    .' 

K.i    mi.     .      He    . 

1852 

Prot.  Epis. 

1855 

Cong. 

Prairie  dnChien 

1878 

R.  C. 

Dnlv.ofWlsc  msin. 

Madison 

lSi- 

Son-sect. 

WISCONSIN    UNIVERSITY 


various  mechanical  and  industrial  pursuits.   The 

number  of  instructors  ami   employes  is 'J  I  :   the 


Inst 


or   the 
i  L852. 


mi it   "t    pupils,   »: 

Deaf  ami  Dumb  was, 
In  1862,  it  was  incorporated  as  a  state  institu 
ti.in.  Like  the  institute  for  the  blind,  it  is  nu- 
clei- the  management  of  .">  trustees,  appointed  by 
the  governor  for  3  years.  Board  and  tuition  are 
free  to  all  deaf  and  dumb  children  over  10  years 
of  age.  who  reside  in  the  state.  Clothing  and  in 
cidental  expenses  are   the   only  items   for  which 

pupils  are  charged.     The  course  of   ins ition 

occupies  5  years,  and  is  of   T  grades.     The  same 


stl 


The  second  and  third  of  these  are.  as  yet.  doing 
only  preparatory  or  academic  work.  The  .Mil- 
waukee  Female  College,  the  Wisconsin  Female 
College,  at  Fox  Lake,  and  the  St.  Clara  Acad- 
emy, at  Sinsinawa  Mound,  are  the  only  institu- 
tions for  the  superior  instruction  of  women,  in 
the  state.  The  first  was  organized  in  1852.  It 
has  a  preparatory  and  a  collegiate  course,  and, 
in  1875,  reported  17  instructors  and  106  stu- 
dents. It  is  non-sectarian.  The  second  was 
organized,  in  1856, by  the  Congregationalists.  In 
1875,  the  number  of  its  instructors  was  6  ;  the 
number  of   students,  li.").     The   third   i-  under 


Roma 


and,  in   lsT."..  hud   1 5 


Profess,  mat  and  S  U  nttjk  Instruction.— -The 

state  agricultural  ell  .ge  exists  as  a  department 
of  the  state  university,  the  grant  by  <  longress, 
in  1862,  having  been  applied,  in  1866,  in  this 
way.  Bonds  to  the  amount  of  $40,000  were 
issued  to  the  state  by  Dane  County,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  purchasing  an  experimental  farm.  This 
farm, containing  2llil  acres,  adjoins  the  university 
grounds:  and  a  four  years'  course  of  study  is  pro- 
vided in  that  institution,  comprehending  all  the 
branches  that  relate  to  the  practice  of  agricult- 
ure. The  agricultural  college  fund  was.  in  1875, 
$236,133.90.  Th  ire  are  -nil  upward  of  52,000 
acres  of  agricultural  college  lands  uns  .1  I.  The 
Nashotah  Theological  Seminary  was  founded. 
near  the  Nashotah  Lakes,  by  the  Episcopalians, 


in  1842 


prov, 


es  the  course  of  instruction 


to  such  institutions.  The  Seminary  of 
St.  Francis  of  Sales,  at  St.  Francis,  was  founded 
by  the  Roman  Catholics,  in  L856,  for  special 
instruction  in  theology.  In  1875,  the  number  of 
its  instructors  of  all  kinds  was  12;  the  number 
of  its  students,  245.  A  school  of  science,  called 
i  he    I  '"llc_.  ■   i  ,i     \  i ,  .  i   partment  of 

university,  which  also  provides  for  an 
advanced  course  in  law. 

Special  Instru  Hon  The  Institute  for  the 
Blind,  originally  a  private  school,  at  JanesviHe, 
was.  in  ls.'ib,  adopted  by  the  state,  and  is  sup- 
ported by  annual  appropriations.  It  is  managed 
by  5  trustees,  appointed  by  the  governor  for  3 
years.  It  is  intended  for  residents  of  the  state 
between  the  ages  of  8  and  21.  It  has  3  depart 
ments :  one  furnishing  instruction  in  the  ordi- 
nary branches  of  an  English  education;  the 
second,  in  vocal  and  instrumental  music,  and  the 
theory   of   musical  composition ;     the    third,   in 


the  medium  of  instruction  for  all,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  special  class  of  20  in  articulation. 
Two  trades  are  taught,  — cabinet-making  and 
shoe-making.  The  number  of  instructors,  in 
1875,  was9;  the  number  of  pupils,  181.  The  In- 
dustrial School  for  Hoys  was  opened  at  Wau- 
kesha in  1860.  -  It  is  designed  as  a  "  place  ot 
confinement  and  instruction  for  all  male  children 
between  the  ages  of  In  and  16  years,  who  shall 
lie  legally  committed  ly  any  competent  court  as 
vagrants,  or  on  conviction  of  any  criminal 
otfeii.-e.  or   for   incorrigible  or  \icioiis  conduct. 

'I  li.    3i  I I    is   divided  into  s  families,  each  with 

its  separate  building,  play-ground,  etc  School  is 
held  II  months  of  the  year,  the  branches  of  a 
common-school  education  being  taught,  A  farm 
of  -J::;:  a,  res, under  good  cultivation,  is  connected 
with  the  school.  An  annual  appropriation  by 
the  state  is  the  chief  support  of  the  institution: 
but  something  is  derived  from  the  sale  of  the 
product.-  ..I  its  work-hops  and  farm,  a  ml  from  the 
payments  made  "by  counties  for  the  maintenance 

of 'cert: hisses  of  inmates.  The  nun 

in..- shelter  and  instruction,  is  annua Hv  about  2110. 
WISCONSIN,  University  of,  at  Madison, 
was  founded  in  IMS.  Its  product  he  funds  be- 
ing the  proceeds  of  lauds  granted  by  Congress 
to  the  state  for  the  support  of  a  university  and 
of  an  agricultural  and  mechanical  college,  amount 

to  al i  $460,000.   The  institution  issupported 

by  the  income  of  these  funds,  and  b\  state  ap 
propriations.  Tuition  is  free  to  all  residents  of 
the  state.  The  buildings  and  grounds  of  the 
university  are  valued  at  $300,000.  The  legis- 
lature has  appropriated  a  tax  of  one-tenth  of  a 
mill  on  the  valuation  of  the  state  to  the  univer- 
sity. This  tax  now  yields  S42.nno.  The  whole 
income  of  the  institution  is  about  Ssn.liOO.  The 
appliances  for  instruction  in  the  physical  sciences 
are  very  superior.  The  university  ha-  c\t.  usive 
and  valuable  geological  and  mineralogical  cab 
inets  ami  collections  in  natural  history:  well- 
selectcil  philosophical  and  chemical  . 
and  a  library  of  7,600  volumes.  It  comprises 
1 1  a  college  of  arts,  embracing  the  de] 
of  general  science,  agriculture,  civil  engineering, 
mining  and  metallurgy,  rued,, 
and  military  science:  (II)  a  college  of  letters,  with 
a  department  of  ancient   classics  (embracing  the 


AVITTENBERC  COLLEGE 


ancient  classics,  mathematics,  natural  science,  En- 
glish literature,  and  philosophy,  and  intended  to 
be  fully  equivalent  to  the  regular  course  in  the 
best  classical  colleges  in  the  country),  and  a  de- 
partment of  modern  classics,  in  which  German 
and  French  take  the  place  of  (■reck  :  (III)  a  de- 
partment of  law.  There  is  a  preparatory  and  a 
post-graduate  course.  Both  sexes  are  admitted.  In 
1875 — 6,  there  were  27  instructors  (7  in  the  law 
department)  and  34")  students  (collegiate,  200; 
preparatory,  71 :  special  students,  40;  law,  25). 
John  H.  Lathrop,  1,1,.  P.,  was  the  chancellor 
from  is  is  to  1858,  and  Henry  Barnard,  LL.D., 
from  1859  to  1861.  Sine-  the  re-organization  of 
the  university,  in  1867,  the  chief  officers,  styled 
presidents,  have  been  as  follows:  Paul  A.  (  ha  !- 
bourne,  M.  P.,  LL.  D.,-  1867— 70 ;  John  H. 
Twombly,  P.  P.,  1871—4:  and  John  Bascom, 
P.  P.,  LL.  P.,  since  1874.  John  \V.  Sterling, 
Ph.  P.,  was  dean  of  the  faculty  from  L860  to 
1805,  and  vice-chancellor  from  1  *<;.">  to  lsi',1); 
Mine  L870,  he  has  been  vice-president. 

WITTENBERG  COLLEGE,  at  Spring- 
field, Ohio,  founded  in  1845,  is  under  the  control 
of  the  English  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  as 
represented  by  the  <  feneral  Synod.  It  is  support- 
ed by  tuition  fees  ($30  a  year)  and  the  income 
of  an  endowment  of  SI 25,000.  Its  libraries  con- 
tain 8,000  volumes.  There  is  a  tl logical,  and  a 

collegiate  (classical  and  civil  engineering)  course, 
and  a  preparatory  department  In  1 875 — 6,  there 
were  10  instructors  and  164  students  (18  the- 
ological, 80  collegiate,  and  66  preparatory). 
Both  sexes  are  admitted.  The  presidents  have 
been  as  follows:  the  Rev.  Ezra  Keller,  P.  P., 
4  years;  the  Rev.  Samuel  Sprecher,  I).  P.,  LL.  I)., 
25  years;  and  the  Rev.  J.  15.  Helwig,  P.D.,  the 
present  incumbent,  3  years. 

WOFFOBD  COLLEGE,  at  Spartanburg, 
S.  C,  chartered  in  1851  and  opened  in  L854,  is 
under  the  control  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  will 
of  the  Rev.  Benjamin  Wofford,  who  bequeathed 
$100.0(10  to  found  it.  It  is  supported  by  the  in- 
come of  an  endowment  of  $50,000,  by  tuition 
fees  (from  $44  to  $64  a  year),  and  by  assess- 
ments on  the  Methoi lists  of  the  state.  Its  libraries 
contain  15,000  volumes.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were 
7  instructors  and  125  students  (95  collegiate  and 
30  preparatory).  The  presidents  have  been  as 
follows:  the  Kev.  W.  M.  Wightnian,  D.  D.,  1854 
—60;  the  Rev.  A.  M.  Shipp,  P.  P.,  1860— 75; 
and  James  II.  Carlisle,  A.  M„  LL.  P.,  since  1875. 

WOMEN,  The  Higher  Education  of  (in 

Great  Britain).     This  subject   has  already  1 a 

treated   in   the  articles  on   Co- Education  and 

Female  Education,  in  which  the  progn f  the 

recent  movement  in  favor  of  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  women  in  the  United  States,  is  treated 
with  considerable  fullness.  The  movement  in 
Great  Britain  has  some  peculiar  features  which 
it  is  the  special  design  of  this  article  to  describe. 

England.  The  numerous  educational  ad- 
vantages offered  to  women  are  the  results  of  a 
remarkable  and  spontaneous  movement,  which 
has  bad  a  rapid  growth.     It  commenced  about 


WOMEN 

the  year  1863,  when,  at  the  request  of  an  in- 
fluential committee,  the  Cambridge  University 
Senate  permitted  an  experimental  examination 
for  girls  in  connection  with  the  junior  and 
senior  local  examination  for  boys.  The  results, 
if  contrasted  with  those  of  the  entrance  exam- 
ination for  Bristol  College,  in  1876,  will  show 
the  improvement  in  the  education  of  women. 
during  13  veins.  In  1863.  half  the  juniors 
passed,  but  35  out  of  II  seniors  failed  in  pre- 
liminary arithmetic ;  at  the  Bristol  examination 
for  scholarships,  in  L876,  the  women  took  two 
out  of  three  open  scholarships,  in  addition  to 

a  government  Schools  I  nquiry  Commission  was 
appointed,  "to  inquire  into  the  state  of  educa- 
tion of  boys  and  girls  of  the  upper  and  middle 
classes."     The  report  on  private,  endowed,  ami 

proprietary  scl Is  was  published  in   1868,  in 

20  volumes,  of  which  only  one-twentieth  referred 
to  girls.  The  inspectors  appointed  by  the  com- 
mission had  visited  private  schools  for  girls,  by 
the  coi  rtesy  of  the  owners.  They  reported  even 
the  best  as  too  small  in  numbers,  and  the  teach- 
ing as  wanting  in  thoroughness,  arithmetic  and 
other  mathematics,  and  Latin,  being  mostly  neg- 
lected, and  French  and  German  taught  super- 
ficially.—  Endowed  schools  were  reported  as 
few:  principally  orphanages,  and  with  instruction 
scarcely  raised  above  the  elementary,  "the  en- 
dowments hearing  an  infinitesimal  proportion  to 
similar  endowments  for  boys." — Under  the  head 


of  Proprietor! 

ham  School,  (( 
Miss  Buss'sNi 
two  schools  at 
was  commendi 


1   Colic 
Ehooha 


t  Liverpool.    In  these,  the  teaching 

led.  Several  ladies — amongst  them 
Miss  Ilii^s.  Miss  I '.'ivies,  and  Aliss  lieale — were  ex- 
amined by  the  < missioncrs,  and  confirmed  the 

unfavorable  verdict  of  the  inspectors  on  tin' gen- 
eral state  of  girls'  education.  They  advised  the 
establishment  of  public  schools  for  girls,  and  the 
opening  of  university  examinations  to  girls  and 
women.  ( In  tin •  publication  of  the  report,  various 
efforts  were  commenced  to  secure  endowments  for 
girls' schools.  In  18 71,  Miss  Buss  made  her  North 
London  School  a  public  school.  She  placed  it 
in  the  hands  of  trustees,  and  opened  a  second- 
grade  school  under  the  same  trust.  In  1875,  these 
schools  received  an  endowment  of  £16,000  for 
buildings,  from  the  Brewers'  Company,  and  be- 
came endowed  schools;  and,  in  1876,  the  number 
of  pupils  was  800  ;  400  in  each  school.  Several 
scholarships  are  held  in  theschools.  Intheabove- 
nientioned  year  i  IsTl  I,  the  Women's  Education 
Union  was  formed,  at   the  suggestion  of  Mrs. 


this 


company,  called 
Company  Limit 
(since  increased 
provide  schools  i 
uncles  above  tl 


72,  started  a 
Day  School 
of  £12,000 


eratecosl  for  girls  of  all 
ntary." — In  framing  a 

seliool  scheme,  the  eouneil  of  the  company  were 
aided  by  schemes  already  published,  although 

not  enfor 1  until  later  by  the  Endowed  Schools' 

Commission,  appointed  after  the  inquiry,  and  by 


the   scheme   for  Miss  Buss's  school.     The  Com- 
pany's  first   schools   were  opened  in    1873,  at  J 


vanced  instruction  in  science,  languages,  history, 
and  literature.— In  the  College  of  Physical  Sci- 


Cloydon,  Norwich.  Ilaeknev.  Bath.  Nottin-ham, 
Oxford.  St.  John's  "Wood,  and  Gateshead ;  and 
one  middle  school,  at  Clapham.  In  1876,  there 
were  upward  of  1,400  children  in  attendance. 
Every  school  is  placed  under  the  charge  of  a  head- 
mistress. There  are  examinations  by  independent 
examiners,  and  a  fair  proportion  of  girls  have 
passed  in  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  local  and 
higher  local  examinatic ins:  one.  from  Notting 
Hill,   has  obtained   a  scholarship  at  Newnham 

HaD.— The  school   buildings,  with  oi rtwo 

exceptions,  arc  arranged  to  hold  from  200  to  300 
girls ;  the  numbers,  therefore,  will  probably  in- 
crease, and  it  is  expected  that  the  company  will 
be  successful,  financially  as  well  as  educationally. 
Companies  have  also  been  formed  at  Leeds, 
Manchester,  Plymouth,  Devonport,  and  Grant- 
ham, for  the  establishment  of  high  schools. 
Simultaneously  with  the  improved  provision  for 
the  education  of  girls,  colleges  have  been  opene  1 
for  women,  and  lectures  established  throughout 
the  country,  by  voluntary  effort.  In  1868,  con- 
tributions were  solicited'  for  the  establishment 
of  a  college  for  women,  "designed  to  hold  to  girls' 
schools  and  home  teaching,  a  position  analogous 
to  that  occupied  by  the  universities  toward  pub- 
lic schools  for  boys.''  A  temporary  building 
was  opened  at  Hitchin,  in  1869,  with  6students. 
The  regulations  of  the  University  of  Cambridge 
were  enforced  upon  the  students,  and  professors 
came  from  Cambridge  to  give  class  teaching.  In 
1870,  five  students  were,  on  application,  exam- 
ined informally  for  the  previous  examination: 
but.  since  then,  through  the  kind  permission  of 
the  senate,  and  the  courtesy  of  the  examiners, 
many  of  the  students  have  been  examined,  some 
in  the  classical,  mathematical,  and  moral  science 
triposes;  seven  have  taken  honors,  and  three  have 
passed  the  examination  for  the  ordinary  B.  A. 
degree. — In  1873,  the  college  was  removed  to 
Girton,  near  Cambridge,  to  premises  built  at  a 
cost  of  £16,000,  and  since  then  enlarged  at  a 
further  cost  of  .£6,000.  In  1  S76,  there  were  33 
resident  students.  Scholarships  have  been  held 
amounting  to  £2,38o,  and  £600  additional  will 
be  given  in  1877.— In  1871,  Miss  Clough  opened 
a  house  at  Cambridge  for  students  attending  tin- 
lectures  of  the  Association  for  the  Higher  Edu- 
cation of  "Women,  or  certain  university  lectures 
open  to  women.  The  accommodation  soon  be- 
came insufficient;  and,  in  1874,  Newnham  Hall, 
Cambridge,  was  built  by  a  company  to  receive 
Miss  Clough 's  students.  In  1876,  there  were  29 
students  (some  holding  scholarships),  all  studying 
for  the  Cambridge  higher  local  examinations. — 
In  previous  years,  students  have  been  examined 
informally  in  the  papers  of  the  mathematical,  clas- 
sical, and  moral  science  A-/'/>n.-.-c.s-.— (Eor  Lnivcr- 
sity  College.  London,  sec  I'xivehsity  College.) 
I 'Diversity  College.  Bristol,  was  opened  in  1876, 
with  301)  students,  about  one-half  women,  and  was 
intended  to  supply,  to  persons  of  both  sexes,  ad- 


lie  establishment  ol  lectures  and  classes  toi 
vomen:  but  the  necessity  for  separate  organiza- 
ion  will  probably  be  superseded  by  tin-  s,  In  me 
or  university  extension  adopted  bv  tin-  I  'ain- 
iridge  senate,  in  1874,  at  the  suggestion  of  .Mrs. 
I. ones  Stuart. — By  means  of  this  scheme,  uni- 
ersity  graduates  are  sent  to  the  various  country 
owns,  to  rive  lectures  and  form  classes,  open  to 


ced 


rapidly  extended.  Colleges  will  be  built,  in  con- 
nection with  it.  at  Nottingham  and  Sheffield. 
In  London,  lectures  are  open  to  women  at  the 
Science  and  Art  Department,  South  Kensing- 
ton, the  Birkbeck  Institution,  etc.  Instruction  to 
music,  with  numerous  scholarships,  is  given  at 
the  National  Training  School.  South  Kensing- 
ton, opened  in  1876. — The  following  examina- 
tions have  been  arranged:  university  examina- 
tions open  to  girls  and  women,  in  1 876 — for  girls 
under  18  ;  local  examinations  of  the  universities 
of  ( 'ambridgc ,  Oxford,  and  Durham — fi  >r  women 
over  18;  higher  local  examinations.  Cambridge; 
examinations  for  women,  at  the  University  of 
London,  and  at  Oxford  (commenced  in  1877); 
and  government  examinations  in  science  and  art, 
Science  and  Art  Department.  The  University 
of  London,  in  1877,  decided  to  admit  women  to 
medical  degrees. 

Scotland. — The  education  of  women  has  long 
been  on  a  higher  level  in  Scotland  than  in  Eng- 
land :  girls  have  received  some  higher  education 
with  boys,  in  the  common  schools  of  the  country; 
and  they  have  also  attended  high  schools  with 
boys,  in  towns,  and  special  girls'  classes  in  the 
large  cities.  Therefore,  the  same  urgent  need  for 
reform  has  not  existed,  as  in  England;  yet  two 
important  improvements  may  be  named.  By  act 
of  parliament,  in  187(1,  the  rich  endowments  of 
the  Edinburgh  Merchants  Company,  of  the  an- 
nual value  of  £2(1.8(10,  were  appropriated  to  the 
education  of  boys  and  girls,  and  three  large 
girls'  schools  w<  ire  <  ipeni  -d .  A  lso  a  complete  course 
of  study  for  women  has  been  established  by  the 
Ladies'  Educational  Association  in  Edinburgh, 
assisted  by  the  professors  of  the  university. — 
Examinations  for  girls  and  women  are  held  in 
connection  with  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

Ireland. — See  1  relax  d. 

Lot-further  information  on  tl,issul.|cci     ,v  /,' 

portqfS  :  ofe'  Tnq  >  u  n;  the  si 

abridged  by  D.  Beale ;  Hodgson,  Education  of 
(xirls;  Year-Book  of  W<  men's  Work;  Journals 
and  Pamphlets  published  by  the  Women  .  Iso- 
lation Union  (London).  (See  also  Co-edocahon 
of  the  Sexes,  and  Female  Education'.) 


30-4 


WOoDRRIDCE 


WORD  METHOD 


WOODBRIDGE,  William  Channing,  an 
American  teacher  ami  educational  \vi  iter,  born  in 
Medford,  -Mass.,  Dec.  18.,  1794  ;  died  in  Boston, 
November,  1845.  Though  he  was  of  feeble  con- 
stitution, his  unusual  mental  ability,  aided  by 
the  instruction  of  his  father,  who  was  a  teacher, 
enabled  him  to  enter  Yale  College  when  he  was 
between  13  and  14  years  of  age.  He  graduated  at 
the  age  of  17,  and  went  to  Philadelphia,  where 
he  entered  upon  a  further  course  of  study.  In 
1812,  he  became  principal  of  the  Burlington 
Academy  in  New  Jersey,  remaining  there  two 
years.  Uis  enthusiasm  for  study  led  him  to  re- 
turn to  New  Haven,  in  the  winter  of  1814 — 15, 
to  attend  lectures,  principally  on  natural  science; 
but,  while  there,  he  entered  upon  a  course  of 
theological  study,  which  he  complete.  1  at  the 
theological  seminary  in  Princeton,  N.  J.  While 
at  the  latter  place,  he  received  an  invitation  to 
assist  in  the  establishment  of  the  American 
Asylum  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb,  at  Hartford, 
which  he  accepted.  His  labors  there,  in  teaching 
at  the  Asylum,  and  preaching  in  various  places 
on  Sunday,  seriously  affected  his  health,  and 
made  a  voyage  to  the  south  of  Europe  desirable. 
This  was  undertaken  in  L820.  lie  returned  in 
1821;  and,  in  the  beginning  of  1822.  finished  his 
liii'liui'-iils  i if  (r,-ii:/rnj,J/i/.  This  was  followed, 
in  L824,  by  Universal  (Geography.  (See  Geog- 
raphy.) Shortly  after,  failing  health  again  led  to 
his  relinquishment  of  active  work,  and  to  a  sec- 
ond voyage  to  Europe.  There  he  visited  many 
educational  institutions,  giving  particular  atten- 
tion to  that  of  Fellenlierg.  at  Hofwyl,  where  he 
spent  three  months,  giving  the  first  description 
of  it  to  the  American  public.  (See  Hofwyl.)  In 
1821),  he  returned  to  1  lartford  for  the  purpose  of 
enlisting  the  sympathies  of  influential  friends  in 
a  plan  for  the  general  improvement  of  education 
in  the  United  States,  and  the  establishment  of  a 
school  for  teachers.  Ill  health,  however,  and  the 
labor  necessary  to  keep  his  geographical  text- 
books up  to  the  standard  of  the  new  requirements 
produced  by  the  discoveries  of  science,  prevented 
the  realization  of  his  hopes.  In  1831.  he  pur- 
chased the  American  Journal  qf  Education, 
changedits  name  to  the  Annals  of  Education, 
and  be  I  i  e  i  ;<  litor.  1 1 e  conducted  this  journal 
over  six  yi  are,  spending  his  small  income  freely 
in  its  behalf,  contributing  constantly  to  its  pages 
articles  in  which  were  embodied  the  educational 
theories  and  systems  matured  by  himself,  in- 
brought  under  his  observation  during  his  Eu- 
ropean  travels.  Sickness, howevi  r,again  thwarted 
his  plans:  and,  in  L836,  he  resigned  the  active 
editorship  of  the  journal,  and  again  embarked 
for  Europe.  Previous  to  his  death,  however,  in 
1844,  he  returned  to  the  United  States.  As  an 
earnest  friend  of  the  cause  of  education,  Mr. 
Woodbridge  is  entitled  to  special  mention.  He 
was  one  of  the  first  to  recognize  the  necessity  of 

inal  schools;  and  the  introduction  of  vocal 

music  asa  part  of  elementary  instruction,  now 
so  largely  adopted  in  the  schools  of  towns  and 
cities,  is.  in  great  measure,  due  to  his  zealous 
advocacy.     (See  -Mason,  Lowell.) 


WOODSTOCK  COLLEGE,  at  Woodstock. 
Baltimore  ( 'o..  Mil.,  was  chartered  in  1867.  It  is 
a  Roman  Catholic  institution,  devoted  exclusive- 
ly to  the  younger  members  of  the  Society  of 
J  esus.  I  ts  course  of  studies  embraces  three  years 
of  philosophy,  and  four  years  of  theology,  to- 
gether with  the  accompanying  blanches  of  the 
natural  sciences.  Its  faculty  numbers  ,'i  professors 
of  dogmatic  theology.  2  of  special  metaphysics, 
and  1  each  for  the  remaining  chairs  of  moral 
theology,  Sacred  Scriptures,  ecclesiastical  history, 
Hebrew,  general  metaphysics,  chemistry,  math- 
ematics, and  natural  philosophy.  During  the 
scholastic  year  1*73 — 1,  the  number  of  students 
in  regular  attendance  was  1112.  of  whom  42  were 
engaged  in  the  study  of  philosophy  and  CO  in 
the  course  of  theology.  The  Rev.  James  Perron, 
S.  J.,  is  (1877)  the  president. 

WOOLSEY,  Theodore  Dwight,  an  Amer- 
ican scholar  and  educator,  born  in  S'ew  Y'ork, 
Oct.  31.,  1801.  lie  graduated  at  Yale  College 
in  1820,  and  from  1823  to  1825,  was  a  tutor 
there.  From  1827  to  1830,  he  studied  in  Ger- 
many.and  on  his  return  was  appointed  professor 
of  Greek  in  Yale  College,  and.  in  1846,  was 
chosen  president,  which  office  he  resigned  in 
1871.  His  opinion  is  frequently  sought  on 
questions  of  international  law.  He  has  published 
valuable  editions  of  several  classical  authors, 
among  which  may  be  particularly  mentioned 
The  Mrrslix  „f  Euri[,Uh<s\\*X.\y,  f lie  Antigone 
of  Sophocles  (1835);  The  Electro  of  Sophocles 
HoT)  ;  The  Prometheus  of  JCseJu/lns  (1837); 
and  the  Gorgias  qf  Plato  (1842). 

WOOSTER,  University  of,  at  Wooster, 
Ohio,  founded  in  1866,  and  opened  in  1870,  is 
under  Presbyterian  control.  It  is  supported  by 
tuition  fees  ($30  to  $45  a  year)  and  the  income 
of  an  endowment  of  $250,000.  -V  handsome 
building,  costing  over  8100,000,  has  been  erected, 
and  contains,  besides  ample  recitation  rooms,  a 
large  cabinet  and  museum,  a  valuable  telescope 
with  many  philosophical  and  chemical  instru- 
ments, a  chapel,  and  halls  for  literary  societies. 
It  has  a  library  of  about  4,000  volumes.  Both 
sexes  are  admitted.  There  is  a  collegiate,  a  pre- 
paratory, and  a  medical  department,  the  last  at 
<  levelaud.  The  collegiate  department  has  three 
regular  courses:  classical,  philosophical,  and 
scientific.  In  1875 — 6,  there  were  28  instructors 
(13in  the  medical  department )  and  350  students 
( 170  collegiate,  1 00  preparatory .  and  811  medical). 
The  pre.-ideiits  have  been  :  the  Rev.  Willis  Lord, 
I).  D.,  LL.  D„  1870—73,  and  the  Rev.  A.  A.  E. 
Taylor,  I).  1)..  since  L873. 

WORD  METHOD,   a   term   applied  to  the 

analytic  method  of  teaching   children  to  read. 

he  process  consists  of  using  short  words  instead 


of  letters  in  the  first  I 
to  recognize  and  pronoi 
i  line,  to  read  easy  Bentei 
names  of  the  letters  W 
of  words  have  been  lean 
their  composite  characfc  i 
and  sounds  of  the  letters 
learning    the    alphabet. 


the  pupil  learning 
nee  these  words,  some 
••■>.  before  learning  the 

i  sufficient  number 

il.  the  pupil  is  shown 

and  taught  the  names 
which  form  them,  thus 

In  this   process,   care 


should  In'  taken  to  select  :q>| m i]iriate  words,  and 
present  them  in  a  progressive  manner;  as,  cat, 
rat,  hat,  mat,  —  man,  fan,  can, —  dog,  log,  etc. 
The  pupil,  in  this  way,  perceives  the  power  of 
eaeli  letter,  and  soon  learns  to  spell  an. I  pro- 
nounce words,  alter  which  the  synthetic  method 
may  be  employed. 

WORDS,  "Analysis  of.  The  analysis  or 
resolving  of  words  into  their  elementary  parts,  is 
an  important  branch  of  the  study  of  languages, 
the  native  as  well  as  foreign.  In  ordinary  school 
parlance,  this  branch  is  usually  styled  eti/molngi/, 
since  the  analysis  comprehends  not  only  an  ex- 
planation of  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  parts 
of  a  word — botli  root  and  affixes,  but  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  derivation  of  these.  For  elementary 
school  purposes,  however,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  latter  is  of  secondary  importance. 
In  the  study  of  the  native  tongue,  it  will  be 
acknowledged,  the  importance  of  training  pupils 
to  analyze  compound  and  derivative  words  can 
hardly  be  overestimated.  The  fact  that  the  En- 
glish language  derives  about  one-half  of  the 
words  in  ordinary  use  from  Latin,  renders  ex- 
ercises in  word  analysis,  of  far  greater  necessity 
for  the  study  of  English,  than  for  that  of  most 
other  languages.  That,  without  being  trained 
in  this  analysis,  pupils  will  scarcely  be  able  to 
grasp  the  true  meaning  of  English  words,  prob- 
ably no  experienced  teacher,  at  present,  will  be 
inclined  to  dispute.  To  very  many  of  the  pu- 
pils who  are  merely  drilled  in  spelling  and  read- 
ing, the  force  even  of  the  most  common  Anglo- 
Saxon  prefixes,  like  a,  be,  en,  etc.,  and  of  suffixes, 
like  dom,  hood,  ship,  etc.,  must  remain  unknown. 
How  many,  for  example,  will  be  able  to  infer 
the  meaning  of  for  or  fore  in  forswear  and 
forego  ?  The  knowledge  of  the  Latin  prefixes 
and  suffixes,  even  in  the  words  of  ordinary  life, 
will  be  acquired  with  still  greater  difficulty  by 
pupils  not  sufficiently  trained  in  word  analysis. 
On  the  other  hand,  only  a  slight  knowledge  of 
the  simplest  Latin  prefixes,  as,  ad,  con,  pre,  pro, 
sub,  etc., affords  a  key  to  the  distinctive  meaning 
of  a  large  number  of  words.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
matter  of  gratification  to  find  that,  at  present, 
this  branch  of  study  is  scarcely  ever  entirely 
omitted  from  the  common-school  course  of  in- 
struction.—  In  regard  to  the  method  of  teaching 
word  analysis,  it  may  justly  be  said  that  there 
are  few  subjects  taught  in  elementary  schools  to 
which  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  devel- 
oping method  can  so  easily,  and  with  so  much 
advantage,  be  applied  as  to  this.  At  whatever 
stage  of  the  pupil's  progress  the  instruction  may 
begin,  provided  a  knowledge  of  reading  and  writ- 
ing has  been  acquired,  the  number  of  words 
already  learned,  will  be  found  ample  for  the  first 
and  easiest  exercises.  Hardly  any  arbitrary 
memorizing  is  needed,  since,  if  the  teacher  fol- 
low a  natural  course,  he  will  only  have  to  de- 
velop the  knowledge  already  in  the  child's  mind. 
Thus,  children,  even  in  the  lowest  grades,  know- 
ing the  meaning  of  words  like  teacher  and 
preacher,  will  not  find  the  least  difficulty  in  un- 
derstanding that  er,  in  both  these  words,  means 


one  u-ho,  and  in  perceiving  that  these  words 
mean,  respectively,  one  who  teaches,  and  one 
trim  /irraches.  Nine-tenths  of  a  class  of  pupils, 
of  ordinary  intelligence,  will  now  readily  find, 
among  the  words  they  are  accustomed  to  use, 
several  others  in  which  the  sufiix  er  has  the  same 
meaning.  They  will  not  only  fully  comprehend 
this  initiatory  lesson,  but  they  will  feel  a  manifest 
delight  that  one  simple  explanation  has  mi  great lv 
added  to  their  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of 
words.     The  intelligent  teacher  will   not   fail   to 


commodate  his  teaching  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
words  which  belong  to  the  pupils'  own  vocabu- 
lary, the  more  rapid  will  be  their  progress,  and 
the  more  intense  will  be  the  interest  which 
they  will  take  in  the  new  study.  It  is  obviously 
a  point  of  great  importance  that  the  first  ex- 
amples of  prefixes  or  suffixes  that  are  presented, 
should  fully  illustrate  their  general  meaning. 
Thus,  the  word  teacher  would  be  a  better  selec- 
tion for  this  purpose  than  grocer ;  sailor,  better 
than  tailor;  and  repay,  better  than  n ■•  ■  ive.  In 
the  further  progress  of  the  study.it  is  important 
that  the  most  common  prefixes  and  suffixes 
should  be  learned  before  those  of  rarer  use.  It 
shows  a  great  lack  of  pedagogical  tact  in  a 
teacher  to  drill  his  pupils  on  preter,  subter,  and 
retro,  before  they  know  the  meaning  of  su/i.  con, 
and  in.  A  more  difficult  stage  of  this  branch 
of  study,  is  that  which  treats  of  the  Latin  roots, 
and  their  use  in  English  words.  Here,  also,  a 
strict  adherence  to  the  principle  that  we  should 
proceed  from  the  "known  to  the  unknown" — 
from  an  analysis  of  what  is  already  in  the  pu- 
pil's mind  to  that  which  is  new,  will  guide  the 
teacher  with  unerring  certainty  on  the  right 
path.  For  example,  a  judicious  teacher  who 
desires  to  familiarize  his  pupils  with  the  deriv- 
atives from  the  Latin  root  due  or  duct  (from 
duco),  will  not,  at  first,  select  such  words  as  in- 
duct, inductive,  superinduce,  etc.,  or  even  words 
like  adduce,  conduce,  deduce,  before  his  pupils 
have  learned  to  analyze  words  of  a  more  ob- 
vious meaning;  as  introduce,  produce,  reduce, 
aqueduct,  viaduct,  etc.  What  is  here  meant  is, 
that  the  first  lessons  in  this  kind  of  analysis 
should  concern  only  those  words  the  meaning  of 
which  may  readily  be  explained  by  showing  the 
meaning  of  their  parts.  In  every  subject  of  in- 
struction, the  order  of  presenting  the  various 
matters  which  are  to  be  learned  by  the  pupil,  is 
of  vital  importance  ;  but  in  none  is  it  more  es- 
sential than  in  the  etymological  analysis  of  words. 
The  numerous  class  of  words  which  cannot  be 
explained,  except  by  the  history  of  their  forma- 


eh  as  amhi 


,/,,/,, 


chancellor, 


•die-.      *iBDsyccp>.Z3zi  ,,,    U     juaraniine  ate) 

should  lie  reserved  for  a  higher  grade  of  this 
study. — The  analysis  of  words  derived  from  the 
Greek,  should  follow  that  of  words  derived  from 
Latin  roots ;  and  the  discussion  of  the  etymo- 
logical affinity  of  the  words  of  different  lan- 
guages should  be  reserved  for  that  stage  of  the 
course  of  studies  which  comprehends  compara- 
tive philology. — For  the  teaching  of  this  subject, 


866      WORKING  MEN'S  COLLEGE 

important  hints  may  be  derived  from  the  fol- 
lowing; works:  Trench,  A  Select  Glossary  of 
English  Words  etc.  (N.  V.,  1859);  also,  On  the 
Study  (if  Words  (N.  Y.,  1859);  Hai.dkman,  Af- 
fixes in  their  Origin  mid  Application  (Phila., 
1865);  De  Verb,  Studies  in  English  (N.  Y., 
1867).    (For  other   works  on   this   subject,  see 

WORKING  MEN'S  COLLEGE  (London). 
founded  in  1854.  resembles,  in  intention  and  or- 
ganization, the  Birkbeck  Institution,  founded  in 
1823.  The  Rev.  F.  I).  Maurice  was  its  principal 
up  to  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1872.  After  a 
short  interval.  Thomas  Hughes,  author  of  Tom 
Brown's  School  Days,  became,  and  still  is,  the 
principal.  It  provides  instruction,  at  the  small- 
est possible  cost  (the  teaching  being  almost 
wholly  unpaid),  in  the  subjects  with  which  it 
most  concerns  English  citizens  to  be  acquainted, 
and  thus  tries  to  place  a  liberal  education  with- 
in the  reach  of  working  men.  The  college  is 
situated  in  Great  Ormond  Street,  London.  Six 
class  rooms  have  recently  been  built,  at  a  cost 
of  more  than  £2.401).  There  is  a  museum  and 
library;  and  a  coffee  and  conversation  room  is  also 
provided.  Classes  are  formed  in  art,  history,  lan- 
guage and  literature,  mathematics,  and  physical 
science.  These  compose  the  chief  work  of  the 
college ;  but  classes  in  singing  and  other  sub- 
ordinate subjects  are  also  formed. 

The  college  year  commences  about  the  begin- 
ning of  October,  and  consists  of  four  terms  of 
eight  or  nine  week  each,  and  a  vacation  term  of 
eight  to  ten  weeks. — The  ordinary  classes  meet 
for  one  or  two  hours  a  week.  General  lectures 
are  delivered  on  the  ordinary  subjects  of  the  col- 
lege on  Saturday  evenings,  to  which  the  public 
are  admitted.  There  are  also  practice  classes  for 
supplementary  tuition,  conducted  for  the  most 
part  by  certificated  students. — Other  advantages 
connected  with  the  college,  are  a  Natural  His- 
tory Society  and  Field  Club,  which  holds  weekly 
meetings,  and  arranges  geoli  igical  and  botanical 
excursions;  an  adult  school,  under  the  special 
superintendence  of  the  secretary,  for  teaching 
the  subjects  required  for  entrance  to  the  college; 
and  a  night  school,  held  twice  a  week,  for  boys 
under  17. — The  fees  are  as  low  as  possible,  and 
the  conditions  of  entry  are,  that  students  must  be 
above  17  years  of  age,  must  know  the  first  four 
rules  of  arithmetic,  and  must  be  able  to  read  and 
write. — Examinations  are  held  in  the  last  week 
of  December.  Certificates  of  honor,  and  schol- 
arships or  associateships  arc  granted  to  success- 
ful candidates  who  have  attended  the  requisite 
number  of  terms.  The  council  of  the  college  is 
composed  of  founders,  teachers,  and  elected 
members,  among  whom  are  many  who  originally 
joined  it  as  students.  The  average  number  of 
students  is  360.  At  an  early  date,  the  college 
was  affiliated  to  the  Ixmdon  University,  and 
some  of  the  students  have  taken  their  degrees. 
As  the  scheme  of  the  Working  Men's  College 
did  not  admit  women,  another  institution  of  a 
similar  kind  was  founded  in  1864;  and  another 
Working  Men's  College  was  organized  in  1868. 


WYOMING 

WRITING.    See  Penmanship. 

WURTEMBERG.    See  Germ  \ny. 

WYOMING,  one  of  the  territories  of  the 
United  States,  funned,  in  1868,  from  portions 
of  Utah,  Idaho,  and  Dakota.  Its  area  is  97,883 
sq.  m.;  and  its  population,  in  1870,  was  9,118; 
but  in  1875,  it  was  estimated  at  24,000. 

Educational  History. — In  1869,  an  act  was 
passed  by  the  territorial  legislature,  which  pro- 
vided for  the  organization  of  schools,  and  this 
was  amended  in  1K70.  At  that  time,  the  num- 
ber of  schools  of  all  kinds  was  9.  giving  employ- 
ment to  15  teachers,  and  instruction  to  364 
pupils.  In  1873,  all  previous  school  laws  were 
repealed,  and  a  new  law  was  substituted,  under 
which  the  schools  are  at  present  organized.  The 
first  superintendent  of  public  instruction  was 
•I.  H.  llayford.  who  became  such  in  1869,  by 
virtue  of  his  position  as  territorial  auditor.  He 
was  succeeded,  under  the  last  law,  by  John 
Slaughter,  the  present  incumbent,  who,  as  ter- 
ritorial librarian,  is.  <:r  officio,  superintendent  of 
j  public  instruction. 

School  System. — The  care  of  the  public  schools 
of  the  territory  is  intrusted  to  the  superintend  id 
if  /in/ilic  instruction,  whose  term  of  office  is  two 
years,  and  who,  in  addition  to  the  usual  duties 
pertaining  to  his  office,  apportions  the  school 
fund,  and  makes  a  report  direct  to  the  assembly, 
on  the  first  day  of  each  regular  session.  A 
comity  superintendent  is  elected  biennially  in 
each  county,  and  three  district  directors  are  an- 
nually elected  in  each  district.  The  duties  of 
these  are  almost  identical  with  those  of  similar 
officers  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  The 
public  schools  are  open  to  all  children  between 
the  ages  of  7  and  21.  When  there  are  15  or 
more  colored  children  in  any  district,  a  separate 
school  may  be  organized,  for  their  instruction, 
bythe  district  directors  and  the  county  superin- 
tendent. The  schools  are  supported  by  a  two-mill 
tax  levied  annually  in  each  county,  school-dis- 
tricts assessing  themselves  for  additional  amounts 
when  necessary.  In  the  employment  of  teach- 
ers, no  discrimination  can  be  legally  made  on  ac- 
count of  sex.  All  children  in  good  health  are 
compelled  by  law  to  attend  school  at  least  three 
months  each  year.  The  schools  are  elementary  in 
character;  but  graded  schools  may  be  established 
in  any  district,  upon  the  decision,  to  that  effect, 
of  the  district  directors  and  the  county  superin- 
tendent. The  territorial  superintendent  and  the 
several  county  superintendents  are  required  to 
hold  annually  a  teachers'  institute,  not  less  than 
four  nor  more  than  ten  days  in  length,  at  which 
a  uniform  series  of  text-books,  for  three  years, 
throughout  the  territory,  is  designated.  The 
length  of  the  school  year  is  10  months. 

Educational  Condition.  —  The  following  are 
the  principal  items  of  school  statistics  for  1875  : 

Number  el'  srliool-houaes 13 

"  pupils  enrolled 1,222 

"        "   teachers 23 

Total  expenditures $16,400 

Value  nf  s.'lmol  property  (net  includmsr  land)  .$32,500 

No  provision  for  superior  or  special  instruction 
of  any  kind  has  yet  been  made. 


XENIA  COLLEGE 

XENTA  COLLEGE,  at  Xenia.  Ohio,  char- 
tered in  1850,  and  organized  1851,  is  under 
Methodist  Episcopal  control.  It  was  originally 
organized  for  females  only,  but  was  soon  thrown 
open  to  young  men  also.  It  comprises  a  collegiate 
course  (classical  and  scientific),  and  a  preparatory, 
a  primary,  and  a  normal  department.    Facilities 


YALE  COLLEGE  867 

are  also  afforded  for  instruction  in  music.  The 
regular  tuition  fees  vary  from  $26  to  $36  a  Mar. 
In  1875 — 6,  there  were  9  professors  and  other 
instructors  and  230  students  (83  collegiate.  1!) 
preparatory,  30  primary,  and  98  normal).  Wil- 
liam Smith,  A.  M.,  is  (1877)  the  president  of 
the  college. 


YALE,  Elihu,  an  American  merchant,  the 
patron,  though  not  the  founder,  of  Yale  College, 
was  born  in  New  Haven,  April  .">.,  1648;  and  died 
in  London,  Eng.,  July  '22..  1721.  In  1678,  he  went 
to  the  East  Indies,  and,  from  1687  to  L692,  was 
governor  of  Fort  St.  George,  Madras.  He  was 
afterward  made  governor  of  the  East  India 
Company,  and  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 
His  gifts  to  the  institution  which  afterwards 
bore  his  name,  were  estimated  at  £500.  At 
first,  only  the  new*  building,  which  had  lien 
erected  in  Xew  Haven,  was  named  after  him: 
but,  by  the  charter  of  1745.  this  title  was  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  institution.  A  synopsis 
of  his  life  may  be  found  in  the  Yale  Literary 
Mnquziiie,  April.  1  ->-. 

YALE  COLLEGE,  in  Xew  Haven,  Ct.,  is 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  important  educa- 
tional institutions  in  the  United  States.  In 
1701,  the  general  assembly  granted  a  charter  for 
a  "  collegiate  school,"  and  the  trustees  selected 
Saybrook  as  its  site.  The  first  commencement 
was  held  in  1702.  The  instruction  seems  to 
have  been  given  partly  at  Saybrook.  and  partly 
at  Killingworth  and  Milford,  where  the  first 
two  rectors  resided.  In  1716,  the  trustees  voted 
to  establish  the  college  permanently  at  Xew 
Haven,  and.  in  171s,  a  huil  ling  was  completed 
there,  which,  in  honor  of  Elihu  Yale,  a  bene- 
factor, was  named  Yale  College,  a  design .n  inn  ,-n 
first  confined  to  the  building,  but  authoritatively 
applied  to  the  institution  as  a  whole,  by  the  new 
charter  of  1745.  The  principal  buildings  .«•- 
cupy  a  square  of  about  eight  acres,  west  of  i 
the  public  green.  They  are  16  in  number.  The 
two  buildings  of  the  Divinity  School,  the  two 
buildings  of  the  Scientific  School,  and  the  .Med- 
ical School  are  off  the  main  square.  The  Law 
School  is  in  the  county  court-house.  The  in- 
vested funds,  in  1875,  amounted  to  SI  ,550, ; 

the  income  was  $235,465,  including  $107,000 
from  students.  The  institution  possesses  valu- 
able museutns,  cabinets,  and  apparatus.  The 
departments  of  instruction  in  Yale  College  are 
comprehended  under  four  divisions,  as  follows  : 
the  faculty  of  theology  i organized  in  1*22)  :  of 
law  (1824);  of  medicine  (1812);  and  of  philosophy 
and  the  arts.  Under  the  last-named  faculty  are 
included,  the  courses  for  graduate  instruction, 
the  under-graduate  academical  department,  the 
under-graduate  section  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  j 
School  (1847),  and  the  School  of  the  Fine  Arts 
(1866) — each  having  a  distinct  organization.  In 
the  academical  department,  the  course  is  for  four 
years,  and  leads  to  the  degree  of  A.  B.     The  ! 


charge  for  tuition  and  incidentals  is  $140  a  year. 
The  sum  of  SI  1,000  and  upward,  derived  partly 
from  permanent  charitable  funds,  is  annually 
applied  by  the  Corporation  for  the  relief  of  stu- 
dents who  need  pecuniary  aid.  especially  of  those 
preparing  for  the  Christian  ministry.  About 
100  thus  have  their  tuition  either  wholly  or  in 
part  remitted.  There  are  two  fellowships,  the 
holders  of  which  are  required  to  pursue  non- 
professional post-graduate  studies  in  Xew  Haven. 
Tile  catalogue  of  1876 — 7  shows  some  changes  in 
the  course  of  studies  published  in  that  of  1875 — 6 
(from  which  the  statement  in  the  article  College 
was  taken),  especially  in  the  greater  range  of 
elective  studies.  There  are  professorships  of 
moral  philosophy  and  metaphysics;  natural  phi- 
losophy and  astronomy:  geology  and  mineralogy; 
Latin  language  and  literature;  mathematics; 
Greek  language  and  literature ;  rhetoric  and 
English  literature  ;  history  ;  molecular  physics 
and  chemistry ;  modern  languages ;  German 
language  and  literature:  political  and  social  sci- 
ence. The  Sheffield  Scientific  School  received 
its  name  in  1860,  when  it  was  re-organized  upon 
a  move  extensive  scale  through  the  munificence 
of  Joseph  E.  Sheffield,  of  Xew  Haven.  In  1863, 
it  received  the  congressional  land  grant,  and  be- 
came the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Me- 
chanic Arts  of  Connecticut.  The  under-graduate 
courses  of  instruction,  occupying  three  years,  are 
arranged  to  suit  the  requirements  of  various 
classes  of  students.  The  first  year's  work  is  the 
same  for  all ;  during  the  last  two  years,  the  in- 
struction is  chiefly  arranged  in  special  courses. 
The  special  courses  most  distinctly  marked  out 
are  the  following  :  (1)  in  chemistry  ;  (2)  in  civil 
engineering;  (3)  in  dynamic  (or  mechanical)  en- 
gineering; (4)  in  agriculture;  (5)  in  natural  his- 
history ;  (6)  in  the  subjects  preparatory  to  med- 
ical studies;  (7)  in  studies  preparatory  to  mining 
and  metallurgy  ;  (8)  in  select  studies  preparatory 
to  other  higher  studies.  These  courses  lead  to 
the  degree  of  Ph.  B.  The  charge  for  tuition  is 
§150  a  year.  There  are  professorships  of  miner- 
alogy; civil  engineering;  astronomy  and  physics; 
dynamic  engineering:  theoretical  and  agricultural 
chemistry  ;  agriculture  ;  mathematics  ;  botany  ; 
English;  paleontology;  political  economy  and 
history;  analytical  chemistry  and  metallurgy; 
zoology;  chemistry:  and  comparative  anatomy. 
The  School  of  the  Fine  Arts  has  for  its  end  the 
cultivation  and  promotion,  through  practice  and 
criticism,  of  the  arts  of  design  ;  namely,  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  and  architecture,  both  in  their  ar- 
tistic and  esthetic  aims.  The  design  is,  (1)  to  pro- 


vide  thorough  technical  instruction  in  the  arts  of 
painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture  ;  and  (2)  to 
furnish  an  acquaintance  with  all  branches  of 
learning  relating  to  the  history,  theory,  and 
practice  of  art.  The  course  of  technical  in- 
struction covers  three  years.  No  provision  has 
been  made  for  instruction  in  the  departments  of 
sculpture  and  architecture  ;  but  it  is  hoped  that, 
before  long,  this  will  be  provided.  There  is  a 
professor  of  painting,  a  professor  of  drawing, 
and  an  instructor  in  geometry  aud  perspective. 
The  chairs  of  sculpture,  architecture,  aud  anat- 
omy are  unfilled.  The  school  is  open  to  both 
sexes.  The  charge  for  tuition  is  $36  for  three 
months.  In  the  departments  of  philosophy  and 
the  arts,  there  are  various  post-graduate  courses, 
which  may  be  pursued  by  candidates  for  the  de- 
grees of  A.  M.,  Ph.  1).,  and  civil  and  dynamical 
engineer,  or  by  graduates  not  candidates  for  a 
further  degree.  In  the  theological  department, 
there  is  no  charge  for  tuition  or  for  room  rent. 
There  are  several  scholarships  for  the  aid  of 
needy  students.  In  the  law  department,  the 
undergraduate  course  is  two  years.  There  is  a 
post-graduate,  course  of  one  year  for  the  degree 
of  Master  of  Law,  and  of  two  years,  for  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Civil  Law.  The  libraries  of 
the  institution  contain  11  7.000  volumes;  namely, 
college  library  (exclusive  of  pamphlets),  80,000  ; 
Linoniau  and  Brothers  (society)  library,  20,000 ; 


libraries  of  the  professional  schools,  17,000.  The 
Peabody  Museum  of  Natural  History  was 
founded,  in  1K66.  by  Ceorge  Peabody,  by  a  gift 
of  $150,000.  One  wing  of  the  building  has  been 
completed.  In  1876 — 7,  there  were  87  instructors 
in  all  the  departments,  besides  special  lecturers. 
The  students  were  as  follows :  theological.  95  ; 
law,  60  ;  medical,  36  ;  department  of  philosophy 
and  the  arts,  8611  (graduate  students,  67  ;  special 
students.  2;  academic  under-graduates,  569;  sci- 
entific,  206;  fine  arts.  16);  total,  deducting  rep- 
etitions. 1 .021.  The  number  of  degrees  conferred, 
prior  to  1875,  was  10,605,  including  K70  honor- 
ary degrees ;  the  number  of  academic  alumni 
was  8,464.  The  government  of  the  college  is  ad- 
ministered by  the  president  and  1*  fellows,  of 
whom  the  governor  and  lieutenant-governor  of 
Connecticut  are,  ex  officio,  two.  Six  are  elected 
by  the  alumni;  and  the  remaining  ten.  who  are 
Congregational  clergymen,  are  chosen  by  the 
fellows  themselves.  The  rectors  and  presidents 
have  been  as  follows:  Abraham  Pierson,  1701 
—  7  ;  Samuel  Andrew  (pro  tern.),  1707 — 19  ; 
Timothy  Cutler,  1719—22:  Samuel  Andrew 
(pro  tern.),  1722—5;  Elisha  Williams.  1725-  - 
39;  Thomas  Clap,  1739—66;  Naphtali  Dag- 
gett, 1766—77;  Ezra  Stiles.  1777—  -95  :  Timothy 
i  »wight.  1795— 1  si  7  ;  Jeremiah  Day.  1817—46; 
Theodore  Dwight .  Woolsey,  1846 — 71  ;  and 
Noah  Porter,  since  1871. 


ZOOLOGY  (Or.  ;,mv,  an  animal,  and  /USyoc, 
a  discourse)  treats  of  the  structure,  classification, 
habits,  etc.,  of  animals.  It  is  an  important 
branch  of  descriptive  natural  science,  or  natural 
history,  and  usually  forms  a  part  of  the  course 
of  study  in  various  grades  of  schools.  In  ele- 
mentary instruction,  it  constitutes,  with  its  sister 
science,  botany,  one  of  the  most  effective  and 
available  subjects  for  training  the  observing  fac- 
ulties ;  and,  hence,  is  often  comprised  in  the 
course  of  instruction  prescribed  for  common 
schools.  This  subject  has  peculiar  attractions 
for  children  ;  since,  as  is  well  known,  they  in- 
variably manifest  a  deep  interest  in  animal  life. 
The  principles  by  which  the  teacher  should  be 
guided  m  giving  instruction  iu  this,  as  in  other 
branches  of  natural  science,  have  been  to  some 
extent  explained  in  previous  articles.  (See 
Astronomy,  aud  Botany.)  In  teaching  zoology, 
care  must  be  particularly  taken  to  exhibit  as 
much  as  possible  the  natural  objects  themselves  ; 
and,  in  elementary  teaching,  this  comes  first. 
That  is  to  say,  the  pupils  are  not  to  be  required 
to  commit  to  memory  dry  definitions  and  for- 
mulated statements ;  but  their  minds  should  be 
brought  in  contact  with  the  living  realities. 
(For  a  full  synopsis  of  topics  aud  methods  for 


elementary  instruction  in  this  subject,  see  How 
to  Teach,  N.  Y.,  1874.)  In  the  higher  grades 
of  instruction,  the  three  different  departments 
of  the  science  —  morphology,  physiology,  and 
distribution,  should  systematically  be  treated. 
In  every  grade  of  instruction,  however,  the 
teacher  or  professor  cannot  too  closely  follow 
the  principle  laid  down  by  Huxley  :  "The  great 
business  of  the  scientific  teacher  is  to  imprint 
the  fundamental,  irrefragable  facts  of  his  sci- 
ence, not  only  by  words  upon  the  mind,  but  by 
sensible  impressions  upon  the  eye,  and  ear.  and 
touch  of  the  student,  in  so  complete  a  manner,  that 
every  term  used,  or  law  enunciated,  may  after- 
wards call  up  vivid  images  of  the  ]  particular  struct- 
ural, or  other,  facts  which  furnished  the  demon- 
stration of  the  law,  or  the  illustration  of  the  term." 
Moreover,  every  teacher  shoidd  bear  in  mind  that 
a  good  share  of  his  own  knowledge  should  be  at 
first-hand — acquired  by  his  own  observation,  not 
simply  gleaned  from  books — or  he  will  not  suc- 
ceed in  awakening  an  interest  in  the  minds  of 
his  pupils.  The  proper  method  of  teaching  this 
subject  has  been  clearly  shown  by  one  of  its  great- 
est masters.  (See  Huxley,  On  the  X/udu  of  Zool- 
ogy, in  Tlie  Culture  demanded  la/  Modern   Life, 

N.  Y.,  1867.)  (See  Science,  The  Teaching  of.) 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX. 


It  i 


(I,  Aaidemir 


A-Il-C  Hook— 1 

A-B-C     Method  —  seo     Alphabet 

Method 
Abecedarian — 1 

A-B-C  Shooters— 1.    See  also  67 
Abedard,  Pierre — 1 
Abercronibie,  John — 1 
Abingdon  College — 2 
Absenteeism — 2 
Abstract  mid  Concrete — 2 
Academy— its    origin   and  ordinary 

meaning.  2 :  secondary 

Accomplishments  —  distinguished 
from  culture,  kinds  of,  3  ;  tend- 
ency in  regard  to,  at  the  present 
time;  proper  object  of,  4 

Acquisition — 4 

Arroamatic  Method— 1 

Adam,  Alexander — 4 

Adams,  John — 4 

Adrian  College— 5 

Adults,  Schools  for— in  Germany, 
in  Austria,  in  the  United  Status.  5 

Adventists— 5 

.Esthetic  Culture  —  see  Esthetic 
Culture 

\  fleet  at  ion— 6 

Agassiz,  L.  J.  K — 6 

Age,  in  Education — 6 

Agrlcola,  Kodolphus— biographical 
sketch,  educational  works  and 
views — 8 

Agricultural  Colleges  —  congres- 
sional land  grants  for,  8;  progress 
of,  state  appropriations  for,  9  ; 
laboratories,  workshops,  farms, 
etc.,  expediency  of  grants  for,  10; 
"  study    in,    European 


schools.  11;  statistical  tabic,  12 
Ann,  J.  F.— 14 
Ainsworth,   ltobert- 

Alabama— area  ami  p 


and  special 

Alabama,  I  Diversity  of— 16 

Albion  College— 17 

Alcott,  A.  B — 17 

Alcott,  W.  A.— 17 

Alculn— 17 

Alexandrian  School— 17 

Alfred  the  Great  —  biographical 
sketch,  influence  on  education,  18 

Alfred  University— 18 

Algebra — definition  of,  literal  nota- 
tion, 18  ;  positive  and  negative, 
19  ;  exponents,  methods  of  dem- 
onstration, 20  ;  range  of  topics 
embraced,  21;  class-room  work,  22 

Algeria— education  in,  2-4 

Allegheny  College— 24 

VI ma  Mater— 24 

Alphabet— Greek  and  Latin  alpha- 
bets, etc..  origin  of  the  English 
alphabet,  imperfections  in  it, 
table  of  vowel  elements,  25.    See 


Uphahet    Method--!'. 


;  College— 26 

Analysis,  Grammatical — definition 
of,  26  ;  parsing,  value  of  analysis 
as  a  mode  of  teaching,  27;  diagram 
system,  28 

Analysis,  Mathematical  —  see 
Mathematics 

Analytic  Method  of  Teaching— 28. 
See  also  336 

Andrews  J.  V.— reforms  introduced 
by,  28 

Anglo-Saxon  — origin  of,  modifica- 
tions of  by  other  languages,  pe- 
culiarities of,  its  value  in  com- 
mon schools,  29 ;  in  the  high 
school  or  academy,  in  normal 
schools,  in  colleges  and  univer- 
sities, 30;  text-books  for  the  study 
of,  31 

Anselm,  of  Canterbury— 31 

Antloch  College— 32 

Antipathy— 32 

Aphorisms,  Educational  —value  of 
education, 32;  scope  of  education, 
teacher  and  pupil.  33  ;  training 
and  habit,  development  of  the 
faculties.language.self-education, 
34  ;  moral  education,  discipline 
and  government,  35 

Apparatus,  School — 35 

Apportionment— see  School  Fund 

Arabian  Schools— 36 

Archaeology — 37 

Architecture— see  Fine  Arts 

Architecture,  School — see  School- 
Argentine  Republic—  area,  popula- 
tion, religion,  etc,  37;  history, 
political  and  educational,  schools 
and  universities,  :;s 

Aristotle— his  early  lil'e,38;appointed 
teacher  of  Alexander,  the  peri- 
patetic school,  method  of  teach- 
ing, theory  of  education,  ante- 
natal influences,  habit  as  an  edu- 
cator, when  instruction  begins, 
classes  of  subjects  to  be  taught, 
mechanical  work,  fine  arts,  vi- 
olent exercises  opposed  to 
growth,  30  :  antagonism  of  bml- 
ily  and  menta]    Bctb  it  \ .  music, 

totle,  40.  See  also  32,  33,  34,  471 
Arithmetic— faulty  method  oi  t.  m  h- 
ing,  40;  what  should  constitute 

the  course  in,  41;  principles  anil 
maxims  to  be  kept  in  view.  43; 
reasons  for  the  rule  in  short  di- 
vision, pure  and  applied  arith- 
metic. 44  ;  stages  of  mental  de- 
velopment to  be  kept  in  view  in 
teaching  arithmetic,  45 
Arizona  —  organization,  area,  and 
population,  educational  history, 
school    system,    educational 


state,  educational  his- 
tory. 46;  state  teachers'  associa- 
tion, 47;  state  superintendents, 
school  statistics,  present  law; 
elementary,  normal,  superior, 
and  special  instruction;  educa- 
tional journal,  etc.,  48 


University- 
Army     Schools    —    see      Military 

Schools 
Arndt,  E.  M.— 49 
Arnold,  Thomas— 49 
Arnold,  Thomas  K.— 50 
Art-Education— necessity  of,  con- 
dition of  among  the  ancients,  po- 
litical value  of.  50;  history  ot  in 
the  U.  S.,  methods  of  art-instruc- 
tion, 51;  art-schools  in  the  U.  8., 
table  of  art   institutions  in  the 
U.  S.  ;    instruction   in    drawing, 
52  ;    mode    of   establishing     art- 
schools,  importance  of    art-edu- 


Tceh- 


Educatlon  i 
nical  Education 

Arts,  Liberal— 53 

Asehani,  Roger— 54 

Association  of  Ideas — 54 

Astronomy— claims  of  in  education, 
54 ;  practical  uses  of,  proper 
method  of  teaching,  elementary 
course  in,  55;  diagrams  and  ap- 
paratus, religious  aspects,  56 

Atbeneum— 56  ^ 

Athens  —  Athenian  education  dis- 
tinguished from  Spartan,  gram- 
matist  and  critic,  writing,  use  of 
ink  and  stylus.  56;  music,  gym- 
nastics, baths,  education  of  girla 
and  orphans,  57 

Atlanta  University— 57 

Atlas— 57 

Attendance,  School  —  annual  aver- 
age, how  found,  57  .  table  of,  in 
the  U.  S-,  school  age  in  different 


Attention— great  value  of,  interest 
the  chief  agent,  not  to  be  ex- 
ercised too  long,  memory  de- 
pendent upon,  59  ;  attention  de- 
pendent upon  physical  condi- 
tion, proper  time  for  its  exercise. 


Austin  College— 61 

Australasian    Colonies  —  area  and 

population,  educational  systems. 
New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  61  ; 
South  Australia.  West  Australia, 
Queensland,  Tasmania,  New  Zea- 
land, 62 

Austria  —  area  and  population,  62; 
school  history,  present  school 
system,  school  statistics,  64;  edu- 
cational periodicals.  65 

Authority— its  twofold  application, 
its  dual  nature,  limits  of.  mode 
of  enforcing,  description  of.  65  ; 
its  use  in  intellectual  instruc- 
tion, excessive  use  of  hurtful  to 
mental  growth.  66.    See  also  374, 


376 


Han  -hauls  — +.7.    See  also  1 

Bachelor— 67 

Bacon,  Francis  —  early  education, 
appointed  lord  high  chancellor, 
Novum  Organum,  convicted  of  cor- 
ruption, philosophical  views,  67; 
experiment.  Inst au ratio  Magna, 
Essays,  influence  on  education.  08. 
See  also  175*,  307,  494 

Baden— see  Germany 


examination  and  <jualiti.at n >n  of 
teachers,  69 ;  industrial  educa- 
tion, training  of  teachers,  70 

Baltimore  City  College— 70 

Baltimore  Female  College— 70 

Baptists— sects  of,  early  history,  70; 
principal  colleges  in  England 
and  Wales,  history  of  in  America, 
colleges  and  theological  semi- 
naries in  America,  71;  epochs  in 
educational  work,  distinguished 
Baptist  educators,  72 

Barbauld,  A.  L.— 72 

Barnard,  F.  A.  P.— 72 

Barnard,  Henry— his  early  life,  edu- 
cational works— 73 

Basedow,  J.  B.— his  early  life,73;edu- 
cational  views  and  publications. 
Elemmtanverk,  the  philanthro- 
pic its  failure,  his  death,  his  in- 
fluence—74 

Bates  College — 74 

Bavaria— see  Germany- 
Baylor  University— 75 

Beach  (irove  College — 75 

Bebiau,  R.  A.  A— 75 

Bede— 75 

Belgium— area  and  population,  75; 
educational  history,  primary  and 


in-lriirti..n 


llustration  of  the 

tymology  of  single 
partnient 
of  belles-lettres,  80 
Bcloit  College— 80 
Benedictines,  Schools  of  the— their 
peculiar   features  of 


struct  ion 

famous.  Hi 
Beneke,  F.  E.— Rl 
Benevolence — 81 
Bengel,  J.  A.— 81 
Bent  ley,  Richard— 82 
Berea  College— 82 
Bernhardt  A.  F.— 82 
Bethany  College -82 

Bethel  Colleare— 82 
Bible— diffen  nceinthi 


80,  list  of  the  most 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX 


Blind 

ne-tleiilsot  instruction. *»>.  music. 

mechanical  training,  government 
and  discipline,  systems  of  print- 
ing and  notation,  87 

Blochmann,  K.  J.— 88 

Blue-coat  School  —  see  Christ's 
Hospital 

Board  of  Education — see  School 
Board 

Boarding-school— its  status  in  dif- 
ferent countries,  relation  to  pub- 
Bolivia— area  and  population,  88, 
condition  of  education  in,  89 

Bonet,  J.  1*.— 89 

Bonnycastle,  John— 89 

Book-keeping— single  and  double 
entry,  89;  philosophy  of,  increase 
of  number  of  schools  for,  90 

Hook-manual— 91 

Borgi,  Giovanni— 91 

Boston— population,  school  history, 
school  system,  92;  salaries,  pri- 
vate schools  and  other  institu- 
tions, 93 

Boston  College — 94 

Boston  University — 94 

Botany  —  the  educational  value  of, 
method  of  studying.  95;  simplic- 
ity in  manner  of  teaching,  sys- 
tematic botany,  herbarium,  mi- 
croscope, identification  of  plants 
nut  the  rhiel  object,  utility  of,  96 

BowdolU   College— 97 

Boys.    Education     of— objects  to    he 

kept  in  view.  '.'7.  systems  of  the 


Braidw I.  T 

Braille,  I 

Brain  - 
Brazil      ai 


ooklvn   -tii-t    tree   public  schools 
established    there    and    in    New 


Burgher  School— 108 
Burlington  I'  ni  versify— 109 
Bushy,  Richard— 109 

Business  Colleges— their  origin  and 

progress,   improvements   in,  lu'.i; 


Bible  History— si  Cadet  -see    Military    Schools  and 

Birch— 84  Naval  Schools 

Blackboard —substitutes     for,     its  \  Cadets*  College— 110 

uses,  84  California  —organization.  education- 
Blackburn  University— 85  al  history,  110;  state  superin- 
Bllnd,  Education  of  the-  statistics  tendeiits,  school  system.  111; 
of  the  blind,  first  public  asylum  educational  condition  ;  normal 
for,  first  attempts  at  teachings;.,  and  secondary  instruction,  de- 
institutions    for.   in    the    U.    s.  ,          lioininatioual    schools,    superior 


California 

instruction,  list  of  colleges  and 
universities,  special  instruction, 
teachers'  associations,  112 ;  edu- 
cational literature,  113 
California  College— 113 
California,  University  of— 113 
Calisthenics  —  definition    of,    113; 
value  of,  proper  time  for,  precau- 
tions to  be  taken,  114 
Calisthenium— 114 
Calligraphy— see  Penmanship 
Cambridge,  University  of— history, 
organization.  114;  professorships, 
terms,  members  of  colleges,  de- 
grees,    examinations,      triposes, 

leges,  uuder-grad nates, university 
buildings.  115;  societies,  116 

Campe,  J.  H — his  educational  the- 
ories and  works.  116 

Canada,  Dominion  of— 116 

Cane  Hill  College— 116 

Capital  University— 116 

Carleton  College— 116 

Carthage  College— 117 

Catechetical  Method  —  its  limits, 
true  uses,  superseded  by  the 
topical  method,  117.   See  also  229 

Catechetical    School  —  see  Alexan- 

Catechism  —  definition   and  origin. 

Catechumen— 118 

Cathedral   and  Collegiate  Schools 

—their  history,   118 ;    scope    of, 

decline  of,  119 
Cecilian  College— 119 
Census.  School— see  School  Census 

Central  America— area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  condition  of 
Guatemala,  Honduras,  119 ;  San 
Balvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa 
Rica,  20 

Central  College— 120 

Central  Tennessee  College— 120 

Central  University— 120 

Centre  College— 120 

Certificate  — see  License,  and  In- 
centives, School 

Chapsal,  C.  P.— 121 

Character,  Discernment  of —  neg- 
lect of,  harm  resulting  thereby, 
sacrifice  of  the  individual  to  the 
mass,  temperament,  how  to  dis- 
cern it,  121;  phrenology,  122 

Charlemagne    —    his      educational 


Charleston,  t  olh-geof— 123 

Chart— 123 

Cheever.   Ezekiel— his  life.  123;  hiB 

Cheke.  Sir  John— 124 

Chemistry— its  practical  value,  habit 
of  memorizing,  125;  three  meth- 
ods, lectures,  text-book  study,  ar- 
rangement of  material,  sensa- 
tional experiments.  126;  proper 
method  illustrated,  127 

Chicago — population,  school  statis- 
tics and  system.  128;  examina- 
tion, licensing,  and  appointment 
of  teachers,  salaries  ol  teachers, 
private  schools,  129 

Chicago.  University  of— 129 

Childhood-see  Age 

Chili  —area    and    ]■■  dilation,  educa 


ti.'.i'i.  1  ■ 
u:l    IT.. 

:tinl  population, 
igion,  alphabet, 

i:il;'  W.i 

mat.-  of  ethica- 
lools,  133:   lect- 

flu.-ii.-e 

instrih  t 

un.l'uiv 

ins  on  Chinese 
Tsity  of  Peking. 

ANALYTICAL   INDEX 


Christ  Cross  How— 134 

Christian  Brotliers.College  of— 131 

Christian  Brothers'  College      111 
Christian  College— 134 
Christian  Uiilwrslty— 134 
Christians— 134 
Christ's  liospital-i;;:. 
Chronology  —  sii-i-  History 


Conienius 

lustructiiiil  of  Loth  sexes,  educa- 
tion and  development  identical, 
physical  education,  school  rooms 
and  play-grounds,  words  to   ho 


learned 


with 


see  Science  of 


,       -   d.   Mil. I    ■■!!      .'I.      137;    Size    atld 
institution    of.   Lasts    "1    clas-lti- 

atiou.  teaching  Ly  classes 
tlbjeets,  133; 


classification, 


Classical    Studies  —  Latin.    Greek 
139;  decline  in  study  of, 
ject  for  which  taught, 
teaching, 


ttiod  of 
oks.  translations. 
141.    See  also  224,  225 
Classics,  Christian— history  of,  142; 
peculiar  value  of,  143 

I   I  issilh.itiou— sec  Class 

Cleveland— population,  educational 

hl>tor\  ,   143.    school    svsteui     and 

statistics.  144 
Cllulq.ue-144 
Clinton,     I)e    Witt  —  biographical 

sketch,  political  career,  his  aid  to 

the  cause  of  education.  114;  Le- 
president    of  the  Societj 


lor  l'-t 


Bocietj  i  r  I  .    Pi    tion  of  the 

Education  oi  Youth,  the  Infant 

School  Society  of  New  York.  New- 
York  Hospital.  New  York  Ulster- 
ieal  Society,  estimate  of  his  abil- 
ity, 145 


Coach 

Co-Edm 

rega 


145 


1st,, 


the  U.  S..  147.  •  Sect  ol  the  ordi- 
nary college  course  on  the  health 
of  women,  progress  of  co-educa- 
tion in  Europe.  148 

Colburn,  Warren— 149 

Colby  University— 149 

College — history  of  iu  France.  150; 
in  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  and  the 
U.  S..151:  Harvard.  Yale,  152;  table 
of  colleges  in  the  U.  8.,  conven- 
tion of  college  presidents  iu  the 
U.  S.  in  1874.  153 

Collegiate  Schools— see  Cathedral 
Schools 

Colombia.  United  States  of— area 
and  population,  educational  his- 
tory, school  system,  154 

Color  —  value  of  instruction  in. 
method  of  teaching,  harmony  of 
colors,  155 

Colorado — organization,  area  and 
population,  educational  history, 
school  system.  15G;  educational 
condition,  secondary  and  other 
instruction.  157 

Colorado  College  — l.i 7 

Colored  schools — their  number,  er- 

gardto.  ..  ., 
Columbia  I  ollege      i  .- 
Columbia.  District  of-s.-c  District 

of  Columbia 
Columbian  University— 159 
■Conienius,  .1.  A.— his  early  life.  159 

Janua  linffuarum  reserata,  Didac 

crndi  iirtif'f:ituu.  Orbis  smsuah'un 
pictus,  and  other  works,  his  posi 


connection 
language  to  be 
learned  Ly  practice,  anniversary 
of  Conn-muss  death,  statue 
erected,  161.  See  also.  33,  34,  24s, 
720 

Commencement— 161 

Commercial   Colleges — see  Busi- 
ness Colleges 

Commissioner  of   Education— see 
Bureau  of  Education 

Common  schools— 162 

Companionship— necessity  of,  162 

Competitive    Examinations  —see 
Examinations 

Composition— oral  composition,  ac- 
curacy of  expression,  method  i 


correction  ot  compositions,  rhet- 
oric, 164 

Compulsory  Education— first  inti- 
mation of,  lust. ,r>  ol.  li'.l.  school 
age  first  defined  bj  law.  166;  pres- 
ent aspect  of.  167.     See  also  154 

Comstock,  J.  L.— 167 

Conception— the  concept,  predouu- 
nance  of  couceptive  faculty  dur- 
ing infancy,  basis  of  judgment, 
ends  to  he  kept  iu  view,  value  of 
object  teaching,  illustrations, 
108:  conceptions  dependent  upon 
feelings,  169 

Concert    Teaching — a  kind  of  rote 
teaching,  memorizi 
rote   teaching  in.iu 
voice  in  responses, 

Concord  College— 17o 

Concordia  College — 17 

<  ongregalioiiali-ts-    I 


Connecticut  -area  and  population, 
educational  history,  171;  taxes, 
172;  tuition  fees,  permanent  tiind. 


Corporal  Punishment 

statistics,  1SH;  present  practice  of 
the  civilized  world,  legal  aspects, 


id  spet  nil,  -  It- 
riil  culture,  197 
rsity— 197 


19S.     See  also   390 


176;  ed 
Conscicnc 


precepts  not   in 
vator  of,  177 

Constitution  of  U. 

Convent  Schools  —  their  history, 
178;  influence  of  Reformation  on, 
basis  and  distinguishing  features 
of,  179 

Conversation— its  uses,  179 

Conversational  Method — its  value 
in  early  education,  180 

Cooper  Institute— see  Cooper,  Pe- 
ter 


•essanly  a  culti- 
S.— 178 


of    Si  1 


,  181 
Coote,  Edward— 1H2 
Copy-Books— see  Penmi 
Copying— 182 
Cnrderius,  Mathurill— It 
Cornell  College— is:) 
j  Cornell  University— 188 
Corporal    Punishment - 


Dalgarno,  Ceorge — 200 

Dame  Schools— 200 

Dancing  and  Dancing  Schools- 
history  of,  the  '■jumping  proces- 
sion." religious  character  of,  so- 
cial aspects  of,  201 

Dana,  J.  1).— 202.     See  also  580 

Dartmouth  (ollege— 202 


Debating—  J"  '■      .1.  b.it:n 

Decimal  Notation—  2i)7 
Declamation— 207 
Definitions— 207;   How  I. 
Degerando-  -       I  era  in 
Degrees— on, 
tory, 


Do;  tor 


la  ware— urea  and  popu  la:  ion.  edu- 
cational history,  school  system. 
210;  educational  condition,  school 

Bnperior,  professional,  and  seen. 


Denison  University—  212 
Denmark— area  and  popnl.i'ioii,  his- 
tory.  212;    history   ot   public   in- 


in.-tru.  tion.  I.    land.  21.', 
Denominational     Schools  —  215; 

i!    ■ for,      rd<hup»jischfs 

U.iiflbtirh,   216;    Dr.  Rigg,   oppo- 
sition  to    ilelioiiilllilt.oiial   schools 

in  the  U.S..  advocacy  of  Ly  the  Ro- 
man Catholics.  W.  H.  Seward,  217; 
Bishop  Hughes,  218 
Dentistry.    Schools    of— see    Med- 
ical Schools 
Departmental  System — 318 
Depravity— see  Moral  Education 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX 


Des  Moines,  University  of— 218 
Detroit  — population,   218;    educa- 
tional history,  city  superintend- 
ents, school  system,  school  statis- 

Developing  Method — definition  of, 
Herbart,  Beneke,  improvements 
in,  self-consciousness,  220;  the 
teacher  is  the  school,  phonetic 
spelling,  Graser.  Vogel,  reading 
in  concert,  value  of  number,  221; 
the   developing    method    as    an 


Kelig- 


Devotional  Exercises- 
lous  Education 

Diary,  School— 222 

Dickinson  College— 222 

Dictation— 223 

Dictionary— definition  and  history 
of,  223;  in  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, 224  and  225 

Didactics— 225;  general  and  special, 
226 

Dlesterweg,  F.  A.  W 226;  his  op- 
position to  the  union  of  church 
and  school,  227— see  also  433 

Diffidence  —  its  nature,  Cowper, 
Washington,  means  for  correct- 
ing, 228 

Diligence—  228 

Dllwoith.  Thomas— 228 

Dinter,  G.  F.— 229 

Diploma— 229 

Disciples  of  Christ— 229 

Discipline— intellectual  and  moral, 


Ills 


Public 


S,   he 


Dittes,    Friedrich  —  234.     See   also 

335,  401 
Diversions  —  during  childhood  and 

youth,  athletics,  234 
Doane  College— 235 
Doctor — see  Degrees 
Docderlcln,   l.udwig— 235 
Donaldson,  J.  W.— 235.   See  also  594 
Drawing  —  definition  of,  usefulness 


siLeessiul  t . ■  :i-  1 1 ' ii ;_' .  programmes 
for  instruction  in  different  grades 
of  schools,  238 

DrUl— 239 

Drury  College— 239 

Dublin  University — see  Ireland 

Dull  Scholars— 239 

Dunce— 239 

Duiiaiiloup— F.  A.  P.— 239 

Duisrh,  M.  G 240 

Dnruy,  Victor— 240 

Dwlght,  Francis— 240 

Dwight,   Timothy  —  240.     See  also 


-definition  of,  243;  kinds 
,  history  of  educa- 
tion, 244;  idea  of.  among  the  au- 
cients.  among  the  Hebrews,  ad- 
vent of  Christianity.  245;  school 
of  Alexandria,  christian  schools, 

schools,  peripatetic  schools,  Mo- 
hammedanism, ttie  Ketorniation, 
247  ;  Jesuit  schools,  the  Pietists, 
Comenius,  Locke,  Humanists  and 

Realists,    le'llsseiill.   [Jase-lMW.  l'es- 

talozzi,  Froebel,  Herbart,  Beneke. 
Spencer.  24M;  histories  of  educa- 
tion, theory  of  education,  249  : 
physical,  intellectual,  and  emo- 
tional   education.    251;    religious 


education,  educ; 
See  also  56.  226, 


aal  works".  253. 


305,   321,   332.   372,  377,   383,    399, 

417,    4111.   497.   5115.   695,    70S.   717, 

744,    746,  777,  793,    794 
Education,  Female — see   Female 

Education 
Education  and  Crime — see  Crime 


Egypt 


and  his- 


Klalioratlvc  Faculty— 257 
Klemclltary  Schools— 257 

Elementary  Science — see  Science, 

Teaching  of 
Ellis,  William— 257 
Elocution— 257 
Elphlnstuii.  .lames— 257 
Emerson,  G.  B.— 257.    See  also  149, 

187,304 
Eminence  College— 258 
Emory  College — 258 
Emory  and  Henry  College— 259 

Elliot  inns— 259.    See  also  252 
Empirical   Methods.— 259 
Emulation — definition  of,  expedien- 


cy 


260 


,  260 
Ear.    Cultivation 


East    Tennessee  i    ni\  ecsil  \ 

East    Tennessee    Weslevau 

versity— 242 
Economy,     School 
_     Economy 

"  population.  242; 


School 


ary.i 

tion,  243 
Edgeworth,  Maria— 243.     See  also 

196,  303,  399 
Edinburgh,    University    of  —  see 

Scotland 


Ellc  ou  cage  incut- 261 

England— area  and  population,  261; 
educational  history,  endowed 
schools   eoiiino-sioii,   262;  co&di- 


27(1;    theological  colleges,    mils    of 

court,  etc..  271.  See  also  287 
England,  Church  of— see  Epis- 
copal Church 
English,  The  Study  of— early  study 
in  infant  schools,  etc.,  to  speak 
well,  learning  to  read.  272;  gram- 
idy    in    high 


Episcopal  Methodist  College— 282 

Equation — see  Algebra 

Erasmus,  Desiderius— life  and  in- 
fluence. 282;  educational  views, 
283.     See  also  33,  304 

Erigena,  J.  S 283 

Ernestl,  J.  A 284 

Erskine  College— 284 

Esthetic  Culture— the  esthetic  ele- 
ment among  savages,  taste,  284; 
seuse  of  the  beautiful  to  be  cul- 
tivated practically,  drawing  to  be 
taug\t  before  writing,  love  of 
the  beautiful,  music,  poetry, 
esthetics  of  the  school  room,  528. 
See  also  252 

Etlenne  or  Estlenne,  Henry  and 
Robert— see  Stephens 

Eton -College— see  England 

Etymology— 286.     See  also,  225,  275 

F:ureka  College— 286 

Evangelical  Association — 286 

Evening  Schools  —  objects  of  their "" 

different  countries,   organization 

and  management,  delects   of  in 

New  York,  287 
Everett,  F;dward— 288    See  also  1, 

33.  34,  35.  243,  422 
Examinations  — 288;  of  schools,  of 

teachers,  college  and  university 

examinations,  289;   in  Germany. 

comparative    values    of    written 

and  oral   examinations,  290.    See 

also  133,  800 
p;xample,  The  Influence  of— 291 
Exchanges.  Educational— see  Hol- 

brook,  Josiah 
Exhibitions,  School— 292 
Expulsion — 292 


school  methods,  293 

Factory  Schools  —  English  legisla- 
tion in  regard  to,  legislation  on 
the  Continent,  294;  in  the  D.  S., 
295 

Faculty— 295 

Fagging— 295 

1  alk,  .1.  D 295 

1  alk,  P.  I,.  A.— 295 

Farmers'  College— 297 

Fear— its  relation  to  education,  297; 
the  method  ot  nature,  21's 

Felbiger.  J.  I.  von— 298.  See  also  C3 

1  c  llonbeig.     I'.     E.    von— 299— see 


history, 


.  .1     stl 


eaku 


htc.  .1.  G.— 306 

?tion.  Works  of— interest  of  chil- 
dren in,  305;  educational  uses  of, 
errors  to  be  avoided,  307 


Enthusiasm— 280 
Epeo,  C.  M.  Abbe  de  1'— 280 
Episcopal  Church— Church  of  Eng- 
land,   280  ;    Church    of    Ireland. 
Protestant    Episcopal   Church  in 
the  U.  S.,  281 


Finland — are:i  andpopulatioii, educa- 
tional history,  school  system,  308 

lisk  University— 309 

Flattich,  J.  F.— 309 

Florida— area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  309;  state  super- 
intendents, school  system,  310; 
school    fuud,  educational  condi- 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX 


Florida 
tlon, 
struetion,  educational  literature. 


343 

Fort  Wayne  College— 313 

Foundling  Asj  lums— 313 

Fourier,  Pierre— 314 

Fractions— see  Arithmetic 

France — area,  population,  and  terri- 
tory. 314  ;  educational  history, 
315,  316;  primary  instruction.  317. 
318;  secondary  and  superior  in- 
struction. 319;  special  and  profes- 
sional instruction,  320 

Franc Isean  College— 321 

Francke,  H.  A. — educational  and 
charitable  labors,  institutions 
founded  by  hini,  educational 
views.  321 

Franklin  College  (Ind.)— 322 

Franklin  College  (Ohio)— 322 

Franklin  and  .Marshall  College— 
322 

Frederick  (  ..liege— 322 

Free  Schools — see  Public  Schools 

Freed  men's  Schools— 323 

Freewill  Haptists— 323 

French  Language— its  origin,  324; 
prevalence.  325;  methods  of 
teaching  it,  326:  text-books,  327 

Friends,  Society  of— 327 

Froebel,  Frledrich — life  and  labors, 
the  kindergarten,  328 

Furmall  University— 328 

Furniture,  School  —  see  School 
Furniture 


Galosvillo  University— 329 

Gall,  F.  J.— 329 

Gallaudet,  T.  H.— 329 

(James— 329.     See  also,  235 

Gaume,  J.  J:— 330 

Gedlke.  Frledrich— 331 

Genetic  Method— 331 

Geneva  College— 331 

Genius— 331 

Geography— its  scope.  332:  element- 
ary instruction  in,  history  of, 
333;  first  text-books,  334:  mental 
faculties  exercised  by.  stages  of 
instruction.  335;  proper  age  to 
begin  the  study  of,  336;  methods 

Geology— its  claim  to  reeogi 

elementary  schools,  basis  at,  338; 
mental  powers  cultivated  o>  the 

study  of,  improper  methods  of 
teaching,  341 
Geometry — 341 :  how  to  be  approach- 
ed by  the  learner,  a  mechanical  as 
well  as  a  logical  science,  342:  ar- 
rangement of  subject  matter,  343; 

elass-r n  work,  :U1;  geoinetrie.il 

invention,  changes  in  demonstra- 
tion, 345 
Georgetown  College  (D.  C.)— 345 
Georgetown  College  (Ky.)— 346 
Georgia — area,  population,  and  edu- 
cational   history,   state  superin- 
tendents.   346  ;     school     system, 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics, 347;    normal,  secondary, 
superior,  special,  and  professi,  mal 
instruction,  348 
Georgia,  University  of— 349 
Gerando,  J.  31.  de — 349.  See  also.  35 
German- American  Schools— 349 
German  College— 350 
German    Language — comparative 
value  of,  350;  its  origin  and  his- 
tory. 351;  German  philology.  352; 
prevalence    of  German,    method 
of  studying  in  England  and  Amer- 
ica, 353:  pronunciation  of.  juve- 
nile literature,  study  of.  German 
in  the  U.  S.,  354;  views  of  school 


German  Language 

superintendents  in  regard  t 
arguments  against. 


.356; 


See  ais., 
106,  129,  136,~144,  530,  579,  614,  649, 
754,  75S 
German  Wallace  College— 356 
Germany— historical  sketch  of,  edu 
eational  historj 


school 


the    /'„ 


i.Pes- 


of — see   Femn 


talozzi,  Fi.iite,  362;  Bailer,  Die- 
Bterweg,  Froebel,  primary  in- 
struction. 363;  school  statistics 
364;  Prussian  school  administra- 
tion, secondary  instruction,  365; 
course  of  study  in  the  gymnasia 
teachers'  seminaries.  366;  uuiver- 
sities.  36.7;  professional,  technical 
and  scientific  instruction,  mili- 
tary academies,  educational  pub 
lications,  369 

Gesner,  J.  JI 370 

Gifts,  Kindergarten— 370   ' 

Glrard,  Grelgoire— 371 

Girls.    Education      " 
Education 

Globe,  Artificial— its  construction, 
371;  history  and  advantages  of, 
372.     See  also  336,  337 

Goethe,  .1.  W.  von— his  theory  con- 
cerning education,  372 

(o.nigraph— 373 

Gonzaga  College— 373 

Goodrich,  s.  G.— 373 

Governess — 373 

Government.  School— 373;  its  nat- 
ure, rewards,  3.4 .  efficacy  of,  sug- 
gestions to  the  teacher,  occupa- 
tion one  of  the  most  effective 
agents  in  school  government,  375 

Grade— 375 

Graded  Schools— 375 

Graduate— 377 

Graefe,  Heinrlch— 377 

Graham,  Isabella — 377 

Grammar— 377.  See  also  140.  336. 
352,  391,  420,  512,  514,  560,  602 

Grammar,  Fugllsh — its  function. 
distinction  between  the  science 
and  the  art  of  grammar.  37s :  his- 
tory of,  379;  methods  of  instruc- 
tion, language  lessons,  science  of 
the  sentence,  scheme  for  teach- 
ing grammar,  3so:  analysis  and 
parsing,  errors  in  teaching.  381. 
See  also  27.  273.  277 

Grammar  Schools— 3*2 

Graser,  J.  B 383 

(Jreat  Britain  and  Ireland,  The 
United  Kingdom  of— 383 


special  instruction,  388 

Greek  Church— 388 

Greek  Language — origin  and  his- 
tory, 389 ;  the  Greek  alphabet, 
rivalry  with  Lath 


inethoils 


icons. 

50.  301.  363,  420,  681 

Greeneville    and    Tusculum    Col- 
lege—392 

Grimm,  J.  L 392 

Grimm,  W.  K.— 393 

Grlscom,  John— 393 

Grtscom.  J.  H — 393 

Groot,  Gerard — see  Hieronymlans 

Grounds,      School  —  see      School 
G rounds 

Guatemala — see  Central  America 

Gulzot,  F.  P.  G 393 

(..itsmuths,  J.  C.  F — 394 

Guyot,  A.  H.— 394.     See  also  334 

Gymnasium— history  of,  394;    mod- 
ern meaning  of  in  Germany  and 


Gymnastics  —  agonistics  and  ath- 
letics, games  and  exercises.  396; 
gymnastics  as  a  part  of  education. 
397.      See    also    153.    3IMJ,  384.  394. 


Habit— 397;  its  power,  had  habits, 
teacher's  duty  toward,  good  hab- 
its, proper  time  tor  forming.  398 

Hadlev,  .lames— 399 

I  L, ,-l,  ii    J.  F 399 

Mall- lime  Schools— 399 

Hall,  S.  K 400.     See  also  260 

Hamilton,  James— 400 

Hamilton   College — 100 

Hamiltonlan  Method— see  Hamil- 
ton, James 

Hampden  Sidney  College — 401 

Hannibal  College— 401 

Hanover  College — 101 

Harmony  in  Development  —  the 
most  important  aim  in  educa- 
tion. 401;  abnormal  development 
destroys  happiness  and  impairs 
intellectual  effort,  402 

Harnlsch,  C.  W — 402 

Hartlib,  Samuel— 403 

Hartsville  University— 403 

Harvard.  John— 403 

Harvard  University — departments 
of,  history  of,  403 ;  buildings 
and  property,  the  curriculum, 
404;  tuition  fees,  degrees,  etc., 
405;  presidents.  407,    s,  ,-  also  611 

Hatty,  Valentine— 107 

Haven,  E.  O.— 407 

llaMifoi.l  College — 107 

Hawaiian  Islands— area  and  popu- 
lation, educational  history,  407; 
school  system  and  statistics,  408 

Hayti— 408 

Hazing— 408 

Heart,  Education  of— see  Moral 
Education 

Hebrew  Language— origin  and  ear- 
ly history,  alphabet,  scientific 
study  of  Hebrew.  409;  philology, 
method  to  be  pursued  in  the  stu- 
dy of,  410 

Hebrews.  Education  among  the— 
education  among  the  ancient  He- 
brews. 411;  Simon  ben  Shetach, 
schools  held  in  high  estimation. 
412;  organization  and  mode  of  in- 
struction, subjects  of  study,  edu- 
cation of  girls  and  women,413;  ed- 
ucation under  the  Mohammedan 
rule.  414  ;  decline  of  education 
from  the  13th  to  the  17th  centu- 
ry, educational  history  in  recent 
times,  415.     See  also  345 

Heeker.  J.  J.— 416 

Heddlng  College— 417 

Hedge-school— 417 

Hegel.  G.  \V.  F.^17.    See  also  35 

Hcgius.    Alexander— 417 

Heidelberg  College— 418 

Helnicke,    Samuel— 418 


.      See   also 


205 


Henderson  College — 418 

Henry  Joseph — 118.    See  also  34 

Herbart,  J.  F, — 418:  his  psychology 
and  educational  views,  419.  See 
also  8,  220 

Herder,  J.  G.  von~419 

Hermann.  Gottfried— 420 

Hesperian  College— 420 

Hessus,  Eobanus— 420 

Heyne,  Ch.  G.— 420 

Hieronymlans— 421 

High  Schools— 421 

Higher  Education  —  sea  High 
Schools,  Secondary  Instruc- 
tion, and  Superior  Instruction 

Highland  University— 423 

Hillsdale  College— 423 

Hiram  College— 423 

History — 423;  proper  mode  of  teach- 
ing, stages  of,  424; 


VI 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX 


History 

ods,  425;  dateB,  lectures,  kind  of 
material    for    elementary  study, 
420;    the  philosophy  of  history, 
value  of  testimony,  criticism,  427 
Hiwassee  College — 128 
Hobart  College— 123 
Hofwyl,  Schools  of — description  of, 
428;  Wehrli.  429.    Sec  also  11,  299 
Holbrook,  Josiah— 120 
Holiday— sec  School  Festivals 
Holland— see  Netherlands 


school  education  contrasted.  431. 

See  also  234.  245,  291 
Home  Lessons — 432 
Hope — see  Incentives,  Prizes,  and 

Rewards 
Hope  College— 433 
Hopkins,  Mark— 433.     See  also  257 


Schools 
Howard  College — 434 
Howard  University— 434 
Howe.  S.  G.— 484 


Kef-uni 


Hnet,  1'.  I).— 435 

Humanities— 135 

Humboldt,  K,  W.  von-435 

Humboldt  (  ,, liege— 435 

Hungary — 135;  area  and  population, 
educational  history,  436 ;  school 
system,  primary  instruction,  sta- 
tistics, 437;  secondary,  superior, 

_    and  special  instruction,  438 

-site    of   school 


ill. hi, 


heating,  temperature,  fin 
.  discipline  and  sehool  mat 


the  playground,  412 


Idaho— area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  school  system.  442; 
school    statistics,    school    fund, 


ber  of  idiots  in  the  eivilized 
world,  445 

Illinois— area  and  population,  445; 
educational  history,  school  sys- 
tem, 446;  school  fund,  teachers' 
certiticates.educational  condition, 
statistics,  447;  normal,  secondary, 
superior,  terhnieal,  ,nid  prof.'s- 
sional  instruction,  448;  special 
instruction,  educational  associa- 
tions, 449 

Illinois  College— 449 

Illinois  Wesloyan  University— 449 

Illiteracy—  definition   .if.    influence 


India — area  and  population,  early  I 
history.  455;  ancient  and  modern 
India.  456;  educational  condition 
and  statistics,  457 

Indiana— area  and  population  .  du- 
cational  histoid  f  .7  s,  |,,,.  1  su- 
perintendents, school  SVtelH.  45s; 


Indiana   Ashur,    1    niversity  — 16" 
Indiana  !   niversity— 461 
Indians,  American— 461 
Indian  Territory— area  and  popula 

tion.  educational  condition.!, ,2 
Individuality— 462 
Indo-Gormanie  Languages— 404 
Inductive  Method— 465 


and   Germany.  465;  in  the  IT.  S., 
466 
Industry — 167.     Sen  also  332 
Infant  Schools— see  Kindergarten 
Inspection,    School— see    Supervi- 
sion 
Institutes.    Teachers'— see  Teach- 


.    lie     '      n.  early    phases.  467;  getl- 

which  instruction  should  he 
given,  468.  See  also  419,  473,  4S7, 
488,  720 
Intellectual  Education — the  intel- 
lect only  a  part  of  the  mind,  the 
senses,  ideas,  conception,  469; 
association,  generalization,  470; 
resemblance,    classification,    471; 


emory,    lmagina- 


Interest— 473.     See  also  250.  289.  665 

Intermediate  Schools— 473 

Interrogation — 473 

Intuitive  Method  —  see  Object 
Teaching  and  Pestalozzl 

Iowa  —area  and  p  pulafi.  n.  ,  lu,  a- 
tional  history .  t:  ■  *  .'  ,  i- 
intendents.  school  s;  stem,  si  lie..  1 


ondary  instruction,  475;  superior. 
technical,  professional, and  special 
instruction,  educational  journals. 
476 
Iowa  College— 476 
Iowa,  State  University  of — 476 
Iowa  Wesleyan  University— 477 
Ireland — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational   history,    477;    national 

(national  aysfa  D  |,  178;  other  edu- 
cation, d  agencies    secondary  and 

ge— its  relativ 


pro 


portance,  siiecial  motives  for  the 
study  of.  4sn;   philology,  481 
Italy— area  and  population,  historic- 
al  sketch,    edm  ational    history, 

481;   school    statistics,   pivsclltsys- 


tries.   152.      See  also  323.  Jacobs,   C.  F.  W.— 487 

Imagination.  Culture  of—  necessity  .lacotot.    .Joseph — is7;   his   method 
for  its  cultivation,  its  early  devel-  j  of  teaching,  maxims,  488 

opment.   methods  of  cultivation.  Japan— area   and    population,    earlv 
453:  the  fivnig  of  the  attention  a  history.  4ss;  educational  history, 

prerequisite,  studies  into    which  489;   present  school  system,  490 

it   particularly    enters,  works    of  Jefferson  College — 190 

Action,  454.    Sec  also  3117,  335,  345  Jersey  <  ity—  population.educational 
Imitation — 454  history,    city      superintendents, 

Incentives,    School— 455.    See  also  school  system,  school 


Jesuits— their  educational  work.  492; 
school  system,  493;  their  influ- 
ence, schools  and  colleges  in  the 
U.  S..  494.  See  also  330 
Johns  Hopkins  University— 194 
Judgment,  Training  of— 495.  See 
also  335,  427 


school  system, 
495:  educational  condition,  school 
statistics  normal,  secondary, and 
sup.  riot  instruction,  496;  profes- 
sional, scientific,  and  special  in- 
struction, 497 
Kansas,  rniverslty  of— 497 
Kant  Iminaniiel — his  philosophical 
system,   his 


education, 
497;  his  influence,  498.    See  also 
32,  33,  34,  35 
Kentucky— area     and     population, 
educational   history,  498;    school 
system,    educational    condition; 
normal,  secondary,  and  superior 
instruction.      499;     professional, 
scientific,  and  special  instruction: 
society  for   the    advancement  of 
education;  state  teachers'  associ- 
ation, 500 
Kentucky   I'nlversity— 500 
Kentucky  Military    Institute— 501 
Kentucky  Wesleyan    College— 501 
Kenyon  College— 501 
Kindergarten  —  Froehel's    theory, 
501  :    amusement    the   principal 
medium    for    the    education    of 
the  child,  family  education  alone 

begin    early,    tin     first    teacher 

tion    of    kind-  rgart.  n    in,  ticks. 
>  the 


M> 


231 


492 


the  public  school,  reception  in 
the  U.  S..  503;  condition  of  in 
Germany,  skillful  preparation  of 
the  teacher  necessary,  504.  See 
also  241,  293.  445 

Kindermann,  Ferdinand— 504 

King  College— 505 

King's  College— 505 

Knox  College— 505 

Lafayette  College— 506.    See  also  31 
l.a  (.range  College— 506 

Lancaster,  Joseph  —  506;  opens  a 
school  in  Southwark.  Dr.  Bell, 
success  of  Lancaster,  modes  of 
punishment,  decline  in  the  pop- 
ularity of  his  method,  507.  See 
also  145,  263,  594 

Land  Grants,  Congressional — see 
United  states 

Lane  University— 508 

Language  —  its  varieties,  compara- 
tive study  i  "  " 


modern  languages.  510.     See  also 

274,  293.  352 
La  Salle.  J.  11.— 510 
La  Salle  College— 510 
Latin    Language  —  its    derivation. 


tthe 


Hicat,    ii. 


composition 
513  ;  history 
614.    See  also  142.  143.  357,  493 

Latin  Schools— 515 

Law  Schools  —  their  early  history, 
515 ;  recent  history  iu  England 
and  the  IT.  S..  516;  statistics,  or- 
ganization, course  of  study,  ad- 
mission, length  of  course,  gradu- 
ation. 518;   table  of  law  schools  in 


Lawrence  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin—519 

Lebanon  Valley  College— 519 

Lectures  —  lecture  denned,  diflfer- 
ence  between>a  lecture  and  a  les- 
son, in  what  grades  of  schools 
used  as  a  means  vf  instruction, 
520.     See  also  426 

Lehigh  University  -52U 

Loland  University— 520 

Leslie.  Sir  John  —  biographical 
sketch,  his  chief  publications,  520 

Lewis,  Dio— 521 

Lowlsburg,  University  at—  521 

Lewis  College— 521 

Liberal  Kducat  ion — 521 

Liberia— area  and  population,  its 
settlement,  the  native  tribes,  thy 
Maudingos,  their  schools,  the 
Veys,  mission  Bchool,  system  of 


Libraries— t 


l.ranrs 

een.rall 


if,  Legislation 
libraries,  523  ; 

tea,  public  Li- 

I.     utilitj      of 

License,  Teacher's  — defined,  how 
usually  conferred,  the  object  of, 
law  in  relation  to,  state  certifi- 
cates, standard  for,  incompetent 
examiners,  proper  conditions  for 
awarding  teachers"  certificates. 
522;  how  conferred  in  New  York, 
provisions  of  the  English  Ele- 
mentary Education  Act,  of  the 
Scotch  Education  Act,  require- 
ments in  Austria,  in  France, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  other  Eu- 
ropean countries,  523 

Lieber,  Francis  —  biographical 
sketch,  his  principal  publica- 
tions, importance  of  his  labors, 
523 

Lily,  William— his  earh  life,  edu- 
cational works,  his  Latin  gram- 
mar—  Brevissima    Institutio    seu 

Ratio      (JntiuiHi.ttir.s     I  ■<>,,<>"■■•■•>  whr, 

524 
Lincoln  College—  524 
Lincoln  University  (111.)— 524 
Lincoln  University  (Pa.)— 524 
Lindsley,  Philip— 524 

Ling,  P.  H 524 

Linguistics— sec  Language 
Locke,  John— biographical  sketch. 

524;  educate,  oal   Tie*      526      3* 

also  6,  33.  :i4.  35,  66,  195,  196,  197, 

234,  291,  3  10,  124,  l  14 

Lombard  University—  521". 
London,  University  of— 526 
Lorinser,  K.  I 528 

Louisiana  —  area  and  population, 
educational  history,  52*  :  school 
system,  educational  condition, 
school  statistics,  normal  and  sec- 
ondary instruction,  52'.»;  superior. 
scientific,  professional,  and  spe- 
cial instruction,  530 

Louisiana  State  University— 530 

Louisville — population,  530;  educa- 
tional history,  school  system, 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics, 531 

Love— 532.     See  also  251 

Loyola  College— 532 

Luther,  Martin-  "  U.  S  also  ;;i, 
104 

Lutheran  Church  —  its  history, 
number  of  adherents,  the  General 
Synod,  the  General  Council,  the 
Synodical  Conference,  the  South- 
ern  Synod,  533;   educational  iu- 


Lyceum — 534 
Lycurgus — 535 
Lyon,  Mary— 535 


>  in  the  U.  S.,  534 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX 

McCorkle  College— 535 

McCosh,  James— 535.     See  also  10 

McGuffey,  W.  H.— 535 

M'kendi-ee  (  ollege— 536 

McMinnville  College— 536 

Madison  University— 536 

Madras  System  —  sec  Monitorial 
System 

Madvig,  J.  N.— 536 

Mager  Karl— 536;  the  geneticmeth- 
od.  his  views  of,  537.  See  also 
221 

Maine— area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  637;  taxes,  income 
of  permanent  funds,  supervision 

Of   Schools,    School    system,    638; 

educational  condition,  5:i',l;  school 

statistics,  normal  and  secondary 

parochial  »  nods    sup.  ri  ir,  pro- 
fessional, and  scientific   tnstruc- 

educational  literatim  ,  541 

Manhattan  College— 541 

Manitoba— area  and  population,  edu- 
cational condition,  541 

Mann,  Horace— early  life  and  educa- 
tion of,  541;  secretary  of  the  board 
of  education.  542;  liis  work,  543. 
See  also  33,  35,  187.  188,  297,  679 

Manners — 543 

Manual  Labor  Schools— see  Indus- 
trial Schools 

Map-Drawing— see  Geography 

Marietta  College— 544 


Mercer  University— 565 
Mereersburg  (ol  lege— 565 
Methodists— (heir  origin  and  distri- 


.  atioiial 


proles*,] 


tions,  546 
Maryville  College— 547 
Mason,  Lowell—  547 

Massachusetts -- ana  and  popula- 
tion, educational  history,  547;  in- 
dividual gifts,  tuition  fees,  taxes, 
income  of  permanent  funds,  549; 
special    appropriations,  supervi- 


.  of  the  c, 


schools,  tru- 
;  edu- 


MasterofArts-^e  |»eg 
Mastery  Method— see  L 

guage 

Mathematics  —  what  i 
hends,  definition  of, 
mental  training,  553;  to  what  ex- 
tent it  should  be  pursued  in  pri- 
mary schools,  555;  principles  gov- 
erning methods  of  instruction  in, 
mathematical  literature,  556 

Matriculate— 557 

Medical  Schools — earliest  accounts 
of,  557;  organization  of  in  differ- 
ent countries,  history  of  in  the 
U.S.,  558;  list  of  medical  schools. 
dental  colleges,  etc.,  560.  See  also 


its  > 


population,  edu- 

Bchool     SVstem. 

1  condition   and 


French 

militar 

Milton,  Jo 


al  views.  57S.      Sec  also  33,  99 

Milton  College— 578 

Milwaukee-  population,  578;  educa- 
tional history,  city  superintend- 
ent*.school  Msti  in  and  statistic-. 
579 

Mineralogy— definition  and  general 
view  of;  minerals,  rocks,  lov.-il.-. 
crystalline  forms.  5MJ;  impor- 
tance from  an  educational  stand- 
point, at  what  stage  to  be  pur- 
sued, litnology,  581 

Mines,  School  of  — see  Scientific 
Schools 

Ministry  of  Public  Instruction— 
581 

Minnesota  —  581;  area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  history,  school 
system,  educational  condition. 
school  statistics,  582;  normal  and 
sii'ondar\  instruction,  deuomina- 

perior  instruction,  5s:i ;  profes- 
sional, scientific,  and  special  in- 
struction, educational  literature, 
584 

Minnesota,  University  of— 584 

Mischievousness — 584 

Mississippi  — 584;  area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  historv,  school 
system,  edw  ational  condition, 
school  statistic;-,  normal  mstruc- 


ening,  562;    repetition,   strength  Mnemonics— see  Memory 

of  memory  dependent  Bomewhal  Model      Schools    —  see      Normal 

on  bodilv   health,   relative    value  Schools 

of  thing-,  to  be  lvuiemh.  n  .1.  ,-.r..i  Modern    Languages— 591 ;  French, 

Kant's  distinctions,   mnemonics,  I           English,  and  German,  the  oriental 

Mrmoria  T-.-hnira.  system  of  Fan-  languages,    proper     time    in     tho 

vel-Gouraud.  5C4:  Alex.  Mackay's  '           school    course    to    introduce    the 

*     i  723  study  of  modern    lan-ua,  .  ■ .  I  h.n 
value  as  compared  with  the  das 


ANALYTICAL    IXI>KX 


Modern  Languages 

sieal,592;  comparative  linguistics, 
methods  of  teaching,  593.  See 
also  224,  225 

Monitorial  System  —  its  history. 
Bell,  Lancaster,  594;  its  peculiar 
features,  595 

Monmouth  <  ollcge— 595 

Montaigne,  Michel— his  educational 
views.  595.     See  also  33,  35,  185 

Montana. — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  school  system, 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics, normal  instruction,  teach- 
ers' institutes;  secondary,  supe- 
rior, professional,  scientific,  and 
special  instruction.  596 

Monro's  Hill  College— 596 

Moral  Education — 597.  See  also  177, 
291 


umiiKirv  . 


Moravian  Brethren— tl 

ancient  church,  598 
Brethren's  Church,  primary 
schools,  boarding-schools,  599; 
classical  schools  and  colleges, 
theological  seminaries,  special 
schools,  schools  in  the  mission- 
ary provinces,  principles 
cation.  600;  statistical  su 
601 

Morocco — 601 

Mother-  sec  Home  Education 

Mother-Tongue— 601 

Mount  Saint  Mary's  College— 602 

Mount  Saint  Mary's  Seminary  of 
the  West— 602 

Mount  I'nlon  College— 602 

Muhlenberg  College— 602 

Murray,  Llndley— 602 

Music— history  and  general  view  of. 
603.  604;  harmony,  604;  musical 
education,  606  ;  conservatories. 
606,  607,  608,  609.  610;  musical  in- 
i  schools  and  colleges, 


610.  611.     See  also  2 
Mutual    System  - 
System 


Monitorial 


Nashville,  University  of— 612 

National  Education— 612.  See  also 
264,  692 

National   Language— 613 

Natural  Science— see  Science,  The 
Teaching  of 

Nautical  Schools— 615 

Naval  Schools— 615 

Nebraska— areaand  population,  edu- 
cational history,  school  system, 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics, 616  ;  normal  instruction, 
teachers'  institutes,  educational 
journal;  secondary,  superior,  sci- 
entific,  professional,    and  special 


.  617 

Nebraska,  University  of— 617 

Nebraska  College— 618 

Needle- Work— see  Female  Educa- 
tion, and  Industrial  Schools 

Netherlands— an  a  and  population, 
educational  history,  618;  primary 
and  secondary  instruction,  619 ; 
superior  and  special  instruction; 
Luxemburg.  620 

Nevada — area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  620;  school  system, 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics; normal,  secondary,  supe- 
rior, professional,  scientific,  and 
special  instruction,  621 

Newark  —  population,  621 ;  educa- 
tional history,  school  system,  sta- 
tistics. 622 

Newberry  College— 623 

New  Brunswick  —  an -a  and  popula- 
tion, educational  condition.  623 

New  Castle  College— 624 

Newfoundland  —  area  and  popula- 
tion, educational  cunditiou,  623 


New  Hampshire— ana  and  popula- 
tion, educational  history,  625  ; 
school  system  and  revenue,  626; 
educational  condition,  school  sta- 
tistics; normal,  scrnndary.  denom- 
inational, and  superior  instruc- 
tion, 627;  teachers"  association.  62H 

New  Jersey  —  area  and  population, 
educational  history  028 ;  school 
system,  educational  condition, 
school  statistics,  630;  normal,  sec- 
ondary, private,  denominational, 
superior,  professional,  scientific, 
and  special  instruction,  631 

New  Jersey,  College  of— 632 

New  Jerusalem,  Societies  of  the— 
632 

New  Mexico  —  area  and  population. 
educational  history,  632;  school 
system,  educational  condition, 
school  statistics,  private  and  pa- 
rochial schools,  633 

New  Orleans  — settlement  of,  633; 
educational  history,  school  sys- 
tem and  statistics,  634 

Newspapers  — as  means  of  instruc- 
tion, 635.     See  also  332 

New  York  (State)— area  and  popu- 
lation, educational  history,  (\M\; 
state  superintendents,  639  ;  edu- 
cational  system,    640;    regents 


the 


641  ; 


ondary,  superior,  scientific,  and 

professional  in-trnrl  ion.  644;  spe- 
cial iiiHtructii.il,  .  ducati.'ii.il  a—..- 
ciations,  645.  s.lwl  i  ■  uru.il-,  op; 

New  York  (City}— educational  his- 
tory, 646;  county  and  city  su- 
perintendents, school  system.  648; 
school  statistics,  private  and  de- 
nominational schools,  649 

New  York,  College  of  the  City  of 


New  York,  University  of  the  City 

of— 650 
New  Zealand — see    Australasian 


Norma!  School— 650.      See  also  221 
North   Carolina  —  area  and  popula- 
tion, educational   history,  school 
651;  taxes,  school  system. 


Northern  Illinois  College— 65:1 
Northwestern  Christian  Univer- 
sity—654 
Northwestern  College — 654 
Northwestern    I'nlversitv    (111. I  ~- 

654 
Northwestern  University  (Wis.)— 

Norway— see  Sweden 
Norwegian  Luther  College— '.."4 
Norwich  University — 654 


Notre    itame    I)u  Lac, 


i'1-sit: 


Nott,  Ellphalet— 655 

Nova  Scotia  — area  and  population. 

educational    history,  655;  school 

system,  656 
Novels— see  Fiction 
Number— 656 
Numeral  Frame— 657 


Oberlln,  J.  F.— 658 
Oberlin  College— 658 
Object  Teaching— history  of.  Pesta- 
lozzi,    658;     views    of    educators 

concerning.   65*,i;    present  status, 
660.      See    also    Ids,    'HI,    272,    313. 


Observing  Faculties  —  see  Intel- 
lectual Education,  and  Object 
Teaching 

Ohio — area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  661;  state  super- 
intendents, school  system,  edu- 
cational condition,  662;  school 
revenue  and  statistics,  normal  in- 
struction, teachers'  institutes, 
secondary  instruction,  663;  supe- 
rior, professional,  and  scientific 
instruction.  664;  special  instruc- 
tion,educational  literature,  teach- 
ers' associations,  665 

Ohio  Central  College— 665 

Ohio  University— 666 

Ohio  Wesleyan  University— 666 

Olivet  College— 666 

Olmsted,  Denison— 666 

One  Study  University— 666 

Ontario— area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  present  school 
system, 667 

Oral  Instruction— definition  of,  668; 
proper  use  of,  669 

Order— 670 

Order  of  Studies  —  see  Course  of 
Instruction 

Oregon— area  and  population,  edu- 
cational history,  school  system, 
670;  educational  condition,  school 
statistics;  normal,  secondary,  de- 
nominational, superior,  profes- 
sional. 


atific 
jstruction,  672 


78fi 


orthography  -definition  of,  672; 
t  il.  .  i  .  i  \ii  J.> -Saxon  and  Norman 
on  the  English  alphabet,  syn- 
onymous with  spelling,  673  ;  dif- 
ferent systems.of  phonetic  spell- 
ing proposed,  improvements  sug- 
gested by  the  International  Con- 
vention of  1876,  674 

Oskaloosa  College— 675 

Otterbein  University— 675 

Owens  College— 675 

Oxford,  University  of— history  of, 
organization.  676  ;  political  rep- 
resentatives of,  government  of, 
677;  list  of  subordinate  colleges, 


Pacific,  University  of  the— 678 

Pacific  Methodist  College— 678 

Pacific  University— 679 

Page,  D.  P.— 679.  See  also  35,  66, 
187,  188,  192.374,375.  433,  723,  724 

Palirntoiogy— see  Geology 

Palatinate  College— 679 

Paraguay  —  area  and  population, 
educational  history.  \\\r,  ■  educa- 
tional condition,  680 

Parental  Education  —  see  Home 
Education 

Parochial  School— 680 

Parsons  College— 680 

',  F.  L.  K.  F.— 680.     See  also 


391 

Patience      i'.sl 

Payne,  Joseph— 681.     See  also  767 
Peabody,  George— 681 
Peabody   Fund  (Educational)— 681 
Pedagogy— 692 

Peet,  H.  P. —  his  early  life,  made 
president  of  the  N.  Y.  Institu- 
tion for  the  Deaf-and-Dumb,  his 
theory  regarding  deaf-mutes,  682; 
his  method,  syntax  of  the  natural 
language  ■ 


See    also 


Penn  College— 685 

Pennsylvania— area  and  population. 
educational  history,  the  colonial 
period,  685;  under  the  constitu- 
tion of  1790,  686;  under  the  con- 
stitutions of  1838  and  1873,  table 
of   progress,    state    superintend- 


ANALYTICAL    INDKX 


Pennsylvania 

ents,  school  Byatem,  687;  educa- 
tional condition,  m-liool  statistics, 


Pennsylvania  tolley 
Pennsylvania  Mllita 


of—  090 


Pensions,  Teachers      i.'i     s,  ,   .ii-.> 
Perception— sec  Intellectual  Kdn- 

Persia— aren  and  population,  ancient 
Persia.  691;  educational  history, 
modern  Persia,  educational  his- 
tory. 692 

Peru— area  and  population,  692;  edu- 

Pestaloz/i,  .1.    II.— early    life.    .  lu- 


lus  SUCCes...    IV.I4;    his    tlle,.r>     .'1    IN 

24s,  2'MK  307.  i.r.s 

Pbarmaceutieal  Schools  —  early 
history  of.  r.'.C);  innuen  vol'  chem- 
istry on,  recent  progress  of,  con- 
dition of  in  Europe,  r>'.'u,  in  the 
U.  S..  697 

Philadelphia  —  population,  e  luca- 
tional  history.  697;  school  sys- 
tem, statistics.  69S 

Philanthropin—  699.  See  also  68, 
299,  362 

Philology— see  Language 

Phonetics — definition  of,  phonology. 
699:  phonetic  print,  700;  phonetic 
writing  and  teaching.  Till.  Srt; 
also  275,  673 

Phonic  Method—  702 

Phonics  —  see  Orthography,  and 
Phonetics  " 

Phrenology— see   Character,    I>is- 


702.     See  also  234,  251,  441.  521 
Physics— see  Science,  The  Teach- 

Physiology— its  place  and  value  as 
a  part  of  education,  703 

Plarists— 704 

Pictures— 704.     See  also  453,  659 

Pio  Nono  College— 704 

Pittsburgh  — population,  etc.,  edu- 
•>  cational  history,  school  system, 
etatistics.secondary  and  parochial 
schools,  705 

Plato— biographical  sketch,  the  Acad- 
emy, his  system  of  philosophy, 
educational  views,  706.  See  also 
32.  33,  34,  330 

Poetry— its  use  in  the  school,  703 

Politeness     s.'<-  Manners 

Political  Economy  —  see  Social 
Economy 

Polytechnic  Schools  —  see  Scien- 
tific Schools 

Popular  Education —see  Educa- 
tion, and  National  Education 

Portugal— area  and  population,  edu- 


Pract  ice.  Schools  of— see  Teachers' 

Seminaries 
Praxis— 709.     See  also  344 
Preceptors,  College  of  (London) — 

709 
Preparatory  Schools— 710 

Presbyterians  — definition  of.  con- 
dition of  in  the  British  Empire— 
710,  711;  Presbyterian  Church  in 


Presh.Merians 

the  United  States  of  America, 
Presbyterian  Church  South, 
712;  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church.  713:  United  Pre.sb\  tenau 
Church  of  North  America,  714 

Primary  Instruction— see  Educa- 
tion 

Primer— 715 

Prince  Edward  Island— area  and 
population,  educational  condi- 
tion, 715 


Promotion— see    School    Manage- 

Prussia— see  Germany 
Public     Schools  —  definition,    an- 
cient   history   of.   715 


state  to  free  schools.  716 
Public  Schools,  English— see  Eng- 

Punishment— see  Corporal  Pun- 
ishment, and  Fear 

Pupil-Teacher  — definition  of,  En- 
glish law  concerning.  716 

Pythagoras— 717.     See  also  34 

Quadrivium — see  Arts 

Quebec — population,  educational  his- 
tory. 717;  school  law,  primary 
and  secondary  schools,  universi- 
ties. 71S 

Questioning— see  Interrogation 

Qulntiliau  — -  life  and  educational 
views,  Institutions  Oratories,  719. 
See  also  33,  98,121,  431,  432 


Relnim 


Kabanus,  Mauriw— 719 

llaclne  College— 719 

Ragged     Schools   —   s 
Schools 

Raikes,  Robert— 719.     See  also  796 

Randolph  Macon  College— 72i» 

Ratich,  Wolfgang  —  biographical 
sketch,  rules  for  instruction.  720 

Raumer,  K.  G.  von— 720.  See  also 
8,231.  302.312,482 

Reading— the  alphabet  method,  the 
word  method,  the  phonic  and  tho 
phonetic  method,  twofold  object 
of  reading,  proper  and  improper 
reading-books.  721.  See  also  132. 
221.  272.  2-1    .;:.l.   4- 

Real   Schools—  d<  timtion   of,  Prus- 


Kccitathu 


preparation  on  the  part  ot  the 
teacher  necessary,  order  in  which 
the  parts  of  a  subject  should  be 
presented. 723:  tests  of  the  efficacy 
of  a  recitation,  length  of  recita- 
tions, 724.  See  also  344.  473 
Reform  Schools— definition  of,  ori- 
gin of  in  Europe,  the  modern  re- 


form  school,  Falk. 

"J4:  11 

imbcrof 

Switzerland,    the 
"Wienera.  influence 
Haus  in  other  co 
schools      in      En. 

''',"',' 

':'■  "' 

Franca  and  In  thi 
form  schools  in  tl 

Lti 

t  cnu'n'; 

Holland.  727  :  in  Switzerland. 
Austria.  Hmigar\  .  France.  Russia, 
and  the  New  World,  the  Relormed 
Church    in    America  (Reformed 


Reformed  Churches 

Dutch Church), 72*  I  R,  i,,i  ,,„  d 
Church  in  the  I'mied  Stati  a  (Gel 
man  Reformed  Church),  729;  col 
leges  and  seminaries  m  the  U.S., 


University 


730 
Regents  of 


fold  ..Hi,  ,■  ,,i  relie[,,us  education, 
faulty  methods  of  instruction, 
731.    See  also  263, 372 

wards'  'a-  ue  ansol  discipline, 732 

letnric  — r>  ,tl  ■  leu   in 
meaning  of  the   word,   its  later 


ldiode  Island— area  and  population. 
education  il  history  i  A  Bchool 
Bystem,  737      -  du    iti,  nal    i  ondi 

secondary  n.-tru.  t  h  i.    7.1-    supo 

al  journals,  73'.' 

Richardson.  Charles— 739 

Richmond  College— 739 

Rlehter,  J.  1>.  F 739.    See  also  34, 

35,  66.  146,  747 

Ridgowlle  College—  740 

Hipon  College— 740 

Roanoke  College— 740 

Hochester,  University  of— 740 

Hock  Hill  College— 740 

Kod — see  Corporal  Punishment 

Roman  Catholic  Church—  number 
of  its  adherents,  its  control  of 
education  in  the  middle  ages.  740; 
the  Jesuits,  conflict  between 
church  and  Stat.  ,  the  papal  By] 

labus    of    lsc,4,    741  ;     educational 

prmcipl-  s  ,,t    the   Catholics,  col- 

the  univi  rsitj  at  tie-  present 
time.  742:  establishment  of  teach- 
ers'seminaries,  educational  soci 

ties  and  orders,  713.    See  also  133, 
206.  477.  024 
Romanic  Languages — 743 


Rome — foundatit 


t  school 


Rote-Teaching— 745 

Koumania  —  area   and   population, 
educational  condition,  745 

I.  .1.  —  biographical 
sket.h,  71"  s\  li.  ■  J  -  - 1  -  ..1  Emilr, 
746.    Seeals...;. 


Rutgers  Colle 
Rutherford  Cc 
Ryerson,  A.  E 


St.  Augustine,  Missionary  College 

of— 751 
St.  lienodlct's  College— 751 
St.  Charles  College  (La.)— 7.71 
St.  Charles's  College  (Md.)— 751 
St.  Francis  Xavicr,  College  or— 752 
St.  Ignatius  College  (Cal. 1—752 
St.  Ignatius  College  (111.)— 752 
St.  John's  College  (Fordham,  N.  Y.) 

—7.72 

St.  John's  College  (Brooklyn,  N.Y.) 

—752 
St.  John's  College  (Md.)— 752 
SI.  John's  College  (Minn.)— 753 
St.  John's  College  of  Arkansas— 

753 
St.  Joseph's  College  (I1D—  753 
St.  Joseph's  College  |N.  Y.)— 753 
St.  Lawrence  L'nlverslty — 753 


ANALYTICAL   INDEX 


school  si 
St.  Louis  University — 7511 
St.  Mary's  College  (Oal.)—  75i'i 
St.  Mary's  College  (Ky.)— 7ai; 
St.  Mcinrad's  College— Tali 
St.  Stephen's  College— 755 


•  College— 757 
Salaclo  College— 757 
Salzmanu,  C.  Ci.—  757.    Sec  also  4B5 
Sandwich  Islands  —  sec  Hawaiian 


San  Francisco  — p  .j. illation,  educa- 

met] 

tional  hi.-t  .ry.757,  school  system. 

Sniitlis, 

Social   1 

Kanla  liarliara  1  oilcgi — 759 

Santa  Clara  l  ollogc— Tj'j 

Santo  Domingo— T.v.i 

Sarmiento.  n.  F.— 759 

Sml 

Saxony — see  Germany 

Nad 

Sclnnidt,  Karl— 75.1.     Sec  also  8,  717 

Scholasticism  —  700.     s       :i]    .  ■■    I 

in  so 

■  U.  S.,  760 
School  Board-760 
School      Brothers  —  see 
Catholic  Church 

School  <  'ensus— tables  of  in 


■  I'.S. 


an  1  1 


7C1 


School  District— 762 

School  Economy— 762 

School  Festivals— 762 

School  Fund— 763 

School  Furniture — desk  a  and  Beats, 
763;  the  platform,  the  blackboard, 
niiscellan-ous  furnitur  ■  and  ap- 
paratus, 764 

School  Grounds  —  see  Hygiene, 
School 

School-House— construction  and  in- 
ternal arrangement  of,  765.     See 

School  Management— 766.  Seo  also 
2H7,  '19-2,  376.  493 

School  Records— 766 

Schwarz,  F.  H.  Ch.— 767.  See  also  8, 
34,  99,  302,  303 

Science,  The  Teaching  of  —  its 
place  in  elementary  instruction, 
767  ;»eneralization,proper  method 
of  t  ;acb.ing  it,  768;  the  order  in 
whi.-h  s  ■i.-ui'i1  should  be  taught, 
Bcience  as  a  branch  of  higher  edu- 


Scotland  —  area,  population,  etc., 
educational  history,  772;  element- 
ary instruction.  773;  secondary 
instruction.  774 ;  superior  and 
special  instruction,  775 

Self-Education— 775 

Seminary— 776 

Seneca,  E.  A.— 777 

Senses,  The  Education  of  the— 
mental  impressions  received 
through  the  senses  of  varying 
strength,  necessity  of  cultivating 
object   teaching. 


the   ph..i 
See  also  1 


method,    enh.r,    77s. 


Sentential  Analysis— see  Analy- 
sis, Grammatical 

Servla—  area  and  population,  school 
legislation,  primary  schools,  sec- 
ondary instruction,  77H;  superior 
instruction,  special  and  profes- 
sional schools,  779 

Seton,  S.  W.-779.    See  also  694 

Seton  Hall  College— 779 

Sex  In  Education — see  Co-Educa- 
tion 

Shaw    University    (Miss.)— 779 


Shaw  1'nlversity  (N.  C.)— 779 

Shurtleff  College— 779 

SIcard,  B.  A.  C— 780 

Signs,  The  Language  of— see  Deaf- 
Mutes,  and  Peet,  H.  P. 

Simpson  Centenary  College— 780 

Simultaneous  Instruction  —  sec 
Concert  Teaching 

Singing-Schools— earlv  history  of, 
7*0;  origin  ,,f  the  staff  ami  musi- 
cal syllables, modern  Italian  meth- 
od of  notation,  substitution  of 
numerals  for  musical   syllables, 


South  Cam 
Southern  1 


K.M.I    isl 


ns  method 
miiujuiry. 


eiv.iy 


Southwestern  Presbyterian  Uni- 
versity—790 
Southwestern  University— 790 
Spain— area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  790;  primary  and 
secondary  instruction,  791  ;  su- 
perior and  special  instruction, 
792 


Sparta — educational  system  of  Ly- 

curgu.8,793 
Spencer,    Herbert— 793.      See   also 

66,  177.  194 
State  and  School— 794 

Stephaili,    llellllieh       791 

Stephens,  Henry— 794 

Stephens,  Robert— 794 

Stewart    College  —  see   Southern 

Presbyterian  University 
Stone,  W.  L.— 795 
Stowe,  C.  E.— 795.    See  also  34 
Straight  University— 795 


Sundav-Sr 
the  cob 


.  arly  hi~*..r>  .  K  ■)<■  rl  Iiaikes.  J..]ni 
Wealey,  796;  rapid  spread  of  Sun- 
day -  schools,  hading  agencies, 
William  Fox.  Bishop  Asbury,  797; 
prominent  Sunday-school  socie- 
ties, their  dates  of  organization, 
Sunday-school  literature,  tracts, 
libraries,  etc..  singing  in  the  Sun- 
day-school, 798;  infant-class  in- 
struction, Sunday-school  conven- 
tions; county,  state,  international, 
and  world's  conventions ;  past 
progress  and  prrs.-ut  condition  of 
Sundav-seools.  799;  statistics,  800. 
See  also  287,  307 
Superior  Instruction— 800 
Supervision,,  School— its,  necessity 
inspection  and  examination,  800. 
See  also  264 


swart  hmore-  College — 801 
Sweden    and    Norway  —  area  and 

population  (Sweden)  educational 
history,  primary  instruction,  801; 
secondary,  superior,  and  special 
instruction  (Norway)  educational 
history,  primary  instruction,  802; 
normal,  secondary,  superior,  and 
special  instruction,  803 
Switzerland— area  and  population, 
educational  history.  803;  primary 
schools,  tabular  statement  of 
schools.  804;  secondary,  superior, 
special,  and  professional  inatruc- 


Tabor  College— 806 
Talladega  College— 806 
Tasmania — see  Australasian  Colo- 
Taylor.  Isaac— 806.    See  also  34, 138, 

L68,  234,  432.  471 
Teacher  —  806.     See    also    57.    132, 

221  222.  226.  22S.  2:11,  2'19.  261.^5. 
2*6.  2-7,  2-S9.  290,  291.  293.  297,298, 
299,  331,  333,  \\W-,:.-.<*  401,  453,  623, 


iual  schools  in  the  U.  S.,  808; 
Charles  Brooks.  Horace  Mann, 
De  Witt  Clinton,  Cyrus  Peirce, 
S.  R.  Hall,  increase  of  nor- 
mal schools  in  the  U.  S.,  table 
showing  the  number  of  such 
schools,  and  teachers  and  students 
iu  the  C.  S.  in  1876,  influence  of 
normal  schools,  809;  list  of  nor- 
mal schools  in  the  U.  S-,  810.  See 
also  229.  709 

Technical  Education— its  object,  in- 
creasing importance  of,  branches 
usually  taught,  laws  concerning 
in  Massaehusets  and  New  York, 
list  of  European  schools,  811 

Temper— 812 

Tennessee  —  area  and  population, 
educational  history,  812;  school 
system.  813;  educational  condi- 
tion, school  statistics,  normal  and 
secondary  instruction,  814  ;  su- 
perior, professional,  scientific,  and 
special  instruction.  815 

Texas — area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  815;  school  sys- 
tem, educational  condition,  sehool 
statistics,  normal  and  secondary 
instruction,  816;  superior,  scien- 
tific, professional,  and  special  in- 


See  also  342,  343, 


Text-Books— 817. 

399,  427 
Theological  Schools — early  history 

of,  817;  Roman  Catholic  schools 
in  Europe  and  the  U.  S-,  schools 
of  the  Greek  Church,  Protestant 
schools,  want  of  uniformity  in 
theological  instruction  in  Eng- 
land, 818;  method  pursued  in 
Scotland,  rise  and  progress  of 
theological  schools  in  the  U.  S., 
819.     See  also  282.  567 

Thermometry,  Educational  —  its 
use  in  the  school,  instruments 
employed,  819;  the  hand  a  nat- 
ural thermometer,  thermography, 
820 

Thiel  College  of  the    Evangelical 


llh.' 


(    IMI 


Topical  Method— see  Catechetfc 

Method 
Tougaloo  University— 820 
Training— 820 
Training    Schools  —  see  Teachei 

Seminaries 


ANALYTICAL    INDKX 


Trinity  College  («.)— 820 
Trinity  Colic 
Trinity  Univ 


Trotzendoif. 


Turkey— are, i  and  i„,pulatioti,  edu- 
cational history,  821  ;  primary, 
secoudarv,  superior,  and  special 
schools.  822 

Union  Christian  Collegi — 822 
Union  I'lilversity—  822 
Unitarians— 823 
United  Brethren  in  Christ— how 

founded,    schools    and    colleges. 


„.l-.  11,1,1,, .1 


Vaiidci-blll   University— 836 
Vassal-  College     J86 
Venezuela  —  area    and    population, 
primary    instruction,    aecondarj 


University — origin  of,  the  Univer- 
sity of  Paris,  establishment  of 
universities  in  Germany,  and 
Italy,   their    increase    afi  :r    il, 


Unlvei-silv  College  1,  .ti.l,. Ill  .-,1. 
joct  for  win.  h  I. .in.  i  I,  it-  i.,  e 
ties,  832;  i  .  ■  i  .  the  Sla  le 
schools,  admission  of  women,  do- 

Unlversity  College  (San  Francisco, 

Cal.)— 833 
Upper  Iowa  University— 888 

Urbana  University— 834 

Ursinus  College— 834 

Uruguay — area  and  population,  edu- 
cational condition,-834 

Utah  — area  and  population,  educa- 
tional history,  834  ;  school  sys- 
tem, educational  condition,  school 
statistics.  normal  instruction. 835; 
Becoudarv  and  superior  instruc- 
tion, 836 


ion,   educational 


Wabash  College— 850 

Waco  University— 850 
Wake  lores!  College— 850 
Washington—  see    District    of  Co- 
lumbia 
Washington    College  (Cal.)— 850 
Washington  College  (Mil.)— 850 
Washington     and    .Iclt'erson   Col- 
lege—850 
Washington  and   Lee  University 


Washington    Territory— area  and 
population,  educational  history. 

ditiou,  selu, ..1  statistics,  teachers' 

institut.  -  and  associations,  851 

Washing! iiivorslty— 851 

Wayland.    Francis  -  biographical 

sketch.    --,1  .    re-or|  mization   oi 

Brown  liner-, t  • 

Waynesbuxg  <  ollege — 52 

Wi-hrli.  .1.  .1.     biogra] 

.  nt.  is     II  cwvl.   s.-.j      ,.p,n-    the 
normal    b  boo]   at    Kn  nzlingen, 

establish.  -    a     le  w     -..miliary    at 
Guggenhulil.  85:).     See  also  11 

Wcsleyan   University— 853 

Western  College— 853 

Western  Maryland  College— 853 

Western  Reserve  College— 853 

Westneld  College— 853 

Westminster  College  (Mo.)  —854 

Westminster    College    (Pa.)— 854 


West  Virginia— area  and  popula- 
tion, state  superintendents, school 
system,  854;  educational  condi- 
tion,   school    statistics,    normal, 


West  Virginia 

secondary,    denominational,   and 

superior  instruction,  855;    profes- 
sional and  sneiititic   instruction 


Virginia,    University   of  - 


Wheaton  College— 866 

Win-well,  William— 866.  See  also 
264,  289 

Whitticr  College  and  -Normal  In- 
stitute—856 

Wlehern,  J.  H.— 857.     See  also  725 

Wtlbcitorcc  University— 857 

Wiley  University-  867 

Wlllard,     Emma    -     aphii  ,i 

sketch,  h.'-  (dan  for  th,-  higher 
education  oi  womi  n,  the  Troy 
Female  Seminary,  improvements 

in  tcxt-1 ks,  867.    s,  e  also   lit, 

187,  303,  334 

William   and   Mary,  College  of— 

history  and    organi/al  ,,,li.  S5S 
William  Jewell  College— 858 
Williams  College— 858 
Wilmington  College— '58 

Wisconsin  —  ar.  a    Mil     p  .]  .illation, 


olldl- 


);  superior,  profes- 
sional, scientific  aud  s| ml  in- 
struction. 801 

Wisconsin,  University  of—  861 

Wittenberg  College— 862 

Wofford  College— 8112 

Women,  The  Higher  Education  of 
— in  England.  862;  m  Scotland 
and  Ireland,  863.  See  also  209, 
212,  290.  301,  574.  sue, 

Woodbrldge,  W.  C— 863.  See  also 
17,  334.  547 

Woodstock  College — 865 

Woolsey,  T.  I) — 965 

Wooster,  University  of— 865 

Word  Method— 865 

Words,  Analysis  of— ,t\  ,     l 

importance  in  elementary  in- 
struction, Latin  prefixes  and  suf- 
fixes in  the  English  language, 
method  ol  t,a,  lung,  appheation 
of  the  developing  method  to  this 

subject.  805 
Working  Men's  College      si.l, 
Writing— s  •     1'i-u in:iii-lii p 
Wurieiiiboi-g —     German; 
Wyoming—  area,  p  ;  on,  etc., 

educational  !n-t..r\  -.  hool  svs- 
tem  and  statistics.  806 

Xenia  College— 867 


Zoology— its  plac  and  value  111 
cation,  what  principles  ar.  I 
observed  in  teaching  it,  si'.s 


14  DAY  USE 

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